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1^ 


Ct.'^r^y^^ 


^^«^^^^^^>^ 


tNGENIERO      ' 

MAR  4   1904 


.* 


\\ 


THE  ^^ 


iCHANIOAL  ENGINEER'S 
POCKET-BOOX^ 


JOHN   WILEY  &   SONS. 
\  Uxmxfst  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited. 

^  18^8. 


The  Publishers  and  the  Author  will  be  grateful  to 
any  of  the  readers  of  this  volume  who  will  kiudlj  call 
their  attention  to  any  errors  of  omission  or  of  commission  - 
that  they  may  find  therein.     It  is  intended   to  make 
our  publications  standard  works  of  study  and  reference, 
and,  to  that  end,  the  greatest  accuracy  is  sought.     If; 
rarely  happens  that  the  early  editions  of  works  of  any  j 
size  are  free  from  errors ;  but  it  is  the  endeavor  of  the 
Publishers  to  see  them  removed  immediately  upon  being  ^ 
discovered,  and  it  is  therefore  desired  that  the  Author  j 
may  be  aided  in  his  task  of  revision,  from  time  to  time,  J 
by  the  kindly  criticism  of  his  readers.  j 

JOHN   WILEY  &  SONS.      '' 
68  East  Tenth  Street. 


THE  •"'^ 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEER'S 
POCKET-BOOK. 


A  BSFSSREKCEBOOK  OF  RULES,   TABLES,  DATA. 

ANB  FORMULJB,  FOB  THE  USB  OF 

BNGINEiaa,  MBOHAJflOS.^ 

AJTD  8T10BNTB. 


WILLIAM  KENT,  A.M.,  M.E., 

Conwlting  Engineer, 
Umber  Amer.  Sotfy  Mechl.  Engr*.  and  Amer  In$t.  Mining  Engri. 


THIHD  EDITION,  REVISED.  . 
THIRD  THOUSAND. 


i^EW   YORK: 

JOHN  WILEY  &    SONS. 

London:   CHAPMAN    &    HAT  i       i 

»»    n^i^L,,    Limited. 


KENj., 


^anworth  If 


PREFACE. 


More  than  twenty  years  ago  the-  author  began  to  follow 
the  advice  given  by  Nystrom :  "  Every,  e'ngineeer  should 
make  his  own  pocket-book,  as  be  proceeds  in  study  and 
practice,  to  suit  his  particular  business."  The  manuscript 
pocket-book  thus  begun,  however,  soon  gave  place  to  more 
modern  means  for  disposing  of  the  accumulation  of  engi- 
neering facts  and  figures,  viz.,  the  index  rerum,  the  scrap- 
book,  the  collection  of  indexed  envelopes,  portfolios  and 
boxes,  the  card  catalogue,  etc.  Four  years  ago,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  publishers,  the  labor  was  begun  of  selecting 
from  this  accumulated  mass  such  matter  as  pertained  to 
mechanical  engineering,  and  of  condensing,  digesting,  and 
,  arranging  it  in  form  for  publication.     In  addition  to  this,  a 

;  careful  examination  was  made  of  the  transactions   of  engi- 

I 

1  neering  societies,   and  of  the  most  important   recent  works 

on  mechanical  engineering,  in  order  to  fill  gaps  that  might 
be  left  in  the  original  collection,  and  insure  that  no  impor- 
tant facts  had  been  overlooked. 

Some  ideas    have   been  kept   in   mind  during  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Pocket-book  that  will,  it  is  believed,  cause  it  to 
differ  from  other  works   of  its  class.      In  the  first   place  it 
was  considered  that  the  field  of  mechanical  engineering  was 
so  great,  and   the  literature   of  the   subject   so  vast,   that  as 
little  space    as  possible   should   be   given  to  subjects  which 
especially   belong   to   civil  engineering.      While  the  mechan- 
1   ical    engineer   must    continually   deal    with   problems    which 
■   belong  properly   to   civil    engineering,    this    latter   branch    is 
so  well  covered   by    Trautwine's    "  Civil  Engineer's    Pocket- 
.  book "  that  any  attempt   to  treat   it  exhaustively    v/ould    not 
*Wly    fill    no    "long-felt    want,"     but    would    occupy    cpate 
|#Hich  should  be  given  to  mechanical  engineering. 

Another  idea  prominently  kept  in  view  by  the  author  has 
^^w'en  that  he  would  not  assume  the  position  of  an  "  au- 
Iiority "  in  giving  rules  and  formula  for  designing,  but 
nly  that  of  compiler,  giving  not  only  the  name  of  the 
hjriginator  of  the  rule,  where  it  was  known,  but  also  iVie 
f9D)awe  and  page    from    which    iu    was    taken,    SO    t\iat    \X» 


IV  PREFACE. 

derivation  may  be  traced  when  desired.  When  diflferenl 
formulae  for  the  same  problem  .have  been  found  they  havt 
been  given  in  contrast,  and  in  many  cases  examples  hav4 
been  calculated  by  each  to  show  the  difference  betweei 
them.  In  some  cases  these  differences  are  quite  remark 
able,  as  will  be  seen  under  Safety-valves  and  Crank  pine 
Occasionally  the  study  of  these  differences  has  led  to  tlM 
author's  devising  a  new  formula,  in  which  case  the  derive 
lion  of  the  formula  is  given. 

Much  attention   has  been  paid  to  the  abstracting  of  dati 
of  experiments  from  recent  periodical  literature,  and  numer 
ous  references   to  other    data    are  given.      In  this   respeq 
the  present  work  will  be  found  to  differ  from  other  Pocka 
books. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  obligation  to  the  maj 
persons  who  have  assisted  him  in  the  preparation  of  t 
work,  to  manufacturers  who  have  furnished  their  cai 
logues  and  given  permission  for  the  use  of  their  tabU 
and  to  many  engineers  who  have  contributed  original  dij 
and  tables.  The  names  of  these  persons  are  mentioned^ 
their  proper  places  in  the  text,  and  in  all  cases  it  has  b« 
endeavored  to  give  credit  to  whom  credit  is  due.  T 
thanks  of  the  author  are  also  due  to  the  following  genlj 
men  who  have  given  assistance  in  revising  manuscript' 
proofs  of  the  sections  named :  Prof.  De  Volsqn  Wot 
mechanics  and  turbines ;  Mr.  Frank  Richards,  compress 
air ;  Mr.  Alfred  R.  Wolff,  windmills ;  Mr.  Alex. 
Humphreys,  illuminating  gas ;  Mr.  Albert  E.  Mitchei 
locomotives  ;  Prof.  James  E.  Denton,  refrigerating-ni 
chinery ;  Messrs.  Joseph  Wctzler  and  Thomas  W.  Varlej 
.  'eloc.tricSiiP  engioeejing ;  and  Mr.  Walter  S.  Dix,  for  valiw 
•  ■  abl^  cdnfribut^iiS-  on  several  subjects,  and  suggestions  i 
'  tp  their  treatment.'  Wm.  Kknt.^ 

•-•  ;^A»stiK',}i.J'.,-ii^n7,  1895. 

*•';  .'',      :;'.■  THIRD   EDITION,   APRIL,   1897. 

Atr  thtP 'ty^xigraphical  and   other  errors  discovered  m  tll| 
first  and  second  editions  have  been  corrected,  a  few  altei 
tions  have  been  made  in  the  text,  and   the   index  has   be 
revised  and  enlarged.  W.  K. 


■!  vTj,-.*f.:t -;«(.a:T  J 


OOlStCENTa 


t ' 


..I*   >•.^il-.  t 


(Par  Mis»i^htt»Bii1a«aif,0fifi(imi. 

...  ...  -f\    i.;t  *y  . 

.■>}-.. ^i'  ••-.:  .»  III!'- 

Arlthmetlo,  j 

J  and  AT^braica.!  Btgnit.. 

mmno  rjlvlsof ..,..,.,.,....  fl 

QOii  Multfpie. ,. .,..-   — .., ,,,  i 

im*]  EqiiJ7ftlentfi  of  FmctloiiB  of  Onn  Inch    .  ,,..,.,,.. t 

Mlpete   <>r    FractfoiigfuxpreetHHl  lu  I>i!cliiiiiJ«...., , 4 

(rDewnilp^l^  Nii«»l>i-rs , ,,,,,. .,,,.  t 

iMMndtftg  and  AscendlD)^ , .,,. ;.,.  B 

'roportion..,..,.    .... ,,  .  S 

or  Fbwfursof  Numbe™ .,..,.....  fl 

3t  Nloe  Fnwere  Of  the  Fint  Kine  NuinlMrs ,..,.  T 

at  Forty  ttowersof  * 7 

SqiMiia  Root,......,. , :.,,, 7 

.,^  ,. ....-,. ....  H 

„ 10 

t. ,...,: 10 

10 

I  Pro|P*iflrion»a...  ... ••.&•••. • 11 

rrogrwton ;,...  11 

18 

18 

nterMt 14 

Iterant  TaUe.  8,  4, 6^  »Dd  6  per  cent 14 

?kymeuta 14 

BlltS 15 

18 

ount.  Present  ValuM,  etc.,  of  Aoouities IB 

Welf  hts  and  MeMures. 

17 

-aire 17 

ire  17 

9  18 

(easure 18 

18 

ta IB 

luidMeasure 18 

18 

•e 19 

8ht. :•:•.•:•.;:■.:•.•.:•.:.::::::::  » 

idit"""'*''"" ■;*''"""" "'!;;!!!!!!!! » 

t^  on  an  Incorrect  Balance r—  1" 


OOSTSSTB. 


Board  and  Timber  Measure. 

Table.    Conienlg  in  Feet  of  Joists,  Scanlltngs,  and  Timber.. 

French  or  Metric  Measures ..  . 

Brttisiiand  French  Equivalents. 

Metric  Conversion  Tables  ..  

Compound  Units. 

of  Pressure  and  Weight 

of  Water,  Weight,  and  Bulls. 

of  Work,  Power,  and  Duty 

of  Velocity 

of  Pressure  per  unit  area 

Wire  and  Sheet  Metal  QauKes 

Twist-drill  and  Steel-wire  Gauges. 

Music-wire  Gauge 

Circular-mil  Wire  Gauge ■- 

New  U.  B.  Standard  Wire  and  Sheet  Gauge,  188S. 


Algebra. 


Addition,  Multiplication,  etc 

Powers  of  Numbers 

Parentheses,  Division 

Simple  Equations  and  Problems 

Equations  containing  two  or  more  Unknown  Quantities. 

Elimination 

Quadratic  Equations 

Theory  of  Exponents, 

Binomial  Theorem 

Geoinetrical  Problems  of  Construction. 

of  Straight  Lines 

of  Angles 

of  Circles 

ofTriangles 

of  Squares  and  Polygons 

of  the  Ellipse 

of  the  Parabola 

of  the  Hyperbola 

of  the  Cycloid 

of  the  Trautrlx  or  Schiele  Auti-frictiou  Curve 

oftheSpiral 

of  tlie  Catenary    , .' 

of  the  In  volute 

Geometrical  Propositions 


Mensuration,  Plane  Surfacec. 

Quadrilateral,  Parallelogram,  etc 

Trapezium  and  Trapezoid 

Triangles _    , 

Polygons.    Table  of  Polygons t| 

Irregular  Figures S 

Propertiea  of  the  Circle. 81 

TalueK  of  IT  and  its  Multiples,  etc B 

Relations  of  arc.  chord,  ere 

Belations  of  circle  to  inscribed  square,  etc 

Sectors  and  Segments 

Circular  Ring N 

The  Ellipse 8 

TheHellx. « 

TheSpiral 9 


BCensuration,  Solid  Bodies. 


Priam. 


nriuald. Q 

Wed 


vedge. 

The  Prlsmoldal  Formaia, 

Toae 


C0KMNI8.  -vii 

PAOB 

ei 

I  Triangle 81 

1  Polygon 01 

I  Zone  gg 

ISegment 6;! 

I  or  Ellipsoid 63 

m 6i 

callUDg 68 

:  Kevolution a 

i 69 

m  of  a  Spheroid 01 

ic  Conoid 64 

of  a  Cask 64 

rSolids 64 

Plane  Trigonometry. 

.  of  Plane  TriaDgles 65 

ngent.  Secant,  etc 6S 

the  TriKonomotric  Functions 66 

metricaTFormulse 66 

I  of  Plane  Rigbt-angled  Triangles .  68 

lof  Oblique-angled  Triangles 68 

Analytical   Geometry. 

ea  and  Abscissas 69 

nsof  a  Straight  Line,  Intersections,  etc 6B 

ns  of  the  Circle TO 

IIS  of  ibe  Ellipse  70 

ns  of  the  Parabola TO 

'DS  of  the  Hyperbola TO 

bmic  Curves. 71 

Differential  Calcnlns. 

)ns 72 

lials  of  Algebraic  Functions 72 

86  for  Differentiating 73 

Differemials '8 

Is 73 

8E  for  Integration 74 

tion  between  Limits., 74 

ture  of  a  Plane  Surface 74 

ture  of  Surfaces  of  Revolution 75 

•e  of  Volumes  of  Reviiliition 75 

Third,  etc.,  Differentials 75 

-in'saiid  Taylor's  Theorems 76 

land  Minima 76 

ilial  of  an  Exponential  Function 77 

lims 77 

itial  Forms  which  have  Known  Integrals 7» 

iilial  FuQCtioug 78 

r  Functions 7i< 

-•loid 79 

ICalcuIus 79 

Blathematioal   Tables. 

cals  of  Numbers  1  to  2000 SO 

:,  Cubes.  Square  Roots,  and  Cube  Roots  from  0. 1  to  1600 8(i 

;  and  Cubes  of  Decimals 101 

x>ts  and  Fifth  Powei-s 102 

ferenees  and  Areas  of  Circles,  Diameters  1  to  1000  — 103 

ferences  and  Areas  of  Circles,  Advanciug  by  Eighths  from  j^  to 

VtS6 

•a  of  a  Foot  Equivalent  to  Inches  and  Fractions  of  an  Inch VA 

'f7S7&mi,er': .T  '"  ^^^*  ""^  ^'"''"'«'  ''O™  ^  ^nc''  »«  '^  ^et  \\ 

'  Circular  Arcs,  Degr^  Qiv'en ^^^ 

Circular  Arcs,  Belirhtnfi  J!.' ^'. W 

'  ii^mentsof'a  Circle           "^'"^'^ T.. !.......  \\ 

'..'.'.  v.*.  V.V.V 


Kiii 

f        Sphci 

Ooiitt 

I  fvliii 


coi«rTEirr8. 


Spheres 

Cx>iitenlg  of  Pipes  and  Cfliiiders,  Cubic  Feet  and  QalloiiB. 
Cylindrical  Te£S«i8,  Tauks,  Cisterns,  etc. 


N 
^ 


QBlloni*  in  a  Number  of  Cubic  Feet. 

Cubic  Feet  iu  a  Number  of  Gal  long ,. 

Square  Feel  in  Plat«?8  3  to  S'J  feet  loufj  and  I  Inclj  wlite. 

(.'apiiL'ities  of  Kectan)(ular  YaDlis  in  Oallon» 

Number  of  Barrela  in  Cyliuilrical  Cisterns  and  Tanlifl.. 

IjOKarii  liniH 

Table  of  LoRnrltlimn 

HyperLolle  IjOgarithuia 

Natural  Trigononietrlcal  FunclioQB. 

Ix^arlUiiulu  TrigODomeU-lcal  Functions 

HATEKIALS. 

Clieinical  KtenipntEi 

Specific  (iravltj;  and  Weiifht  of  Materials 

MetaiH,  Properties  of....' ,  ,   ., 

The  Hydronietsr 

Alumlnuitii 

Autimoii}- 

BisrhUth 

Cndrtiiuui  •. ....,...  ...   .. 

Copper 

Qold 

Iridtutn. 

Iron 

T.«ad 

Magnesium 

HaiJganese 

Merctiry 

NIclcei 

Platinum 

SIlTOr 

Tin 

Zloo 


MlHCflianeoiiR  MaterlalH. 

Order  of  MHlleaWiity,  etiv,  uf  Metals 

'  KormuItP  and  Tnbie  forCiileiilttlintr  WeiKlil  of  Kodn,  Plates,  etc 

klteasiires  and  Weights  of  %'arlotis  Mat*riolB  

Coniiiiercial  Sizes  ot  Iron  Bara. 

Weifrlits  of  Iron  ilara 

of  Flat  K')lled  Iron , 

of  IrLin  and  Stoei  Sheets. 

of  Plate  Iron 

of  Steel  Blooms 

of  gtruetural  Hliapea  , 

pBlzes  and  Weights  of  Oimegie  Deck  Beams 

I     •■  ^  •'        Kteei  Clianuela 

"  "       ZUars... 

"  Pencoyd  Stee!  An^lea 

"  "       Tees 

"  "       ChantieU 

"  Bnoflne  Materials ......,> 

"  Terra-coita i 

"  Tiles   ..(..,,..„ , ,f, 

"  Tin  Plates .• 

"  Slates , c 

PIneSUnplea .^ 

•»  ••  eicy-1li;ht  aiass .... 

MViRhtSOf  Various  Uoof-co>'erings 

•'  Citetiron  Pipes  or  Columns.. 

"  •'      •'         "     IS  ft.  lengtlis . 

'•      "     PJpe  flttinRR    .    

"      "     Water  and  Ctatt-pipe 

uiid  tlilokncas  of  Ca»t-iroD  Pipes .»,• 

'  I'resFii res  on  Cast  Iron  Pipe .-'■< 


COMTEKTS.  ix 

lydraulic  Pipe ]yi 

|.eFlaiiKe«  IW 

•8  and  Ca*.t-iron  PJp^ ]98 

izetiof  ■Wroiight-iioii  Pi|je IM 

un  Welded  Tubes 1M 

■n  Pipes        197 

Iron  for  Riveted  Pipe 197 

ited  Pipe  108 

inusTubing IDS,  IW 

ee 109 

)peT,  and  Zinc  Tubing  100 

Tin-lined  Lead  Pipe  SOI 

Copper  and  Brass  Wire  ami  Plates SOi 

ound  Bolt  Copper SOS 

heet  and  Bar  Brass S!08 

ion  of  Rolled  Brass 903 

iM 804 

tad,  U.  8.  Standard aM 

iKes  for  Screw-threads 909 

on  (or  Standard  Bolts i!00 

icrew-tlireads  for  Bolts  and  Taps «07 

«s  and  Tap  Screws 90fl 

Machine  Screws S!09 

I  Wfiuhis  of  Nuts S09 

1  BoIiB  with  Heads 810 

)lls 910 

of  Nuts  and  Bolt-heads 911 

Rivets 911 

rumbucicles 811 

918 

ilies «I« 

Spikes 918 

kes 918 

Spiiies 818 

kes 218 

I 218 

ils 214,215 

e,  Size,  Strength,  etc  216 

ej  Iron  Trleeraph  Wire 217 

Telegraph  Wire 217 

Vire  Table,  B.  W.  (lauge 218 

"        "     Kiiison  or  Circular  Mil  Gauge  219 

"     B.&S.  Gauge 220 

iWire 221 

telegraph  Wire 221 

Cables 221,222 

ed  Steel-wire  Strand 223 

•e  Cables  for  VeKseiR 223 

lions  for  Galvanized  Iron  Wire 224 

ofPianoWire 224 

teelWire  224 

different  metals 225 

•lions  for  Copper  Wire 225 

'ctioD  Ropes 226 

pes 226,227 

teel  Ropes 227,  rS» 

ed  Iron  Wire  Hope 2'-» 

wsers :. 223,22!) 

e  Ropes 8-'9 

<?d  Steel  Cables 230 

of  Chains  and  Ropes 280 

iiseof  Wire  Rope 231 

*fireRope 231 

lains.-.rr. 832 

of  Logs,  Lumber,  etc 232 

Fire  Brick ?3a 

-.Aualysla 2a\ 

BrJoks ..  WM 


«8 


X  CONTENTS. 

Strength  of  Materials. 

Stress  and  Strain 

Elastic  Limit 

Yield  Point 

Modulus  of  ISlasticity 

ReKilienee 

Elastic  Limit  and  Ultimate  Stress 

Repeated  Stresses 

Repeat»-d  Shucks  

Stres.'ies  due  to  Sudden  Shocks 

Incieasiiit;  Tensile  Strength  of  Bat's  by  Twisting... 

Tensile  Strength 

Measurement  of  Elongation 

Shapes  of  Test  Specimens  

Compressive  Strength 

Columns.  Pillars,  or  Struts 

Hodgkinson's  Formula 

Gordon's  Formula 

Moment  of  Inertia 

Radius  of  Oyration 

Elements  of  Usual  Sections 

Solid  Cast-iron  Columns . 

Hollow  Cast-iron  Columns 

Wrought-iron  Columns 

Safe  load  of  Cast-iron  Columns 

Eccentric  loading  of  Columns 

Built  Columns 

Pbcenix  Columns  

Wi  irking  Formulas  for  Stmts  

Merriman's  Formula  for  Columns  

Working  strains  in  Bridge  Members 

Worlcing  Stresses  for  Steel 

Resistance  of  Hollow  Cylinders  to  Collapse 

Collapsing  Pressure  of  Tubes  or  Flues 

Formula  for  Corrugated  Furnaces 

Transverse  Strength 

Formulae  for  Flexure  of  Beams 

Safe  Lends  on  Steel  Beams 

Elastic  Resilience 

Beams  of  Uniform  Strength  

Propei'tiesi  of  Rolled  Structural  Shapes  

Spacing  of  I  Beams    

Properties  of  Steel  I  Beams  

"  "       "    Channels 

"  "       "    ZBars 

Iron  Beams  and  Channels 

Trenton  Angle  Bars 

"       Tee  Bars 

Size  of  Beams  for  Floors 

Flooring  Material 

Tie  Rods  for  Brick  Arches 

Torsional  Strength 

Elastic  Resistance  to  Torsion 

Combined  Stresses 

Stress  due  to  Temperature 

Strength  of  Flat  Plates 

Strength  of  Unstayed  Flat  Surfaces 

Unbraced  Heads  of  Boilers  

Thickness  of  Flat  Cast-iron  Plates 

Strength  of  Stayed  Surfaces  

Spherical  Sliells  and  Domed  Heads 

Stresses  in  Steel  Plating  under  Water  Pressure 

Thick  Hullow  Cylinders  under  Tension 

Thin  Cylinders  under  Tension 

Hollow  Copper  Balls  

Holdlnp!  Power  ot  Sails,  Spikes,  Bolta,  and  ScYewa 

^"' vervw  Wire  Nalla 

•"til  Ot  Wroufht-lroa  BcltM 


OOHTElSia.  ziii 

P4aB 

Ing  Process  of  AoneBlIng •...•.<•• M7 

'ood  and  Iron  Struotures .••••••• ••••••••••••...  M 

(Paints an 

BtMl. 

etween  Chem.  and  Phys.  Properties M> 

in  Strength 901 

th 8M 


KSoft  Steel IM 

Cold  Rolling Me 

ton  of  Full-sized  and  Sman  Pieces tM 

It  of  Structural  Steel „  SM 

!  of  Annf^ing  upon  Magnetic  Capacity SM 

tions for  Steel  ...   ZK 

hip  and  Tank  Plates IN 

Springs.  Axles,  etc 400 

bon  be  Burned  out  of  Sterir 408 

«sce  of  Steel  40S 

!  Nic'liiDga  Bar 40t 

Conductivity 40S 

Grarity  ,.  4M 

ulFailures 40i 

tion  in  Ingots 404 

Uses  for  Structures 406 

sUngs 40ft 

esa  Steel 407 

leel    .  407 

im  Steel 400 

Stpei 408 

n  Steel 400 

sed  Steel 410 

Steel 410 

I  Heat  on  Grain 418 

Hammering,  etc  ■  ...    - 41S 

and  Forging 412 

ngSteel 413 

MECHANICS. 

Init  of  Force 415 

418 

sLawsof  Motion 415 

on  of  Forces 415 

JKramof  Forces 41C 

o(  a  Force 41S 

Moment,  Stability 417 

ofaDam 417 

Forces 417 

418 

iumof  Forces 418 

'fOravity 418 

of  Inertia 419 

>tQyration ...  420 

>f  Gyration 430 

'(Oscillation 421 

'fPerciiBSion 422 

idulnm 42-i 

Pendulum  <28 

gal  Force 42S 

Uion ,....  428 

Bodies *-* 

fg. .  ;;.  ;. 424 

Velocity..:   4» 

lue  to  Velocity *^ 

igram  of  Velocities *2 

487 

AcceJeration ^H 

1 1nclined  Planea. 4n 

" :..:..„.. «» 


XIV  C0NTEKT8. 


VtaVira 

work,  Foot-pound 

Power,  Horse-power 

Energy 

Wore  of  Acceleration 

Force  of  a  Blow 

Impact  of  Bodies , 

Energy  of  UecoU  of  Guns. . , 
Conservalion  of  Energy . . . . , 

Perpetual  Motion  

EfBciency  of  a  Machine  

Animal-power,  Man-power. 

Work  of  a  Horse 

Man-wheel 

Horse-gin  

Beslstance  of  Vehicles 


Elements  of  Machines. 

The  Lever 

The  Bent  Lever ...... 

The  Moving  Stmt...  

The  Toggle-joint 

The  Inclined  Plane 

The  Wedge  

The  Screw 

The  Cam 

The  Pulley  

DIlTere r I  tlal  Pulley 

I>ifrerential  Windlass 

DifTerenciiil  Screw 

Wheel  and  Axle  

T<iothed- wheel  Gearing 

Endless  Screw 


Stresses  in  Framed  Structures. 


Cranes  and  Derricks 

Shear  Pole;*  and  Guys 

Kinu  Post  Truss  or  Bridge. . 

§uef  n  Post  Truss  
iirr  Truss  

Pratt  or  Whipple  Truss  — 

Howe  Truss  

Warren  Girder 

Roof  Truss 


HiSAT. 


Thermometers  and  Pyrometers 

Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  degrees  com)iared 

CopptT-iiall  Pyrometer    

Thrriiio  electric  I'yrometer 

Teiiiperarures  in  I'urnaces 

Wihoi'jtii  Air  Pyrometer 

Seegir's  FIivKiIay  Pyrometer 

MeHur6  and  Nouel's  Hyroiiieter  , 

Uelilliig  and  Steliibart's  Pyrometer 

Air-thermometer 

High  Tt-mperatures  Judged  by  Color 

Bniliii^-points  of  Substances 

Meli  iiie-pointg 

Unitof  Heat 

Mechanicfll  Equivalent  of  Heat 

Heat  of  Combustion 

'»'>eclOc  Heat 

vi»  •»»«■»  -•  •^<«ion . 


tnn  or  »iigar  soiiiiions MB 

■K  by  Exhaust  Steam MB 

7ai-uum  4M 

jf  Heat 467 

1  and  Convectioo  of  Heat 408 

9  Coverings  470 

(trrnal  Conduction  4T1 

ion  through  Plates 473 

in  Condenser  Tubes 478 

"        Cast-iron  Plates 474 

from  Air  or  Oases  to  Water 4T4 

from  Steam  or  Hot  Water  to  Air 475 

through  Walls  of  Buildings 478 

namics r 478 

FHTSICAL  PROPBRTIES  OF  OASBS. 

lof  Gases 470 

Uarriotte's  Law 479 

arles,  Avogadro'a  IjBW 479 

I  Point  of  Vapors 480 

Meous  Pressure 480 

ases 480 

1  by  Liquids... 480 

AIB. 

of  Air 481 

aeter 481 

t  Different  AlUtudes 48t 

c  Pressures 482 

>y  the  Barometer  and  by  Boiling  Water 482 

Terence  in  Altitude 483 

n  Atmosplif  re 488 

Air  aud  Mixtures  of  Air  and  Vajrar 484 

eat  of  Air 484 

Flow  ot  Air. 

ir  through  Orifices 484 

ir  In  Pipes 485 


tu 


CONTENTS. 


f 

^B  IjOss  due  to  Excess  of  Pressure  j,«- 

^H  Horsp-power  Requireil  for  Coiiiprenalon. 
^M  Tftblp  for  Adiabai  ii:  Compresaioii 

Mfan  KfffcUve  Pressures  

Mean  and  Terminal  Pressures 


Air  eompressurs 
Practical  ICesull^, 


Efnci>--ncy  of  Coiiipreuseil-alr  Eogines i,«; 

Re<|uir'eiiieiit»  of  Rock-drills 

P«|ip  C'ompreNSi-d-air  System 

Miiiall  Compressu.-d'air  Motors 

Kfllcieiiey  of  Air-lieHilTiK  Stoves 

EfllLMcDcy  of  C'Hiiipros.'Hi'd-nir  Trangnilsslon , 

Shops  Opt-riilfd  lij-  C'iiiiipri»>weil  Air  

Fiieuiimtic  I'oslal  Tranamission 

HeJcarsklComureKSudair  Tramways 

Compressed  Air  Working  Fuinps  in  Mines 


I 


Faiia  and  Blowers. 

(ieiitrifuKal  Fans  ...   , 

Best  Pro|)ortlons  of  Fans ,.,' 

PieHKuri^  due  to  Veiorily «] 

Experiments  with  Uiowera •■•»«l 

Uuiiiitity  of  Air  Dt^livnred , , .,| 

E/ficiency  of  Fans  anil  Positive  Blowers , , , 

Capacity  of  Fans  and  Blowers...  ' 

Tableof  CenlrifuRttl  Fans  

Eagiues.  Fans,  aud  Sleain-ooilg  for  the  Blower  System  of  Hoallui; 

Sturtevant  Sti-el  Prcssnre.blower ,, ., 

Diameter  of  Blast-pipes  , , 

Cutitrifui^al  V^enliialors  for  Mines , 

Experiments  on  Mine  Vontllatora v 

Disk  Fans ^ 

AirReinove<l  by  ExIjHust  Wheel J 

F.flicii»ncy  of  Disk  Fans ' 

Positive 'Rotary  Blowers i 

.iiii;  Kngineu •••'■H 

m  jet  Blowers 

'Jet  fur  Ventilation 


HEATING  AND  VJCNTII<AT1UN. 


:3 


:::•] 


tliatlon 

Quaiiiitv  of  Air  Dlsclian^  tlirouKh  a  Venlilating  Duct.... 

Artifieial  doling  of  Air ..... 

Mine-ventilation  

Frielioii  of  Air  in  Undergibund  Passages 

Ei|ulvalent  OriHcos 

Relative  ERlciency  of  FnnKanil  He«led  Chimneys . 

^eatluK  and  Ventilntintjiif  Ljirne  Buildings 

uleti  for  Coniputln*;  Riidiatliig  Surfaces 

verlu>a<l  Hteum  pi|>es 

idlreot  Healln>:-9iirfftce ....'..,.,., 

iler  HealinK-surfaoe  Required....  ...".„■ ;........ 

Li^torliou  of  Cj rate  surface  to  RadiatOr>SOrface 

team-conKtiniptioa  in  Car-lieatiii^c 

liikmetersof  St(>am  Supply  Jlain.s. 

rs  aniU'oM  air  Imoi-s  

I  Propertimi  nf  Steam  and  Condensed  Water , 

Stpuriipiws  for  Healing ^^ 

hi;  a  Cil-feiifioiue  by  Steam .....Tm 

ting  a  firei'Mhouse  by  Hot  Water 


:-waif'r  H<'ntinvr 


•<>[>' 


:  Surfaces  to  Cubic  Capacities, 
iniioh  Pipes 


iK-allng. 


CONTEKTS.  ivii 

Item  of  Heating;  and  VentilatJDg 045 

ts  with  Badiators 545 

BuildiDK  to  T0»  F (Mb 

'Electricity MS 

TFATEB, 

of  Water M7 

Water  at  different  temperatures 647 

r  Water  due  to  Its  Weight (49 

ssponding  to  Pivssures S4g 

eeo 

nt BW 

oint MO 

8481060 

ow B60 

>at  of  Water 860 

biiity  of  Water 661 

of  Water 051 

locrustation 651 

Preventing  Incrustation  66% 

>f  Boiler-scale 6Se 

>f  Water 868 

Peed-water 654 

Hard  Water 666 

Hydraulics.    Flow  of  Water. 

ir  Discharge  tlirough  Orifices ,   ...  665 

aterfroin  Orifices 665 

ten  and  Closed  Channels 657 

H-muIee  for  Flow 557 

of_Feet  per  mile,  etc 558 

i  r  for  Circular  Pipes 569 

ormula 659 

h's  Formula 562 

nnula  ."ita 

'ormula S63 

nnlae 5C1 

f  Water  in  Open  Channels ,'504 

face  and  Bottom  Velocities 504 

m  and  Mean  Velocities 565 

of  Soil  to  Erosion 605 

ind  Transporting  Power  of  Water 565 

.ewers 566 

)f  Diameter  of  Pipe  to  Quantity  discharged 566 

aterin  a  20-liicli  Pipe 566 

in  Smooth  Cast-iron  Water-pipes 567 

low  of  Water  in  Circular  Pipes 568-573 

!ad 673 

Heads  at  given  rates  of  discharge  57i 

lend  and  Curves 67B 

Grade-line 67° 

aterin  House-service  Pipes 8.8 

Pipes 6^» 

■ts "i'J 

ivered  through  Meters ^79 

ms °'» 

ossesInHose  "Sx 

Pressure  Losses  by  Friction ^ 

essure  ill  smooth  21^-lnch  Hose  ^ 

aclty  of  Steam  Fire-engines °|Y 

required  to  throw  water  through  Nozzles o^| 

ent  of' Flowing  Water V.".'..  "    ^1 

r    '     KASL 

iOaugte       ^ 

rl  Meter. Wj 

at  ot Discb&rge  by  meaus  ot  NoizXe^ «» 


XVUl  CONTENTS. 


Flow  through  Rectangular  Orifices — 

Measui-einent  of  an  Open  Stream '...... — 

MinersMnch  Measurements - 

Flow  of  WatHrover  Weirs > 

Francis's  Formula  for  Weirs -    i 

Weir  Table * 

Baziu'8  Experiments -  w 

Water-power* 

Power  of  a  Fall  of  Water 

Horse-power  of  a  Buniiiiig  Stream 

Current  Motoi-s , 

Horse-power  of  Water  Flowing  in  a  Tube , 

Maximum  EfBciency  of  a  Long  Conduit 

Mill-power , 

Value  of  Water-poiver ., 

The  Power  of  Ocean  Waves 

Utilization  of  Tidal  Power ...., 


Turbine  Wheels. 

Proportions  of  Turbines 

Tests  of  Turbines 

Dimensions  of  Turbines , 

The  Pellon  Water-wheel 


Pomps. 

Theoretical  capacity  of  a  pump 

Depth  of  Suction .' 

Amoun  t  ol  Water  raised  by  a  Single-acting  I4f t-pump 

Proportioning  the  Steam  cylinder  of  a  Direct-acting  Pump. 

Speed  of  Water  through  Pipes  and  Pump-passages 

Sizes  of  Direct-acting  Pumps 

The  Deane  Pump  '. 

Efficiency  of  Small  Pumps 

The  Wonhington  Duplex  Pump 

Speed  of  Piston 

Speed  of  Water  through  Valves 

Boiler-feed  Pumps 

Pump  Valves  ..     

Centrifugal  Pumps 

Lawrence  Centrifugal  Pumps 

Efficiency  of  Centrifugal  and  Reciprocating  Pumps 

Vanes  of  Centrifugal  Pumps 


The  Centrifugal  Pump  used  as  a  Suction  Dredge M 

Duty  Trials  of  Pumping  Engines Ml 

Leakage  Tests  of  Pumps 811 

Vacuum  Pnmps Sit 

The  Pulsometer 8U 

The  Jet  Pump VH 

The  Injector OK 

Air-lift  Pump 8U 

The  Hydraulic  Ram 8t< 

Quantity  of  Water  Delivered  by  the  Hydraulic  Ram Ol 

Hydraulic  Pressure  Transmission. 

Energy  of  Water  under  Pressure SH 

Efficiency  of  Apparatus 611 

Hydraulic  Presses Sti 

Hydraulic  Power  ill  London  8ti 

Hydraulic  Uireting  Machines 6U 

Hydraulic  Forcing tii 

TTjfi  Ailren  Intensiner 6Ji 

^j'di-auHo Engine ...  4U 


FUEL. 

'^%?£^(^'"busaoa 

**lBoat  ot  Combusttoa...... 


00KTENT8.  xix 

PAOX 

•ofSasegof  Oombnstion , eti 

More  of  the  Fire «^ 

(tion  of  Solid  Fuel 628 

ition  of  CJoals (J34 

I  of  Coals em 

LfVfnites 681 

of  Foreign  Coals 681 

Fariiifation  Coal „, 632 

Cool  for  Analyses 632 

Talue  of  Fine  Sizes 63s2 

•nel eai 

'alue  of  Steam  Coals 633 

ateHeatingValue  of  Coals 634 

iroace  Adapted  for  Different  CoaJg 635 

l-drauglit  Puruaces 6:» 

-icTests  of  American  Coals 636 

re  Power  of  Bituminous  Coals.  636 

gofCoal 637 

637 

itstn  Coking 687 

iiig 68S 

>f  By-products  in  Coke  manufacture 038 

.rdCoke ..    638 

I  of  Steam  from  the  Waste  Heat  and  Gases  from  Coke-ovens.  6.38 

f  the  Distillation  of  Coal 639 

nel 689 

ilueof  Wood 689 

uiofWood 640 

«I0 

iiarcoai  from  aOordof  Wood 641 

on  of  Cliarcoal  in  Blast  Furnaces. 64 1 

of  Water  and  of  Oases  by  Charcoal 641 

in  of  Charcoals M-i 

31IS  Solid  Fuels  64a 

Dust  Explosions 6i'i 

■f 643 

iFuel 613 

ureas  Fuel 6)3 

irk  as  Fuel 643 

uel  643 

Fuel  in  Sugar  Manufacture 643 

Fetrolenm. 

f  Distillation 64.'> 

ileum  ...     645 

;troleiimasFuel.... 645 

as  Fuel 646 

Fuel  Gas. 

3 646 

Gas 647 

sGas ..   647 

618 

;as  from  One  Ton  of  Coal 649 

is  in  Ohio  and  Indiana 649 

n  of  Producer-gas 650 

tm  ill  Producers 650 

}r  Small  Furnaces 651 

Illnroiinating  Gas. 

«5\ 

-••■•; 652 

'  Watpr-firas  ana  Cf'tai  ga.3.. ., , .,   .     WA 

'.livaletits  of  ConstitUKuts.,   ,   ,,,  * .*.•*•       • 

H  Wnfffr.fras  Plant  .  * ^T*. 

-d  fur  a  Waivr  gas  Plant   *"* 

■Uuujtiuuiag.g^T....^°.'-y\ 6B6 


I" 

^■>w  of  Oaa  in  Pipes, 
^■rvicefor  Lamps... 


CONTEXTS. 


8TEAH. 


Temperature  end  Pressure, 


ipen 
Total  Fleat 

Latent,  Heal  of  .Steam 

Ijiteiit  Heat  of  Volume  

Speoiflc  Heat  of  SnlurateU  Steftm 

Density   nrid  Voliima , ,j 

Supeilieated  Stt-am  ..^ 

R«Knaiil*''s  Estpcrlments - — ' 

Table  of  the  Properties  of  Steam. 


Flow  of  Ste»n>> 

Napler'it  Approzlinnle  Rule  

Flow  of  St*!am  111  I'liK«    

LoKs  of  Pressure  Due  to  Radiation 

Resliilaooe  to  Flow  by  Beads  

.Siiesiif  Steam-pipes  fur  Staiionnry  Knelnes  ... 

•KSofSteani-pipcsforMariUti  Eugioes  
nstl 


i 


Steaui  Pipes. 

Srstlnirtests of  Copper Steainpipea 

TliiclcnenH  of  Coppei- i^ieaiii-pipes 

Kelnfuroing  Steaiii-pi|ic9  

Wii-.--«ouiicl  Btt-aru  |ii|te»  

Riveted  r^teei  StroTii  pipes 

Taives  in  Steaui-pipes 

Flaiii;es  for  Stenrn-pipe ,.  ,.,,., 

The  Steam  Loup  ., 

Loflsfrotn  on  Uucovered  Stcnm-plpe 


THE  STKAxM  UOILKR, 


^Ro  Horae-power  of  a  Steaiii-lMiller. . .  . 

Measures  for CompaiiiiR  tbe Duty  of  Oollers 

Steam-boiler  Propoi'tiou.'^  

Heating.«urface        

Horse-power,  Builders'  Ratluj;.... 

Qrate-surra4:e 

Areas  of  Fines 

A.irj]u-^sai^esTlir<iu'.'li  Grate-bars ......... 

Perrorrnaiice  iif  Boilers .........,.,.,...,. ,»...,... 

Condiiiuiis  wliicli  Secure  Ecoiioiny i 

Efflolenc}- of  a  Uidler ...^ 

Te.sis  of  Scedin-boilers .......' 

BoilerK  at  the  Centennial  KxhibUlon 

Tesiaof  Tuliiiloua  Boilers „.  i 

Hieli  Kate.t  of  ICraporation I 

Kcoaouiy  l!:iTt'C[ed  l<y  ileatiOR  the  Air 

Hewiltfi  of  Testa  with  liilTereiit  Coals , ..,.< 

Mnxiiniiiii  Boiler  Etneieiiey  with  Cumberland  Cool •  ...........    i 

Boilei'S  Usine  Wasti;  tjaties I 

Boilers  fur  Ulaxt  Fiiniaoes I 

Kiiles  for  CoMductinjr  Bnller  Tests j 

^Xable  of  Factors  of  Kvaporuliuu '..uiH 

^B  strength  of  Steam-boUera.  ^H 

^feles  for  (?on»fnictlon  , ...^H 

Shell-plale  F.irniidiB 771 

Rules  for  Flat  PIriles 1 

'■■—  V       •villD    .. 1 


ly* 

'  "I  St-aya 


i  of  Boilers  ill  MeretiantVesa(is\iLM.«- 


I 


OONTUKIB.  Ml 

lie  for  AHcnrable  Pressores jm 

irking  Pressures    707 

oveming  InspecUon  of  Boilera  in  Philadelphia 7D6 

id  Tubes  for  Steam  Boilers 100 

yed  Surfaces , TOO 

»■  of  Staj.bolt8 710 

faof  Stays 710 

lis  in  Curved  Surfaces 710 

Boiler  Attachments,  Farnaces,  ete. 

Pings 710 

Domes  711 

of  Furnace  711 

licalStokers 711 

wley  Down-draught  Furnace 712 

reed  Stokers 718 

Prevention 718 

•d  Steam-boilers 714 

Combustion 714 

K>iiomizer8 715 

ation  and  Scale T16 

icsle  Compounds 717 

ftl  of  Hard  Scale T18 

on  in  Harine  Boilers 719 

anc 780 

>f  Depositon  Flues 7ta) 

oils  Boilers 730 

Safety  Valves. 

>rArea  of  Safety-valves 721 

loaded  Safety-valves...  TH 

The  Injector. 

Ml  of  the  Injector TJS 

nance  of  Injectors 736 

eeding  Pumps 7M 

Feed-water  Heaters. 

Caused  by  Cold  Feed-water , 7i7 

Steam  Separators^ 

icy  of  Steam  Separators 728 

Determination  of  Moisture  in  Steam. 

lorimeter 789 

Ing  Calorimeters 729 

ling  Calorimeters 730 

cation  of  Dry  Steam 7S0 

Amount  of  Bloisture  in  Steam  781 

Chiiuueys. 

sy  Draught  Theory Wl 

>r  Intensity  of  Draught '^■- 

;  Combustion  Due  to  Height  of  Chimney 73:| 

liimneys  not  Necessary ';j| 

8  of  Chimneys  Required  for  Different  Fuels ••  ••  JJ* 

ifSizeof  Chimneys ^ 

:i(in  of  Ciiimney  from  Lightning ^ 

^'all  Brick  Chimneys JJi 

;y  of  Chimneys ■  ^S 

Chimneys ^ 

Ihunneys "V 

ron  Chimneys " 

TME  STEAM  EHQISE. 

ton  of  Steam    "i  A^ 

d  Terminal  Absolute  Pressures 1* 


C0NTBNT8. 


Calculation  of  Mean  Effective  Pressure , 

Work  of  Steam  in  a  Single  Cylinder 

Measures  for  Comparing  the  Duty  of  Engines 

Efficiency,  Tlierinal  Units  per  Minute 

Real  Ratio  of  Expansion 

Effect  of  Compression  

Clearance  in  Low  and  High  Speed  Engines  

Cylinder-condensation 

Water-consumption  of  Automatic  Cut-off  Engines. 

Expiriments  on  Cylinder-condebsatiou 

Indicator  Diagrams , 

Indicated  Horsepower , 

Rules  for  Estimating  Horse-power , 

Horse-power  Constant 

Errors  of  Indicators  

Table  of  Engine  Constants 

To  Draw  Clearance  on  Indicn tor-diagram 

To  Draw  Hyperbolic  Curve  on  Indicator-diagram. . 

Theoretical  Water  Consumption  

Leakage  of  Steam  


Compound  Engines. 

Advantages  of  Compounding 

Woolf  and  Receiver  Types  of  Engines 

Combined  Diagrams .< 

Proportiiins  of  Cylinders  iuCoinpound  Engines 

Receiver  Space 

Konmilii  for  Calculating  Work  of  Steam 

Calculation  of  Diameters  of  Cylinders  

Triple-expansion  Engines 

Proportions  ot  Cylinders  

Annular  Ring  Jlethod 

Rule  for  Proportioning  Cylinders 

Types  of  Three-stage  Expansion  Engines 

Sequence  of  Cranks    

Velocity  of  Steam  Through  Passages 

Quadruple  Expansion  Engines 

Diameters  of  Cylinders  of  Marine  Engines  

Progress  in  Steam-engines 

■V  Double- tandem  Triple-expansi(m  Engine  _ 

;>rincipal  Engines,  World's  Colmnbian  Exhibition,  1893 \ 


Steam  Knglne  Economy. 

conomic  Performance  of  Steatn  Engines 

Bed-water  Consumption  ot  Different  Types 

zes  and  (.'alculuietl  PerfMrmauces  of  Vertical  High-speed  Engines 

jst  Ec.inomic;il  Point  of  Cut-off  

|>e  of  Engine  Used  when  Exiiaust-steam  is  used  for  Healing 

uipurison  of  Compound  and  Single  cvlmder  Engines 

u-cy Under  anil  Tnree-cy Under  Engines 

eot  "of  Water  m  Steam  on  Efficiency 

alive   Commercial   Economy  of  Compound  and  Triple-exponidoil 

Engines  

)le-e.\liansion  Pumping-engines 

of  a 'i'ripleexpanslon  ICngine  with  and  without  Jackets 

live  Kcomiiuy  of  Engines  under  Variable  Loads 

leiicy  of  Non-condensing  Compound  Engines 

lomy  of  Engines  under  Varying  Loads  ...    

n  c'onstunption  cf  Various  Sizes  

u  Consumption  in  Small  Engines    

a  (.'on^umpiiim  at  Various  S)>eeds 

ation  of  Knuine  Speeil 

nee  of  the  Steam  Jacket 

erlialaneing  Engines     

iting  Vil>rations  of  Engines 

«{></««  ^'••'hfiUled  III  Air  

miu-poAer • 


SM  oc  v^yiiiiuer ■|^n 

rHeads 794 

r-head  Bolts 7W 

ton 79B 

?acking-riiig8 796 

Istoii-rod  T9C 

Br  of  Piston-rods 797 

-od  Guides 196 

iDecCiiig-rod 799 

ting-rod  Ends : 800 

1  Connecting-rods Wl 

inl£-pin »»I 

ad-pin  or  Wrist-plD 804 

mlt-arm  806 

if  t.  Twisting  Resistance 806 

ice  to  Bending 806 

enl  Twisting  Moment 808 

sel  Shafts 808 

of  Shaft-bearings 810 

ibafts  with  Centre-crank  and  Double-crank  Arms 818 

haft  with  two  Cranks  Coupled  at  90"... 814 

tem  or  Valve-rod 815 

Slot-link 816 

«Dtric 816 

»ntric-rod 816 

ng-gear 816 

frames  or  Bed-plates 817 

Fly-wheela. 

of  Fly-wheels 817 

igal  Force  in  Fly-wheels 820 

t  Fly-wheels  and  Pulleys 8a0 

ers  for  Various  Speeds 831 

in  the  Rims 823 

issof  Kims SiS 

len  Rim  Fly-wheel  ...  824 

aund  Fly-wheels  824 

The  Slide-Talve. 

tins.  Lan.  Lead,  etc 824 


I^BDalciili 


CONTENTS. 


Iy-wlie«l  or  Sliaft-KOTPraorw 

Iculation  of  Sjiilngs  lor  Shaft-govemora 


C  oik)  en  so  nil  Air-puiupii,  Clrculutlii^-pninps,  etc. 

The  Jet  Condi-nsi'i- , 

Ejector  Cojidtmsers  ..   , 

,Tliu  Surfaou  Condenser ...  

i}mleiist>i- Tulws 

be-plntes , 

iHClriB  ot  Tubes 

luauiiiy  of  Cooling  AVater 

°r-l>uiiip 

n>a  tliniiiL;U  VaWe-seais 

Irc'ulailiig-|iuinp ., 

'eed-puiiips  fnr  Marliie-engliiPS 

11  Kvaporalive  Surfaou  OJmlpiiser. 

tlnuoiis  Us*^  of  Ctjntleiiwliig  Water  ....  - ..  .... 

ncreuSB  of  Power  by  t  !oi)den*ers 

Bvaporatotsand  Di^iiilleru. ....  

UAS,  PETROLUL'M,  .4MO  HOT-AIR  ENOINR8. 

s-t'Il^ineK 

cieiicy  of  ihe  rios  engiiiH .,.., 

Is  of  ihti  Simplex  Oan  Kii^tne 

3iO  H.I'.  Giis*nKiiie ..,...,....,. 

>t  ot  im  Olio  Oas-eugiiie ....< 

_  imperaturcs  and  I'ressures  Doveloped  „ 

Test  of  Uifl  rlttrk  Ciua-ciiglne , 

Coiubuslluii  of  liie  Gas  111  lli«  Olio  Engine 

Use  of  Carbtiretlud  Aii'  in  UuK-eiigineg 

The  Otto  Ua^rilioH-euKine 

The  Prie9tinu.n  Feli-oli'inii-entciue , 

Test  of  a  3- H.  P.  PrieKtman  Petroleumeniiine. 

Xapiha-eiiKiiies 

Hocair  or  Caloi'iL-.t*nj^inefl. 

Test  of  a  Uoi-air  Eii);iiie 


ml 


LOCOSIOTIVKS. 

olency  of  Loconiotlves  and  Heslstnnee  of  Tiains 

pprtia  and  Keslstaiioe  at  Incrtmsitig  Spi-eds 

Icieiiey  of  the  .Meebaitlsuk  iif  a  Locuinoitve  , 

Ize  of  IxH-oniutive  CylMnlxrs 

Ixe  of  LootiiiioUve  Jloilers. « 

lalliies  E.«sentitil  far  a  Free-sleamiug  LoconuMifts ... 

orttteD's  LAtconioltvu     .   ...    ,. 

Oruie-siirfao*.  Sraoke-gtacks,  and  Exbaust-Dozzles  for  Locoinotlves. 

KxhaiiKt  Nozzles 

Firi-hiick  .Arches 

Size,  Weight,  Tractive  Power,  ete 

Leodiii);  American  Types , 

Steam  Di^tributixik  far  Hi^h  Speed. 

Speetl  of  Railway  Tmina 

DlinerisioDs  nf  Some  American  LocomotlTeS...... 

Indioatcd  Wuler  t'oiiriumption 

L'tconiolive  'I'raiUn^  .'Vppnmtus .' 

WaMe  nf  Fuel  in  Lrtcoinorires 

Advantaee.s  of  Compounding 

Connlerhiilaiioink;  Liicomolive.s , 

Maximum  Kafu  L>ond  on  Steel  Rails 

Narrou--);iiage  Rail  way  I! , 

*^  itroleuin-bumiiig  I»coiuotlve8. 

Ireleaa  IjOComotiTea 


SHAFTrKO. 

DiametHrs  Resist  Torsional  Strain . .. . 

JM/Tn-e/oa  of  Shafting. 

Borsepower  Traiiamllleil  bv  Shafting. 

7»*/e  for  Im  yiiiif  Out  Sha/tlag. 


OOJfXBim  ZXT 

POXXETZS. 

FAOB 

i8of  Pnneys tfia 

of  Pulleys. 874 

ep  Pulleys 874 

BELTING. 

Belts  and  Bands. 874 

,1  Tension 8T6 

octlce,  FormuleaforBeltint^ 877 

■er  of  a  Belt  one  inchiride.... 8;S 

e's  FormulH ., 878 

ielt  forOiven  Horse-pQwer..... ; ...  879 

ulesfor  Belting 880 

k-lting 888 

BelU 888 

Belt  on  Quarter-twist 888 

le  JLenKth  of  Belt. 884 

le  Angle  of  the  Arc  of  Contact. 884 

:e  Length  of  Belt  when  Closely  Boiled. 684 

le  Approximate  Weight  of  Belts 884 

>f  the  Size  and  Speeds  of  Driving  and  Driven  Pulleiys. 884 

ght  Belts 885 

to 885 

ents  Of  Belts  and  Pulleys 885 

Its.  ..    ...  886 

<r  Belting. 888 

Independent  of  Diameter 886 

!lta..!7. 886 

886 

ing. '. 887 

r  Cloth  or  Leather 88? 

Iting. 887 

OEABINO. 

;h-cirele,  etc 887 

and  Circular  Pitch 888 

tch F89 

)£  Pitch-line  of  Wheels  from  10  to  100  Teeth .  889 

isofTeeth 889 

I  of  Gear-wheels 891 

'eeth 891 

>lculating  the  Speed  of  Gears  and  Pulleys 891 

Iters  for  Interchangeable  Gears 893 

Forms  of  the  Teeth. 

dalTootb 892 

te  Tooth 894 

■^ion  by  Circular  Arcs 89t> 

ears  ^B~ 

>eth 897 

rs 897 

iring...... 89. 

evel-wheels  •••  °9» 

id  Differential  Gearing 898 

of  Gearing 899 

Strength  of  Gear  Teeth. 

)rmul8B  for  Strength JOO 

•notFormulBB  2~ 

Speed  of  Gearing  jTO 

lachine-cut  Spur-gear J^ 

Gt-ailng  SS 

Grooved  Gearing • **" 

BoisTiya. 

t  Streng-fli  of  Cordage , W, 

reogrth  of  Blocks .W 


tXn  OOKTBHIS. 

M 

Bfflclencf  of  Chain-blocks 

Proportions  of  HookK , 

Power  of  Hoisting  Knglneg 

Effect  nf  Slack  Rope  on  Strain  in  Hoisting 

Limit  of  De()th  for  Hoisting , 

Large  Hoisting  Records 

Pneumatic  Hoisting 

Counterbalancing  of  Winding-engines .   . 

Belt  Cnnvevors....  

Bands  for  Carrying  Qraio 

Cranes. 

Classiflcation  of  Cranes 

Position  of  the  Inclined  Brace  in  a  Jib  Crane 

A  Ijarge  Travrlling-crane 

A  ISO-too  Pillar  Crane 

Compressed-air  Travelling  Cranes 

Wire-rope  Haulage. 

Self-acting  Inclined  Plane 

Simple  Engine  Plane 

Tail-rope  System 

Endless  Rope  System 

Wire-rope  Tramways _ 

Suspension  Cablewayg  and  Cal>le  Hoists  81S 

Stress  in  Hoisting-ropes  on  Inclined  Planes Mli 

Tension  Required  to  Prevent  Wire  Slipping  on  Drums , Mj 

Taper  Ropes  of  Uniform  Tensile  Sirengili M] 

Effect  of  Various  Sized  Drums  on  the  Life  of  Wire  Ropes M; 

WIBB-BOFE  TRANSMISSION.  ) 

The  Driving  Wheels Ht 

Horse  power  of  Wire-rope  Transmission ni 

DurHbility  of  Wire  Ropes  Ml 

Inclineil  Transmissions M 

The  Wire  rope  Catenary  (If 

Diameter  and  Weight  of  Pulleys  for  Wire-rope 9H 

Table  of  Transmission  of  Power  by  Wire  Hopes M 

Long-distance  Transmissions W 

ROPE  DRIVING.  ' 

Forraulffi  for  Rope  Driving SK 

Horse-power  of  Transmission  at  Various  Speeds W 

Sag  of  the  Rope  Between  Pulleys M 

Tension  ou  the  Slack  Part  of  the  Rope My 

Miscellaneous  Notes  on  Rope-driving OT 

FRICTION  ANI>  I.UBRICATION. 

Coeffluient  of  Friction M 

Rolling  Friction Mf 

Friction  of  Solids Hi 

Friction  of  Rest M. 

I^ws  of  Unhibricated  Friction MS 

Friction  ot  Sliiling  Steel  Tires M 

Coefficient  of  Rolling  Friction M 

Laws  i)f  Fluid  Friction  IM 

Angles  of  Repose t9l 

Friction  of  Motion IMf 

Coefficient  of  Friction  of  Journal MO 

Experiments  on  Friction  of  a  Journal 831 

Coefllcients  of  Friction  of  Journal  with  Oil  Bath , Ml 

CoelHcients  of  Friction  of  Motion  ami  ot  Rest Ml 

TJiJue  of  Anti-friction  Metals Ml 

Cast-iron  for  Bearings MS 

friction  ot  Metal  Under  Steam-presBUTo KW 

'tot^a'a  Laws  ot Filction «l 


ooirrBKiB.  zxvii 

PAOB 

fctlon  of  well-lubricated  Journals 964 

Pressures  on  Bearing-surface , Sg5 

«  in  a  Bearing ....  tn 

Car-jnurnal  Brasnes 887 

Its  on  Overheating  of  Bearings M8 

!  Friction  and  Work  of  Friction SS8 

•ings 939 

e  Curve 989 

'  a  Flat  Pivot-bearing. 939 

«th  Pivot 940 

iigs 940 

oilers 940 

or  Very  High  Rotative  Speed  9tl 

!  Steam-engines 941 

in  of  the  Friction  of  Engines 941 

linbrication. 

of  Lubricants 94i 

ons  of  Lubricants 948 

r  Oil  to  run  an  Engine «48 

ion  of  Oils 944 

R.  Specifications 944 

Icants 945 

Soapstone,  Metaline 94S 

THE  FODMDBY. 

aciice 946 

aCupnIa  948 

I  Stove  Foundries 919 

Increased  Driving. 949 

Jl.iwerK 950 

>n  in  Melting 950 

tenere 950 

(if  Ca.slirigs 851 

Castings  from  Weight  of  Pattern 96i 

Sand     9.V2 

^(lles 953 

THE  MACHINIE  SHOP. 

Jutting  Tools  958 

Uiiiiig  Speeds S.M 

Turret  I.HtheR 0^ 

Cutting  Tools  9.'i5 

earing  Lathes , 955 

•ars  for  Lathes 956 

e«-thieadR 9!>6 

e  Taper  in  a  Lathe 956 

^lilliiiK  Holes 9.56 

'wist-di-ills 9.5T 

ifters .     9.57 

IJiitteis 95S 

ifh  Milling-maehines 9.59 

th  i>r  Against  Feed 9(.0 

ichine  US-.  Planer AGO 

quired  f<ir  Machine  Tools 9(i0 

>rl{  on  a  Planer 960 

i-er  to  run  Lathes 961 

•d  by  Machine  Tonis 9(i8 

quired  to  Drive  Macliiiiery 9li4 

;d  in  Machine-shops 965 

Abrasive  Processes. 

Saw 966 

using-disfc.^. ^ 

tone  with  Wire w(» 

-bias* Wft 

'eeJs. Wi-W» 

» wa-y.' 


w 


XVIU  CONTKNTS. 


VariouH  Toolit  and  Pn>oei>««. 


T*ps  for  M»chli)e-8or«ws ,,, 

Tap  Drills ..... 

TApt-r  ItoliK,  PItiK,  Rcniiiers,  etc 

I'lliiohen,  IMi-s,  Pi'os.sr's 

_Cleiiiiiaoe  HfLwefii  Punch  and  Die ., 

Hze  u(  Ulaiikx  for  Dra\vlD|i;-pres8 

Vexsure  uf  Drop-press 

^ow  of  Mftnl« 

roruiiiKaud  .shriukliig  Pita ■. .. 

'VTlcivncy  or  Sorx'wg . 

Vnvell'K  Sci'evv'-threud 

oportloniDK  ParU  of  Macliine. 

C«ys  for  QeHrlDi;.  etc..  .....«..< 

loldliiK-power  of  Set-Hvrewa .........•..> 

lolding-power  of  Keys 


OX>'AMOMETEIIS. 

Praetion  Dynaiiioineters 

pile  Proiiy  Urn ke.   ....••,, 

riit-  Allien  Dvnanioiiieter. 


Capacity  of  i'Meliou-brakea , , 

TransiiMsslou  Dyuanioineters ,, 

ICE  MAKING  OR  RKFRIOERATING  HACHIWB8. 

OperatioiiK  of  a  Rcfrieeradir-miichlne.... .. 

Pi'essuivB.  etc..  of  Availublt!  Uquida .«; 

Ice-meltlui;  Effocr 

EtlKM-uiaehiiies 

Alr-[iiacliiD»s 

Amnioaia  ConipreBgion-iiiachiJies 

.\iiiiiioDla  AlworpUnii-iimL'liiueit. 

Sulphui'.dlnzl(Je  MncliiueH 

Pi'rfi)rniuiic«  uf  Ainiiioiiia  Conipression-raacl  lines...... ,__ 

Kcnnoniy  of  .iinniutita  Cuinpreatsiotl-luaehiiltiA..     .......••.•• .«<.■ 

.>luc'liin<^  Usini;  Vapnr  of  W tiler , 

SfHt-'iuiicy  oC  aBefriKeruilnt:  machine •.... 

"^esL  Trials  of  Ri^fritjerating-inauiiines ,■ ,,,, 

■  mperaturt"  Runtfi! 

eie-riiit;  the  AiiiiiiOiiJa > 

perties  of  Sulphur  Dioxide  and  Ainnionia  Cia.s 

,)perile»  of  Biiui*  iishiI  to  absorb  Refngeratiii);  Effect 

lorideof-calcluiii  Sidotiiin. 


Aot.anl  Perrormniicea  of  RefrlRPrnting  MachlnrB, 

'erruriiiiinoe  <if  a  T5-lou  RHfilgerallng^-iiiachlne. 

Cyliiidt/r  lieailnjf , 

TeBis  of  .\niiiiOinia  Absorptloh-niachlne.. , 

Aiuinonla  Compvesaioii-mai:hine,  Ui-sultK  of  Tests  . 

Miiaiis  tor  Applying  tbu  Cold 

ArtiOcIul  Ire-iuannf»ctiire. 

It  of  theKew  York  HyKein  Iceuiakiug  Plant ,,_ 

MAUINIi:  ENOINEKKINO. 

ules  for  MeasurlnK  DiineniiloDS  and  Obtaliiiug  Tiiniiage  of  Vessela.. . 

he  Displacmnent  of  a  Vessel , 

efncient  of  PineiieHs 

eflicient  of  Waier-linea , 

•^iKtance  of  Ships.  ... 

ofTioient  of  Performance  of  Vessels 

efects  of  the  Comiuon  Formulu  for  Resistance 

atikine'ti  Formula ■ 

Dr.  Kirk's  Merhod ..' 

To  Hud  the  I.  It. P.  /"rom  the  Wetted  Surface . 

,     &  a.  Mumfonl'a  Method 

\M»latlrf'  Horse-power  required  for  different  Speeds  ot  V»ssae\a.     


■ 


!B«er  Borse-power  for  different  Speeds JO  " 

•fTiialiiof  St«aiii-vesspls  of  Vuriuus  Sizes...........  ..........  ID 

Canato,  ia__ 

if  Pro(fres*i»e  Speed-trials  ia  Typical  Vessels ]0M| 

d DteplacenieiK,  Hor«c»-|>owei-,«-U: .,  of  8teHii)-Tene)sor  VarlotM 

lOODl 

The  ScreiT'propeUor. 

JOIO 

1011 

__iJer Ml* 

lor  Screws  of  Standard  Form. ..  1018 

Qt  tteaearcbtn 1018 

The  Paddle-wheel. 

I  Willi  Radial  Floats. 1018 

Lclillf-wlieels .,, ,  „.,,,..  101S 

!Fn.l.:i.   V.  lirHs lOM 

Jet-propnUion. 

iJet  1018 

B«c«nt  Fi-actice  lu  Marine  Encinea. 

bght lOIB 

lOlft 

1016 

, 1016 

gppljrof  Fi-mh-water  Evaporator* lOW 

twutei- Unaitfr lOlB 

leamcTH  flttt-il  «  Itli  Twln.scr««s ,. 1017 

tBe«u]tSi.[  f  Marine-englnp,  1878,  IfiBI,  and  1801..  1017  I 

br«»«tacH  I  ■  ti>rlin-s ioi7j 

TThree-Bl.i.  -  u'P-^'i'giiies.  1018' 

CONSTKUCTION  OF    BUILDINGS. 

ehoii8«»R,  Stores,  Factorieg,  and  Blabli'B 1019 

,' Floors,  ROMfs,  and  Supporis.,.. lOlV  < 

landPoHtK lOtB,  lO'A] 

.r  B<iii<ifn|{« ,  loai  r 

"luiiiiia lOSOl 

atid  Supports. WHt] 

ixaiil  RivfU. 10l»' 

iiiu   T^oiid  nn  Klovri , lO'.'l 

th  of  Ki<ioi» inai 

fittfU  Ixiuds  oQ  Soulliern-pioe  Bcatna lOiiB 
ELECTKICAL  KNGI.NEGRIMO. 
Standards  of  Mi'oaureuieot. 

System  of  PliysicBl  Meiisuif  ment ......  10841 

I  XTi'ii'i  otwul  in  ElH:iriL'ul  Calculations lOSil 

■•  '  ^■•frills lOtSl 

Mid  M*«lianlcnl  Unit* IfliWf 

vv  of  Walcr  ami  ElHCtrlclty KWl 

r<rii  u.o  Ampereatid  Iklliier'sliich.  10S7  ' 

Electrical  K«>slHtAno«. 

•-'"•■^ '^•■•sistaiiue 10^ 

,    .  10S8 

V  Of  Different  MelalB  and  Alloys    .......  lOW 

....I...,,  i.f  Difleivut  Metals • JJW 

iM-«  and  itisiilut^irs ......>....' ISS 

»ce  Varies  Willi  Temperature . ••••  JJ* 

....  ...••••*••  Vkw 

RestetoM of  Cupi'i«r  wire    '. •••••  *<>*> 

Blvotrie  OumatM, 

mw- \«aB 

Tltvalta .......        \«ftV 


OOSTEJSnS. 


3 


Irmilnotoi-n  tn  Series 

BrHiiinl  B«*sistaii4.*tr  .,,.   ,.,.,, ...•...• 

loiiit  Hi-8i>>[uorH  I  if  Two  Branches ., 

iivbluilT  s  l..uns ....iai 

poiver  of  thf  Circuit a 

Ivat  U»ii(!riit<?(l  liy  a  CiiriiMiC .:, 

leatinK  "f  l-'oiiiluetors ; 

leaclii);  of  Wires  of  Cables 

'sppcr-uiro  Tuble.... ..IM 

SeatiDK  of  Coils ..........>.t. 

nision  of  Wires ...........i, 

Klectrle  Tran»n>lMlon. 

utioii  of  Wire  required  for  a  Givrn  Current .,,., 

lonsuint  Prussure 

fin*e-wire  Feeiiifr ...•««!) 

Short  i.-ircuitliii; ......i 

_coiiuiiiy  of  Electric  Trantfmls«ion 

Falili^  of  Eleonioiil  Unr«'-|><iwtM'S  ,..„ 

iritif;  KariiiiilfB  tuy  liicjinilpsL'erit  LlKhtlOK-.. .,^. 

iieTiible  for  KHtaiid  WW  Vult  Circuits.... ...,^ 

^t  of  Coi>per  for  Lonirilistaiicp  TiaiiHinlssioa .; 

Irafiliicul  Meiliod  of  CulciilnilnR  I.fat1s n 

Teli?lu  of  C<i|)|H'r  for  rii>iiK-<liHlam;e  Trniisniissloo ,^^ 

Tlcltfucy  of  IjOin;-.listam'c- Traiisiiiissiciii 

Iici«iicy  of  a  Comliim-ii  t',ii|;ine  am]  Dynaino  ........w 

|l>-cirlual  Eini:lfuc.v  of  a  Oeiieiator  auj  Motor .....i 

Bdeiicy  of  an  Klectricul  ruin|>iti^  Plant  


Electric  ISultwajrs. 

8t  of  a  Street  Railw-ay  Plant 

DponioiiUig  Boiler,  Eiigiue,  and  Geiiriator  for  Power  StatfoDS. 

Klectric  Ugliting. 


I        Ml 

I 


Qiinntlty  of  EnerKJ"  Requii-ed  to  t^oduce  Light. 
Cif-    ■  '  ■ 


nf  incnndPKuuiit  Lairii>s- 
fo  aifd  Effleleucy  Tests  of  Lamps. 

roet  Lii;liIinK 

Klititi^  {Kiwerof  Arc-lnmps 

ndl'-s'O"''''"  of  "le  ArcJiibt 

leL-trlo  TVuldiiii; 

lectrio  U4fut«'rH   


Electric  Accumulators  or  ^torace-batteriea. 

Jge  of  StorBEB-bortprit's  in  Power  and  Light  Stations. , 

~»orl;ins  Cm  rent  of  a  Storage-cell  ,. 

tlectro-itieinicul  EquivaleutH. , 

BleetrtilyHl» 

Klectro-mag^eta. 

nils  of  Electro-maijnetio  Measu reinent  ,,, 

Ines  of  Loops  of  Force ...,..,.. 

treiiK'li  of  an  Eliiciro-inaKnet .. 

Force  in  tl>e  Gap  Ijctweea  Two  Poles  of  a  Magnet 

riie  Mawutf tic  Circuit    , 

Delermmiug  the  Polarity  of  Eleciro-magrnets 

UjnBtno-Klectric  Miiclilncg. 

Kinds  of  Dynamo-electric  Machln*^  as  i  egards  Manner  of  Winding, 

"ill rrent  Generated  by  a  Dyuaino-electrio  ilacbine 

orque  of  an  Ariimture   — 

Electro-motivo  Force  of  the  Armature  Cirtniit 

Jtrenirlli  of  tlie  HIiiKnetic  Field 

kppUcaiioM  to  Designing  of  Dynauios 

'\*rfjti*sIii)Hy ._,__ 

•n/>/s.i/Mt''Antpf  rave  for  Mnfnu-ls  with  OuttoncovereA  Vf  Vm MMi 

Tba Slectrio  Motor 


ABBRFVIATI0N8     OP     PERIODICALS 
!:XT-BOOK6   I'lUiQUENTLY  KEFEURED  TO 
WORK. 


nerSean  Mochlubit. 

Appletoii's  C;clgp<E<1ia  of  Mechanica,  Vols.  I  and  II. 
Bulletin    of    th«  Araerican    Iron    and   Steel  Associolion 
M. 
liy  and  Reeistance  of  Malei-tals.       . 

t>.  J£.  Clark's  Kules,  'J'ables,  nnd  Data  for  Mechanlc&I  Kn- 

I  vitlse  on  thu  Steam-engine. 

Iitpinef  r  (Luijd"Ut. 
|»>-ful  Informal  ion  for  EoKiisers. 

nioij  Cunalr-  iui.l  Flovr  ..f  Wuter.  

,Vt.    Jounr  M.iicoal  IrooWoTter*' Assoclalion. 

fDumnl  of  1  ittf. 

ic  Transu];- 

lied  Mechanics 

arentrtki  of  1\Ial«riaM. 

banisiii,    Suiipleiueninry  volume  ■f-Applcton's  ryi.-lo|ia5<lirt  i>f 

,  E.    Fro<M>edlii(^  Ii'dlltiition  of  Oivll  KnglntHTs  (Luiiiilon). 
E.    Proceedings  Institution  of  MeoliaulCHl  Eiigliicert  fl.no- 

Ermfjdynanilca.  - 

SugiiierrN'  CInb  of  F^tllatlelphlb. 

'     KunkiiK-'a  The  Steam  Engine  and  otiier  Prime  tl0Tei<s. 
uliinery  nnd  Millwork. 
II      KAnkiuti'sRulett,  Tables,  and  DuUKt  / 

J.  S.  Test  Boa  III. 

a.  S.  Tc^ilne  Machine  at  Watertown,  MiMMahtisetta. 
fhernioilviiBuiios. 
iDnal  of  illarine  Etieineering. 
^Itli,  Jr.'i9  Hydraulics. 
iJiidicat-or. 
Dynanirwiectric  Machlnfry. 
mual  of  the  8teani  Kiigine. 

»l*rial.s  of  Enpineering.  ^ 

.  E.     Transactions  AiiiiTlijaiiliiKtitiiteof  Electrical  EnplnetP*. 
K.     TrunsnciionM  .Ainerii-un  liihliliite  of  Mining  Encmcprs, 
E     Transaciioiis  .\ni<.riian  iitfi-^ty  of  t'ivil  EiiKineei-K. 
E.    Tronsttci ions  A intrioan  Soc'ty  of  Meclioiilual  Engineers 
[Jivil  En»lne«r*s  IWitet  Hotjk. 


I've  (Hriptfnnl.  (' 


>niifcl.icut>. 

Design. 

neeriOK. 


.XX  xi 


MATHEMATICS. 


tal  and  Ale^brateal  Signs  and  Abbreviations. 

^  anele. 

L  right  anirle. 

X  perpeudicular  to. 

sin.,  siue. 

COS.,  cosine. 

tang.,  or  tan.,  tangent. 

sec.,  secant. 

▼ersin.,  versed  sine. 

cot.,  cotangent. 

cosec.,  cosecant. 

covers.,  co-versed  sine. 

In  Algebra,  the  first  letters  nf  Ihe 
alphabet,  a,  6,  c,  d,  etc.,  are  gener- 
ally used  to  denote  known  quaotiiieH, 
auii  the  last  letters,  u',  X,  ij^  2>  >^tc., 
unknown  quantities. 

Abbreviatlmit  and  Sytiibolt  com- 

tnoHln  uaett. 
d,  (liiTerenlial  (in  calculus). 
/,  integral  (in  calculus). 


)iO. 

traction). 

us. 
.us. 

^\ 
X  o. 


1-  b.     15-16  =  1|- 
16 
_2_ 

lOOO" 


is, :  to  (proportion). 
,  ao  2  is  to  4  so  is  3  to  8. 

ied  by. 

.f  2  to  4  =  2/4. 

an. 


re  or  thermometer. 
r  feet, 
r  inche". 

to  distinguish  letters,  as 
a'". 
rt,,.  read  a  sub  1,  a  sub  6, 

Tincula,    denoting 

e  numbei-s  enclosed  are 
tkeii  together ;  as, 
;=4  +  3x5  =  3o. 
ired,  a  cubed, 
o  the  nth  power. 

le  91  h  power  =  1,0(»,000,- 

sine  of  o. 

tie  aro  whose  sine  is  a. 

1 
in.  a. 
thnj, 
.  log:  =  byperboUc  loga- 


J  ',  integral  between  limits  a  and  6. 

A.  delta,  difference. 

S.  signia,  sign  of  Kummation. 

IT,  pi,  ratio  of  circumference  of  circle 

to  diameter  =  3.14159. 
3.  acceleration  due  to  gravity  =  83.  ;6 

ft.  per  sec. 

Abbreviations  frequently    used     in 
this  Book. 

L.,  1.,  length  in  feet  and  inches. 

B.,  b.,  breadth  in  feet  aiid  inches. 

D.,  d.,  depth  or  diameter. 

H.,  h.,  height,  feet  and  inches. 

T.,  t.,  thickness  or  temperature. 

v.,  v.,  velocity. 

F.,  force,  or  factor  i  f  safety. 

f.,  coefficient  of  friction. 

E.,  coefficient  of  eltvslicity. 

R.,  r.,  radius. 

W.,  w.,  weight. 


P.,  p.,  pressure  or  load. 
H.lT,  ■ 


horsepower. 
I.H.P.,  indicated  horse-power. 
B.H.P.,  brake  hoi-so-power. 
h.  p.,  high  pre.s8ure. 
i.  p.,  intermediate  pressure. 
1.  p.,  low  pressure. 
A.W.U.,  American  Wire  Gaug;e 

(Brown  &  ShatpeV 
B.  IV.G.,  Birmlnghan\  Wive  Qaw»e, 
i:  p.  m.,  orrevs.  perniiu.,revo\\lUow* 
per  minute. 


DECIMALS. 


denontinatnrss  except  irg  owti  for  the  new  numerators,  and  all 
tors  tuK^iher  for  the  coiuiuoii  deiioiiiinator: 

1     1     ?_  81     14     18 
a'    8'    T~4a'    4a'    43' 

rractlons.— Reduce  them  to  a  common  denominator,  then 
si'aiurs  anil  place  iheir  sum  over  the  common  denominator: 

1,1.3      21  + 14  + 18      63     ... 

•;>  -^-a  -^  7  =  — ii —  =  «=  '1*- 

ract  rractions. — Reduce  them  to  a  common  denominator, 
uuiiieraiorM  and  place  the  dilTrreiice  over  the  conunon  denouii- 


1     8_7-6 
8~7        H 


deelmals.-Set  down  the  flgiires  so  tliat  the  decimal  pointR 
ve  ihu  other,  then  proceed  as  in  simple  addition:  18.75-1-  .012  = 

tract,  deelmals.— Set  down  the  ilirnr^s  so  that  the  decimnl 
lue  aliove  the  other,  then  proceed  as  iu  simple  subtraction:  IH.TB 

;:«. 

Ittplr  declmala.— Multiply  as  in  multiplication  of  whole 
leii  point  off  sts  manv  decimal  places  as  there  are  in  multiplier 
licaiid  taljcD  toeetlier:  1.5  X  .02  =  .030  =  .08. 
Ide  decimals.— Divide  as  in  whole  ntirabers,  ami  point  oft  in 
I  us  many  decimal  places  as  those  in  the  dividend  exceed  those 
or.  Ciphers  must  be  added  to  the  dividend  to  make  its  decimal 
ast  equal  those  in  the  divisor,  and  as  many  more  as  it  is  desired 
the  quotient:  1.5  -i-  .2.5  =  6.    0.1  -i-  0.3  ;=  0.10000  +  0.3  =  O.HSm  4- 

mal  Equivalents  of  fractlona  of  One  Inch. 


oiwrr)  i 

0025 

OTHI-iT  I 
09:17.5  I 
10937.5  1 

\a 

.1406-25 
.iriBi'i 

.171!C5 
.ISTa 

.203125 
.21875 

.a;l43r5 

.25 


17-64  ; 

9-:i2  I 
19-64  ! 
.>1«  I 
I 
31-64  ; 
]I-i2  1 
23-64  I 

8-8  ] 

2r,-64  I 
13-32 
27-64 
7-16  I 

29-64  1 

1.V32  I 

31-84  I 

1-2 


.2a5625    I 
.2S125     I' 
.296875 
.3125 

.ii28l25 
.3437r> 
.3.59375 
.375 

.390625 
.40625 
.421873 
.4373 

.45:fla5 
.40S75 
.484875 
.60 


33-64  ' 
ir-:«  . 
.3.->-i!4 
II-IO 

37-64 
19-32 
39-64  : 

.i-8 

I 

4:-ii4  ; 
i;i-;!2  I 

4:^-64  I 
11-16 

45-64  I 

a:i-32 

47-64 

8-4 


.515625  II      ;;i-a  l     .7B.5fi?S 

.53123 

..546875 

.5625 


.578125 
..59:175 
.609375 
625 

.640625 
.6.5623 
.671875 
.6875 

.703125 

.71875 

.734375 


.5-32        !78'2.5 


51-64 
13-16 

27-;i2 
.5.5-64 

V-8 

.57-64 
29-32 
59-61 
la-16 


.796S7.5 
.8125 

.828125 
.84375 
.8.59.;75 
.  875 

.8!Hk;25 
.901125 
.i>21875 
.9375 


61-64  .953125 

31-88  .96875 

63-64  .984375 

1  1. 


avert  a  common  fVactlon  Into  a  decimal.— Divide  the 

r  by  tite  denominator,  adilius  tf>  the  niiniciaior  as  ninnv  ciphere 
ly  a  decimal  point  as  are  iii-ct-ssnrv  to  give  the  nimiber  of  decimal 
sired  VI  the  result:  H  =  1  iK>i.'0-i-3=  0..>t«  -f-. 
nvert  a  dectmal  into  a  common  fk«.ctlon.— Set  dovitv 
»l  as  a  numerator,  aitd  placf.  as  the  denominator  1  wltYv  as  many 
le^edaa  there  are  decimal  places  in  the  numerator-,  e™ae\J»9 


MATHEMATICS. 


ABITHMETIO. 

The  user  of  this  book  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  training  in  arithm 
well  as  in  elementary  ali^ebra.  Oulj  those  rules  are  given  here  wlU 
apt  to  be  easily  forgoiieii. 

GREATKST  rOinniON   1IIEAS17RE,  OB   GKEATB 
COAlAtON  DIVISOR  OK  TWO  N  CIO  BUBS. 

Bale.  -'  Divide  the  Ki°eater  niimlier  by  the  less  ;  then  divide  the  ( 
by  uiK  leniuimler,  and  ko  on,  dividing  always  the  last  divisor  by  tl 
remainder,  until  there  is  no  i-einaiiider,  and  the  last  divisor  is  theKl 
coininoii  measure  required. 

LEAST   rOOTBION    niIj'l,TIPIiE    OF   TWO   OB   MO 
IMUJQIBEBS. 

Bute. — Divide  the  given  uiiiiibers  by  nuy  number  that  will  divii 
);ie.iifMt  number  of  them  without  a  remainder,  and  set  the  quoUeni 
(be  iiiidivided  number.^  in  a  line  beneaih, 

Uiviileilieseuond  line  as  be t'oi-e.  anil  so  on.  until  there  are  no' two  do 
that  can  bedivuluU;  llien  the  unntinued  product  of  the  divisors  an 
quoiieiits  will  gjve  the  multiple  rt-qiiired. 

FB  ACTIONS. 

To  reduce  a  common  rractlon  to  Its  lowest  tenmmt—. 

boili  Itrni.s  iiy  llifir  t;iVii  t-!.i  unuiiiiuii  nivi.-nr;  Jf  =  } 

To  dtange  an  Improper  fraction  to  a  mixed  nuMl 
Dividf  llie  iiiiniei'titur  li>  iht-U  noihiiiutui-:  iiirqiiolienl  l^  the  whole UD 
and  ilif  I'fiiiaiiidfr  I'lm-eil  ovit  llif  (lenuiiii..titi>r  is  tlie  fi-aetiim:  '^  = 

To  change  a  mixed  nnnaber  to  an  Improper  firactl 
Jlulilply  tiie  \>n(ile  iiuniUi-i- by  the  dciiunnnHior  ol  ilie  tiuciiou;  lo  Iht 
ui't  and  ilif  minicTHti'i;  place  ilie  snni  ov(>r  tin- denoiniiiutoi':   li(=V 

To  express  a  vrholo  number  In  tbe  form  of  a  £rmi 
wrltii  a  given  denominator. -.Umiiply  tiie  uhult-  uuiubrr 
f;ivfii  d*'ii>>niiiiHiui.  iiiiii  piiK-t'  uif  priMliici  over  that  deiinniiniitor:    8 

To   reduce  a  compound  to  a  simple  fraction,  all 
multiply   Inactions.— .Viiiui|ily   the  ni.uieiaiors  tugeiner  for 
uuniei'uiur  uiiU  tile  drUuininutors  tugether  for  a  new  denominator: 

50f-  =  -.  also     -X3=-^. 

To  reduce  a  complex  to  a  simple  ft-aetlon.— Tlienuir 

iind  dt-iioininucor  uiiisi  t-uch  flj'si.  be  givi'n  Hie  fonii  of  a  si  nple  fn 
ilii'ii  multiply  the  iiumfiatur  of  the  upper  fraciiim  by  the  denomin; 
tlif  liiwt-r  for  the  new  numerator,  and  the  denominator  of  tbe  upper 
numerator  of  the  lower  for  the  new  denominator: 

To  divide  Aractlontt.~Reduce  both  to  the  form  of  simple fra 
invfi't  the  divisor,  and  proceed  as  in  mulliplicaiion: 

S  2     4      2^8_6 

.      8"^  '"s^a^s^i'ia- 
Cancellatlon  o'f  firactlons.— In  compound  or  multiplied  fn 
dividt-  any  numerator  ami  any  ilenominaior  by  any  number  whi 
divide  tliera  iHiih  without  remaindci'.  striking  out  tlie  numbers  lliusi 
iiinl  wtthie  dou  ii  tlie  Quotiems  in  thrir  stfiid. 

"^^mee  '         ">•••  to  a  eoiumon  AenomVnai.xo'c.- 

««•'  ti-iuiple  tittcuuii;  Wwu nuAUvVs  ««ii«\\ 


COKFOUKD  mJHBEBS.  6 

dedmal  point  In  the  numerator,  and  reduce  the  fraction  thuB  formed  to  lu 

lovest  terms: 

-.      SS      1       „„      8388      1 

•*  =  io6  =  i:   ■*«•»  =  Toooo  =  8'"»'->^- 

To  redaee  a  reenrrlng  decimal  to  a  commom  fHtetloK.— 

Bubintui.  me  lii-uiiiml  iix  uies  iiiui  uu  u<ii  recur  truiu  uif  uuiuf  uevimal  in- 
daling  nii«  xec  of  recurrint;  flgiii-eK;  nei  Uowii  tlie  reniaiudifr  ax  tlie  iiuiiier- 
•lor  of  ibe  fraction,  and  ug  iiiaiiy  nines  as  there  are  revurriuK  fifriire*.  fol- 
hi«i4  by  as  many  ciphers  as  there  are  nonrecurriiiK  flgurm,  iu  the  denom- 
inuor.   Thus: 

.79054034,  the  recurring  figures  being  054. 
Subtract  79 

7097^      ,     .        ..    ,.    ,  .  .  JI7 

g-—-  =  (reduced  to  its  lowest  terms)  — g. 

COnPOITND  OK  DENOmiNATB  NUKBBBS. 

Bedaetlon  deMcendln£.— To  reduce  a  compound  number  to  a  lower 
d«a.>uii>iaiion.  ^luiiipl.v  iii<-  uumberbyasmaoy  units  of  the  lower  denouii- 
Miion  ss  makes  one  of  the  higher. 

8  yards  to  inches:    8  X  86  =  108  Inches. 

.01  square  feet  to  square  inches:    .01  x  144  =:  5.70  sq.  in. 

It  the  given  number  is  in  more  than  one  denomination  proceed  In  steps 
fiom  the  higheKt  tienoniinatiun  to  tlie  next  lower,  and  bo  on  to  the  lowest, 
[    sdiliag  in  the  units  of  each  denominnlion  as  the  oper  tion  proceeds. 

J  yds.  1ft.  7  in.  to  inches:  3  x  3  =  9,  +  I  =  10,  10x13=  120,  +7=  137  in. 

Bedaetlon  aaeendlng.— To  express  a  number  of  a  lower  denomi- 
naiiiiii  in  temis  ot  ii  liiKlier,  divide  the  number  by  the  numb  r  of  units  of 
the  lower  clennniiiiBtion  contained  in  one  of  ilie  next  higher;  the  quotient  is 
in  the  liifclier  denoininai  Ion,  and  the  remainder,  if  any,  in  the  lower. 

1.7  iDches  to  higher  deuoiiiination. 

127 -1-  12  =  10  feet  +  7  inches;    10  feet  -<-  3  =  3  yard«  +  1  foot. 

Ans.  3  yds.  1  ft.  7  in. 

To  express  the  result  in  decimals  of  the  higher  denomination,  divide  the 
Iriren  number  by  l  lie  number  of  units  of  the  given  denomination  contained 
ionneof  the  requireil  denomination,  carrying  the  result  to  as  many  places 
of  decimals  as  may  be  desired. 

12r  iuches  to  yards:    127  -+•  36  =  8J!|  =  8  5:i7r  +  yards. 

RATIO   AND  PROPORTION. 

Batio  is  the  relation  of  one  number  to  another,  as  obtained  by  dividing 
,    one  by  the  other. 

Ratio  of  2  to  4,  or  2  :  4  =  9/t  =  1/2. 
Ratio  of  4  to  2,  or  4  :  2  =  2. 

Proportion  is  the  equality  of  two  ration.  Ratio  of  2  to  4  equals  ratio 
Ola  I"  ti.  ;;/4  =  'i/6:  expressed  thus,  2  :  4  :  :  3  :  6;  read.  2  is  to  4  as  .1  Is  to  6. 

TliB  first  and  fourth  terms  are  called  the  exti'emes  or  outer  terms,  tlie 
wcuid  and  third  the  means  or  inner  terms. 

The  product  of  the  means  equals  the  product  of  the  extremes: 

2  :  4  :  :  3  :  6;    2  X  0  =  13;    8  x  4  =  12. 

Hence,  given  tlie  first  three  terms  to  find  the  fourth,  multiply  the  second 
Uidtbiid  terms  tog;ether  and  divide  by  the  first. 

4x3 
g  :  4  :  :  8 :  what  numbi-r  f    Ads.     — ^—  =  ft. 


t+c 


ABITHMBTIC. 


* 

S 
"3 

§ 

a 


«H 


Wo 


OtK 


-S 


g     to     fc     o 

8  i  i  § 


-*» 


s  e 


Hs 


• 

a 
e 

z 
2 

h 

e 


Hs 


S    -    g    S    3    S    2 
S    S    *    «    g    «    » 


I-        Ct       <-        *t       CD       CO       GO       ^" 


^        t-        00 


o     7*     Oft     *n 
5     g     .-     So 


s  p  s 

i    S»    S 


eQ     ^     o     t« 


o    s    !i    ¥5 
S    o    S    S 


-|!:i*»«^iHP««?i-*«."3^»*« 


COMPOUND   NUMBS: 


rtnikl  point  In  tbe  numerator,  and  radiiou  the  rraction  thus  formed  totlai 
■est  letmB: 


100 


S383       1 

.3333  =  ---   =  '.  nearly. 


torn] 


r>  reduce  m  rccnrrlue  derlmal  to  •  common  nracUo^ 

<•'  'iial  iiKtiie- liiui  ii<->ii'>>   luciir  tium  li»-  Min'it-  uccum 

'    I t-cdniiit:  Humes;  st-i  J>'W  ii  ilie  i-uiiuiiiiilri  as  ilie  iiuiiier- 
iit,  ziml  :ia  iiiiiiiy  iiittHs  us  there  ace  recui'i-ui|;  fl^iires.  ful- 

.>  ciphers  un  tliere  uie  uoii  recui  liiig  fl^iirea,  iu  lh«  ile 

Jiuth: 

.7W54034,  (be  recurring  n^irea  being  054. 
Dhlmct  TU 


(reduced  lo  its  lowest  terms) 


Idl^i^ 


COnPOUND  OB   DENOiHINATB   NCMBEBS. 

Inetlon  denccndiuts.-'ro  i-ei:liii;e  a  compound  nuiiiberloa  lower 
i.-umn      .'»iiui|ii.\  Mil- iiiiiiiber  li>'as  nmiiy  iinltsof  the  lowur  deuq 
Im  Miakrs  uue  ci(  I  lie  liigher. 


8  rarxis  t'^  iiiuhes:    3  X  90  =  106  iucbes. 
.01  (i^uare  feet  to  square  iuches;     ,(M  X  Hi  ^ 


5.T6  sq.  ID. 


I  eiven  ounnl)er  is  in  mori'  Ihun  niie  denomination  proceed  in 
I  tlta  kiKheyt  ileiiutiiinulion  lo  ilie  next  Inner,  and  xn  on  to  the  lo^ 
■Minn  In  the  units  of  eiicii  ilenuminnlloii  a>i  ilie  oper  lion  piooeedii. 

1).!.,  I  ft.  Tin.  loiiiilies:  3  :<  3  =  9,  +  1  =10,  10 X  U'  =  12U.  +7=  ISTiaT 

darllon  •oreudliiB.— To  expretw  n  niin)t>er  of  a  lower  denomi- 
•■r  II  iriifiiei'.  iilviite  UiH  iinmlier  liv  ttie  nunih  r  nt  units  of 
iiilliiii  i.-(iii[aini>d  in  one  i<f  ilie  next  higher;  tlie  quotient  is 
Milnalion,  and  the  reiuiiiiuler,  if  any,  iii  the  lower. 
Ill  lui^her  denaniinHlion. 


f 


ir  -t-  fi  =  10  feel  +  7  ineiie*;    10  feet  -i-  3 


3}ard«+  1  foot. 
Aim.  S  ;iU.  1  ft.  7  in. 


Tdnpresa  the  result  in  decimnU  of  the  higher  ilenoininaiion.  divide  the 
iliunitier  hy  Die  uuniV^i'  of  unitx  nf  tbe  given  deuomliiulion  eoiitaliied 
Inf  ihe  nM|iilre<l  ilenominalion,  carrying  the  result  to  as  many  plftoea 
^lalii  as  riiiiy  be  desired. 

la;  ioeliefc  to  yardx:     liT  -t-  30  =  SJS  =8  S-iT?  +  yards.  ^^ 

RATIO    AND   PROPORTION,  ^| 

>  la  Uie  relation  of  uue  uuuiher  t  j  aaother,  08  obtained  by  dividtng 
flhf  other. 

Ralioofdto  4,  or2  :  't=:9/'l  =  t/j.  ^H 

Ratio  of  4  lo  K.  or  4  :  2  =  3.  ^H 

Ionian  li  Ilie  eqiiiiljiy  of  two  ra'.IOA.  Ralln  of  3  lo  4  equala  mtlo 
S..  i  I  -  !t,  11.  expremted  IIhik.  •,'  :  4  ;  :  8  :  0;  read.  S  Iti  to  4  as  4  Ih  to  t!. 
J|t«  mill  fiiiii'tli  leriiis  are  calleil  the  exlreuiea  or  outer  terms,  the 
laitil  tiili'<l  (he  meaiiH  or  inni^r  terms. 

tluci  at  lUv  ineniiK  cquiiU  ihe  product  of  the  extremes; 

a  :  4  :  :  3:  8;    S  X  fl  =  12:    8  x  4  =  IS. 

'  Itlren  Ilie  first-  three  terms  to  nrnl  the  fourth,  muAli^ly  «,bA< 
I  lo({*!ther  and  divide  1>S  VXw  f\v%\.. 


i  ■   t  :  :  S  :   wliul  miiii\«i'l      .\n*. 


*>,  % 


8 


ARITHMETIC. 


(tiriding  rbe  index  of  (be  power  by  the  iiiilrx  of  the  root,  Indii-aiiDg  It 
dirihioD  by  a  fraction.    Tims,  eztrjwt  the  sqUBtv  moc  of  the  6tb  iiower  ot\ 

si. 


IS. 


:S«  =  8' 


The  6th  jjower  of  2,  a»  iti  llie  table  above,  is  Ct ;  4/G4  a  8. 

DIfflciilt  pmhlerns  in  evoluti-jn   are  perfoi-niccl  by  logarlihniB.  Tjot  4| 
Fqiiare  root  and  the  cube  r'lot  iiiny  be  exii-a<!ied  iMrnctly  ncconliii)f  to  f 
riileii  glv»?n  Iwluw.    The  4th  root  Is  the  !«|iiiire  root  of  the  M|U«iv  nvit. 
Bth  t'lut  is  the  cube  twit  of  the  K)imiv  i-ool,  or  the  square  root  of  llie 
root  ;  the  flib  font  in  the  cube  i'<n,i  nf  tli.'  fiilrt'  rixft  :  vlC- 

To  Extract   the  Square  Kool.  — r<itut  <'S  the  eiveu  Dumber  IdJ| 
peiiiiils  of  Hio  riluees  eiicli,  bi-Kinnii  k  "hh  iiiiils.     If  tiiere  ore   declma' 
P'liDi   iheAe  off  littewise.  becint'liiK  it  the  deeiiiiiil   jxiiiit,  ami  &U|ipr 
as  many  ctpKers  as   may  be   iie;<de(l      Kind   the  Kreatest  number  wl 
gqunre  ig  lens  thnii    iho  first   Ifft-biiiid    perioil,   nmi   place  it   a*   the  flU 
flRun'  In   the  quotient.      Subtrnct  Its  .•■qiiBic   from   the  Jt-fthond  perio 
and   Po  the  remalniler  annex  the   two  neures  t"f  the  pecon't   period 
a  dividend.    Doiilile  the   IliHt  fl);iire  of  ih<>  quotient   fur  a  part Iji I  divli 
Bud    how   many  tlmri;    the  latter   Ik   conialiieil   in    the  riltidecd   exclusl^ 
of  tlie  right-liKnd  fli;ure.  ami  sft  the  f!>ri)ie  rei're.«enting  that   number  1 
times  as  the  ftei'nnd  ni;iire  In  the  qiiniieut.  and  annex  it  to  ilip  riKht  ( 
the  partial  dirfsor,  fonulng-  the  complete  divlHoc.    Multiply  thlp  divisor  I 
the  Heeond  flpiire  in  tbp  quotient  Hnd  Bubtract  the  t-vodnct  from  the  dli 
dead.    To  the  ■enioinrler  brliip  down  the  next  period  and  proceeil  Of  befoH 
in  eaeb  case     "iriiline  ilie  flkfiireK  in  the  rnot  nbeadr  fennd  10  t  bialn  ijj 
trial  dlTl^-r.    Si.ould  the  pm.liiet  •  f  thi-  Recnnd  fljciiie  in  tiie  niiK  by 
complnted  dlviKiir  be  (fieiiiiT  thniv  the  dividend,  erase  the  second  fl;  lire  I 
from  the  quotient  nnd   fiom  ibe  divisor,  and  Mih^iitnte  the  next  umalM 
fleiire,  or  one  biiiaII  eniinftb  to  make  the  product  uf  Ihe  second  figure  by  I" 
dlvi.tor  le!<.s  than  or  equal  to  tliedfviileiid. 


8.li|1582e636|l.77M5+ 


sriKu 
I180 

M7|«S15 

864-,>8(H)3 
|7084 
8M44iei.'«5 

14i:t« 


To  extract  the  square  root  of  a  fraction,  extract  the  root  of  numeraU 
and  denomioator  separatelj,    a/-  =  =•  or  first  convert  the  fraction  intoj 

'  =   4/'.4444  +  =  SCM  +  • 


decimal, i/  - 

To  Kxtract  the  Ca1>e  B©ot.— Point  off  the  number  into  1 

2  IlKuiweoch.  bepinnln);  at  the  riiiht.  hand,  or  unit's  |>lac(4.    Point  off  I 

mats  ill  jierlods  of  ;i  flRures  from  Ihe  rleclnial  point.    Fmd  the  greatest  Cl3 

that  ilticsnoi  exceed  the  left-iiaitd  perioti ;  write  its  rtxit  as  the  first  flpd 

In  Ihe  requlreil  root     Subtract  the  cube  from  Uie  lefi-liand  period,  and! 

the  remBinder  brlnt;  down  tlie  next  period  for  a  divMetid.  J 

Square  the  flrpt  tlprure  of  the  root ;  multlplT  bv  300.  and  divide  the  pmdd 

/nro  //If  tlli-iilfiid  for  a  trial  divisor :  write  lue  qucAVetit ^Hat  the  Btst  T 

of  file  root  an  a  trini  necnd  flRtire. 

a->mplett'  tbe  dlvianr  bv  adding:  tr.  *(y  limes  th?  square  ot  tVe?kvA  ft«. 
"fnie-v  thr-  produci  cf  th"  firf=l  l>\  tlie  second  Rgwre,  and  VV\e  «\«a.ve  «< 
tZ".,"f "''*'■     ^iiltlplr   ilii>    divi-or   by  the  wo-toA  ftKUiev  ^\J.V^Vf».<i 

^"inaoi,  tJis  i^t  aeurf  or  ihe  root  and  li.e  comp\eve  dV^Vsov  «>•'=«' 


CUBB  BOOT. 


te  for  the  lost  figure  the  next  Buialler  uumber,  and  correct  the  trial 

iccordiDKlyO 

)  remainder  bring  down  the  next  period,  and  proceed  ag  before  to 

third  figure  of  the  root — lliat  is,  square  tiie  two  figures  of  tliu  root 

found;  multiply  by  300  for  a  trial  divisor,  etc. 

any  time  the  trial  divisor  is  less  than  tlie  dividend,  bring  down  an- 

iriod  of  3  figures,  and  place  0  in  tlie  root  and  proceed. 

!Ube  root  of  a  number  will  contain  as  many  figures  as  there  are 

of  3  in  the  number. 

ter  netbods  ot  Extraetlngr  tbe  Cnbe  Boot.— 1.  From 

>rth's  Algebra: 


aOx  1  x3  = 


800 
60 

J  364 


1,881 ,86S,963,«aS|lS346 

1 

881 


788 


1   « 

aoox 

I«» 

— 

48«X) 

80x 

12  X 

8 

^ 

10* 

8» 

9 

44-J8» 
10«9 

103365 


18-3887 


S!0IS896S 


800  X  133*        =   4530700 
80  X  123  X  4  =       UT60!. 
4»=  J« 


4533176 
14776 
aOO  X  1234>         =  4568-.>t»J0U 
30  X  1334  X  S   =       185100 

5"  = 25 

457011925 


18218904 


2286059625 


2285059625 


•  tlie  first  two  figures  of  the  root  are  found  the  next  trial  divisor  is 
jy  brineing  down  the  sum  of  the  60  and  4  obtained  in  cotupletiug  the 
ing divisor,  theu  adding  the  tliree  lines  counected  by  tlie  lirace,  and 
ng  two  ciphers.  This  method  shoi-tens  the  woi  k  in  lone  examples,  as 
In  the  case  ot  tlie  last  two  trial  divisors,  saving  the  labor  of  squaring 
i  1234.  A  further  shortening  of  the  work  is  made  by  obtaining  the 
0  figures  of  the  root  by  division,  the  divisor  employed  being  tliree 
.be  square  of  the  part  of  the  root  already  found;  thus,  alter  finding 
t  tliree  figures: 

8  X  183»  =  45387|20498963|45.1  + 

~181548    

231416 
826985 
74«13 

•or  due  to  the  remainder  is  not  sufficient  to  change  the  fifth  figure  of 
(. 

Prof.  H.  A.  Wood  {Steveut  Indicntor,  July,  1890): 
.Ting  separated  the  number  into  periods  of  three  figures  each,  count- 
in  the  riglit,  divide  by  the  square  of  the  neaiest  root  of  the  first 
or  first  two  periods  ;  the  neni  e.it  root  is  ilie  trial  root. 
>  the  quotiec*  ohtaiiied  add  twice  the  trial  root,  and  divide  by  3. 
«w  e/ie  root,  or  /irst  ApproxiniHtion. 

using  the  Bret  approximate  root  as  anew  (rial  root,  and  tiroceed- 
(bre.  a  nearer  approximation  is  nbtiiir}ed  u  liii-h  »i-n.,uci,i  tnnir  V\a 
BtU  Ui»  root bM  tieeu  extructeJ  oi- ih«  «,'..^..fi  iVL*   ?  ^^  vk 

^^  *   uneu,  ot  we  approximation  circled  a» 


10  AHITHMKTIO. 

BxAMPLB.— Required  the  cube  root  of  20.    The  newest  cube 


3»  =  9)20.0 

3.2 
6 

8)8.1 

8.7  iBt  T. 

B. 

«.7»  =  7.89)20.000 

2.743 
5.4 
8)8  143 

8.714,  Istap. 

,  cube  root 

8.714»  •=  7.865796)20.0000000 

8  7152584 
5.428 
8)8.1432534 
2.7144178  2d  ap.  cube  root. 

Remare. — In  the  example  It  will  be  observed  that  the  sec 
first  two  figures  of  the  root,  were  obtaioed  by  usiug  for  trial  ro 
the  first  period.  Usinpr,  in  lilie  manner,  these  two  terms  for 
obtained  four  terms  of  the  root ;  and  these  four  terms  foi'  tr 
seven  figures  of  the  root  correct.  In  that  e.xaraple  the  last  flgi 
7.  Should  we  take  theKe  eight  figures  for  trial  root  we  should  c 
flftpcn  flgui  es  of  I  he  root  correct. 

To  Extract  a  BUgber  Root  tban  tbe  Cube.— The 
the  square  ruoi  of  tiie  square  root;  lb«  sixth  root  is  the  cub 
square  root  or  the  square  root  of  the  cube  root.  Other  roots  i 
veniently  found  by  the  use  of  logarithms. 

ALLICATION 

shows  the  value  of  a  mixture  of  different  ingredients  when 
and  value  of  each  is  known. 

Let  the  ingredients  bu  <(,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  and  their  respective  ve 
w,  X,  y,  z,  etc. 

A  =  the  sum  of  tbe  quantities  =  a-\-b-\-c-{-d,6U 

P  =  mean  value  or  price  per  unit  of  A. 

AP=  aw  -f  hx  +  CIJ  +  dz,  etc. 

_  _  am  +  bx  +  n/  +  dz 

A  ~~" 

PERiniTTATION 

rIiows  tn  how  many  positions  nny  numlier  of  things  may  be  i 
row;  thus,  the  letters  a,  6,  t-  may  be  arranged  in  six  positions, 
ciih.  cba,  bac,  bca. 

Rule.— Multiply  together  all  the  nunil>ers.used  in  counting  the 
permutations  of  1,  •■!,  ami  3—1x2x3  =  6.  In  how  many  pc 
things  in  a  row  be  placed  ? 

1X8X3X4X5X6X7X8X9^  862880. 
COniBINATION 

shows  how  many  arrangements  of  a  few  things  majr  be  mi 
greater  number.  Rule  :  Set  down  that  figure  which  indicate 
number,  and  after  it  a  series  of  flgui-es  diniinisliing  by  I ,  until 
set  down  aa  the  number  of  the  few  things  to  be  taken  in  euch . 
Tbeu  beglniilOR  under  the  last  one  set  down  said  nninl>eroi 
th^  onl—  >~-^4ward  »et  down  a  feries  diminishing  by  1  until  a 
**•  ■"~*'"""»ber8.    Multiply  together  all  the  nppe 

'  *>>•  lower  uombers  Vo  twrm  »xkavv« 
■MM. 


GEOMETIUCAL   I'KOGKESSION. 

Hov  many  combinations  of  9  things  can  be  made,  taking  3  in  ea 
Wottioof 

9  X8  X  V  _  ?»i  _  84 
1X2X3        6    ~ 

ABTTHRIETTCAIi  FB06B9SSSI0N, 

ia  t  aeries  of  nuinliers,  is  a  progressive  increase  or  decrease  in  each 
dre  number  by  the a<l<lition  or  subtrauliou  ot  the  stinie  amount  atea 
u  I.  2,  S,  4,  5,  etc.,  or  15,  la,  9,  6,  etc.  The  numbers  are  called  terms, 
eqoil  increase  or  decrease  ihe  difference.  Examples  in  arithineti 
gnasiun  may  be  solved  by  the  following  formulae  : 

Let  a  =  first  term,  I  =  last  term,  d  =  common  difference,  n  =  nui 
tams, «  =  sum  of  the  t«rms: 


l  =  a+(.n-l)d. 

=  -ld±^'-2d«  +  L-l 

~  »i  +        3 

»  =  jii[aa  +  (n-l)dl. 

~      2     +      3ci     ' 

=  «  +  «)*, 

=  ^n[i<-(u-l)d]. 

a  =  J-(»-l)d, 

»       (u  -  l)d 

^^dVO+l'*)'-^^'. 

-^'• 

l-o 

•Z{a  -  an) 
-  tt(n  -  D' 

P-a* 
-it -I -a' 

3f»J  -  ») 
-  Ht»  -  1)' 

d-3u±|/(an  -  d)»  +  8< 

St 

a  +  rf±4/(ai  +  rfi''  -sdi 

-l+a- 

M 

eEOniBTBICAIi  PBO&RES8ION, 

iiawries  of  numbern,  is  a  progressive  increase  or  decrease  in  o 

mrire  Duml>er  by  the  same  multiplier  or  divisor  at  each  step,  as 

Hece.,  or  349,  81,  27,  9,  etc.    The  common  multiplier  is  called  the  ri 

IiPt  »  =  first  terra,  I  =  last  term,  r  =  ratio  or  constant  nmltipli 

of  terms,  ti(  =  &ny  term,  as  1st,  Sd,  etc.,  s  =  sum  of  the  tern 

^  o  +(r-l)».  ^  (r  -  Din-"  -  1 

r  r"  -  1 


laW«->. 


lo|J  =  loga  +  (n-l)logr,  /{*-«)"-'-  a(»  -  a)" 

■  ■  oi"  ~  *■  log  m  =  log  a  +  (ill  -  1)  log  r. 


12 


ABIXBMBTIC. 


I 

rfi-l' 


r^^^l 


(r  -  1)« 
'  r"  -  1 
s  —  a 


logo  =  log  {-(a-  Dbc 
log  1  -  log 


J=0. 


lo(?r=- 


'--.4-,'--'+rh 


log  i  —  log  a 


+  1. 


logr 
log  I  —  log  a 


log  (s  -  a)  -  log  (»  -  0 


^  +  l. 


log  [g  +  (r  -  1)«]  -  log  o 

logr 
log  j  -  log  \lf  -  (r  -  1)«] 

log  I- 


+  1 


Popniatlon  of  tbe  United  State*. 

(A  problem  in  geometrical  progression^ 


Tncrrase  In  10    Annual  Incre 


Year. 

Population, 

Years,  per  cent. 

percei 

1H60 

81,4<8.841 

1S70 

89.818.449* 

SG.CS 

ssa 

18H0 

50.155,783 

35.90 

2.88 

IKH) 

68,6*!,350 

24.86 

225 

TSfl3 

Est.  69,7.3:1.000 

Etit.  2.174 

ISKX) 

"    77,658,000 

Est.  24.0 

"    2  174 

EstimiUd  Population  in  Each  Tear  from  I860  to  1899. 
(Based  on  tlie  above  rates  of  increase,  in  even  thousands ) 


1880... 

31.443 

1870... 

89.818 

1880.... 

60.1S8 

1  «8»0  ... 

« 

IKOl   .. 

!     3',  1 95 

1871.... 

40.748    i 

1881... 

S1.8K1 

I8SI.... 

V 

]S6'J  .. 

3-.>,964 

1872.... 

41,699    1 

1882  ... 

52.433 

1   1892... 

«! 

18(«... 

3:^.7.^2 

1873.  .. 

42.678    r 

1888... 

53,610 

1898  .  . 

« 

1801... 

.      34,558 

1874  .. 

48.670    \ 

1884  ... 

54,8lS 

1894.   .. 

61 

]«!5  .. 

K,,9H 

1875.... 

44.690    ; 

18S6.... 

56.048 

1   1896.... 

61 

l«<i<i  .. 

36.-.a9 

1876... 

45.378    1 

1886  ... 

67,901 

i   1896  ... 

:i 

iwir  .. 

37.095 

1877    . 

46.800 

1887.... 

.Vl..'>88 

;    1B97.... 

n 

l.-'dS  .. 

37.981 

1878  ... 

47,893 

1888.... 

69.903 

{   1896  ... 

7' 

1869     . 

38,889 

1879  ... 

49,011 

1889  ... 

61,247 

1899.... 

7! 

The  aliove  table  hag  been  calculated  by  logarithms,  as  rolloirg : 

log  r  =  log  I  -  log  o  -♦-  (h  -  1),  log  111  =  log  a  +  (")  —  1)  log  I 

Pop.  1870  . .  89,818449  log  =  7.C00084I  =  log  t 

'•     1860. . .  .81,443821  log  =  7.4975288  =  log  a 

diff.  =    .1025.'»S 
n  =  11, 11  -  1  =  10,  difl.  -H  10  =    .OlO«>!i.Vt  =z  log  r, 

add  log  tor  1860      7.49752«(  =  log  a 

log  for  1861  =  7.ri077R4.3:i  No.  =  82.195  .  .  . 
add  again        .0I02S.V>3 

log  for  1863      7.5180398B  No.  =  S-J.901 .  .  . 

C'omponnd  Interest  is  a  form  of  geometrical  progi-cj^ion;  the  i 
lielng  1  plus  the  pcreeuMge. 


"Hl.WH,  psttmated  *rror  ot  ftie  c«t»aa«A 

iWi. 


OISCOUKT. 


IXTEaBST  AND  DISCOUNT. 

il«re«l  U  itiouej  paid  for  the  use  of  monp}-  tnr  a  given  time;  tlie  fac 

)).  llir  situi  luaned,  or  the  princlral: 
t,  the  time  m  veait«; 
r,  tile  n«U!  of  interesl ; 

i",  the  amount  nf  iiiierest  tor  Ihe  jciven  rate  Riid  rime; 
o  =  p-t- 1  =  tlif  smoiini  of  the  priiicipiil  «iih  imeiest 
»t  the  end  of  the  lime. 

I  =  interest  =  principal  X  lime  X  rate  per  cent  =  i  =  ^i-; 

100' 

It  =  rale  =  — -r- ; 
P' 
.      ,      ,       1«V  ptr 

Wp  =  principal  =  -^  =a-  t^^; 


!  amount  =^  principal  -)-  interest  =  p  - 


I, 


100' 


|(  =  time  = 


lOOi 


I  Is  expivtssed  deciuially  as  a  per  cent,— thus,  6  per  cent  =  .06,— 
iIk  become  ...  M 

!;».•/;  „  =  ,K.+.0:      r  =  ±;      /=^.;      p=l  =  j-|_^.         f 

■Ifw   n>r  anding   Inter««t.— Mulliply  the  pi-inoipal  liy  ttie  rale 

tiuiiui  iilvided  iiy  luu,  and  by  tlie  lime  in  years  nuil  fructlons  uf  ii  year. 

II...  •!_    II        1    J         J  .        .      prlnolnol  x  rale  x  no.  of  rlnvs 
tlie  llmo  Is  rIvcii  in  days,  iaterest  = J —   .^    --^ ^-. 

Uiiti,  Iiiini-s!  ii  vninetimes  calculated  on  tlie  l)asl»  irf  30O  dayBto ; 
lys  eaoh. 

I :  e  ]jer  cent,  n-lien  3G0  days  are  tali^n  a»  1  yea^^J 
\  number  of  days  II nd  divide  by  6000. 
Uli^lj  lliL  piuicipiil  by  nuinber  of  inmiihs  and  divide  by  30O. 
»  latrrt-at  of  |  rtnllar  for  one  month  is  J<  cent. 

1  or  ion  Oollara  Tor  Dlll'erent  Tlmea  and  Bates," 


f 


ti 
$j.oo 
.111] 

»  T  ,1,  rt.iir  .OaViS 
ill-  .005 trB 


8* 

-l;i 

M 

«i 

8* 

IIU 

$3.00 

fl.Ol) 

$A.liO 

JClHI 

$8.00 

Siooi 

.S5 

■m 

,411 

.."id 

m 

.» 

.0iTN.il 
.OOSJrt 

Ollij 

.nisKj 

Olli'ij 

.n>w} 

.OiTTI 

.oiouaa 

.013B>J« 

.Ul'4:«a 

.tyiairs 

.(kiTawi 

,  -  inir^reMt  dediicfwj  for  pavnieiit  of  mom-y  h'-fore  it  triilne. 
<>ant  (8  the  difference  but«»-eu  tlie  a'tuiuut  ot  a  debt  pny- 
■  •  daTf  u'ltliout  interest  and  lis  fire^^i-nt  worth.     The  prewiit 
iiin  wliic-li  put  at  inleri'kl  at  Uie  le^rul  rate  nill  aiuouiil  to  the 

;(  worth  nf  an  amniint  title  »t  f<i<nre  d'lte.  divide  the 
"t  iif  81  plaoi'd  at  Interest  for  Ihe  given  time.  The  dis- 
lunt  uiiiMi.M  the  present  worth. 

<iUI  lie  ailowtxl  on  V10:i  |iaid  »lx  miuttliB  befoiv  it  is  du 
•  nt  per  aniinin  » 


^4-  !  y  .0«  X 


=  $100  present  ttortli,  discount  =  8.00. 


[<ll*coMH(  \*  Ihe  ani'Miill  deducted  by  a  hnnlc  as  interest  on 
Uinl  111!  iitMiidKriiiry  liii|e>f.     it  Is  liilere»t  ralciilaled  not  on  the  art- 
tiiit  on  Ihe  KioH,i  iiiiionnt  of  Ihe  note,  {vrt\v\"«Vv\v\\  VW  •.Vv*.- 
,  J  In  advance      U  i>*  tt\<o  i:rtAs;viVAVv.»A  ^>xi  xXx* VvsXv^  ^^*v '>**^  vV-arv.v 
Mora  (ill  wjiue  liiiliki>4)  divvs  mnte  V\w«  vVt  ^\\^^v  >.v*>;'^'^^^ 
are  valleil  dayn  of  giace,  unv\ VUc  v^ve \%  ■o.ov  v^SJ 
i;t*«maj^8.     Jo  stiiue  States  da.?*  v>t  «>«««  >m».'«o>»8!«»  t 


ARITHMETIC. 


What  discount  will  be  deducted  by  a  Imnk  Id  dincountiue  a 
payable  6  months  hence  r    Six  months  =  182  days,  add  8  day 
,108  X  185 


days' 


tiiiOO 


=  $3,176. 


Componnd  Interest.— In  compound  Interest  the  Intern 
the  piiiifi;)al  ut  llie  enil  of  eiich  year,  (or  shorter  period  if  Bfrret 

I>etp  =  ilie  principal,  r  =  the  rate  expressed  decimally,  n  = 
and  a  the  amount : 


a  =  amount  =  p  (1  +  r)" ;  r  =  rate 


-^i-. 


.     .     ,  a  ,  loK  o  —  lo, 

p  =  prmcipal,  =  j^—^.  no  of  years  =  «,  =  -^^^j^:^r, 

rompound  Interest  Table. 

(.Value  of  one  dollar  at  i-onipound  Interest,  compounded  yeai'l] 
8,  i,  5,  and  C  per  cent,  from  1  to  SO  years.) 


t: 

1 

i% 

** 

1 

1.0:J 

1.04 

o 

l.OBOfl 

1.(K16 

8 

1.0HJ7 

I.ISJO 

4 

i.ir* 

1.16!)9 

S 

1.1.193 

l.-.'liMi 

6 

1.1041 

l.aKiS 

7 

l.-tW 

1..S1S9 

H 

l.-JliOS 

I.308B 

!) 

i.aoiH 

1.4-.>:« 

10 

1.8)39 

1.4803 

11 

1.:^8)3 

i..5;«i 

la 

l.'I'.W 

1.6UI0 

Vi 

i.)»;s,'j 

LCffil 

14 

1..->1-,'(J 

1.7317 

l,') 

1..W.S0 

1.800U 

oi 


6% 


1.05 
1.1025 

i.i.we 

1.TJI5B 
1.3703 


1.3101  l.41K> 

!  1.4071  i.rmii 

;  1.4774  !  1..'.9:M 

I  1.1)513  1  1.6S95 

;  1.0-iS9  1.790H 


1.06 

1.1836 

l.lftlO 

1.a635 

1.3:%i 


1.7iai 
1.79r)8 
1  HSJiO 
l.»7>.t9 

•i.o:m 


1.8983 
2.0123 
a  1.J29 
2.2609 
2..3965 


23 
24 
26 

.30 

3r> 

40 
45 
60 


*f 


16047 
1.6528 
1.7021 
1  7.58.5 
1.8081 

1.8003 
1.9161 
1.9786 
2.0828 
S.0937 


*« 


18730 
1.94;U 
2.0258 
2.1068 
<.1911 

a.2787 
2.3C99 
8  4647 
2.5038 
8.6058 


S.4378  3.2434 

'i.l>^!»  3.0160 

8.2U20  4.8009 

3.7815  5.8410 

4.3838  T.10C4 


Bf 


2.1829 
8.2920 
2.4Ui» 
2.')269 
2.6538 

S.78G« 
2  926« 
8.071S 
3.82SI 
3.8864 

4.8SIS 
S..M66 
7  0100 

8.9N50 
I1.67BS 


W  ciinipoiind  interest  at  3  per  cent  money  will  double  itself  in  83^  } 
lit  4  |)er  cent  lu  17?<i  yeuiu,  at  8  per  cent  in  11.2  years,  and  at  0  per  c« 
1 1.9  years. 


ElirATION   OF   PAYHIKNTS. 

H.v  equation  of  payments  we  And  the  iHiuivaleiit  or  nveroRi'  time  in  ( 
!••  payment  slioiilil  be  made  ti>  cancel  a  nnmlier  uf  obli^'Htioiis  due  I 
ffiii  dates:  alHO  the  number  <>f  days  upon  wliich  to  calculiite  Inter 
<eoinit  upon  a  frross  sum  which  is  comiosetl  of  several  smaller  sumi 
I"  ."t  (iilTfrcnt  dates. 

Inlo.— Multiply  each  item  by  the  time  of  its  maturity  in  days  fr 
■il  date,  rukcn  as  a  staiiilard.  anil  divide  the  sum  of  the  products  t 
1  of  the  items:  the  result  is  the  average  time  in  daj  s  from  the  8(01 

owes  K  $liW  dne  in  .30  days.  $<00  due  in  CO  days,  and  $300  due  Id  80 
.>w  many  days  may  the  whole  lie  paiil  in  one  siuu  of  $600  • 

100  X  .30  +  2t»  X  60  -f  300  x  00  =  42.000 :    45.00.)  -HJOO  =  70  days,  (iii« 

wea  B  $100,  $200.  Mn<l  $.1*X).  whieli  amnunts  are  overdue  res|iectlTf 
d  SO  ••-  — w  pays  the  whole  anwvmt.  t«t»,\\o'*  inwai 

tt  hat  mm!   iiiit.  Today*. 


Avirnmn. 


IS 


ipate  tnteKst  on  noUsa  and  bonda  wten  partial  pmjmtatM  Iwm  been 

it.  State*  B«Ie.-Find  Uie  amomit  of  Uw  prinoipal  to  tlie  Ume 
M  pajriuent,  and,  oabtractlDK  ibe  p^ment  from  it.  ffiid  the  amoaDt 
niainaer  aa  a  aew  principal  to  the  time  of  the  next  pejnent. 
payim-nt  ia  leaa  than  the  Intereat,  Hitd  the  amimnt  oftlie  prinoipal 
lie  wlien  the  sum  of  the  pafmenle  equals  or  pzoreds  the  Intereat 
subtract  the  sum  of  tbe  pttjrmenta  from  this  amoimt. 
d  in  tUa  imnntsr  till  the  time  of  settlement. 
—The  priBCiidea  upon  which  the  preoedinir  nde  i»  f oonded  are : 
lat  pajments  most  be  applied  Unt  to  dlaotuuve  aoomed  intemt, 
the  remainder,  if  any.  toward  tbe  dlsohame  oi  the  principal. 
Kt  onlj  unpaid  principal  can  draw  intereet. 

aatlle  He«lio4«— When  partial  pc^ments  are  made  on  short 
iDtMvst  aoooaiita,  boiiiDaes  men  eommoaly  employ  the  followiiiK 

he  amooBt  of  tbe  whole  debt  to  the  time  of  settlempnt :  also  Uml 
int  of  each  pqrment  from  the  time  it  waa-  made  to  the  lime  of  aet- 
Bnbtnuit  the  amount  of  payments  from  the  amount  of  the  debt; 
linder  will  be  the  balaoee  due. 

ANNirrriBS. 

ia«ttyis  a  fixed  sum  of  money  paid  yeariy,  or  at  other  eqiial  timeii 
ipno.  Tlie  values  of  annuities  are  calculated  by  the  prindplea  of 
id  interest. 

i  denote  Interest  on  S>  for  a  year,  then  at  the  end  of  a  year  the 
«iUbel  +  i.    At  the  end  of  n  years  it  will  be  (1  +  0*. 

asm  whidi  in  n  years  win  amoiint  to  1  is  ■  .  „_  or  (I +i)"  ".  or  tbe 

(1  +  /)" 
nOne  of  1  doe  In  n  years. 

amount  of  an  annuity  of  1  In  any  numlM-r  of  years  n  is 

preseot  value  of  au  annuity  of  1  for  any  number  of  years  u  Ih 
i|-» 

annuity  which  1  will  purchase  for  any  numbf r  of  yeani  ii  is 


a+«)"-i 


annuity  which  wnuld  amount  to  1  in  >i  yearK  iti 
BonntH,   Preaent    Tallica,  etc 


(i+«"-i 
at   6%   Intereat. 

(6) 


(I; 

(4) 

(») 

(4) 

(6) 

(i  +  i)» 

(1 +  '■>-» 

(1  +  /)"  -  1 
i 

1-0 +  <•)-» 

.• 

t 

i-(l+0-" 

1.05 

1.1035 

I.15;625 

1.815608 

1.27e«8« 

.9581)81 
.907089 
.863838 
.8-mOsi 
.788686 

1. 

2.05 

8.1636 

4.810185 

5.68S031 

.969.381 
1.859410 
2.728-M8 
8.&46»51 
4.829477 

1.05 
.587805 
.8C7409 
.282012 
.880976 

1.S400IM 

.4TT48S  1 

vems/. 

.74891S 

.nossi  / 

.KW80 
944809      1 
918913      J. 

e.mwa 

8.l4iom    / 
B.S4BI09 

i.a!&ie4 

i.STTSSS    / 

s.OTsea-i 
s.Tfiesrs 

6.4nS2U 

r.ioTH-ii 

!".Wi785 

.197017 

.I547W 
.140000 
.180606 

(1  +  0"  -  1 


1. 

.487806 
.817209 
.282018 
.180975 


16 


ABITUMETIC. 


c 

Si 

1 

1 

s 

s 

1 

« 

485.48 
314.10 
22H  60 
1T7.S9 
143.36 

119.18 
101.08 
87,03 
75.87 
60,79 

sssss 

• 

1 

SSS5S5 

iim 

sssyg 

sssss 

SiiS98 

•9  oi  «.«'<* 

s 

gssee 

•a— eo»^ 

2 

4N  O  6a  00  C- 

ts9te>i>« 

a 

^ 

ssssse 

S2S8S 

ssfeas 

sssss 

SS3SS 

1 

lli^s 

ssssss: 

S8Z9!S 

9SSS^ 

t;»ox<e 

a 

^ 

ESSffiS 

^ 

?;ss?!s 

s;§3;s;8 

$S!;ss 

3SSS& 

i58S«8 

I 

iiaSi 

8SSSS 

SSSiss; 

3$isSS 

sss*"- 

1 

s 

2? 

ge2?is 

s&?s$ 

5;sses 

st^ssss 

scsss 

'iUm 

|=feSI: 

SSioSS 

3?ig8S 

8SSS" 

M 

J 

^ 

ei 

?;ssss 

gS!?SS 

ftSSUg 

SSi^SS 

Si«S2S 

iiilS 

£2sse 

t-SSZS 

«9fSfi 

5t:S=" 

s 

B 

d 

sssss 

OS  I-  se  »c  .- 

SSSf:S 

asssfe 

fsssssi; 

ISSS2 

g2|gS 

giSSSZ 

a^^^^ 

assss 

8SS2S 

S55SI3 

ggses 

5SS3S; 

SSSirS 

1 

i§§i§ 

S£o8» 

f3feSS2 

S»S?ilSS 

S2SSS 

5 

SSSS3 

•vW<e<e     t.'ooa>d;5     gtSSSS    fe^^^'R    %4^'%'5 


WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES. 


17 


TABLES    FOB    CALCULATING    SINKIITCI-FITNOS    AND 
PABSBNT    VALreS. 

GBKioeers  «ai]  others cuonecied  wiili  municipal  work  and  iudutitrial  cDWr- 
prises  ufieu  flud  ii  necessary  to  calculate  payinetits  to  sinkiuK-l^undg  which 
«ill  proridu  a  sum  of  raont-y  sufflcieot  to  pay  nff  a  bond  issue  or  other  dei't 
M  tbe  end  of  a  giren  period,  or  to  deteriuine  the  present  value  of  certHlii 
uiiual  chart;es.  The  accompanying;  tables  were  computed  by  Mr.  John  W  . 
HiU,nf  (Hncinnati,  Eng'g  Aews,  Jan.  25,  1691. 

TaUe  I  (opposite  paf;e;  shows  the  annual  sum  at  various  rates  of  interest 
teqalred  to  net  $100u  in  from  2  to  50  years,  and  Tab'e  n  shows  the  present 
Tuueat  various  rat^s  of  interest  <>r  an  annual  cbai'Ke  of  $1000  for  from  5  l» 
SOjreani.  at  five-year  intervals  and  for  lOU  yeai-s. 

Table  II.— Capitalization  of  Annnlty  ofSIOOO  for 
from  5  to  100  Years. 


Rate  of  Interest,  per  cent. 


si  4,645  88 
lOi  8,rai.l7 
li  18,881 .41 
iO  l3.S89.et5 

a  IM'^.67 

80  JO.BSO.SB 
l">j*l,14S.31 
40  25,103.5.3 
45h>6,8:».15 
50'«.:162.48 
100,36,614.21 


S^ 


m 


4,579  61);  -1.514. 9-2   4,4.51.68.  4,889.91 
8,630.131  8.818.45.  8.110.74   7,918.67 

11.937.80  n,5lt.23  11,1I8.06'10,739.43 
14,877.87  14,812.13  13,590.21 118,007.88 
17,418.01  16,481.28  15,621. 93' 14,888. 12 

19.600.81  18,891 .85  17,291.86,16,288.77  15,372. 
81,487.04  20,000.4:1  18,664.37  17,460.89  16,374. 
23,114.36  21  ..354. 8:119, 792. 65  18,401.49  1?,1.'.9. 
24,.5]8.49  22.495. a;J  20,719. 89,19,156. 24!  I7.7T3. 
25.729. 58i2:i,455  21  21,482. 08ll9,761  9:ijl8,255. 
31,598.81  27,655.36  24,501.9C|21,949. 21  19,847. 


e» 


4,268.09  4.212.40 
7,587.541  T,8«0.19 
10,037.48;  9.712. .30 
11,950.26111.469  96 
13,413.82|12,788..38 

14.533. 63'i;l.r64. 85 
1.5..390.4«  14.488.65 
16.044.92  15,046.31 
16,517. 65;  15.465. 85 
lli,!Bl.y7'15.761.87 
J8,01t5.8;l  16,612.64 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


Lons  Measure. 

12  inclie.-i 

3  feet 

5t  yards,  or  iCj  feet 
40  poles,  or  220  yards 


-raeannreft  of  Length. 

;-  1  foot. 

=  1  yard. 

=  1  rod,  poll',  or  perch. 
1  fui'lons 


8  furlongs,  or  1760 yard ■•.  or  .5280  feet  =  1  mile. 
8  miles  =  league. 

Additional  measures  of  length  in  occasional  use:  1000  mils  =  I  inch: 
liDches  =  1  hand  ;  9  inches  =  1  span  ;  H  feel  =  1  military  pace  ;  2  yard.<  -- 
1  fatliom. 

Old  Land  Measure.— 7.92  inches  =  1  link;  100  links,  or  66  feet,  or  4 
poltss  1  chain;  10  cliaius  =  1  furhmg;  8  furlongs  =  1  mile;  10  square  chains 
=  1  acre. 

Nautical  Measure. 

W8026  feet,  or  1.15156  stat-  j.  ^  ,  „autical  mile,  or  knot.' 

ute  miles  ) 

^nautical  miles  =  1  league. 

60  uauti.-al  miles,  or  69.168  I  ^  j  degree  (at  the  equator). 

statute  miles  )  **  .   ,  ...... 

3C0  degrees  =  circumference  of  the  earth  at  the  eqv\al.ov. 


I  *T//e  Biit/sb  Admiralty  takfS  tbe  round  figure  of  6080  ft.  wAiicb  \s  t\\e 
'  /merbofiJie  - mi'ssured  mile  "  used  in  irialu  of  ves-sels  Tile  value  \a,v\e' 
^P^^rtf^'^diffttTrSr^y'^^'''^'^''''''''^  Miensures  of  theeavtV*^ 


h 


18  ABITHMBTIO. 

Sq.uare  measure.— measure*  of  Snrfhce. 

114  square  incites,  or  183.35  circular         I      , „^  -„  ^ 

inches  ^=1  square  fout. 

9  square  feet  =  1  square  yard. 

30J  sijuaie  yards,  or  373}  square  feet         =  1  square  rod,  pole,  or perel 
40  square  poles  =  1  rood. 

4  roods,  or  !0  sq.  chains,  or  ISO  sq. 
poles,  or  4810  sq.  yards,  or  435b0 
sq.  feet, 
6J0  acres  '  =  1  square  mile. 

All  acre  equals  a  square  whose  side  is  208.71  feet. 

\  circular  inch  iff  the  area  of  a  circle  1  inch  in  diameter  =  0.7854  (qn 
inch. 

1  square  inch  =  t.2732  circular  inches. 

A  circular  mil  is  the  area  of  a  circle  1  mil,  or  .001  Inch  in  diamri 
1000'  or  l.CWO.OOO  circular  mils  =  1  cii-cular  inch. 

I  square  inch  =  1,373,239  circular  mils. 

TliK  mil,  and  circular  mil  are  used  in  electrical  calculations  iuToU 
I  lie  dianipter  and  area  of  wires. 

Solid  or  Cubic  measure.— measures  of  Volume. 

1788  cul)ic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot. 
87  cubic  feet      =  1  cubic  yard. 
1  cord  of  wood  =  a  pile,  4X4x8  feet  =  IsSt  cubic  feet. 
1  perch  of  masonry  =  I6J  x  W  X  I  foot  =  34i  cubic  feet 

lilqnld  measure. 

4  gills  =  1  pint. 

3  pints  =  1  quart. 

^  'I""'"*  -  '  ^^'"'"  I  Kng.  877.374  cubic  (nches. 

31 J  iralloiis  =  1  barrel. 

4-2  Kail mus  =  1  lierce. 

~'  barrels,  or  63  gallous        =  1  hogshead, 
84  callous,  or  3  tierces  =  1  piniclieon. 

3  hdgslieads.  or  136  gallons  =  1  pipe  or  butt. 
3  piiM's,  or  3  puncheons        =  1  tun. 
The  U.  8.  gallon  contains  331  cubic  inches;  7.4805  gallons  =  1  cubic  t 
A  cvliniler  7  in.  diam.  and  6  in.  high  contains  1  gallon,  veiy  nearly,  or  i 
cubic  inches.     The  British  Impel  ial  gallon  contains  3i7.874  cubic  ini 
=  1.30033  U.  S.  gallon. 

Tlie  miner's  Incli.-(VVi':<tern  U.  S.  for  measuring  flow  of  astr 
of  water). 

The  term  Miner's  Inch  is  inoi-c  ur  less  indefinite,  for  the  reason  that  ( 
foinic  water  CDinpanies  do  not  all  use  the  same  head  above  the  centr 
the  ii|)ertiire,  and  the  inch  varies  from  1.36  to  l.'S  cubic  feet  per  mil 
eacli;  but  the  most  coinmou  uieasnrement  is  thiotigb  «n  apei-ture  3  ini 
high  and  whatever  length  is  required,  and  through  a  plank  1}  inches  tt 
Th.'  lower  edge  of  the  aperture  should  i>«  3  inches  above  the  bottom  oi 
nieasnriiic-liox,  and  the  plank  5  inches  high  above  tlie  a|>eriure,  lliiis  r 
ing  a  G-incli  head  above  the  centre  of  the  stream.  ]<^ch  square  inch  of 
opening  represents  a  mini-i  '<  inch,  which  is  equal  to  a  flow  of  H  cubic 
j)er  minute. 

Apothecaries'  Fluid  measure. 
60  minims  =  1  fluid  drachm. 

8  drachms,  or437j  grains,  or  1.733  cubic  inches  =  1  fluid  ouuce. 

Dry  measure,  V.  S. 

3  piiiis     -:  I  rpiart. 
8<|iiHrts  =  1  |>eck. 

4  ]>eoks   =  ]  liiisbel. 

used  only  to  denoiea  rate  of  Hpffil.    The  length  between  knots  on  the 
ilae b jig  ot m  I*'  "'•nrflu.i  ft .  when  a \ta\t-in\iu\v«  b\m&  \»  msmj 

tb»t»tpitidr'  4  tu  10  nauUeal  wUes  p«r)M>\u. 


WEIOHtS  AKb  M^ASTTRBS.  Id 

The  sUndard  U.  S.  bushel  is  the  Wiochi>gter  bushel,  which  is  in  cylinder 
'omi.  18^  iuclies  diameter  and  8  inches  deep,  and  contains  iiiOAi  cubic 

netaes. 

A  siruvlc  bushel  contains  2150.1-2  cubic  inches  =  1.344S  cu.  ft. :  1  cubic  foot 
:0.80^'<6  stnick  bushel.  A  heaped  bushrl  is  a  cylinder  18^  inches  diam- 
:ier  and  8  incliesdeep,  wJih  a  heaped  cone  not  less  than  6  inches  faiKh. 
t  is  Miial  to  li^  struck  bushels. 

Tlie  British  IiiiperjHl  bushel  is  based  on  the  Imperial  gallon,  and  contains 
ISDCti  gallons,  or  2-218.19-.!  cubic  inches  =  ].2837  cubic  feet.  The  'Englihh 
inarter  =  8  Imperial  bushels. 

Capacity  of  a  cylinder  iu  U.  S.  gallons  =  square  of  diameter,  in  inches  x 
wfelit  in  inches  X  .0084.    (Accurate  within  1  part  in  100.000.) 

Capacity  of  a  cylinder  in  U.  8.  bushels  =  square  of  diameter  in  inches  X 
leiglit  in  iuches  X  .0U03(iS2. 

supping  Meaanre. 

Segater  Ton  —For  register  tonnage  or  for  measurement  of.  the  enthe 
nteiiiai  capacity  of  a  vessel ; 

100  cubic  feet  =  1  register  ton. 

This  nuinlier  is  arbitrarily  assumed  to  facilitate  computation. 
Sliipping  Ton.— For  the  measurement  of  cargo : 

.  shipping  ton. 
40  cubic  feet  =  <  31.16  Imp.  busliels. 


( 1  U.  S.  shipi 
;=  -^81.16  Imp.  bi 
( 32.14S  U.  S. 


1 1  British  xliipping  ton. 
43  cubic  feet  =  -{32.719  Imp.  bushels. 

1 88.75  U.  8. 
Oarpetiter'a  Rule. — Weight  a  vessel  will  can-y  =  length  of  keel  X  bread  tli 
t  main  beam  x  depth  of  hold  iu  feet  ■+■  9.5  (tlie  ciihic  f<*et  allowed  for  a  ton ). 
1w  result  will  be  tlm  tonnage.    For  a  double-decker  instead  of  the  depth 
f  the  hold  take  half  the  breadth  of  the  beam. 

neaanres  of  Tt^elelit.— AvolrdupoiM,  or  Commercial 
Weight. 

II)  di-a<-hnis.  or  -iST.S  grains  =  1  ounce,  oz. 

16  ounces,  or  TOOO  grains      =  1  pound,  lb. 

•28  pounds  =  1  quarter,  qr 

4  qiiartei-s  =  1  hundredweight,  cut   —  t1'2  lbs. 

20  hundred  weight  =  1  ton  of  2-240  pound.s,  or  long  ton. 

'2000  pounds  =  1  net,  or  short  ton. 

280J.6  pounds  =  1  m<-trie  ton. 

1  stone  =  14  pounds  ;  1  quintal  =  100  pounds. 

Troy  W^elght. 

34  grains  =  1  pennyweit^lit,  dwt. 

20  pennyweights  =  1  otmce.  oz.  =  48i»gi-ains. 

1-2  ounces  =  1  pound,  lb.  =  5700  grains. 

Troy  weight  is  used  for  weighing  gold  and  silver.  The  grain  in  i\\v  siitnf 
1  Avoii-dupois,  Troy,  and  Apothecaries'  weights.  A  cai-at,  used  in  weigliinK 
iamonds  =  8.168  graius  =  .205  gramme. 

ApotbiecarieM''  Weight. 

20  grains     =  1  scruple,  3 
8  scruples  =  1  drachm.  3    =     60  grains. 
8  drachms  =  1  ounce,  %       —    480  grains. 

18  ounces    =  1  pound,  lb.      =  5760  grains. 

To  deterwatne  tvAetber  a  balance  Iias  unequal   armH.  - 

•vriiMKliinir  mi  urticle  and  olitm'iiiii.:  •'quiti'iriiiin.  transpo-e  tUe  a.vV\«V? 

>'e,^jje,j  ,u  Q^g  pan  Of  lh«  baVvuce  a.^ 


20  ARITHMETIC. 

Doiinlprpoiae  it  by  Rny  c^onvenlenl  bi>nvy  arlldm  placed  on  llie  oilier  pti 
Remove  tim  nrtii-ie  in  be  wplfhed  anrl  Mihslitnle  for  11.  Rlnndnnl  urlebl 
iiniil  (^qiiiiHiiHf  isR^^aln  e.-<lablinl>e(l.  Tlu*  iiniuimt  of  these  \M-i);b(it  te  III 
wvighi  of  llie  articlti. 

S<?e<iD(l,  by  trniispusiliou.  Deteiiniiie  Hie  iippsrent  welKlit  of  ibe  artte) 
&9  unuhI,  then  its  sppnreiit  weight  afler  trHuspot^iuir  the  artielt*  and 
wei(fbts.  If  the  difleience  i«  siiinll.  itilil  Imtf  the  difference  »o)lieMn«ll« 
of  Iliu  apparent,  weiitbts  lo  obtain  Ilie  U'lie  weijflH-  If  'he  ililTernnee  is 
per  ceift  ifiw  eri-»r  of  ibis  uieiliml  in  1  narl  in  lO.OOO.  For  larger  difft-renc 
or  lo  obtain  a  perfeciiy  neeiiruie  resiJt.  i>iultjply  the  two  apparent  ueigli 
lo^fetber  and  exti-act  tiie  mjiiiire  roui  <if  the  pruducc. 

Circular  SleMsure. 

80  seeoiiils,  "  =  1  minute,  '. 
60  mUiutes,  '  =  I  ilep"ee,  •. 
90  decrees      =  1  4uadraut. 
too  =  oirciitnferunce. 

'Tinie. 

to  seconds  =  I  ininiile. 
60  nilnuCes  =  1  hour. 
2*  hours      =  1  day. 
7  days        =  I  week. 
365  days,  5  hiiiirs,  48  fnliiiile"   18  seconds  =  1  year. 

By  the  Oregorian  Ciileiidar  every  year  »  liose  liuitiber  is  diviHi)>|u  by  i  in 
leap  year,  and  cuniaiiis  366  dayB.  Ilie  <'llier  yenra  conlainlug  86.')  dayx,  ea 
eept  ihaL  the  ceiile-siiiittl  years  an*  leujj  years  only  when  Hie  number  of  th 
year  is  divisiljlrt  by  4(10. 

Tile  ooiiiparalite  values  of  mean  solar  and  sidereal  time  aresliotrti  by 
following  relHiiiins  aeeording  to  Bes.sel : 

]|65  S'l-JS-.'  iiieuii  M^liir  day.s  =  am.HWS  sidereal  ilayg.  n  hence 
1  mean  solar  day  =  1.00273791  Hiilereal  tiaya; 
1  Ridereal  day  =  Ofl9Ti8957iiiei»n  solardiiy; 
94  hours  mean  Bohir  time  =  241"  8"  .V.v.V.'i  sidereal  time; 
24  lioiirs  sitleieal  time  =  ^?  50"  4".0!)1  mean  solar  tiine, 

whence  1  mean  solnr  day  is  S"  5S"  Bl  longer  than  a  sidereal  day,  reckoned 
meuu  Kolar  time. 

BOARD    AND    TtmBCR    fllEASUKE. 

Board  McBsurc. 

Ill  hooril  raeasure  boanls  are  .•Ksnmcii  in  lie  i.ne  inch  In  thlckues*.    '.. 
obtniii  ilie  number  of  feet  board  iiieusiire    (B.  M.)  of  a  board  or  Klick  i 
square  lluiiier,  nuilliply  toKetber  the  lenelli  in  feet,  Ihe  breadth  in  feet, 
til"  ibiclineR.s  in  iiielie,s. 

To  compute  tbe  meannre  or  Hurface  In  aquaro  feet.— NVtaei 
nil  liiiiiensions  are  in.  feni.  miiliiply  Eije  Jetr^tii  by  tbe  hrftullh,  and  tbe  pro 
diift  >vill  (five  the  snifiu-e  irijiiireil 

'VVhrn  either  of  the  iliineiiuioiiK  me  in  inches,  niulll)ily  ae  above  and  diTid< 
tliH  product  by  Vi- 

Wlirn  all  dimensions  are  in  inches,  multiplvas  V>efore  and  divide  prodno 
by  lU. 

Timber  Jneafinre, 

To  compute  the  volume  of  round  timber.— IVlien  all  ilimen 
liiousaiein  fett.  iniillinlv  tbe  lenelli  by  urie  p|iiiirter  of  (lie  piodiiet  of  tl 
menu  trirlb  and  diaiiieler.  nntJ  tiie  poiliiet  will  Rive  the  measiireitieiit 
cubic  feet.     Wlieii  lei/Klh  Is  Riven  In  feet  and  girth  and  diameter  in  Ineln 
divide  the  product  by  lit ;  ^\llen  all  the  dimeiiiiionsare  in  inches,  divide 
l"i«. 

To  compute  the  volume  of  sqnarfi  tlmbor.-When  all  dimt 
Bious  are  lu   feet.   mulii|ilv  i..>;.-iher   ilie  l.-nt'tli.  In'«:<dtli.  and  depth;  thi 

Kiy-iMJui-r  u/Jl  In'  the  n/liirrif  in  ciililc  feel.     Wlipu  ■Hie  dimension  is  eiven  ' 
fZ/ff,  d/rii/f  ttr  1:';  trben  rivo  iliiiien.sinnH are  in  inches, dV<(\i\eV>5  VM\ 
W 'Ofve  aJtneasiaus  are  in  fneies,  divide  by  17s9. 


C«at«titn  tn  F«et  «r  J'vlctn,  Bemntlliis,  «nd  TtinbAr. 

Leagth  la  Feet. 


13 


II 


18 


IS 


3fl         93 


SI 


38 


Feet  Board  MuASur«. 


IX   > 

ix  « 

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28 

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FBSNCH  OB  ISBTJSIC  jnBASURBS. 

Ths  rartiic  unit  nf  IfiiK-tli  if(  tJiB  metre  =^  S9.S7  incli«B. 
'^«  luelrk'  unit  c<f  ivFji>;lil  Ik  tliK  gmm  =  1S.43^  kihIds. 

Th(;fullinvliii;  pitHsps  are  UBi?d  forBubdivlhiona  ami  illliitlfiles;  Milli  =  lotn. 
CniU  =  I h-  Belli  =  [ij,  Itecn  =  10,  Hecto  ^  100,  Kllp  =  U«iO,  Myrfn  =  lO.OlW. 

FBBNCH  AND   BRITISH   (AND   AITIBIBICAN) 
Eq,CJIVA|j£NT  ltlGASirBli». 

Measiirca  of  lienstli. 

Fkkhch.  Bbitjjsb  Biid  D,  S. 

1  metre  =  39.37  Inches,  or  8.li8083  foet,  or  l.OWOl  yards. 

.SM8  metre  =  1  foot. 

1  centhnetre   ^  ..^S?  iiiuh. 
£51  c<?ntimetrieB  =  J  inch. 
I  mlllnsftre     —  .m937 inch,  or  t/HS  indi,  nearly. 

1  kUometn    =  1093.61  yards,  or  OMlSt  mile. 


ARITHMBTIC. 

HeasoreB  of  Surflice. 

FaKh'CB.  Bhitish. 

,  „       ,  I  IO.':64  square  feet, 

1  square  met  re  =   ,    ,  ,5^  ^^^  y^, 

.>St',  siquare  metre  =  1  square  yard. 

.0929  >quai-e.  metre  =  I  square  foot. 

1  square  centimetre  =  .Ida  «qiiare  inch. 
6.J5'J  !-<iuare  centimetres  =  1  sqiure  incli. 

i  squai'e  millimetre    =  .00155  square  incli. 
fii'j.'-'  square  millimetres  =  1  iiqnare  inch. 
1  ctfiitiarf  =  1  sq.  metre  =  10  T6»  square  feet. 

1  are  =  1  .-q.  decametre  =  1070.41     '■  "' 

1  hectare  =  100  ares  =  1076«       "  "  =  2.4TI1  acw. 

1  wj  kilometre  =  .386109  sq.  miles   =  347.U    " 

1  wj.  myriametre  =  38.6109  "        " 

Of  Tolame. 

French.  Bbitisb  and  U.  S. 

1  „,.Ki .  ^^t^  _  i  35-314  cubic  feet, 

1  cubic  metre  =  \   ^^  ^^^0  yanta. 

.7645  cubic  metre  =  1  cubic  yard. 

.OiSa  cubic  metre  =  1  cubic  foot. 

•.  „.,i,:„  .i«„:™^*-»         i  61  0'-'3   cubic  inches, 

1  cubic  decimetre  =  -j      ^gg,  ^^^ic  fooL 

28.33  cubic  decimetres   =  1  cubic  foot. 

1  cubic  centimetre  =  .061  cubic  inch. 
16.;)S7  cubic  centimetres  =  1  cubic  inch. 
(Millie  centimetre  =  1  niillilitre  =      .061  cubic  inch. 
OHiiilliire  =  =      .610     "        " 

ilicilitre  =  =    6.102      "        " 

iiin-  =  1  cubic  decimetre  =  61. 0--'3      "       "      =  1.05671  quart 

lir-ctolitreordecistere  =   3.314  cubic  feet     =   2.8875  ba'lH 

sti'i-e,  kilolitre,  or  cubic  metre  =    1 .30S  cubic  yards  =     88.37  bush 

or  Capacity. 

French.  British  and  U.  8. 

rsi  0'^  cubic  inchcH, 
■      1  litre  .=  1  cubic  decimeire,  =  \  :«g31 -bjc  foot,^^.^^. 

1.2.202  pounds  of  water  at  tf 
28.317  litres  =  1  cubic  foot. 

1.513  litres  =  1  gallon  (British). 

3.785  litre<  =  1  gallon  (American). 

Of  ireiglit. 

Fke.sx'b.  British  and  U.  S. 

1  grummo  =  15  132  grains. 

.0618  Kiamine  =  1  Kraiu. 

38.35  Ki'i'iKne  =  1  ounce  avoirdupois. 

1  kiloKranime  :=  2.2046  pounds. 

.4536  kilogramme  =  1  poiiiul. 

1  lo.ine  or  metric  ton  =  ( -^j-  '°°  °'  ^^  ?«"'«>«• 
1000  kilogrammes  =  -,  i^'f  g^o'^-dg. 

l.dKi  iiH'.liie  tons  =   1  ,,„_„« .M-n  .^..-j. 

lOlfi  kilogramiiu's  =  "i '  '"»  "'  3240  pounds. 

Ii'.  <  >.  H.  Titniiinn,  in  liullHin  No.  0  of  the  U.  S.  Coa.st  and  Geode 
.-.  ili-ciKscs  the  work  of  various  authorities  who  have  compared  t 
I  till-  iiicire,  mid  l>,v  ivferriiig  all  the  observations  to  a  common  8 
»  Miccfeileil  ill  recimcllinK  the  discrepancies  wiiliin  veiy  narrom 
I-  f<illo»  ini;  are  his  results  for  the  number  of  inches  in  a  metre  at 
I  III'  comparisons  of  the  authorities  named: 

1817.  Hassler 39,86991  Inches. 

1818.  Kater .•i9.*.990      " 

1815.    Bailr 8936978      " 

"•—     m.ii.      SO.SttOTO      •' 

«9.ai!M6\       " 

IMk «».«w«»     " 


METBIC   WEIGHTS  AITO  llfiASUBES. 
IKBTRIO  CONTEKSIOIV  TABLES. 


33 


The  followiiiK  tables,  with  the  subjoined  memoranda,  were  publiHhed  in 
IM)  liy  tlie  UuiltHl  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  ofBce  of  staudard 
Kiglibi  and  measures,  T.  C.  Mendeiiliall,  Siiperiutendent. 

Tables  for  Convertliig  V.  S.  'WelKhta  and  MeiMiire*— 
Cnstomary  to  Aletrlc. 

LINEAE. 


Inches  to  Milli- 
meti'eR. 


SS.4001 
GO.fcOOl 
T«.a002 
101.6008 
1-.!7.0003 

ir2.4003 
^7.8004 

atJ.aow 

288.6005 


Feet  to  Metres. 


0.804801 
0.609601 
0.91440-J 
1.2I9-.W3 
1.534003 

1.838804 
8.138604 
S.  438405 
3.743305 


I 
Yards  to  Metres.' 


0.9144(K 
1.838804 
3.7483(» 
8.657607 
4.57J009 

5.486411 
6.400818 
7.815315 
8.339616 


Miles  to  Klliv 
niHii-es. 


l.lilWiS 
3  3lK(iU 
4.WJS04 
6.«:!ft 
8.U4674 

9.6560H 
]1.3«t.->48 
13.87478 
1I.48I!-.' 


SQUARE. 


Sqaare  Inches  to 

Square  Ceuti- 

metre.s. 

Square  Feet  to 

Square  Deci- 

metios. 

Square  YaixJs  to 
Square  Metres. 

Acres  to 
Hectare.*. 

1=1           6.453 
8=             13.903 
8=             19.355 
1=             31.807 
5=            H.i&S 

1 
8=  :          38.710 
T=  :          4.5.161 
«=  1          51.613 
9=             58.065 

9.390 
18.581 
27.871 
37.161 
46.453 

55.743 
65.0:K 
71.333 
83.613 

0.8.36 
1.673 
3.50S 
3.344 
4.181 

5.017 

5  ais 

«.(iHi» 
7.5;.'5 

0.4047 

0  mm 

1.3141 
1.(1187 

2  0331 

3  JiSl 
3  H:)3H 

CUBIC. 


!  Cubic  Indies  to 
Cubic  Centi- 
metres. 


Cubic  Ynrils  to 
Cubic  Metres. 


Bushels  {'< 
Heclolitre- 


0  35343 
0.7048.5 
l.i>E737 
1.40969 
1 .76311 

a. 11454 
3.4«ft% 

S.  1-181 


28 


ARITHUETIO. 


WIBB   AND  SHEKT-mBTAIi   GAVeBS  OOBKPABI 


c 

II 

III 

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ie  . 

BrillsliInKVerial 
i^tan.lard 

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S=|llj 

B? 

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£S 

MtlUT 

Hitrcli  1.  1SIH.> 

lofh. 

iRCh. 

lllCtl. 

lilGll. 

linh. 

tnilliin. 

iudi. 

OMOOOO 

.41> 

MM 

18.7 

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CHIOUOU 

.4U 

.484 

11.T8 

.459 

DiKJ(ia 

.43 

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0000 

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.IMg 

8 

.36S 

.lesin 

.UK 

.16 

.I'i 

4  oa 

.ITJ 

9 

.143 

11443 

.H8 

.115 

.U4 

S.66 

.155 

10 

.VA 

.lOlSW 

.133 

.1* 

.KS 

•HM 

,141 

1) 

,12 

.0D07J 

.12 

.HIS 

.110 

2.&5 

.135 

It 

.TUfl 

.0!*081 

.lOS 

.105 

.104 

2  04 

,109 

iS 

.0115 

OilSRi 

.o«; 

.OOSffl 

,003 

S.34 

.094 

11 

.08!1 

,OMOK 

.(« 

,08 

.08 

a.  03 

.078 

15 

.m-i 

.ti&Tor 

.ora 

.07 

Mi 

\M 

.07 

lU 

.065 

.oaufti 

.WB 

.001 

,001 

I  ua 

,0625 

If 

.OiS 

OJ.-iSB 

.054 

.OM,") 

O&D 

\Ai 

.OBtsa 

je 

.010 

.am 

.04T 

,01S 

.04S 

!-*; 

.03 

lU 

,(M?i 

.OSOifi 

,041 

.01 

.04 

1.01 

.04.18 

ao 

.tas 

.0:1I9G 

_at^ 

09B 

,0:10 

.m 

.esT-i 

ai 

■oaj 

OvIHS 

ua-j 

.031 

.sm 

.ei 

.0314 

*i 

.friS 

.osaa-i 

,048 

.OS 

,0:J8 

,T1 

.03U 

33 

,(WS 

.ceasT 

.0-J5 

.025 

.ft»4 

.lit 

.0£81 

^ 

.oaa 

.CKOl 

o-a 

.CBOS 

.O^i 

.58 

.sea 

i5 

.M 

.01T9 

.O-J 

.O-i 

.(H 

.51 

.(Bib 

as 

.018 

.01 69-1 

.018 

.018 

.018 

.45 

.0188 

ST 

.018 

.oir.il 

.017 

.017 

.0164 

.4^ 

.OlTi 

S8 

.014 

.01  an 

.OlS 

.om 

.0143 

,98 

.0)611 

2ft 

.013 

.onaa 

.Olfi 

.01  ;^ 

.013*1 

.35 

.0141 

sn 

.013 

.oinoa 

.0)4 

.Dli 

,0121 

.31 

,01^ 

81 

.01 

. 00603 

.0133 

.018 

.Ollfi 

.29 

.0109 

^3 

,0OB 

.OtfTflS 

,oia 

.Oli 

.OlOK 

.zr 

.0101 

*i 

.008 

•OOTOfi 

.011 

.011 

.01 

.SB 

.On»4 

31 

.007 

.0083 

.01 

.01 

.0099 

.S3 

.0080 

a"i 

.OB 

.00.W1 

.00(16 

,00%^ 

,Q0S4 

.SI 

.0078 

ati 

(KW 

.005 

,ooa 

-OOB 

,0ffr8 

.IS 

.007 

a- 

.«H1.'. 

^OUHTi 

.0085 

.OOtW 

.17 

.OOM 

V 

oiiaiiu 

.KH 

.008 

.000 

.16 

,0003 

» 

,0il8.1H 

.OOTB 

.oora 

.oosa 

,18 

4i 

.Oimi'l 

.007 

.007 

.0013 

,11 

41 

.(KMI 

,n 

W 

.004 

,10 

48 

,CO:Hi 

m 

^ 

.OO-Ti 

,08 

.f 

\ 

.onia 

,     .o: 

/ 

.00-1*  \       .04   \                      ^ 

47 

/ 

\    ,rca   \      .«.  \ 

48 

/ 

\     .00\&  \       -W   \ 

49 

/ 

\     .O0\ti  ',       .a   \ 

7 

/ 

1 

\  .001  \    ^*\ 

WISE  OAUOE  TABLES. 


S8 


BMSOH,  OB  €IBOi;i.AR  Rfll.  OAVfiB,   FOB  EIiBC- 
mttlCAI.  WIBE8.         '  — '«- 


Hum- 
ber. 

Clrmlar 
Mils. 

DUm- 

eter 
in  Mils. 

Gauge 

Nuiii- 

i.ei-. 

Circular 

Mils. 

Diam- 
eter 
inUUii. 

:aauKe 
',  Num- 
ber. 

Circular 
HU8. 

Diam- 
eter 
in  Mils. 

« 

8,000 

84.78 

70 

70,000 

364.!>8 

190 

190,000 

435  89 

S 

5,«l0i) 

TO.Ti 

75 

73,000 

373.87 

300 

300.000 

447.33 

8 

8,000 

88.45 

80 

60.000 

883.85 

830 

330,000 

46».0S 

« 

12,000 

109.55 

85 

85,000 

391.55 

340 

340.000 

4H9.90 

16 

13,000 

122.48 

90 

90,000 

300.00 

3G0 

860,000 

500.01 

10 

80,000 

141.48 

96 

95,000 

806.83 

380 

380,000 

580.16 

B 

S5,000 

158.13 

100 

100,000 

816.33 

800 

800,000 

547.73 

10 

10,000 

173.81 

110 

110.000 

831.67 

830 

830.000 

605.69 

S 

35.000 

187.00 

130 

130,000 

846.48 

340 

8*0,000 

S88.IO 

# 

40,000 

300.00 

130 

130,000 

860.66 

860 

860,000 

600. 0<) 

45 

45,000 

813.14 

140 

140.000 

874.17 

SO 

50.000 

3-^.61 

150 

150,000 

387.80 

SO 

55,000 

834.58 

160 

160.000 

400.00 

«0 

60.000 

344.95 

170 

170.000 

418.38 

(5 

65,000 

SS4.96 

160 

180,000 

4-.S4.37 

TWIST  DRIIiI.  AND  STEKIi  WIBE  GAVGfi!. 

(Morse  Twist  Drill  and  Hncliine  Co.) 


No. 

Size. 

No. 

Size. 

1 

No. 

Size. 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

1 

.•J380 

16 

.1770 

31 

.1300 

3 

.3il0 

17 

.1730    : 

33 

.1160 

a 

.3130 

18 

.1895 

33 

.1130 

4 

.3090 

19 

.1660    ' 

31 

.1110 

5 

.3055 

80 

.1610     : 

'        *' 

.1100 

8 

.2010 

81 

.1590 

36 

.1006 

1 

.3010 

32 

.1570 

37 

.1010 

8 

.1990 

23 

.1540 

38 

.1015 

» 

.1960 

34 

.1530 

39 

.0095 

lU 

.1935 

25 

.1495 

40 

.0980 

II 

.1910 

86 

.1470 

41 

.0960 

13 

.1890 

27 

.1410 

43 

.09:15 

13 

.1850 

38 

.1405 

43 

.0890 

11 

.1820 

29 

.1360 

44 

.0800 

15 

.1800 

80 

.1385 

45 

.0830 

46 

47 
48 
49 
50 

M 
52 
5.1 

nt 


M 
57 

GO 


Size. 


imii. 

.OHIO 

.orffi 
(T.m 

.0730 
.0700 

.OtitO 
.0f.:« 
.0.195 

.or..v) 
.on-jo 

.01«.-) 
.0131) 
.OI-.'O 
.01  0 
.0100 


STEEb  RIITSIC-'WIBE  6AIT6E. 

(Waslibiirn  &  Moen  Mfg.  Vc>.) 


Xo. 


Size. 


I 

I     inch. 

/■f  /  .mil 
H  /  .<Bi» 
IS  /      .OSIS 

le  I    .oas9 


No. 


Size. 


inch. 

al 

.0401 

iW 

.0181 

s;3 

.0.50B 

V4 

.0547 

30  ARITHMETIC. 

VHB  KOI80N  WB  ClBCCIiAB  IIIU.  IVIBB  CAUGB. 


(For  tnWt'  ijf  i.'"pt>er  wires  liy  thisjcaiifce,  (riviiiK  weighUs.  electrical  n 
aiK'Wi,  eti:..  st^w  Clipper  Wire.) 

Mr.  C.  J.  Field  {^levmi  Indicator,  Juljr,  188~J  UiUS  describes  llie  origin  i 
tbe  EdiBOii  (faiipe: 

The  Kdlaon  viMupany  cxpei-lem-eil  inconveiilenoe  and  loss  by  not  bavli 
wide  piioujfti  rarij^**  iinr  siiOitieiii  nuiiilj^r  of  hizes  in  rlie  existing  (jaui 
Thia  WOM  felt  mure  |iai ticiilurly  in  tlib  eeiilral-Kiatioii  woik  in  mat 
ekctrioal  deieriniriaiic.ns  for  tin-  aii-eet  svrtteiii.  Tliey  were  c-uinpeliisl 
inalie  use  of  twii  of  ilie  exlsliiifi  eauut^  at  ieast,  iiierpti.v  iulioiluciiif 
complleaiioii  tljui  nun  lial^ie  to  icad  to  ini8tuk««  by  die  uuutrucIoi'K  ai 
liaenieii. 

In  tile  ineBiidescetit  system  an  even  distribnlioii  lliroiiplimit  tlie  enl 
system  itnil  u  uuiform  pressure  at  the  potui  <\i  delivery  are  olitainod  bye 
culnimj:  fur  a  (civen  maximuni  pei-eemage  of  low  from  tlie  potriiMaJ  : 
delivered  from  llie  dynam".  In  carryiiiK  IIX8  out.  on  aoeoiint  of  Incki 
)*e};iilar  Ki^e^^.  it  waa  id'leii  iiecessaiy  (O  use  Inrper  hizes  tlian  tlie  occitrii 
demiiiidi'd.  and  even  10  ab'siime  new  Hi7.es  for  lur^e  iiiiderirroiiiiil  conductoi 
It  uHMulS'i  foiui<i  tliat  nearly  all  mMimfu<;iurei-B  bused  thf'ir  calculation  t 
tile  ctiniliiflivily  of  their  wire  on  a  vHiiely  of  units,  and  that  imt  one  tw 
the  liilest  mill,  as  adopted  by  tile  iiiiM-h  Associfttinu  und  determined  fro* 
l>r.  Mnllliieiiseirii  exm^rimenls  ;  and  as  ttii.x  nn.s  tbe  uidt  eiiipUiyi'd  in  I 
niaiinfHetui-e  of  tiie  KLtJKon  Ihui[)s.  iliere  was  a  fiirtiier  reason  for  ooiistrui 
llig  a  newBaiiite.  Tde  eii^iiieeriug  ileparliitent  of  llu-  Edison  eompiir( 
liiiowliiK  the  reqLiiivnieiiis.  bavo  di<si(;iied  a  Xfo^iire  that  has  the  widr 
range  nltiainahlr-  and  a  lai>r«-  nuiiilieror  sizes  wlileh  increftRe  in  a  regull 
anil  uiiironii  imimier.  The  txivis  (if  the  (jrmlniition  iKtlie  Kei'tionulaiea,*! 
tlie  iiuiiihrt'of  liie  wire  LMin'espmidH,  A  wire  of  lOO.OOd  eirctitar  iiiilaarea 
Nil.  100  ;  a  w  iie  of  one  luilf  llie  sme  will  lie  No.  60  ;  twice  the  size  No.  -JOO. 

Ill  the  older  gainfeH.  as  the  number  increased  tlie  xize  dieivn.-ed.  VTll 
tills  itniine.  however,  llie  mirtdjer  IneieaseK  wiili  the  wire,  and  the  nuintli 
nniliiplied  by  lOix)  will  ■.  ive  tin' ciij-iilar  nils. 

The  weight  per  mil-foot,  D  tH)(MN)a'i'.'7<'.^  iioimd.".  ajfreeH  with  a  Fpecll 
Kravlty  of  SS8II,  wliieh  is  the  latesi  flirure  tiveii  for  copper.  Theainpei 
rapafity  wbicli  Ib  |>iveii  was  deduced  from  expeilments  loai'e  in  the  0.1 
pnny'«  laljoratory,  and  is  liaaed  onariKe  of  teinperaiuretif  50°  ¥.  In  Ihewll 

In  laail  Mr  Field  writes,  t-oncerninii  khukps  in  use  hy  electricjil  eiiRineei 

The  B.  and  S.  ftauite  Seems  lo  he  in  general  use  f\-  tbe  smaller  sizes  1 
10  lOO.OtXI  c.  m..  and  in  some  enBcs  a  llllle  larger.  From  helwei-n  one  at 
two  hiiniired  ihmi.iiniid  circular  mils  iipwardK.  the  Kilison  gciupe  or  ll 
equivalent  is  prnctieHUy  lii  u.>ip.  and  there  is  n  jceuerii)  tendency  10  ilesigi  ' 
art  »iz»'S  above  this  In  circular  mils,  Biiecifyiue  a  « ire  oa  HOO.iJtX).  .tOO.OiW,  E 
UIX),  or  l.OOD.thXic.  in. 

In  the  Hle>!trical  IniKiness  ihere  is  a  larife  use  of  copper  wire  and  rod  ai 
other  maierialKof  tliese  large  sines,  and  in  onieritiglliein.  speaking  nfthei 
specify  injT,  and  in  every  oilier  use.  the  general  iiietlind  \s  to  gmiplv  >pedf 
the  circular  milage,  1  ihitiit  it  i:>  going  to  he  the  only  symein  In  liie  futm 
for  the  designation  of  wires,  and  ihe  ntialniug  of  it  means  piactlcally  I" 
adoption  of  the  Kdisoii  gauge  or  tbe  method  and  iDaals  of  this  gaug«  as  i 
correct  out  for  wire  Hize.s. 

TKB  V.  8.  STANDARD  GAdGXI   FOR   SHEEV  AND 
PLiATK   IKON   .AND  STKICLi,  1893. 

The   t'ommittee  on  i'oinn);e.  WeiL'lit.s,  and   Mensurt^  of  the  House 
Kenreseiitaiives  in  WW,  In  introducing  the  bill  eslahlisblng  the  new  slie 
•00  plate  gauge,  madt*  a  repm-t  from  whieli  we  talte  the  fuljowlng  : 

The  purpose  of  this  bill  is  to  eKtiihiiNh  an  antboritativetitandard  gauged 
the  measurement  of  sheet  and  plate  iron. 

There  is  in  this  country  ui}  uniform  or  standard  gauge,  and  the  aan 
numbers  in  different  gauges  represent  liifferent  thicknesses  of  sheelB ' 
jjHres.     This  liux  given  rfse  to  niiich  iiiisiindevslandin^  and  friction  betwei 
employers  nod  BorA/rien  ami  mistakes  and  tvaud^xjfwotu  &en\*iv«&n& 

•Tlif  pi-actlce  ot  deser/bing  the   dlftereia  tWcVne».s«». «»  <.\\ee\.  «.v\&.  . 
Z„r^'^f"^  uiMiibers  Jium  lieen  so  long  »?»taY>U8tieAa«\A  \*tc.wfc»^ 
Jay  iH,tb  h^re  ami  iu  lireat  Britain  tliat  ll  \R  wov  <X«:m»i\  sAnVwsX^ 
*e^  tiiif  n.o,fe  of  cle.si,iMali<iiV:  but  tliese   acsertpvVve  «».vi%«  ™a» 


0AUC4K    tOk   SHEET   AKD  PLATE  IBON  AND  StEEL.  3! 


8.   STANDABD  GAfTCE  FOR  SHEET  AND  PIRATE 
IKON   AND  8TBKI.,   1893. 


1 

3 

—  "  s  " 

-  j^  ^^^ 

b     U    V    Q 

0.5 

si  1 

£.2    1 
12  7 

fill 

till 
till 

*^5 

•im 

2 1=1 

215.88 

wooo 

i-a 

320 

20. 

9.078 

97.65 

xmn 

15-3-J 

0.46175 

11.9062E 

300 

18. RS 

8.505    91.55  ;  201.82 

nioi) 

7-16 

0.4375 

11.1125 

280 

17.50 

7.9« 

85  44  ;   I88.-37 

000<) 

13-32 

0.40625 

10.31875 

260 

16.25 

7.871 

79.83  !  174.91 

000!     8-8 

0  375 

9.525 

240 

15. 

6.804 

78.21  ;   101.46 

OQ]  11-32 
ff     5-16 

0.84375 

878125 

220 

13.75 

6  287 

67.13  ■  148  00 

0.3125 

7.9:375 

200 

18.50 

5.67 

61.03  '■   184. .\5 

1      B-3i 

0.28125 

7.14-375 

180 

11.25 

5.103 

54  98  :  121.09 

2    17-01 

0.  •265685 

6.740875 

170 

10.625 

4.819 

51.88      114.37 

«      1-4 

0.25 

6.35 

160 

10. 

4.686 

48.82  1  107.64 

4    1.V84 

0. 284.^75 

5.953125 

150 

9.875 

4.852 

45.77  j  100.91 

5      T-3J 

0.21875 

5.55825 

140 

8  7S 

8  969 

42.72  1    94.18 

6    1-4-64 

0.20:1125 

5  159375 

1.30 

8.125 

3.685 

89.tf7  1    87.45 

7      S-16 

0.1875 

4.7625 

120 

7.8 

3.402 

36.02 

80.72 

h!  11-64 

0.171875 

4.365045 

110 

8.875 

3.118 

38.57 

74.00 

9!    5-34 

0.1.5625 

3.95875 

100 

6.25 

2.835  ':30  52 

67.27 

10     9-«« 

0.140635 

3  571875 

90 

5.625 

2  552  :-i7.46 

60..55 

11 !    i-s 

0. 125 

3.175 

80 

5. 

2.268    -^4.41        .53  82 

Vi>     7-64 

0.I0t».375 

2.778125 

70 

4:375 

1.9H4  ;-J1.36  !     47.09 

13:    3-32 

0.09375 

2  38125 

60 

3.75 

1.701 

18.31 

40.36 

n|    .5-64 

0.078125 

1.9R4.375 

50 

3.125 

1. 417 

15.26 

33.01 

1.5i     »-K'8 

0.070:3125 

1  7859375 

45 

2.8125 

1.276 

13.73 

-.30.27 

la;     1-16 

0.06  .'5 

1.5875 

40 

2.5 

1.1:34 

12.21 

26.91 

17|     9-ltiO 

0  0.T625 

1 .42»r5 

36 

2.25 

1  O-.M 

10  99 

84.22 

18|     1-20 

0.05 

1.27 

32 

2. 

0.9072    9  765 

21.53 

19,     7-160 

0.04.3re 

1.11125 

28 

1.75 

0.79:38;  8.514;     IS. 81 

20     »-«» 

0.0375 

0.9525 

24 

1..50 

0.6804'  7  :3-.'4      10  1.5 

21    11 -^JO 

0.034:375 

0  K73125 

22 

1  375 

0.62:37;  0.713i     11.8(1 

22,     1-32 

0.03125 

0.79:37.50 

20 

1.25 

0..'S07      0.1113;     13  10 

»i     f-JJO 

0.028125 

0.714375 

18 

1.125 

0.5103    5.493,     V.  11 

24      1-40 

0.025 

0  03-5 

16 

1. 

0  4.5:30    4. 882,     III  ^0 

2.7     7-;J20 

0.0-.'1875 

0.55.5025 

14 

0.R75 

0.3909    4.272        9.  l-' 

•K     3-]W 

0.01875 

0.47625 

12 

0.75 

0.3102    3.002        8  (17 

27    11-040 

0.0171875 

0.4.36.5625 

11 

0.6875 

0.3119!  3.:t.57'       7.40 

28      1-04 

0.015025 

0.896875 

10 

0.625 

0.2835 

3.0.5.'        0.73 

'19     9-640 

0.0140625 

0.:3.57]875 

9 

0..562-> 

0.2.551 

2.740       0.(15 

:«)     l-«) 

0.0t25 

0.3175 

8 

0,5 

0.220R 

2  441 ;       5  3.S 

31     7-04  1  ;  0.010937.5 

0.2778125 

7 

0  437.5 

0  19H1 

2.1:)0'       4.71 

82   1.3-l'8010.0ini.5625 

0.25796870 

6}^ 

0.41)6-.!.5 

0.1843 

1.9»:3l       4.37 

itJ.    3-:ii0  |0.009.?75 

0.238,25 

6 

0.375 

0.1701 

1.8:31!      4.01 

8)   Jt-lL'SO'O  Om5l):m  / 

1.2l8SSI3.'i  / 

•5>^  / 

0.:ur.-i 

0  1559 

1 .67s\      %  -X 

j:;    .^iJiO   O.nnrsiM     o 

wmsr^ 

5       ' 

0.3/2.5 

0.1417    l.ri2tt\       i\  -A 

0.1270    i.37;^\     a.v 
0.1205    \  2«7\       5 

*"  IT-'-'iMOl () .  nilH/t40tS:!.'i  0  j 
«;     1-160/0.00025         lo'r 

""J 

4H  ■ 

4M    . 
4 

0  2K|-r, 
<'.2'i.5(id.-) 

~ 

/ 

/ 

0.2.5 



<).U:!- 

11* 

n\      2 

28 


▲RrtHUETIO. 


WIBB  AND  SHBBT-niETAIt   GAVOBS  COMBABl 


^ 

11 

^li 

•3 

a 

=^i 

BrJilsh  Imperial 
BUBiliinl 

IM 

II 

1^        - 
Eg 

Wire  Ciaujsrt!. 
(Lepnl  Staodiird 
luui-EitlBrilnlii 

1_  — 

Est      . 

^"1 

alllff 
Mareli  1,  IfflH.) 

^m 

Int-ll, 

iicd. 

liieli. 

iiidu 

Iiiuh. 

mill  i  III. 
14.7 

Liwti. 

OOOOOfll) 

.411 

.MU 

.5 

rtwotx) 

.411 

.484 

11.79 

.489 

CKKHH) 

.4a 

.45 

.m 

10. AT 

.418 

(KXW 

.«J1 

46 

.3iJ3 

.40 

.4 

10. IB 

.4114 

luo 

.4iS 

4UiW4 

.S6^ 

.56 

.S72 

9,46 

.575 

CO 

.38 

3EiJ8 

331 

.as 

.34S 

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Btce. 


Par«utlieae«.— WiiHii  a  parealheais  is  preceded  by  a  plus  figa  it  mj 
removed  wiilioul  cbttDaiUK  'h"  value  of  ilie  expiesxiou:  a  +  b  -|-  I'l  -H 
2n  +-'ft.  Wlieii  u  [ml■«Dthel^i^  i-^  preceded  by  a  minus  siuii  it  may  Ije  ivml 
If  wHchaiiKe  ihe  sirds  of  ull  ihe  leritis  witlilii  iJi--  puienilii-sis:  I,  '" 
—  c)  =  l  —  -i  + 1>  +  c.    Wlieii  a  pareoLbesuH  iti  wilUId  a  i>areiilbi 

tbe  inner  one  first:  a-r&--jc-(ci  —  e)M  =  a  -  [''-•j 

=  a  -  [b  -  c  -^d  -  f]  =  u  —  6  -f  c  -  cf  +  e, 

A  muiiiijlicaiion  siKO.  X.  lias  the  effect.  oC  a  parentliesls,  in  thnt  ilie 
atioii  Indicated  by  ll  must  be  performed  before  the  npeiaiioiis  of  aild 
or  8iibtii)ct">n.  n  +  ti  X  a  +  *  =  "  4  «'»  +  '>;  while  (a  +  t)  x  (ti  + 
a'  4-  •-'"''  -:-  It''-  and  (a  -f  6)  X  a  +  b  =  a'  4-  "6  +  b. 

DlTlrton.— TUe  quotient  in  ijositlve  wi  en  ilie  dividend  and  dl 

itvf  ilKu  >lgiii>,  und  iieKati^e  uiieu  (bey  liave  unlilce  bI^hh:  aliv  ■*-!>- 
„      —  b  =  —  lie. 

To  iliviile  n  uKinnmlnl  by  a  monomial,  write  the  dividend  over  Ihe 
with  a  line  l)<-i  ivi-eii  tUem,    If  the  expiesdioDs liave coiniuoo  fAutoniireil 
ihtf  t'oinmoii  racloi'.s: 

tnVix        ax         a*  a*         I 

a'bx  -i- auy  =  — ; —   =  — ;       —  =n;         —  =  r^  =  il 
I 


aby 


u» 


a*       Q» 


I  To  divide  a  urilynomiRl  I'V  n  niotioiniiil,  divide  each  term  of  tiie  polyuo 
jjr  llie  nionoiiiiBi;  C'li''  —  riiic)  -<-  •!«  =  S/<  —  ^.c. 
Todiviili^ii  polynoiiiinl  by  ii  polynoiiiial,  ari'iinKe  both  dividi-nd  and  • 
In  tbe  onlei-  nf  \\\v  asu'rudiiiir  "r  de^MirnilliiK  powers  of  some  coiul 
letter  ami  kei-ii  this  arrauL-eiiient  ilirouKliimi  tlie  o|ieralion 

Diviile  iliH  ttrsi  lerni  of  (lie  divklind  liy  liie  first  term  or  the  dlvlMrJ 
write  tile  i-estilt  as  the  fii  St  tenii  i>f  I iir  quotient. 

Multiply  nil  Ilie  term--  of  the  divisor  by  the  fifst  term  of  the  qnotlfTil 
suliirut-'i  tbe  iirodiici  from  tlie  liividenil.    ir  there  l>e  a  reitiainUer,  cou^ 
_ll  M  a  Uew  diviJenti  and  prOL'ei-d  as  before:    lu'  —  6')  ■*■  (a  -{■  b). 
nil  _  ;,«  I  tt  +  i). 


a'+nb  \n  -  b. 


-all 


b'. 


di4n| 


I  difference  of  two  equal  oilii  (lowers  of  any  two  numbers 
'  lli.-lr  iliffei  eiiCe  and  alNO  by  llieir  Riiiii: 

(,j>  -  b>l  +  (,t  _  i>.  =  „"  +  «t.  +  i.';  <i»*  -  h») -t- (a  + 1)  =  «»  -j 

•  Tile  illlTrieiiee  of  two  eqiml  even  iiuwers  of  two  uuiiibers  1b  diT 

Kir-  dilTeience  bhiI  mIso  by  their  sum;  (o'  —  b')  -t-  la  —  b)  =  n  -+-  ^- 

Tbe  stun  of  t»o  equal  even   jtoweiH  of  two  ininiber-  Is  not  divtstbll 

\lier  ilie  dilTereiiee  or  tbe  Kiini  of  ihe  nniHber»;  but  when  the  ex|io 

feoeli  of  tlie  Iwnequul  po\rerK  is  eniiif.osed  of  an  odd  and  an  even  fill 

lie  Slim  of  tbe  given  power  ih  divisible  bv  tlie  sum  of  Ihe  powetB  eipr* 

the  even  factor.    Tims  £*  -f-  y'  <8  not  divisible  by  j:  +  j/or  byx  —  »,  ll 

jViRlhle  h\   X"*  -1-  W*.  I 

Simple  equation*. —  \n  equation  is  a  slntemenc  of  equality  bet< 

1  explVNsloIis;  «-.  a  -|-  /#  =  c  4-  d,  I 

,V  NJNii'le  eqiiathiii.  or  e<]tialion  of  the  flfst  ripyree.  is  one  wliich  cool 
Dl.v  tbe  liii-t  puuer  of  Ilie  niikMowii  quuiility.  If  equal  clinOKefi  be  « 
ly  addition,  biiMraeiion.  tnuliipIlcatioQ,  or  division;  in  both  sJdea  o 
qinitioii.  tlie  itrHiiliM  uill  be  equal. 

Any  1.  nil  may  lie  cbanKed  frotii  one  Hide  of  an  eqtialicm  to  anotJier, 
liird  ius  sign  be  olninKeU:  a  +  b  =  c  +  rf;  «  ==  e  -[-  d  -  b.  To  «>t»i 
jiiMtioii  liHvnig  one  iiiiicoown  qumititv.  tninspose  nil  tbe  terms  ln»o| 
be  Diiknowii  iiiiitiitily  lo  one  hiiIo  of  tiie  equation,  and  all  Ilie  other  ll 
I  the  o|l-er  BiiJe;  eonililiie  iiite  teriikg,  and  divide  botii  sidev  by  Iho  OOefll 
f  the  iinlfiiown  q;iiiniilr. 
S'lvc  Hx  -  ■i'i  -  i'ti  -  ■Vc.    8*  4-  Mjr  =  «»  4-  VO;  lljr  =  W:  j  =  V  an«,    I 

tlntple  iili.'"' ■  '■'   T"-     ■  ■'  '-jning  one  iiiii%iioMti  qufli ">•  •*'" 

iiijiking    :  tty.   1111,1    Kialint;  tlie   i< 

oblem  to  '.' •  qiiatlou,  iiikI  then  K<' 

" '•■"  ,1.-   -c  n  hose  8UI11  Is  IHi.ml  diff- '■  ..^-   .-.  . 

;r -t-  14  r be  greater,     x  +  jt -{- M  =  Hi.    SU=! 

treble  exceeds  &n  hk  uvucb  aa  \\«  dnoV^]; 


iXGEBRA.  30 

Bqnatfon*  eontalnlnc  tw^o  anknoirn  ^nantltlea.— If  one 

Mjiiatiuii  conuiiiiH  two  uiikiiowu  quantiiieH,  x  and  y,  aii  itideUniie  number  of 
(urn  of  valueti  of  x  and  y  may  be  found  that  will  Hatlisfy  iIm  equation,  but  if 
twcood  t^iiation  b«  given  only  one  pair  of  values  can  Iw  foiiud  iliat  will 
■dsfy  boih  eqimtlons.  Siiuultaneuus  rqnatioDii.  or  ihose  that  may  be  aatis- 
led  by  (be  same  values  of  the  unknown  qiiaucities.  are  solved  hy  uoinbininx 
tte  rquationg  so  as  to  obtain  a  single  equation  coulainiOK  ouly  one  unlcuowu 
fluiUiy.    This  process  is  ealied  elimination. 

SiiMinatioii    ou   addition   or  siihliactinn.—'MultipW  the   equation   bv 
Mdinnmbere  as  will  make  tbe  coefllcients  of  one  of  the  unknouu  quantl- 
tia  equal  in  ibe  resultinKr  equntiun.    Add  or  subtract  the  resulting  equa* 
tioBii  accordinic  as  ihey  have  uulike  or  like  xi^ns. 
Hnln.  J  4r  +  8tf  =  7.    Multiply  by  8:    4x  +  6y=U 
"""^  \ix-6y  =  3.   Bubti-aot:  4x  -  by  =   8         111/  =  11 ;  y  s  1. 

BulMtitutintc  value  of  y  in  first  equation,  &c  +  3  =  T;  a;  =  S. 

Kliniiualion  by  tubittHutioiL. — Krnm  one  of  the  equations  obtain  tbe 
nlm  of  one  of  the  uuknonn  quantiiies  in  terms  of  the  other.  Substitu- 
tne  for  this  unknown  quautity  its  value  in  the  other  equation  and  reduce 
Die  multiug  equations. 

-.     J««  +  8ff  =  8.    (1).    From  (1)  we  find*  =  -5-^. 
I  a*  +  7^  =  7.    (2). 

SubiUtute  this  value  in  (.2):  8(^— )  +  7y  =  7;    =  S4  -  9y  +  14tf  =  14. 

tbencsp  =  —  8.    Bubstitnte  this  value  in  (1):  8a;  —  6  =  8;  a;  r:  7. 

ElimiMiitioH  by  comjuirinon. — From  each  equation  obtain  the  value  <t 
ou  of  tbe  unknown  quantities  in  terms  of  the  otiier.    Form  on  equation 
^  ttvm  ttirse  equal  values,  aud  reduce  this  equation. 

\ix-9y=U.   (I).    From  (1)  we  find  ar=^ii-^. 
i  \3x-4u  =  7.    (2).    From(2)weflnda;=-^tJl. 

Equating  these  values  of  x,       "^"'^    =    '    ^  ^  ;  19y  =  -  \0;  y  =  -  1. 

I     Substitute  this  value  of  r/  in  (11 :  2x  4-  9  =  11 ;  x  =  1. 
~   :     If  iliree  simultaneous   equatious   are  Kiven  containing  thrt^e  unknown 
-'  ■   tnamities,  one  of  the  unknown  quantities  mnst  be  eliminated  between  two 
.    J   ^irs  or  ihe  equations:  tifn  a  second  between  the  two  resnltinKeqiiutionx. 
'  I     ((utdratic    equations. — .\  qnadi-atic  equation  contains  tlie  siimire 
I   if  (lie  unknov^n  quutiiilv,  but  no  hi);l)er  power      A  pure  qimilralic  "oniiiir^s 
'    UleaqiiHre  only;  an  affected  quadratic  botti  the  square  and  ilie  ttist  ]io\vei-. 
■"■'      Til  tolve  a  pure  qiiadiiiUc,  collect  the  unknown   quantiiies  on  one  sjile, 
ind  the  known  quantities  on  ibe  other;  divide  by  the  coeflicient  of  llie  un- 
known quantity  aud  extract  the  square  root  of  each  side  of  tlie  resulting 
tq'iation. 
iiolve  3x»  -  15  =  0.    8x»  =  1.5;  x"  =  5;x=  V6 

A  root  like  ^s'  which  is  indicated,  but  which  can  be  found  only  approxi- 
•    mately,  is  called  a  surd.  

Salve  8x»  +  15  =  0.    ajr»  =  -  I5;a;«  = -6;  «=  V'-R. 
The  square  root  of  —  S  cannot  be  found  even  approximately,  for  the  Kqnare 
of  liny  number  positive  or  negative  is  positive;  therefore  a  root  wliich  is  i"- 
liicatetl.  but  cannot  be  found  even  approximately,  is  called  imiiginaiy. 

T'l  tidce  'in  affected  quadratic. — 1.    Convert  the  equation  into  the  form 

o-r*  ±  -ialtx  =  c,  multipTyliig  or  dividing  the  equation  if  necessary,  so  as 

■o  make  the  coefficient  of  x'  a  square  number. 

i.  Complete  the  square  of  the  first  menilier  of  the  equation,  so  as  to  con- 

I     vert  it  to  the  form  of  n'a;'  ±  •-'«&?  +  d',  which  is  file  square  of  the  biuatuilvV 

i     ox±b,  HK  IiMowe:  «dii  to  r-ach  slile  ot  the  equation  the  square  of  t\\ft  quo 

'     Hent  nhtaiiied  bj-  dividing  ilie  second  term  by  twice  the  SQuare  root  oV  V\v 

^W  /W777,  ^ 

X  Eitract  tite  stjasre  root  of  each  side  nf  tha  i.ao..ii.i  •• 

w«//./j'*.r-».«»-'-7aer=fle; /Xni^^T^-?'''"''  °'  't"  a  square  numto 

Oonifiete  Che  square:  ftr»  -  l^^I^  t  j/vf^^T  -;   ^a  =  4. 


'  -4~  4  —  i/vj       .T  *'   ■«■•  =  4. 

■r*-  100.     Kxtiact  the  root:  8x  -  S 


ALQBBRA. 


.  wlipnce  *  =  •!  or  -  2  9/8-    Tlie  wjuare  root  of  100  Is  either  +  1 
Him;*'  Lli*-  jsqiini  c  of  -  10  us  n-cll  hk  +  10«  =;  ICO. 

Pniblenii*  inv4)lviiiK  quadratic  i*qualioiiK  have  appaivntly  two  vollltj 
a  qiiiuli'HiJL'  Unn  l«o  nnitn.    HoiiifliintfH  hiith  will  bo  tru(?  «oliilions,  T 
eraliv  r>iii>  oiilv  uill  \n-  a  uoliitimi  stid  the  other  be  luconAlMent 
L'oiiJhiun^  of  ihe  I'n'lileui. 

TliKSiiin  of  the  sqimrt^s  of  Lwo  cotiHeculive  positive  numbera  I8  4&I.  Jl 
Ibe  nunilx-ra. 

I<ot  X  =  one  niimtx'r.  a-  -|-  t  Ihe  oUier.  j:'  +  (.t  4-  !)•  =  481.  Sa-*  +  it  -t 
-  <*"• 

afl  +  x  =  SM.  CoMiphMini?  the  KjUHre,  t«  -f  j  +  0,88  =  «0 ,«.  Extl»Cfl 
the  root  we  ohiain  j-  +  0.5  =  ±  IS.S;  jf  =  IS  or  —  16. 

The  poBitive  r.iol  glvi*  for  Uih  iiuiitl>i-rB  15  and  )fl.  The  ni^gallve  (Ml 
in  Is  iiiuoimMeiil  vtitit  ihe  ui>niUti<iiis  of  xhv  (iroblem.  1 

Qtisilralii'  equal iciiiiii  i.'nnlaliiiiiK  lun  iiiiUiionii  ^oHutitieg  require diffcfj 
meihods  foi-  tlieir  KoUiliou,  acouidiii^  to  the  form  of  the  equsliom.  I 
tbftu)  nielhdilH  leffiviu-e  imiNt  he  inmle  to  works  on  algebra. 

Tb«or|r  of  exponenUi V  o  uhitu  »  l«  a  positive  integer  is  one  o( 

M    

equal  fni-ioi  s  of  n.   y  «■"  means  a  U  to  be  raised  to  the  iitib  power  and  I 
mil  roaii  exirauied. 

'  V  11)    iiienns  iliai  the  titb  root  of  o  is  to  be  taken  and 
raised  III  ilie  nitli  power. 


^To 


VV"  =  \T'i  )      =  <i  ".    Wlieiti  ilie  exponent  tea  (iictlonMhA^ 
lnillcat<*«  o  power,  and  ihe  deuoiuluntor  a  root,    at  =  4'"*=  i 


extract  the  root  of  a  qiianllty  raised  to  on  indicated  powa 
the  expuoeut  bv  the  Index  of  the  required  root;  aa. 


Subtracting  1  from  liie  exponent  of  a  is  equivalent  to  dividing  by  o : 

»->  =(ti  =  (i:    fli  -I  =  a«  =  -  =  1;  »♦  -'  ="  -'  =  -;  a  -'  -'  =  o-"  = 
a  a  J 

A  luiinber  with  a  neBative  expoueiit  denotes  the  reciprocal  of  the  oninl 
with  the  corivspoiiiIhiK  posiiive  r-xpcufiil.  J 

A  fuctur  under  the  rmlicul  siKii  «how  root  can  he  taken  raa.v,  uyfaM^ 
the  root  taken,  l>e  i-eiuove>l  fioin  under  the  rndluiil  sign: 

A  factor  outside  the  radiual  «igu  may  l>e  raised  to  the 
power  und  plae.-d  liltiler  it: 

Binomial  Th«or«m.— To  oblAin  any  power,  08  the  ntb,  ofl 

prfssiKii  of  tlif  form  j-  +  <» 


II  (n  -  1)n' 


n  (n  -  IKn 


r.g  laws  hold  for  any  term  In  the  expansion  of  (n  -}-  x)». 
"'  of  r  Is  loss  tiy  one  than  the  number  of  term*. 

:  iif  a  1>  ;i  ii.ilni^  ll}f  I'ljiiDi-nt  (it  X.  ■ 

i  by  one  than  the  exponent  oH 
:ime  as  the  expoueut  of  x. 


GEOMETRICAL    PRORLRMS. 


GEOMETB.ICA1.  PROBLEMS. 


1 


Via.  I. 


}.  To  bikec't  a  ktralgltt.  line, 
or  an  arc  ol  a  circle  iMc.  \i.- 

Fl"Ora  Ihr  flld>   .^.    a    U-   L-Hllllrs.   dl 

scriue  uixis  intfi^ft'iiiii:  iit  <'  aiirl 
and  limu    a  line  iIiimukIi   (    au«l 
whioli  «ill  bisri't  lh«-  lint-  at   K  oi 
arc  al  F, 


1 


2.  Todratra  perpeiitltr.iilar 
to  a  Htrttleht  line,  or  a  radi    ' 
line  to  a  clrrular  arc.-Miiii<- 
iii  l'iMbl>^ni  I      I.  /Ms|irr|>>'ni\ii'iHHi 
(he  line  .1  J?,  and  aUi  niiliulto  ;  heme. 


ar 


3.  To  drawra  perpendlculcr 
|o  aHtralght  line  from  aglveu 
point  111  that  line  'It^v  .'i- v\  itii 
am  riiiliiis.  fi-o:;i  llie  pivcn  ).oiiit  A  in 
(lie  iiuc  B  I',  I'Ul  tlie  iiuo  ut  H  iiml 
Willi  a  longer  railins  descrilje  nr 
from  /fund  r.  riiiliiiK  <'in;li  oilier 
/).  and  di'AW  ilu-  f>ci|j('ii(Ilciilai  1>  A. 


4.  Fromtlieend  lora:{lven 
line  .1  J>  to  erect  a  perpendlc 
ular  .1  i'lFid.  ai  — FiiHM  uii.v  iii-nU' 
/■',  alxire  A  P,  tlHsciihenLMi'L-le  |in^slii[. 
l)ii'Oiii.'li  ihe  KJvcn  point  A,  und  cut 
UiiK  tiie  given  Hue  at  1).  Draw  l>  F 
Hiid  iiiiidiii-e  it.  iriciil  tJie  cirtli'  «»  K, 
iinil  clmw  111*!  I'fipriidicidur  A  K. 

SeciiiiU  ilrtlioil  (Fli;.  'D  — Kroiii  (III 
Kiveii  point  A  s-t  off  u  diKiunoe  A 
i.'qiial  to  three  (inrtK.  by  nuv  svalw 
and  ini  the  ceiilrtK  A  and  K,  m  illi  i  ndlj 
of  four  and  live  purls  i-especl i veiy, 
de»eiil>e  jirps Inlersvcllii);  Bt  C,  Draw 
till"  i>ei  peniliftdar  .1  C. 

\uTK  — This  iiiellicpd  is  m'lHl  useful 
on  very  Iniiie  seiiles.  whei«  sli-sielit 
«ilRe)tai«iii;ip|ilit'iil>lM.  Any  iiiulil|deK 
lit  the  nnndii'i'H  M,  4.  Ti  inny  l>n  taken 
with  I  lie  snine  effect  ft*  II,  R.  10,  or 
li!.  15. 


5.  T4><lrniv  a  perprndlrnlar 
to  u  Htral!(li(  llH(>  Ironi  any 

point  uituout  it  'I' Iff.  .-> )-  I' I , 

Til)*  |i<inii  A.  Miili  n  Kinieleiil  I'udiil4 
cut  tile  tciveii  line  at  K  uiid  <J,  iiiKl 
from  tlieso  poinU  descrilM-  arcs  rul- 
tiiiK  at  B.  Draw  tiie  perpPiidUiulflf 
A  H. 

U.  To  dra«r  a  Ntrnlulit  line 
parallel  to  a  eii'cn  line,  iit  n 
Kiv(!ii  dVt>\i&vic<(  '».v*>'<^'' 

Vvoil\    \\le    cv^wVyvs.  A .  V. 

line,  v>i\V\  \\\«- v\'«'-'^'' '^'*"*^ 


ill      , 

'4 

M 

I 

wit 


uiiiuajiixniuAii  trauBhlSUti. 
C 


-k B 


7.  To  divide  ■  stnOi^ 
Into  a  nninber  oreq.nal 

(Kiir.  •).— To  ilivtdt-  Hie  line  .^ 
say,  five  part.-,  draw  ilie  lin. 
an  anKle  fmnr  J;  set  off  B 
parts;  draw  B  5  and  draw  i>ai 
It  from  ilie  other  points  of  rii 
A  C.  Thexe  parallfcls  uividc 
required. 

NoiK.— Bya  similar  pnices 
may  be  divided  into  a  numlx 
equal  paits;  setting  off  divi 
A  C,  proportional  by  a  scale  t 
qidred  divisionR,  andilrawini; 
cutliUK  A  B.  Tlie  triaoKles  / 
AiS,  etc.,  are  similar  Manyl 


8.  Upon  a  atralgrbt  1 
dra«r  an  angle  equal 
Clven  ancle  (tig  m.— i.ei 
(tiven  uiiKir  and  /■  6  tlie  line 
the  point  A  Willi  any  radius 
Ilieuro /)  JS.  Kioin  i>'willi  t 
radius  describe  1  H.  Set  off 
1 H  equal  to  D  K.  and  draw  F 
angle  t'  is  equal  to  A,  as  i-equi 


9.  To  draw   auKlea  < 

and  30"  (l'i»r.  «i.— tioni 
any  radius  F  J.  descrilie  an  • 
and  fioin  /,  »iih  ibe  same  im 
the  art-  at  H  and  draw  F H 
tlie  required  angle //'//.  1) 
perpendicular  H  Ktoxhe  lias 
form  the  angle  o(  flU<>  F  H  K. 


10.  To  dra'w  an  angle 

(Fig.  10).— Set  oir  the  di>.tai 
draw  the  perpendicular  1  H  < 
/  F,  nnd  join  H  f  to  loriii  the 
F.    The  angle  at  /f  is  also  45°. 


11.  To  bisect  an  auci 

II).- Let  .^  t'if  be  the  anule; 
as  a  centre  draw  an  arc  eiill 
.tides  at  A,  B.  From  A  an 
centres,  describe  ari-s  cuilii 
other  at  D.  Draw  C  D,  dhic 
angle  into  two  equal  parts. 


13.    TliroaKli     two 
points  to  describe  au  i 
«  circle  wltli  a  clven  i 

(Fig.  la).— From  the  i.oii.ts  A 
»«  centies,  wUXt  \.\>e  f^Vvvu  v»i 
BCrthe  arm  «;»u\\vk  bv.  C  .  » 

7  with  the  saute  raA^vn  <X« 

jn.it  B. 


GfiOkStRtCAL  i>ttOBtlStfS. 


39 


Fie.  1& 


\. 


Fio.  U. 


Fio.  15. 


18.  To  find  (he  centre  of  a 
circle  or  of  an  are  of  a  circle 

(Fig.  13). — Select  lhre«  points.  A,  H, 
C,  in  the  circutnferencf.  whII  apart; 
with  the  same  radlux  dusoiilie  arcii 
from  these  three  points,  ciittini;  each 
other,  and  draw  thf  two  liupe,  fi  K, 
F  6,  through  thuir  intei-8<-ctioiiH.  Tlit- 
point  O.  where  they  cut,  is  the  centre 
of  the  i-ircle  or  iiiv. 

To  describe  a  circle  paBslug 
tbroneta  three  arlTcn  points. 
— Ijei.  A.  B.  C  lie  the  Kiveii  |i<>intx.  hihI 
proceed  a'<  in  laxt  proi'leni  lo  tlml  the 
centre  O,  from  which  the  eii-cle  nin.v 
bedescrihfd. 

14.  To  describe  an  arc  of 

a  circle  passlne  tlironsh 

three  Klven  points  ^vhc-u 

\H  the  centre  Is  not  available 

V  (Fie.H)  —From  theexrreinepoiuts 

'  A.B, a.s  centre-H,  descrilie  ui-cs  A  H. 

\         B  O.    Through  the  third  point  C 

,.-^^       draw  A  E.  B  K  cutting  the  arcs. 

^iL     Divide  ji.?  and  jB  E  into  any  nnm- 

;u    ker  of  equal  parts,  and  set  off  a 

1       series  of  equal  parts  of  the  same 

length  on  the  upper  portions  of  the 
arcs  beyond -the  points  SF.  Draw 
straight  lines,  B  L,  B  M,  etc.,  to 
tlie  divisions  in  A  F.  and  A  I^AK, 
etc.,  to  the  divisions  in  E  O.  The 
successive  intersections  iV,  O,  etc., 
of  tliese  li  e.<!  are  points  in  the 
circle  required  between  the  given 
points  A  and  C.  whicli  ma^  be 
drawn  in  ;  similarly  ilie  remaining 
part  of  the  curve  H  C  may  be 
described.     (See  also  Problem  51.) 

15.  To  draw  a  tanxent  to 
a  circle  from  a  slven  point 
In  the  clrcnmference  (Fig.  I'n. 
—  riirongh  the  given  point  A,  draw  the 
railial  line  A  C.  and  a  perpendicular 
to  it.  F «,  which  is  the  tangent  re- 
quired. 


F/a.  te. 


16.  To  dra-nr  taneents  to  a 
circle  fi-om  a  point  vrlthont 

It  (Fig.  It)).— From  A.  with  the  radius 
A  C,  descril)e  an  arc  B  C  D.  and  from 
C.  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
of  the  circle,  cut  the  arc  at  B  D.  Join 
B  C,  CD,  cutting  the  circle  at  E  F, 
and  draw  A  E,  A  F,  the  tangents. 

NoTK.— When  a  tangent  is  already 
drawn,  the  exact  point  of  contact  rniiy 
be  found  by  drawing  a  perpeudieulM 
to  it  from  the  centre. 


«SS?^if^«7/»«««.rf'/''*'.*?  draw  a  series  of  cir- 


40 


A 


on  />  describe  tlie  circle  BD,  to 
the  lines  and  ciitiini;  the  cent 
at  £.  Fioiii£<lra\v£J'p«rpen( 
to  the  crDtre  line,  ciiitiiig  A  B 
and  from  f'des<rribe  an  arc  E 
tinK  A  Bat  </.  Vitvf  O  H  pan 
B  P.  Kiviug  H,ibe  cenlre  of  II 
circle,  to  he  drscrilied  wiih  liie 
B E.nnd  soon  for  the  next  cir< 
Inversely,  I  lie  lai  pest  circle  i 
descrilwd  Brat,  and  the  Rniallt 
in  siiccewion.  Thi«  pmlileni  is 
qiieut  list;  in  scroll  wurk. 

18.  Between  two  Inc 
IlupM  to  draw  a  circalai 
men!  tangent  to  the  line 
panalntc  tnrongU  a.  pol 
on  the  line  h"  C  wblcli  bl 
tbe  angle  of  the  lines  (t 
— Thioiijih  i<'<lriiw  D  A  ut  ri^hi 
to  F  C  \  bisect  the  angles  A  an 
in  Prolilem  11.  by  lines  cuttin 
ami  frnni  C«itli  radius  CJFd 
arc  //  F  (j  re«inired. 

19.  To  draw^  a  clrenla 
tbat  will  be  tangent  t« 
given  linen  A  It  and  V 
cllned  to  one  anotIier< 
Inngentlal  point  IS  I 
given  (Fir.  I9).— L»raw  the 
line  y  F.  From  Bdraw  E Fa 
lo  angles  A  B :  then  F  is  the 
of  the  ciixrle  required. 

20.  To  deaerlbe  a  rlr 
arc  joining  two  circles, 
touching  one  of  them 
given  point  (  V\k-  20).— To  j( 
circlfs  A  ti,  FG.  by  an  arc  lo 
one  of  (hem  xi  F,  draw  the  radii 
and  pnidnceii  boili  ways.  Setc 
equal  to  the  radius  A  C  ot  lh» 
circle;  j'-in  C  H  and  bisect  it  n 
(lerpHndicnl  r  L  I,  culling  E. 
On  tlie  centre  /,  with  radius  I 
scribe  the  arc  F  A  as  required. 


2 1 .  To  draw  a  circle  m 
glveu  radlnn  U  that  tvl 
tangent  to  tivo  given  ci 

.1  and  It  (,Fig.  21)— Fmn) 
i>f  oinle  A  with  radius  equal 
riidiusof  A.  and  from  centre  of 
radius  equal  to  ii  +  radius  of  I 
two  arcs  cuttiiif;  each  oi  her  in  G 
will  be  the  centre  of  the  cir 
quired. 

22.  To   constrnct  an 
lateraV    IrVanLsX^  \\i« 
belns  gVveii  >  V'\«.  •&^ .— Ow ' 
of  ou«-  »\«io.  A,  B.  vi\\Vk  A.  B  « 
descvibe  a.rca  c\iM.\\\%  o-X.  C, 

.A  C,  C  B. 


OBOUETBICAL  FBOBLEHS. 


41 


Fto.  siH. 


23.  To  constrnet  a  triangle 
of  nneanal  aides  kV'\x.  :!IJ  —oh 
eiihrr  cud  ot  ilii-  imst?  A  D.  uUb  the 
side  B  as  radius,  describe  an  arc; 
and  with  the  side  C  as  radius,  on  ihe 
other  end  of  the  baae  as  a  cenire,  cut 
the  arc  at  E.    Join  A  H,  D  K. 


34.  To   eonatruct  a  square 
on  a  given  stralglat  line  A  Mt 

lFi(r.  sHj. — At  -4  eieci  a  iieriit-ndicnlar 
A  C.  as  in  Prolilrm  4.  L«j-  oit  A  D 
equal  to  ^  i?  ;  from  D  and  B  hk  ventres 
with  radios  eqnal  A  B,  descrilie  arcs 
cutting  each  other  tn  £.  Joi;ii)i!.'aud 
BE. 


25.  To  eonstmet  a  rect- 
angle  nritU  given  base  K  F 
andbelgtat  KU  (Fig.  itr>i.-On  ilie 
base  E  Frfraw  I  he  pei-pendiculnra  E  H, 
FO  equal  to  tlie  lieiglit,  and  join  U  II. 


26.  To  deacrtbe  a  circle 
about  a  triangle  iKi?.  iiii.— 
liisfut  two  sides  ,1  ti,  A  C  of  tlic  tri- 
nntle  at  E  F.  and  from  these  poinis 
diavvperpeniliculaiaouttiiiKat  K.  On 
ilie  centre  K,  with  Ihe  radius  A' .1, 
dr  iw  tlie  circle  ABC. 


27.  To  Inscribe  a  circle  lu 
a  triangle  (FiK  -'7).— Hiseot  iwo  of 
ilieanKJes^,  C,  of  tlie  triangle  l)y  lines 
cuttins  at  /) ;  from  O  draw  a  per- 
pendionlur  D  Eto  any  sidf,  and  wiili 
D  B  as  radius  (Ifsciibc  a  cirele. 

When  the  trianirle  is  equilateral, 
draw  a  perpendicular  from  one  of  the 
angles  to  the  opposite  side,  and  from 
the  side  setoff  one  third  of  the  per- 
pendiciilat'. 

28.  To  describe  a  circle 
about  a  square,  and  to  In- 
scribe a  square  In  a  circle  (Fig. 
•*).— To  describe  the  circle,  draw  the 
diagonals  AB,C  D  of  the  R<iuare,  cut- 
<liig  at  E.  On  the  centre  £,',  with  tuo 
radius  A  E,  describe  the  circlei. 

^  To  Inscribe  tbe  s^uaTe.— 
Draw  the  two  diameters,  A  B,  C  D,  w 
right  ao^rjes,  and  join  the  poi"^*  -^^  ^ 

M   *°  'o""  the  square. 

be  rfescribed  about  a.  reoi&nirAe.     - 


about  a  rectangle. 


QEOMETRICAL  PROBLEMS. 


S9.  To  luBcrlbe  m  circle  la  u 

■quare  (Mt:  'JUi.— To  in)<cribe  th« 
ciivl>-.  .ii-ttw  the  diaironals  A  B,  CK 
Li(  the  Mjuare.  I'litllug  at  E:  draw  the 
perpendli'Ulir  E  F  to  one-  Hidt;,  and 
Willi  ihe  radius  £  f  describe  One 
(.■iicl»>. 


30,  To  describe  a  RQttare 
■  bout  a  circle  iKi>;.30l — Dmwtwo 
ijiniiipi>i>  .4  /I.  (  l>  at  ri)!lii  Hngles. 
Willi  ibt-  ludmsof  tlie  circle  und  J. £, 
t'  and  J)  a<i  ociiires.  draw  tlie  (oar 
hair  nri'lra  wlih-li  cross  one  aaoUMT 
in  the  coinpi-B  uf  liic  Hqiiare. 


31.  To  Inscribe  a  pentacoa 
In  a  circle  <l!'\s,  »\<—l)m\\  iiiiun- 
cters  .-I  V.  II  l>  Ml  iij:lit  Miik:k>>.L'iiitiiif; 
at  o.  Hiseet  A  ■>  at  E.  niid  riiini  B, 
Willi  i-ailuis  /•-  B.  cui  .-1  Cat  E:  from 
B.  «iih  indiiis  ii  F,  t'lii  il*  L•il•^.•llraf^'^ 
eiice  ul  f>.  H.  and  wirb  ibf  same  radlufr 
sttji  louiul  tlie  liiclr  to  /iiiid  A';  join 
liie  r'oiuis  so  found  to  form  the  peoM- 
gon. 


82.  To  roniitruci  a  pentaw 
gon  on  a  iclven  line  J  7<  'I*'!?. 
H-')  -  [•  l.'lii  i(  i-ivi-l  n  )iei|>fliiiicular 
B  CUM  \W  IfhKih  "f  .1  £•:  join  i4  C? 
Hint  [iiolunaii  t"  A  makinBCl»=  BC. 
Tlifii  //  O  i«  ibe  i-Brtiii.  of  tb"  i-iic)« 
circLiinsi.Tlbitip  llif  jieiitnC"n.  FntHt- 
A  and  /JnMcvDti'fK  wllh  BOnsi-ndius, 
draw  nif-i  ciitliiiE  I'ocli  oili'r  in  0, 
wIiIl-Ii  is  IliH  r-culrB  (if  llit^  circ-le. 

33.  To  conRtrnct  a  hexaxoK 
upon   a  Elveu   afralffbt   line 

[Y\\i.  a-ji.— l"ii>ni  A  iimi  /'.  ilie  endsuC 
the  bIvsii  liup,  «iih  radius  A  H.  ila- 
scrihi-  arcs  L'littinE  at  r;  :  from  p.  witte 
IIiH  radius  g  A,  deacrilif  a  circle;  will* 
lliu  saniu  rndiiia  set.  off  ^he  Hies  AG, 
G  A*. anil  /V  M  O  K.  Join  the  )H.into*9 
found  to  fiirm  the  hexnproii.  The  8id» 
of  a  liMxagoii  =  railliis  of  its  circum- 
BcrH>ed  i'licle. 

34.  To  InKcrlbe  a  bexagon 
lu  a  circle  1 1'^^.  Hi  I. — DriLw  ji  difiiii- 
eter  ,4  Cll.  Kruni  .laud  Bus  oentreSf 
Willi  ilie  raiiiiw  of  the  circle  A  C,  cut 
the  cliviiinfeiviice  ai  li,  E,  F,  O,  ami 
draw  A  D,  O  E.  etc..  to  form  the  hnoi- 
Kou.  The  iiLdiiis  (if  ihp  t'inle  ih equal 
lothcRide  of  the  liexaKon;  Ihi-reror* 
the  points  D,  E,  etc..  imiy  niso  ho 
found  by  Kteppin^  ihe  ratlins  sdX 
time*  TuViTid  \he  circle.  The  niiirlu 
lietwrei*  iVve  d\a>w«XfeT  ^vi&Wv  rtiwst 
a  hf-xaeon  b.i\A  aXso  vV\e  <»»feir\iiT  oci'>\^>i 
between  iv  vkWe  axiA  »"  ik.(Ni»i:few\  A^ 
proti'BKeU  Vs  tW  Aefeveea-.  VVW 
liexi»K"ii  n>as  Cf.njevitetiVVi  ^- 
by  tb«  use  otm  WJ-Aeetoe^**" 


OEOUETaiCAL  PaOBLEMS. 


Vie.  84. 


Via. 


na.  ML 


23.  To  coniitruet  a  trian 
of  anequal   aldea    Fitr.    .:ai — i 
eiili<-i  cUd  oi  ihi-  ipii.-^  A  i».  »iib  ilie 
sicli^    //  an    ruUiiis.   lU'SCrilji-  un  ni'c; 
and  with  tlie  sid.'  C  us  laihuK.  on 
other  eiiil  of  tbe  btiae  a!-  a  cenirr, 
ihe  ore  at  S.    Joiti  .-J  K.  D  K. 


1 

I  lie 
ii'c; 


24.  To   coiiPtrurt  a   tqnare 
on  a  elven  stralirbt  Hue  A  K 

iKIh  Hi. — Al  -4  i"t-i-i  a  (.(-I  |.i-iid(L'iilai- 
A  C.  OS  ill  Proldt-m  t  hny  n«  A  D 
Initial  m  A  B  :  from  1<  mid  fi  us  i«iiiris 
w.th  rodiuR  equal  ^1  B,  tlescrl^'e  a 
i-utllng  eachotlierlii  A'.  Joiii/JA'i 
BE. 


35.  To     construct     a    reefl 
anfic  with    given  base    t:  F 
and  bplghi  f  n  ii"K.  -i'.'.-On  ilie 
baw  K.  /•'draw  llif  pi'i^K-iiJlu'iilai-siri^ 
FO  equal  lu  tlie  liuiglil,  and  join  U^H 


20.  To     dencrlbe    a     cirela 
abont    a    triangle    iFI?.    i'lj, 
llisi'ii  tvvfi  -ijili-h  .1  /.'.  .1  C  i>f  llle 
iiiitflu  al  K  b'.  mid  fruiii  thesfi  pol 
il'im- perpeiiiliouluiBfUtllnKat  K. 
I  lie  oentre  if,  with   Ihr   lading  JC, 
dr  ,w  Ihe  circlp  A  B  C. 


ela 

I 


27.  To  Inaerlbe  a  circle  In 
a  triangle (KiK  '.'Ti  — Hwrct  two  of 
ili.-nut'l'-f  A,  f\  'd  tliH  ii'laii|;le  b)-  lliiea 
iMiiiiiiB  III  /' ;  friim  1)  draw  a  ppr- 
|iHialiciilur  />  KU>  any  sid«-,  iiiid  uiih 
t)  E  as  i'iidiii:s  d.-sci  il«'  a  uipcle. 

When  tliD  irlaiiKle  In  fqiilliitcrnl, 
draw  a  ptTpeiidlc'iilttr  from  one  iif  1ti<" 
nii^1>*M  to  the  uptiosite  side,  &m\\  frtnii 
lhi»sidf  8(fl  off  i>iii>  thl'il  of  lln»  prt'- 
|iiMidlL*nlrii'. 

28.  To    doBc-rlbe     a    elrclu 

about   a  squnrc,  and   tu   In* 

•icrlbe  a  square  In  a  circle  (l-'ii;- 

Wi.-To  di'sL-ribr*  ili^  <-iwlf.  draw  tin*    J 

diftj,'"iifils  A  It,  L'  l>  uf  I  lit' wiuttip,  oiit-  i 

fillip  at  E     On  the  L't-utre  K.  nith  thts  I 

radius  A  E,  di'siribi"  Ilic  circle.  1 

To    Inncrlbe    the    Mnare.—  1 

Draw  ihp  V'wo  A\».\\\evv^v*,.  X  V..«L  V>,«^ 
rlg\n.  a.ug\v!e>,  ».w\  'io\\v  \.\\tt  vj™^*  ^^S 
C  X> ,  \^0  I OTXW  \.Vi*-  w\v«w « . 

licrta.— \^  v^ve.  *»«»«'«« 


44 


GBOlfETfttCAL  PUOBLEMS. 


Fio.  49. 


villi  the  radius  A  B,  drmirlbe * M 
ciri-le:  divide  the  semi-drcumfenHi  » 
iiitoaR  iiiaiiy  equal  parts  as  thmi  Hi  > 
to  be  Kld««  in  I  lie  polyeon— i«]r,iii  lUl  i 
example,  flv«8id««.    DrawHnnflWi 
/I  tliroiiKh  tlie  divisional  FOiiiti>D.ti 
and  c.  oniittiDK  one  point  a  ;  Riid  oa 
llie  ceiitiex  B.D,  "itfi  tlieradiuoilA 
cut  ^  ft  at  £  and  AeatF.    Draw  DM, 
E  F,  F  Bto  coiiiplf  te  the  polygOD. 

41.  To  Inscribe  a  elrd* 
'Within  a  polyeon  (FIkk.  4l,4«i,- 
Wlieti  I  be  poly  KunTiao  an  even  iiumhrr 
of  sides  (fig.  41),  bt>ect  two  opporita 
Kides  at  A  Hiid  H;  draw  ^  B.  and  bisrct 
it  at  C  by  a  diagonal  D  B.  and  witk 
the  radiui)  C  A  deacrilie  the  irircle. 

When  ilie  number  of  sides  ii  cM 
(Kii;.  4'j),  bisect  two  of  the  sides tfi 
and  B.  and  draw  lines  A  B.BD  lo»» 
opposite  angles,  interBecUui;  at  C; 
fi-oiii  C.  with  the  radius  CA,  deacribe 
the  circle. 


42.   To   deaexlbe   m,    elrdt 

'Without  a  polTCOn  (FiKs.  41. 4A 
—Find  the  centre  (7  as  before,  and  will 
the  radius  C  D  describe  tiie  circle. 


43.  To  Inserlhe  a  poiygoB  i 
of  any  number  of  stdea  wltli*  | 
In  a   circle   d-'lg.   48).— Draw  tin-  •; 
diniiiHcr  A  li  and  through  thecenirt  - 
E  (Irnw  the  iierpemlicnlar  EC.  culling  ■ 
the  circle  ai  F.    Divide  E  F  into  foiir  .; 
equal  [laits.  nnd  set  olt  three  purii 
equal  to  those  fmm  F  to  C.    Uivl*  - 
the  diameter  .4  Binto  as  ninny  eqiul  ' 
partK  lis  the  pol.veon  is  lo  have  shie*; 
and  from   C  drnw  C  D,  through  tte 
second  point  of  division,  cutting  the 
circle  nt  Z).    Then  A  D  i»  equal  tooM 
side  of  the  polygon,  and  by  steppinf 
round    the    circiiinfereDoe   with   ito 
leni;ih  A  Otlie  polygon  maybe  com- 
pleted. 


TABLE  OF  POLYGONS L  ANGLES. 


Number 

Angle 

Niiiiiber 

Ati^'le 

Nnmlier 

Angle 

of  8ides. 

at  Centre. 

of  Sides. 

at  Centra. 

of  Sides. 

at  Centre. 

Ko. 

Degrees. 

No. 
R 

Degrees. 
40 

No. 
15 

Degree. 

*        / 

90 

10 

86 

\      "^^ 

\      1J^ 

^        / 

72 

11 

3Jft 

W   ■" 

*        / 

60 

18 

1          »1 

w   ^* 

\       '*l 

'    / 

1.1 
14 

\         ^^ 

\\« 

\      ^* 

Pio.  8B. 
E       AC 


35.  To  destrrtbc  a  bcxaeoi 
about  a  circle  iKik  35i.— Draw  a 
iliaiiii'lrr  A  l>  h,  «nii  wilh  thf  radius 
A  l>,  on  the  ceiiti-e  A,  out  llie  circurn- 
fi'i't-ni-e  at  C  ;  join  A  ('.  and  bi»ec-t  it. 
with  Uie  ittdius  U  Ji  ;  tliroiiuli  EdifLw 
F(i,  parnllel  to  .-(  0, L-nlli'iK  the  diniii' 
ft<?r  at  F,  iind  wirl»  the  railiii!*  D  ^d«*- 
WLMibi-  Uii?  fliOiiiuj<ci-lliiiiK  I'ircle  >' W. 
Wirtiiii  t  liiii  click'  deKt,'rll>i<  a  liHxaK<iti 
liy  tli>,'  jjrreeiliiip  niulp|(."ni.  A  more 
cuiivenirnt  iiiftiuMl  is  hy  tise  of  a  W- 
(iecree  triangle.  Fimr  of  the  sides 
inakt*  auKlet)  of  CO  deK>'<'f  ^  willi  tiii* 
fliaiii>-t<;i.  »nd  ilie  fiihcr  IvvnniB  par- 
nllel  10  llie  dmiiit-U-f. 

30.  To  deHrrlb4>  an  ortaffon 
on  a  given  nlralKht  line  >.tig, 
3B).-FiLnlut;c  llie  jiixcii  lint'  A  li  Imtii 
ways,  ami  ilrttw  pfrprmlicuIiifH  A  E., 
B  F\  bisect  the  extem.-il  aiiiiles  .4  and 
B  by  the  llntw  A  H,  B  C.  « liioli  uittke 
equal  lo  A  B.  Draw  C  />  mid  H  If  p«r- 
allel  ti)  A  K.  ntid  equal  lo  A  B  \  from 
Uie  Centres  (J,  t>.  with  the  radiUH  A  B, 
cut  the  nerpi'iidk'iilftis  nt  K,  F,  and 
draw  B >' tocuiiipleie  llie  oclagtjn. 

37.  To  coDTprt  a  aqnarp 
Into  an  octagon  (Kiir  :i7). — i>raw 
tli^  <l.ii{;<'ii)ti>;  »•!  (be  .sQiwire  euLtlii^  at 
e  ;  from  the  coriiers  A.  U,  C.  D,  viitli 
A  ft  MS  rudiiiH,  dei*cril>*?  arc-a  cultiitjE 
tliH  sides  lit  iin.  fk,  hut,  and  oJ,  atid 
Join  tbi;  ptiiuis  Ko  found  lu  fnrrii  the 
ociapin.  Adjacent  sides  of  an  oC^ 
gon  make  an  angle  of  I3D  degrees. 


I 


38.  To  Inscribe  an  octagon 
In  a  circle  iKip.  JWj.-lnaw  two 
dianietei>,  A  C,  B  D  at  risrht  angles; 
bisect  the  iiics  A  H.  B  C.  etc  .  lit  t  f, 
eti.',,iiiid  join  At.eB,  etc.,  to  form 
ibe  ouiaison. 


^ 


30,  To  deiicrlbe  an  octairon 
about  a  circle  iKif;,  :iili.— Iittsuribe 
II  Ml  lao-  (Hkiiii  ibe  Kiien  I'iicle  A  B '. 
itiHM'  peri'eiiilleiil:irs  /i  Jt.  etc  .  to  thtt 
diatfonal^,  toiioliing  llie  circle  lo  for 
tile  uotauou. 


>  GEOM ETHICAL   PROBLEMS. 

ints  I.  i.  8,  etc.    Willi  the  railiiifi  A  I  on  F  and  F'  a*  centm,  dMcriki 
».  and  with  ilie  radius  B I  on  the  etuue  eenires  cut  thexe  an.-*  as  ifacnniji 
n  Kf|ieHt  ibe  oiiri-atioii  for   Ihn  MlMi  *' 

-*—  divlHiiiDs  (it  the  irniiMVi-rM)  axbu.   TIN 

aeries  of  interKfciioDx  thus  made  an. 
points  in  tlie  curve.  ti.rouKh  which  Ito' 
curve  may  lie  tracvtl. 

5th  Method  (Fik.  4R).— On  Ihe  t«0 
axex  A  B.  D  Eaa  diauieteiv,  on  cram 
C.  (lescriue  cirulrs;  from  a  iiuuibvrof 
poiiiiR  a,  b,  etc..  In  the  ciruumfereDoe 
AFB.  draw  radii  cuttiiifr  ilie  liiMt 
ciiele  at  a',  /<',  etc.  From  a,  b.  rtb, 
draw  perpendiculam  In  Ab;  and  from 
a',  b',  etc.,  drsn-  (larallels  to  il  A  cot- 
ting  il>e  resiieclivr  periieiidiculan  at 
n.  II.  etc.  Tiie  iiiierpectlonF  are  potutt 
ill  tiie  curve,  iliroiitili  wbiclj  the  com 
mav  be  traced. 

6(/t  Method  (Fig.  4(1).  — When  the 
transverse  and  i-onjuitate  diamrtcfl 
are  Kiveii.  A  B.  C  D.  draw  the  tanaeat 
E  F  parallel  to  A  H.  I'rodiice  CD, 
and  on  th>-  centre  O  witli  the  ndta 
of  linlf  A  B.  dftsciilie  a  semicirak 
II  O  K;  from  tlie  centie  O  draw  an; 
number  of  strHifclit  lines  to  the  poiiiU 
K.  I-.  etc.,  in  tlie  line  E  F,  cntliiiK  the 
circiiiiiference  at  1,  ni,  n,  etc.;  from 
the  centre  O  of  the  ellipse  draw 
siniiulit  lines  to  the  points  £,>-,  eta; 
anil  fi  (>in  tlie  points  (,  m, »,  etc.,  drew 
pHrallels  to  G  0, cutting  the  lines  OS, 
O  r.  etc.,  at  /,,  JIf.  N,  etc.  These  ar* 
poinis  in  the  circumference  of  tbe 
ellipse,  anil  tbe  curve  iiiaj-  lie  traced 
tiiroutih  them.  ruintK  in  ihe  other 
half  of  I  he  ellipse  are  formed  hy  ex- 
leudini;  the  intersectlDK  lines  as  iudi- 
cated  in  ilie  fiiriii-e. 

45.  To  dPHcrlbo  an  elllpM 
approximately  by  means  •! 
ffmilar  arc»,— T'li*'.— With  arcs 
of  Lwo  ludii  U'iK-  50j.-Find  tbediffe^ 
ence  of  the  sfinl-HXes,  and  Ket  it  off 
fi-om  the  fentre  O  to  »i  and  c  on  Oi 
and  0  V ;  draw  a  c.  and  set  off  h»lf 
«  c  to  (/ :  (Irnw  d  i  parallel  to  a  <■;  eet 
off  O  e  eumil  t"  O  (i;  join  e  /,  and  draw 
tlie  puraliels  *>  »i,  d  m.  From  ni,  wiih 
railiiis  »)i  C  desrrilie  an  arc  throuKh 
C :  and  from  /  describe  an  arc  through  - 
D;  frciMi '/and  >- describe  arcs  tlirounh 
A  iiiid  B.  The  four  arcs  form  the 
ellipse  Bjiproxiinately. 

Note.—  I'his  method  does  not  apptf 
satisfactorily  when  the  conjugate  axiil 
is  loss  than  two  thirds  ot  the  trans- 
verse nxis. 

'M    Method      (by   Carl    G.    Barti, 
Fi^.  51).-  In  Fie  h\  a  b  is  the  major 
and  rd  the  iiiixor  axis  of  the  ellipse 
to  he  aiiproxiinated.  La.r  off  b  e  vqinl 
to  l\if  sen<\-\\\\w'vr  axis  <•  O,  Hud  use  n  « 
«.«  railHis  for  \\\e  &v«  aX,  eac\\  cxXtvwv^ 
of  the  iii\uor  ax'vs.    %\»kc\.  <•  »  «.  1  ».\A 
lav  oft  e  (|  t-mMvA  Vo  *  J,  »tv&  \3*»!  oXj** 
riidiiis  iiiv  t\w'  «ic  »v  eacYv  «x.\ve\a\Vl 
of  Ibv  uiayiv  axVa. 


iVBTRTCAL    PROPOSITIONS. 


OEOMETRICAL   FBOPOSITIONS.  1 

irtrht-ansfled  triangle  tlie  square  on  the  hypolbcntitve  is  pqiiiil  to  Uw 

of  the  squares  on  the  olhtT  two  ».1Ji!k. 

ttrianpflc^  is  e^juilateial.  if  is  eqtitanj^ulMr.  and  I'ii-e  vet\ttf. 

istmlght.  lint-  from  tlie  Tcr(<-x  of  bm  i«»o>-ltri<  iiiaiiKlo  bi«*PM  lh«  Due, 

"CUttii?  v.'rihMl  uii..'l>'  liiTl  1^  p.  I'pfmJIi'dlHf  I')  ihe  bAse. 

'>t<  rxlerior  HriKlw  !•  equal  <o  llie  tiun», 

nKnlnr.   they  Bre  Hlmllur  anil  tbrir] 

^■uu  ui-e  pr«.liii-<^il  la  «he  sauie  order,  the  mm  of  tb«| 

^  four  ripflit  aiiffte^, 
ral.  tile  Ruin  of  Iht-  inleiiur  anK^*^^  fipiaU  ftiiir  1 1, 
i;raiii,  llie  I'ppfjiilte  biJes  afe  tyjual  *,    ihe  opji 
'  ixsecteU  by  lui  dijiKunal;  am)   Its  UingoiiBl»   >■ 

T. 

Ibnr«  pDtiiLs  uvk  not  in  the  same  atraiglitlinc,  a  circle  iiiay  bn  piiK6«4] 
'WUtbtrm.  ] 

t*i>(n9  are  intercepted  on  tlie  samu  cJivIe,  tliey  are  proporliotml  t4^\ 
WmpoiHlInK'  aiifcles  at  die  ut- ritiv. 

IWIiTS  arc  similar,  ttiey  are  proportional  to  their  radii. 
MX"  r-les  ar^  pro|>ortiuua1  to  ihesqimrM  i>r  tlit<ir  rtutil. 

»"  liciilur  tr.  a  chord,  it  bisects  Mm  chord  uiid  it  l>t9evl« 

*'*"  iiiooliord. 

"   iMijgfiii  to  a  circle  mvet*  it  in  only  our  foint,  and  ll  la 
I  llje  rniiiiis  drawn  lo  tiiat  point. 

•  Hlthoiit  a  circle  taiiRcnia  ara  dr»wn  to  toufib  Ihe  clrcli", 
-  "quul,  aiiii  tbvy  ninlie  equal  aiif;le«  wlih  the 
■  ints. 

I  chords  or  a  tangent  aiid  parallel  chin-d,  tliej- 
'W|ii  r^i,ini  iin-^  f.r  a  i-ircle. 

*li  wiKl'i  at  I  lie  i;i  roil  inference  of  a  circle,  Itetweeti  two  cbOMla.  h  »ul)- 
W  by  i)i«-  "nnu"  an-  a«  nn  nnirte  at  the  centre,  between  two  ndll,  tlia 
eiM  ll  to  hal/ the  allele  at  rlie  centre. 

'In  ijclrcle.  il  i«  rlght-angied. 

">■!'  nt  and  cliord,  II  i*  nienFiireil  hy  onfl  half 

•■l""''i  <•>  ""■  rnord;  that  ia.  It  is  equal  Co  halt  (hi- aiiprte  ut 
'i.leil  liy  the  chord. 
iiit»-r«ei-t  each  other  in  a  circle,  the  reetanft'e  of  thr  ai-g- 
'~  the  i-ooiangle  of  tlie  segiiieiita  of  ilit>  'jtlier. 
^  a  rliainelt-r  and  the  other  perpendicular  toll.  tb« 
nt.s  <>r  Ihi' (liaiuoter  is  equal  to  the  xqiiarx  on  bat/ the 
vii"iii.  M[i>:  ini:  tiaif  chord  ia  u  uieau  pi-oportiuual  b»tW4ea  the  mbk- 
■«<  liitf  tUaowter. 


f 


54  MENSURATION. 

MENSURATION. 

PLiANB  SIIBPACES. 

aaadrilatrral.  -A  foiir-sMed  flKure. 

l>aralleluiiraiu>— •'^  (liiuililliiiei^l  with  oppu!>it<!  t^ides  parallel. 

KorirdM -t?»iuM.re:  four  sidrs  .-qunl,  all  nnKlr-H  riglii  autrles.  Kfct 
oppo^itp  siiji's  p'qual.  all  aunU'S  riKhl  ttiii.'li->'.  KlinmliiiK:  fnur.-ldexi 
opposite  aiiKlf*  i>iiial,  aiuli-^  K"'  "Kl't  i.uifltfx.  Kliuiiiiiulil;  uppo-'"- 
enmil.  oitiiiislif-  anKli''*  fqiiiil.  Hiiple*  imt.  riglit  aiinli-n. 

Xra'MfZlum.     A  qiiuilriiutfrul  witli  uiirqiiiil  MiteH. 

Trai»fa;«ld.     A   »|iiuiliiliiteiiil  ndU  ulily   oUe   pair   of  oppOSttB 
pural  i-l.  

Dlatroiial  of  a  square  =  ^^3  x  >ld«*  =  :AUi  X  aide. 


Olag.  or  a  rrctanKip  -   ^siim  of  sqiiaivMof  iwu  atljaccut 

Area  ot  any  parallclnerain  =  Imsc  >:  altituile. 

Arra  ol'rlionihiiH  or  riaoiiibold  =  pruducl  of  two  adjacent 
X  !*«iie  of  tiinrlt*  iitclutifii  Ji»'i  wei'U  Un  ui. 

Arra  ol'a  trapezlaiii  -  linll' ilitt  (imduot  nf  the  lUagoiial  byUwi 
of  rill-  |ii-i  |ii-iiilk-iiii'i  p.  In  fail  on  it  from  oppnsiit*  nuf^les. 

Area  ul'tt  trapezoid  —  piiuluct  "f  half  (be  sum  of  the  two 
Bitit-s  iiA  tiir  I '*■»  pi'iuiictiiar  flirititrn'o  l*elvit'"ii  ijn-ni. 

To  flod   the  area   or  any  qiiiidrllaleral   flsurc- 
quiuli'lluiei'uliiiiu  two  tiluii{;ies;  ilitsuiii  ul  ilia  uilma  uI  iuk  iiianglej 
aifa. 

Or,  multiply  linir  the  prtxluct  of  thn  two  tllaifoiiala  by  the  sine  ot 
at  ih»-li'  iniHishftl.iii. 

To  find  the  nr«a  of  a  quadrilateral  liinrribcd  in  sell 
^l''rit|ii  h.iU  lilt:  hillij  ut  lln^  tuuf  biiiea  .-^uljiracl  t-ach   tililn  Hriemily 
plv  ihi'  four  rruiaiiiders  loEt'dnT;  ih^-Bqiiare  root  of  the  picwluiit  iii 

Trianele — A  ilirfe-sMt-il  pimiij  fluuri;. 

1  cintoe^s-.  — Rijj(hl-an^leil,  having  oii*^  ri^lit  angle;  ohtnsie-anK'll 
oni"  obtiist-  anKlt^ ;  isos<:eli-8.  biivinir  two  equal  anKU;iiand  twoequi 
equilatural,  haviui;  ihreii  equul  KideHaml  equal  utigleti. 

The  siiin  of  the  three  Hiiglrg  of  eveiy  triniinh'  —  IN)". 

ThR  two  ocum  an);lo<i  of  a.  right  augleii  triunjjlu  urt!  conipleinenbi  of  < 
other. 

Hypotheuuse  of  a  ripht-anulPd  irianKle,  the  side  opp08it«  the  rigbf  i 

r:  y'sinii  of  the  Hqiiai't'^  uf  iLe  i>ilier  ik\  i>  sideti. 
To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  t 

UliLK  I.  .UulillilA  the  LiilKe  liy  Ijulf  the  ulliliirie. 

Rule  i.  Multiply  half  ihoprodifct  of  two  sideg  by  the  sine  of  tbe  lo 
atiRle. 

ItuLE  3.  Froi:i  half  the  sum  of  tbe  three  EiitTe<;  subtract  each  side  avvvi* 
multiply  together  the  half  t<um  aiul  the  three  reiuaiuJer»,  aud  extract 
gqiiiiru  root  of  tlif  piodiict. 

Theai'ea  ot  an  equilateral  triangle  Is  equal  to  one  fourth  the  square  otl 

of  Ita  sides  multiplied  by  Uie  square  i-oot  of  8,  =  "'    ^,  a  beUig  the  side; 

4 
a»  X  .433013. 

Hypoilieuuse  and  cue  side  of  rljtht-angTed  triangle  given,  to  find  other  t 
Required  side  =  Vhyp'  —  Kiveu  Hiile*. 
If  tlie  two  sides  aib  equal,  side  =  liyp  +  l.-tHS;  or  hyp  x  .7071. 
Area  of  a  triaugle  Kiveii,  to  flnd  base;  Base  =  tw  iet>  area  -t-  perpeodiei 
height 
Ai-fn  ot  a  triangle  given,  to  fiinl  heittht:  Height  =  twice  area  -»-  base. 
Tn-o  s/den  anil  hast!  iJli'ei' ,  to  Uli'.  penieuiWeuVnt  \xe\\5,V\\.  \.\»  b.  lrian|;la 
vMch  ttf)th  or'  (Jie  aiitr!e.s  at  Ihe  base  are  ac»Ve>. 

RvLS. — A"  the  Ijtixa  ik  to  llie  sum  <.f  lUe  swXt^.Ba  \s t.\\»  fiXtteTftvvc* t^ 
5«We«  ro  the  rfi/Tf/pnce  of  l  Iih  divisions  >>V  iVu-  !>«««  tooAk  V>5  v\v«.« w*<« 
Vtftitiicnlnr.    Halt  this  (JlffiT-noe  lieiiin  fti\.\oi\  Vn  or  toV>U»c\^  \To«f 
foe  base  i,//;  g/ve  ilie  two  divisloii.s  tViereo*.     &a  eacVv  «\4e  saAW*  u«' 


PltAKB  8UBFA0ES. 


55 


I  of  the  base  constltutee  a  right-angled  friongle.  the  perpendicular  is 

.iiitkl  by  the  rule  pei-pendictilar  =  Vjiypa  _  batiet. 

fgon.  —  A  plant-  0gure  hiiTiiiK  tbreu  or  more  Ride*.      Rnrular  or 

ur,  ticcordiiiK  as  the  sides  or  aiiglvti  ai-e  equal  or  uuequal.    Polygons 

lied  from  I.1|H  iiunibHr  of  Lht*ir  Kiilen  nnd  aiiirlHS. 

And.  the  area  or  an  Irregular  polygon.— Draw  diagonals 

>)C  tiie  polyHOn  into  triaugles,  uud  UnU  tlie  buiii  of  ibe  areas  of  Ihese 

and  tlie  area  of  a  regular  polygon  i 

c. — Multiply  itae  Wngiii  uf  a  KiUe  by  llit;  prrfiendlcular  distance  to  the 
';  miiUiply  tlie  product  by  tlie  uumber  of  sides,  aud  divide  it  by  2. 
alUply  half  the  perimeter  by  ttie  perpeodicular  let  fall  from  the  centre 
;  or  Che  sides. 

perpendicular  from  the  centre  is  equal  to  half  of  one  of  the  sides  of 
>Iyi;on  multiplied  by  the  cotangent  of  the  angle  subtended  by  the  half 

t  angle  at  the  centre  =  360°  divided  by  the  nnmber  of  sides. 
TABLE  OP  REGULAR  POLYGONS. 


Radius  or  Cir- 

GuniEx^rilied 

1        ; 

i 

Circle. 

^ 

■a 

lA 

W4 

o" 

c'a 

!■ 

a 

1 

II 

1 

a 

£  II 

n 

11 

r 

P 
Hi 

4 

1 

TrianKle 

.  43*0137 

1, 

.5773 

.2fiS7 

i.rs* 

120* 

en* 

■•qiiftrB 

1, 

1.J14 

.Tori 

.5 

1   414$! 

W 

W1 

Psiitttgoo 

1.7304774 

l.SH 

.Bsoe 

,B9na 

1   I7.'.6 

7-j 

1(18 

fle^a^oti 

S  .'iH.'tO^tiJ 

l.l.'jd 

I. 

.(lIM 

1. 

m 

rjo 

appcagon 

3.ffit39l,i4 

1. 11 

1,]S24 

i.osm 

.6877 

SlSfl' 

1VJ6I-7 

actajfnn 

i  ft3Sia7l 

I.OHl 

i.sooe 

1.S07? 

s&sa 

J.'i 

las 

!tKDai;oii 

fi.iaifatj 

I.WI 

l.TO1» 

1.37rl7 

MV4 

Jt( 

i40 

D^^'a^uii 

7.004i.HW 

l.ftjl 

Mil8 

l.SiJ-W 

.BIH 

SLi 

!41 

L'n>lei;Rjrori 

S  M:)(>i:i'J 

lint 

]  .Vi~ 

l.TfrflJ 

.6044 

»i  11' 

uTa-ll 

DuJecaKOn 

11.1B515J* 

1.037 

l.DillU 

1.8(i6 

.6176 

^ 

isd 

a  find  tbe  area  of  a  regular  polygon,  vrlteii  the  lenscth 
I  Hide  only  Is  given : 

•LK.— -Multiply  the  square  of  the  side  by  the  multiplier  opposite  to  the 
eof  thR  polviroii  in  tbe  tsible. 

0  And  the  area  of  an  Ir- 
ular  figure  (Fis.  B9).— Draw  or- 
les  Huiuss  its  lireadth  at  equal 
iiices  apart,  the  first  and  the  last 
nate  each  beinsr  one  half  spaoe 

1  the  endn  of  the  figure.     Finn  the 
•iige  breadth   by  adding  together 
leugrths  of  these  Ihies  included  be- 
sii  the  boundaries  of  the  fljrure, 
divide  by  the  number  of  the  lines 
'd;  multiplv  this  mean  breadtli  by 
length.    The  greater  the  number 
lies  tbe  nearer  thu  Hpproxiii)n  lion, 
t /Igr'ii'e  of  very  irreenlur  outliriK.  as  an  /nrf/pafm- Hiao.i.,>m  r>«.»  -  v:~v. 
ecP»m-engwe,  mean  lines  nmy  he  8<,b%tuttVfX.th^''"^  'f°'"  ahlKV 
belng-so  traeed  as  to  intersect  fhe  mi./.w.^-  ^^'  ''"'  actual  litiea  ol  t\\e 
^race^cut  oil  way  be  coniueas&ted  hi,v^°^\^'^  '^at  the  total  are* 

ojr  liiat  of  the  extra  epauea  In' 


OROJffETRICAL  PftOBLEMS. 


J 


49.  The  Eplcydol 

(;riii-iiii>^a  liy  a  piMiii  /»  i 
D  C  rolliij;;  i>|xiii  tli«  ciTO 
ftiKitlier  olicle  --I  C  B.  Itm 
llttl  sui-facf  Of  liih-;  iIk*  I 
iiif  ;^fDeriiliDK  I'irule.  ai; 
Ihf  funtlanieiital  (-ucIh. 
iue cili-lr-  iH  Klio«  u  ill  foil] 
wliicli  iliH  (ft-nt-iatliiK  pc 
sivcly  markpri  /', /J',  1)", 
U  ihe  epicycloid. 


50.  Tbe  Hypocycl 

Ik   ^elibl'HCtHi    ■»>  a   pullit  1 

ntiii);  circle  |-u1lingMn  tha 
fUHiliiiitelital  circle. 
When  the  B>^neit 
of  tli<?  other  cirelf 
becomes  a  slralgbt 


ratiiieal 
bt  line.  ] 


5 1 .   Tbe        Tr*o( 
SclUele'>  antl-n-lcS 

(FIk.  til  — W  Ls  tin-  r..diH* 
C.  I.  ■■.'.  e'c.  ihr  aiiis  Kl 
on  K  a  xtnall  iliittanep,  oct 
JJ  Riid  i-pntrK  <i  fill  ilie  c 
(I  I.  nnd  «^t  o|T  a  IlkA  Ml 
nb-  rrotnhnitli  railiiiH| 
2.  join  6  a.  Riid  so  on.  ^ 
jioinis  <>.  <i,  h.  r,  (1.  •■Ic,  ill 
thir  curve  fs  tu  he  drawn  J 


I  miivet  iiloiiK  n  ■.ipiiiilii  liiif  aco'irtiiiir  lo  any  elvi-n  liiw,  ihe  Uilf 
limehnvtiiKiiiiaiC^'i'uiaiiKulai'  moiton.    Tlir  llni'  i>callml  i|i)>  t% 


Via  M.  i 

The  Spiral. -Tti*  spiral  i^  a  curve  iltsBcritwd  bv  nJ 

il< 


Fio.  64. 


If  the  iiidMiw  vrilor  inci< 
an  ihe  Mii^iiKiiriii^  anj*lQ 
or  luiriK  (I'-scriiird  iu  fa<^ 
Uiiis  giuiliiiillv  iDcreiikii 
tanc«  from  each  otherj 
known  a*  Um  B(iiriU  olt 
<Kif.  till.  i 

Tills  curve  If  oonimot 
cams.  To  Uesci  llie  li  dra 
vector  ill  sevri'iii  ililler^ 
around  iho  '  ontre,  wiib  j| 


between  tbem;  stti  olt  ih?  di^sUDces  I,  a.  ■*,  4.  t-io  .  coricspondliq 

iilMin  which  (he  curve  Is  druM'n.  ns  sliuwn  in  F\u.  M.  I 

III  UiH  odiimion  H|>lrAl  iKiir  61  >  lh«  pirdi  is  iimforin:  lliat  Is,  Q 

H<]iiidisl«ii(.     Siioh  a  spiral  Ix  made  by  rolUns  up  a  belt  of  Uliifol 


ovoiuerBieiAL  vsomun. 


51 


t^«k«  ^UaaMjter  «r  a  ctrde  tat*  wMek  «  MHata 

iliMDeier  of  a  oiwle  into  wlitcta  twolve  M^iNsb  (ion  will  Ot.  m 
AwttUM  UiM  ire  lMm>  fouwl  tlie  dbnwter  of  the  Koulrad 
(Hrde,  Mid  kkve  dr»wa  tlw  riiicHbi^de 
of  it.  Join  tiHi  eentraa  ot  tbs  tintst 
by  straiKbt  lint*,  as  shown :  we  tlien 
obtain  a  rexnlar  poifKoa  witii  IS 
sides,  eacli  sfaie  beliifc  «Qual  to  the  di- 
ameter of  a  givm  lur,  we  hare  DOW 
to  And  the  aiameter  of  a  circle  oii^ 
onmacribed  atmut  tills  polyKon,  and 
add  the  dianif  ter  of  ooe  nug  to  it;  the 
sam  will  be  the  iliameter  of  the  drele 
lulowhicli  the  rlnsswiU  fit.  Tbrouxh 
the  centres  A  tMdD  ot  two  atljaoeat 
rloKs  >lranr  (be  radii  CA  ita  CD; 
siuce  ihe  polyici'ii  iwa  tweire  i4>ies  tlie 
angie  ACD  =  iO'  awl  ^CB  =  I6*. 
Oue  half  of  the  side  ^  D  is  equal  to 
A  B.  We  now  give  the  followbig  pro- 
portion :  The  diie of  tlie  angle  ACB 
w  to  AB  as  1  is  to  the  required  ra- 
dluK.  From  this  we  get  the  foUowliig 
'  AB\tf  the  stne  of  the  angle  A  CB ;  ttie  quotient  will  be  the 
I  drcnmaerlbed  circle  :  add  to  the  corresponding  diameter  the 
•mf  rinc :  the  sum  will  hn  the  reqntrpd  diameter  IfU. 
leacvllM  KB  are  of  a  drvle  ivUeh  la  Coo  latce  to 
.  %w  a  feeaak  eoaiyaa%  ky  ^eau  ofpolatslii  <he 
M  aetajE  (tweii*— iiupp<iae  tiie  raunu  it  *t  feet  and  it  ia 
Mrtin  livn  pwiiitii  in  an  arc  whose  half  clioni  \*  *  feet.  Draw  a 
>  the  half  chord,  full  else,  or  on  a  smaller  ncitle  if  more  cun- 
erect  a  perpeadicular  at  one  end,  thug  mnklng  I'ecianfrular 
dittat<Hi.  Erect  perpendiculars  at  points  1,  2;  4,  and  4  ffet  from 
-pendionlar.  Find  values  of  y  in  the  formula  of  the  oin^le. 
or  substituting  for  x  the  values  0, 1,  «,  8,  and  *,  rtc  .  and  foi;_H^ 
if  the  radius,  or  400.  The  values  will  be  v=  *■/<»_  x«  =  ♦'400, 
*'3gi.  VaU;  =  80,  lO.nS,    19.90,    19.TT4,    19.506. 

'  smallest, 

iviDK  0.404,      0.879,      0.804,    0.178.      0         feet. 

le  distances  on  the  Ave  perpenriiciilai-H,  an  ordlnntes  from  the 
and  the  positions  of  five  points  oti  tlie  arc  will  be  found. 
Through  these  tliH  c  rve  may  be 
dni<rn.     (Rt*  nlno  I'rohlpin  H.) 

5fi.  Tlie  Catenary  \*  the  curve 
aiwuiiied  li.v  h  perrucily  flexible  eoiii 
when  itR  ends  are  rantened  at  two 
polms,  Ihe  welKlit  of  a  unit  length 
OrinK  constant. 
The  equation  of  the  catenary  is 
/  f  _*\ 
y=  -leo-fe    "I,  in  which  e  is  the 

ba»e  of  the  Xaperian  system  of  log- 
ari'lims. 
To  plot  the  catenarr.— Let  o 

(FiK.  07i  be  ilie  uriKlu  <>r  cuOnllnates. 
Assiftiiini;  to  a  any  value  as  8,  the 
equation  becomes 


Fta.  ST. 
lotreBt point  of  the  curve. 

■  0        — 


9  1'        --\ 


-#v.-M„ 


V  J)  =  8. 


'^i^^ir* 


^«  ->i*<*.iti,.  .  y  -.  :;    ., — 

■..;-/'''*'■"*'    >■'"'"? 
■J~-'ii       ,       -J?   .II    . 

'       .''"'Uie"   •,    ■'"''«: 

-,^  '*''    :riv   .      '"V 

■':;i     -   .    ■'^  A      1      =,  ■ 

I —  '^.!::;r^' 

■  -■■    •    .    -  ...  1.    .I         ■•     n-   n/.T  -'^  "J 

•  •      .         •■         i.  ".  >'."'•"■.        ■■•  — ■!>     u  ;''^    ■" 

•  ,.■:..   ..-^-.;    :  -;■-  •-:;'-^,^*r^ 

1-1  ■  ._^  .■  ■ 


■•'7 
■■■« 


'  1  »ui 


.::■•""■  Ii!-'        

'■'■'•  ■  ■•'  '.IV--        ... 

1.-  i:;>  :•..:.      ;  ..'; 

.   ...    ■  ;<  -/■..    .y.-\     —     »""T  3-t-  .-<s  Man  is^ 

'   •: i.-i-    •-.  -ff  '•   :.-.-.K....i:  :  -\«- *»;a.<  tor  °,yj^utr, 


GBOMBTRIOAL    PROPOSITIOKS. 


GEOMETRICAL   PBOPOSITIONS. 

;lit-mnfrled  triangle  the  squai>?  on  the  hypotbcnuae  ill  equnl  to  the 

be  sc|iiai<-s  '  'ti  (hu  t>l\wr  iwu  >IU»h, 

ariK'i  !!eral.  tr  is  eqiitangiilar.  anil  r/r<?  rer/en. 

■»ic  I  tlie  vcilrx  uF  an  isn!4.*rlni  [riaiiKl*.-  biserttf  tlie  bniw, 

I  tl  LTiglparKl  lis  ii»-r)iendk-uliir  lo  ihu  ttusui. 

-ii.' is  finirtiift-rt,  llit<  vxlertor  tiiiKlf  Iscqtial  tolhetium 

-niitiinllv    iKinianKulnr,   thev  sre  similar  mnd  lUfir 

Mill. 

iM'fMl  in  ibe  same  ordvr,  the  sum  of  the 

iliRlf^S. 

.   Slim  mI  iii^  iiitei  lor  angles  I'qiinl*  four-  right  iintrl<*H. 
I  he  I'ppoblti'  sidmi  mi;  i«(Ual  ;    ibe  oi>|xii-4tt;  aiigh-s  ' 
i'-tl  by  its  (lirtBDiiftl;  mid   lis  tiUgyniila   l)i»«:l  (mjuIi 

uta  are  not  iu  the  same  straiRbt  Ibu*,  «  circle  may  Im  piui^d 

Ibto'-  !  -     I  cppted  on  the  sanii*  circle,  they  are  proportional  to 

•!•'  Ii'^  at  the  ct-iiti-«. 

»•  r,  Itifv  trv  priiportioiial  to  tlieir  radii. 

i  I-  proi>ortiona1  to  tlie  «a(iun«  of  tlirir  rndtl. 
r  li>  a  choi'd,  it  blaecta  tji«  chord  anil  it  iiiaevts 

■.r<I. 
'ii   i'>  a  circle  niet>l.«  it  (n  only  nne  roint,  and  it  is 
'  iiiisilrawn  lo  tlmt  piririt. 

•  ;(  a  circle  lanKenId  are  <lr8im  to  touch  Ihw  circle. 
'  fifnal,  ana   they  make  etpiai  aiii^les  wiih   lh«} 

lilts. 

I'.lioi-its  or  a,  tAii|;eut  and  [larallel  uhoiM,  the}' 
■1.-. 

t-renc*  of  a  circte,  V>etwee«i  two  chnnl*.  I",  •ub- 
■II  anjrfe  at  ihe  centre.  Ijelween  iwo  roiiii,  the 
i!  t.>  half  lilt-  anple  at  th«  centre. 
loirele.  ii  in  rl>.*ht-an);li-rt. 
ill  and  i*lirn-ci,  it  in  fueitKuml  by  one  hulf 
'    riK'Td;  that  i$,  it  is  Mjual  lo  haU  tht;  ang^le  at 
lioril. 

I'h  other  In  a  cii-cle,  the  rectanftle  of  the  seg- 
'    tiirle  of  the  seKiiieiiOtof  tin'  oilier. 

I    and  th»  ntlier  perpiMuiieiilar  to  it.  the 
Mineler  fit  t>qiial  to  the  sqnjt:v  OD  biM  th« 
•  ii.iii  i-aLriu  IS  a  mean  prt^>)7orUu.ial  h«ltt'9ua  Ibe  aetc 
liUktfMier. 


1^^ 


58  MBNSUBATION. 

Relations  of  Arc,  Cliord,  Cltord  of  Balf  <Ite  Ar 
Versed  Sine,  ete. 

Let  R  =  radius,       D  =  diameter,       Arc  =  length  of  arc, 

Cd  =  chord  of  the  arc,       ch  =  chord  of  half  the  arc. 

K=  versed  sine,       Z>  —  F  =  diam.  minus  ver.  siu., 

6ch-Cd,  ,,         Va<'+4l^«x  ior«  ,  ..  ^ 

^rc  = 5 (very  nearly),    =  — i5Cd»  +  8ar«  ~  +*=*.<««» 

Chord  of  the  arc  =  2  Vcft"  -  F" ;  =  V2)a-(Z)-ar)»;  =8cft-34rc. 
('hord  of  1 


Diameter 


=2Vj?»-(«-r)'>;  =8V(i)-r)x  r. 

half  the  arc  cft  =  r/ca»  +  4K»;  =VFrr;  =,54^1^. 


Versed  slue  =  ~ ;  =  |(D  -  Vi)»_  ca») 


(or   UD  +  Vjy-Cd*),    if  F  is  greater  thai 

Half  the  chord  of  the  arc  is  a  mean  proportional  between  the  ven 
and  diameter  minus  versed  sine: 


^Cd  =  VFx  (i>-  F). 

lieiigtH  of  a  Circular  Arc— HuyKl^enB's  Approxlm 

l^t  c;  i-epreseiii  the  length  of  the  choid  ot  the  arc  and  c  the  lengt 
chord  of  half  the  arc;  the  length  of  the  arc 

Professor  Williamson  shows  that  when  the  arc  subtends  an  angle  ot 
radius  being  100.000  feet  (nearly  1»  miles),  the  error  by  tliis  formula 
two  Indies,  or  1/BUOOOO  pHrt  of  tlie  riidiiis.  Wht-n  the  li'nglh  of  lb' 
equal  to  the  radius,  i.e  ,  when  it  subtends  an  angle  of  S7°.:J,  tlie  erit 
t  liau  1/70S0  part  of  the  radius.    Therefore,  if  the  radius  is  100.00U  ( 

1000')0 
ciTor  is  less  than  -^^  =  13  feet.    The  error  increases  rapidly  t 

increase  of  the  angle  subtended. 

In  the  uit-asurcment  of  an  arc  which  is  described  with  a  short  rai 
error  is  so  small  that  it  may  lie  negle<'ted.  Describing  an  arc  with 
of  12  inches  subtending  an  angle  of  30°,  the  error  is  1/90UO0  of  an  in< 
.57°. S  the  error  is  less  than  0".001.5. 

In  order  to  measure  an  are  wlien  It  subtends  a  large  angle,  bisei 
nie.isuieeach  half  as  before— In  this  case  nuiking  B  =  length  of  thei 
half  the  are,  and  b  =  length  of  the  eliord  of  one  fourth  the  arc ;  tliei 

Iffl  -  21} 

Relation  ot  tite  Circle  to  Its  Eqaal,  InscrllMd,  an 
enmscrlbed  Squares. 

^"■" '""*'%le  :   .l^'i  =^V-Wote<i,uA  .<,..«. 

••lex    l.l^l     =  pevVmetAC ot eci,u])\ HCfvH 


XUE   ELLIPSE. 


of  circle  -K  .70(1 
ofereiice  of  elide  x  .22508 
tof  circle  X  .»y031-»-diaiiietf  r 
at  circle  x 
r>r  circlf>  K 
'  stjuiue  X 


'  of  square 

hes  X 


i.srsi 

■4.44-J8 
).r.'M 
3  SMI) 

l.-iTM 


I 

V  —  Bidfl  of  inscribed  square.  ^H 

=  area  of  circumscribed  Fquare.   ^^ 


=  area  of  circumscribed 

=  area  of  iiiKCrlljed  square. 

=  tlLaiii.  of  L*ji'Ciim»ci-iued  circle. 

=  circuin.        "  " 

=  Oiaiii.  of  equal  circle. 

=  circum.         "        " 


1 


circular  inches. 
I  nH  Seementa.— 71»  find  the  area  nf  a  sector  of  a  eir 
lUe  arc-  of  ilie  a^ctur  l>>-  half  its  radius. 
io  tlif  nciiiibvr  of  ilegrees  in  the  arc,  so  to  the  area  of 
1  of  the  seelor. 
lie  nuinbtr  of  degrees  in  ihe  arc  by  the  nqiiare  of 

•/  n  trgmtnt  of  a  circle:  Find  the  area  of  the  sec( 
■  arc,  neirt  also  the  area  of  the  triauglo  formed  by 
II  an.i  iheradli  of  the  sei'tor. 

.11  uf  these  arefts.  if  ilie  segment  is  greater  thnu  a  sei 
^•-  iiirir  difference  if  k  i^  le^-s. 

luVXtr  iltlhint:  Area  of  scgiiieiit  =-^  (arc  -  sin  A)  in  which  A  is 

••  ludiuH.  Slid  arc  tlie  leiij^li  of  arc  to  radius  1. 
"f  a  segment  nf  a  circle  when  ila  chord  aud  height  or 
given.     First  find  radius,  as  follows  : 


i 


1  raquareof  half  the  chord  ,  ,    .  ,   1 
radius  =  J-  L 5^i;^i^j +  heightj. 


height 
Uie  augle  subtended  by  the  arc,  as  follows 


half   chord 


=  Sine 


radius 
tte  ang'le.    Tnltc  Ihe  corresponding  angle  from  a  table  of  Btnei,  and 
~  to  get  tiie  angle  of  the  arc. 
arc*  of  the  sector  of  which  the  segment  Is  a  part ; 

-    ,    ,        degrees  of  arc 
area  of  sector  =  area  of  circle  w 


;  area  of  triangle  under  the  segraeot: 

chord 
I  at  uriarigle  =  — j- 


aeu 


(radius  —  height  of  segment), 


•I 


nrter 


(>n  of  the  segment . 

id  diiniietei'  are  fjiven,  to  And  the  area.     From  Hie 
Ihe  lenirtb  of  the  choid.    Mullipl.v  the  remainder 
■■•i.r,,,-;  10  the  product  add  the  choi-d  iiiulllpl/ 
im  by  -i. 

•  n-d  by  the  heighl  and  thU  product  by  . 
II  ■-•'I  ihe  heit;lil  divided  by  ihe  radius, 
tti'i'i'iii  Ihe  diameter  suljtract  the  lieitrlit:  mulllply  the 
.Hies  (lie  lieiglit  and  exlrnci  llie  squnie  root. 

r  of  the  arc  aud  of  half  llie  arc  ami  the  versed  sine  i 

E^iunl  of  tlie  arc  odd  four  lliirds  rif  ibe  chord  of  half  ilie  a 
ttin  hvtlievecseil  nine  mid  I  lie  prcdiiclbv  .4i>l-2i'i  mpiiroximal 

KTT"-r        ''  ■  '!■■''  ' '■  **•  '■'    "   rill?/  itirUttlfti  it^'firrvn   t'lf* 

■  lie  ilifTereiit'e  between  the  a 
Ihe  leH-s  rndiiis  from  thesqi 

.   ^ .:  hv  .t.lll.V.). 

t  llie  Ki-eater  circle  is  equal  to  wR"; 
.1  of  (lie  iiraaller,  »r*. 

UlTer*...  . .  u.  .,..;a.iea  of  ihe  riiig  in  iriJJ'  -  r'). 
Bin P««.  — Area  of  au  ellipHe  -  product  of  it!;seinl-ase!<  x  3.14ISS 
=  product  of  lift  axes  j<^.T65306. 


r,— Clfcumference  <approxim*t.e  \  =  %.\\\t  ■" 


M'oi 


I'lH^lr^w  the  foUfiwlfie  ap  murf  «CC»>rRt«".    VJ V>»Tv ^\\.«  Vwhtf* 
Htiitn  nve  limes  Hie  ienglti  ol  tlie  sYior-cT  bXte,  *» 


I 


ITIOV. 


■  Clrcmrerence  =  3.ni0  7^  +  ^'  -  <^^- 

^    Wbeo  D  ia  more  than  5(i,  the  divisor  6.8  Is  to  be  replaced  by  the  M 
divisors: 

I'- " 


d 
Divisor  ; 


8,    9.3,    9.3,    S.aS,    «.4,    B.5, 


14,      16. 
9.6,   9.68, 


18,      iW,     90.      « 


9.T.\   9.8,   ».9-.>,  R 

which  n  =  — ^,  ,  a  and  b  brine  the  semi  axes. 

a  4-0 

.Jrco  nf  a  nediiuiU  0/  nil  ellipne  the  bafie  of  wbioh  is  parallel  U> 

llif  A.'<e«'or  llie  cllipsH.     Uivi<li*  ilie  iieiehl  o(  ibu  Mnrnii-iil  by  I)i9 

wliicii  il  in  piart.  and  rtnd  tbe  area  •■f  a  t-in'iiliir  Bi-;?meiu,  )ii  a  lublecl 

lar  KiifrMixiidi,  of  wiiiL-li  tlm  lit-i^lil  m  equal  lo  llio  qiioiiriil;  uiiil(j|>iy  (I 

lliiM  rminil  liy  the  product  of  Ui»  twi>axi-ii  of  tli£  flli|>8«. 

Cycloid.— .^  curve  eeoerat*-d  by  ili«  ixilliiiK  of  n  l-ii-oIh  nii  a  plaiMI 

LenK'b  >if  a  cyelnldal  curve  =  4  y  diaiiiptcr  nf  ihe  gf>iierHllnf;elf 

Li-njith  nf  tlip  l>as«  ^  circiiiriferi-iict^  nf  ibp  |t<>ii)friitiii||  <|I 

Ar«tt  of  a  cyi'lold  =  H  x  area  of  pui^erutljig  clrel*?. 

Helix  (Scrcw).-.'^  lii'i'  K»'ii(?raie.i  by  (lie  procrt-xsive  rulMio 
poliii  arouiiu  nii  axtsand  e(|iildUiaiit  from  ibt  eciiirv, 

Lriiiilh  v/  a  helix.-  '['o  lh»-  fqunie  of  (lie  clrfr»inif«>iT'nc»  d»Hcitli«d 
^eueriitliic-poiiit  aild  (lie  uiuari*  nf  thudlitiancc  advano^  In  onv  rvM 
and  lake  ilie  '^<)Mari*  root  oMheIr  aiiin  mtiliipUe'l  by  lht<  DUMiiier  of 
lions  of  the  jieiifrailnK  peint.    Or, 

^ic*  +  lt^)n  =  len^lb.  a  beini;  number  of  revolulions. 

8pirala«— bJnc<<  ceneratud  by  the  proffresslve  rotation  of  a  polol 
a  tlxtfd  »xi*,  Nvitb  a  coontaiilly  liiuTeasinK  dlHinncu  from  tlie  axis, 

A  pUtw  irffhiil  Ik  whi4ii  Ilie  point  roiatHK  In  out*  plane. 

A  ciniiral  itjiiial  IH  wlieii  tliv  point  rotates  nnninil  an  axil)  at  a  praH 
dUiaucefroni  itiit^eotre,  aitd  advuiit'liig  in  lli<^  direction  nf  tlieaxia,  as 
a  cone 

l^iiglh  of  a  plane  spiral  lint. — When  the  distance  between  the  < 
unifnrin.  ' 

RiiLK— Add  together  the  prcnier  and  lcs»di«met»Ts;  divide  their* 
a:  miiltlnly  the  j|iiotl»nl  tiy  .1.1410,  and  afruin  by  the  uiiinher  of  retol 
O'-.  tiike  the  mean  nf  the  iBntrtli  nf  ibe  grenter  nud  less  oln-uinferelH 
mulliply  it  by  the  niiiiiber  of  revnlutions.    Or, 
rf-l-rf' 


Ipnjjth  =  wH 


,  d  and  ri'  iieln);  the  inner  and  outer  diamvtt 


Length  "f  n  cnnicnl  xpinil  line.-  .Add  tngelber  ihe  (treatifr  HUd  lotl 
rtern;  divide  Ibelr  xuni  by  V  and  (nulliply  Ilie  quotient  l.y  8,H1(J- 
xiinirenf  Mip  product  of  this  oircuiiifereiiCH  and  (be  hUntlier  uf  rvfll 
of  Ihe  t^lrnl  nild  the  H]ilare  of  the  heJKbt  of  Its  axla  and  take  tlM 
root  of  the  sum. 


Or.  length  =  4/('™'^^')*  +  *». 


SOLID    BODIKS. 


I 


Tbe  Priam, -To  fmtl  llu-  »iii/ciiy  o/<i  linlil  i>ri»m  ;  Mulllplr  ill* 
etet'  lit  the  I.HKe  Uy  ilie  nllltiule  for  the  rf>nvi*x  fiiirfac*«*.     1*o  Ullft 
areas  of  the  two  riid«  when  Ihe  entire  surface  is  required. 

FoJutiie  of  a  prism  =  area  ot  its  base  K  its  altltuile^ 

,1        1  ijfd.— Convex  Burfftc**  ot  a  reguVav  vvT».Tm\\  : 
xlatif  bfight.    To  tUU  aAA  avea  ot  \\«  \iMI 


niiU  =  area  uf  ^Mv.  X  o^<  ^l^'^*^  o^ ' 


I 


SOLID    BODIES. 

itrfart  t>f  a  fnutum  of  a  regular  t^/fntmid  :  Multiply  hulf  Ilia  i 
by  llie  sum  of  ilie  |wiinitrten!  uf  ilit-  iwo  IwMes  for  tlii'  convex  t 
kills  add  tUe  areas  of  the  two  btwcs  triieii  Uir  nitue  &urfaL-p  Ls 

IVieviiluiue  of  It  /n(stum  of  n  pffruifiid:  AiMlo(:«l)u>r  tii«' aifyuinf  I 
b8£*^  biilI  a  tiicran  pro|>ort}oiiaJ  bfm-rcii  [tti*ni,  and  iiiulOply  Olo  ' 
oat:'  third  nf  Oie  nltitmle.  (Menu  [iroiiui-Uunul  betn-mu  two  uuiiiljcnn  ' 
?  roul  ••f  their  prodimt.) 

Sfc.— A  wmlgt;  is  a  .solia  boniitled  by  Ave  |>lanf>«,  viz.:  a  Tect)»iiKiilBr 
^iirup«xoi<]$.,  i>r  two  r^^tAiigle.**,  iiifcfliiig  in  un  rtl^<^,  aud  ttvi>  tri< 
The  altitude  is  tbe  prrjirndiL'ular  drawn  fniui  ntiy  [Kiint  in 
plMiie  of  ttin  base, 
\tme  iif  a  tceiliif :  Add  tli<.-  l<fUK<li  of  the  edge  u>  twic<*  tlio 
,  SQil  niiiltl|il.v  ilie  sum  t)y  tiuv  itixlU  «t  ilw  jiichIiicI  of  the 
^  and  til"  l>r«tdili  "f  tlie  base. 
it  prianioid.— A  r«x;i.uueiilar  |uiKiiu>itl  is  a  solid  bounded 
uf  whicli  tli^"  i«ii  IxiM*  are  recttttiplH*,  liaviiis  their  i;orr«. 
:M>ieE  parallel,  and  the  four  ui>rlglit  sUun)  of  tlie  goliiU  ure  trape- 

feVolHVl«  iif  a  ivclovriuhir  prismoiil ."  Add  topHher  tiie  arnnii  of 
HOd  four  ilii\r«  the  urea  of  a  parallel  Rei-iion  eqiiitlly  distant 
•8,  Hiid  multiply  the  ituiii  hv  (>ii«  «i)it|i  of  the  aliltndH. 
ter.    Honvex  siirfacrof  arylinder  =  iieriinel^i  of  hnse  y  aliltuda. 
■Ill  iiiH  «ri-aKof  The  two  ttulu  when  the  eniire  nurfitee  In  required. 

Volume  of  a  cyllndt-r  =  men  of  bane  >:  altitude. 
,-Con¥<»XBiirfaoeof  fttviiie  =  circiiilitereiiceof  t>us(«  X  Iwlf  IbexlaDt 
I  tbii  add  the  area  of  tliu  baKe  uriiuu  tlie  entire  suiiueo  is  rcxiuired. 

Volume  of  a  cone  =  arva  of  bane  X  ^  altituds. 

'' (I /iim^uDi  o/ (I  roil.".-  Miililply  linlf  ihi»  aide  by  the 
'   'eij  of  th*^  two  hu>ei»  for  the  cnnvex  Hill  face;  lo  ihla 

■.  o  bavi*  when  the  enlii'e  mirfuce  in  required. 

(/re  vuliii'te  nf  ti  /lunluin  iifa  cine:  Add  together  tiie  iin^as  of  Ihu 
'•  and  a  mean  proportional  between  them,  and  multiply  the  sum 
liid  of  Ihtiallllude. 

rem  — To  find  tlm  nurfnce  of  n  upheie :  Multiply  the  diameter  by  the 
itsiice  of  a  great  circle;  or,  multiply  thu  siqiiaiv  of  the  diuiiielcr  by 

kce  of  sphere  =  i  x  area  of  118  great  rlrcle. 

•■       '•       =  convex  surface  of  1(4  circiiinscrlbingcylllitier. 

.<  the  square-'*  of  iheir  (llnnieier*, 
Iv  the  Mirfnei'  by  one  tliii'il  of  th0 
i.-ter  by  1,'iiir;  that  U,  by  i>.:yJM. 

It  .In  111  M  .l.'i'[iu;ll  pl.li.'i--i   =     ri'.M  iUH;756. 
hiiiu"  uf  II  sphere  =  K/.l  file  volume  of  its  oircimiscrlbioK  cylinder. 
e«  of  sfilmr-f.i  ftr*  tit  encli  olher  Oft  the  eiibes  uf  llielr  diitmeiern. 
rtral  trlanarl*«  — To/inri  the  men  of  a  xplirviciil  lifttmiU:  C'lm-   ^m 
nurfafe  nf  ilie  quiulriiDtal  Iriangbi,  or  oneeiKlitli  ^f  tli«  xurraci-  of   ^1 
rv.     From  the  isuin  of  the  three  aniilea  subtract  two  riRhl  aiijcieK:    ■ 
le  ri'iniiiiider  by  ilO,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  area  or  the 
tal  tHanirle. 

rfl-al  polrKOn.-royfiid  the  aren  nf  n  sphrviidl  po/i/r/oii ;  f'oiii- 
surfuOB  of  the  qniiilranlal  ti  iniiKl*-  From  tlie  sum  <>r  all  thf>  nnerleii 
the  pioliii-l  of  two  riglit  ant'les  by  the  number  of  «idi's  less  two; 
■le  reinninder  by  i)0  and  luulliply  the  quotient  by  Ilie  nrea  of  the 

'  '^''**'  .    ■ 

■•Id.— The  prismoid  Isa  twilld  having?  (laralli'l  eml  orpas.  and  ^ 

a  of  any  combination  of  pi-l«iii(i,  cjl'iiilcl-s,  weOCi'S,  I'.vm-  V 

.'Ohi-s  ..r  frustums  of  tlie  same.  who«e  bases  aud  apices  he  in  tlie    " 

10. 

m-b  09  t'tllnilfnt  anJ  conen  are  hut  special  forms  of  ^insms  ftniV 
-  '  -It ral Niitfaoc  solids  may  bi>  ./(liiled  iiiio  i-ltinii»iitury  fonna 
r,u.-.ii„„s  may  niso  ho  siil>cli\iile-l  into  the  ek'iiieviVtvv^ 
i'p\rHwl%    ?f    J  '"■''•'■'•''•Is  '"Ay  be  awtiivo^-A  vulo 


I 


MENSURATION. 

The  PriBmoidal  Formala, 

Let  A  =  area  of  ttie  base  o(  a  prism,  wedKc  or  pyraiiiiil; 
Ai,  At,  Am  =  U>e  iwo  end  aiici  ilie  middle  wrvas  o(  s  |>i't»iuuiil, 
its  elemi'Dtary  guUtis; 

h  =  altitude  of  (he  prlsmoiJ  or  eWtaentary  solid; 
P'=  Us  volume; 

r=l(A,+iA^  +  At). 

For  a  prism  A,,  Am  and  Aj  are  equal,  =  A  ;  V  =  -y,  6A  =  liA, 

1  h 

For  a  wedge  with  parallel  ends,  A^  =  0,  Am  =  ^| ;  V  =  g{Ai  +3A 

For  a  cone  or  pyramid,  J,  =  0,  Jm  =  -J, ;   r  =  -(A,  +A,)  =  -^ 

The  pi-lstrmUtal  formula  is  a  ri^id  foitnula  for  all   pii-;' 
apfMOXiiiiatioii  involved  In  its  iisr  ir  in  thi;  ASKumptioa  ili 
ihuy  lie  geuei'aitid  by  a  ligbl  liuu  uiovinj;  uver  tiiu  bouiKl 

UTfUM, 

Tliearea  0/  tht-  middle  section  is  never  lliemean  of  Iht*  t«o  eB4 

the  pri^rooiit  cuiilaiiiE  nny  iiyrniiiids  <ir  c'oi<eRaniiiUK  lis  etpint-iitiii 
WiifM  )bu  iliret  het;iiuui>  are  Ftiiiilar  in  form  tbe  diiif  iin^ 
artfa.  are  always  ilie  meant:  of  the  cmrespnndii.p  end  iliin- 
ofti'n  eiiahJeH  liie  liiiiiensi'iii.H,  and  lience  the  area  of  ttie  rt. 
he  rnrii|int><l  finm  (he end  areas. 

PolyodrouM.—  A  pol.tedrun  is  a  solid  bounded  by  plane  |K>ly. 
rej^itiitr  (-"'I.  eui  t.ii  Ih  tjne  whose  sides  are  all  eqnnl  regular  p«*),vi£i>ni 

Tojittit  ffir  xirrftire  itfu  irtinUw  p>*f//r(rfr(>M,  — Multiply  llie  arm  i 
liie  fbLH-s  by  the  nundier  of  taues  :  or,  nnilllply  tb  -  square  of  oti 
edges  by  the  surfuee  of  ii  i^imilur  solid  nliose  ed^e  is  iiniiy. 

jk  TASf  OP  TBK  Reqloar  Polteoboks  whose  Eixjcs  ahk  Vt 
Names.  No.  of  Paces.        Surfiice. 

Telniedron 4  I.T-lilOriae 

HexuedroD 6  e.lXllxmiO 

Ociuediv.u 8  a.4(i4Ulia 

Dixleeiiedron 18  ai.dl.'.raSJ 

Ic  .Kaedron 30  8  (100  .'.MO 

To  find  the  Tolnme  of  a  regular  polyedron.       _ 

KUMItee  by  one  third  of  the  jierpendioulur  let  tuli  tiom  ilie  <  eniro 
the  fjices  ;    or.  niulliply  the  cube  of  one  of  the  edces  by  Hip  koU 
j^imiliir  polveilron  ivlios^e  •dtre  is  unity. 

Solid  of  rrvoiatlon.— The  volume  of  nny  Knliil  r>r  rwe 
eipnil  lu  ilifc  iiroiluel  ol^  til"  urea  of  its  eeneniting  nurfno?  by  ilje> 
Ibe  path  of  the  cenire  of  (fraviiy  of  that  siurfMi'e. 

The  convex  smface  of  any  solid  of  revolution  In  eqnai  »rt  llie  pi 
the  perimeter  of  Its  generatiug  surface  by  the  leuglli  of  |i«lli  of  t 
of  Kinvity. 

Crllndrlcal   rtnK,— Let  d  =  outer  diameter;  d' =  innvr  i 

s<<<  -  d')  =  llikkneKK  =(;-»<•  =  xevtioual  area  ;  -tcl  +  d")  =  me 
Met*  =  V;  ir  f  s  oiiviitnference  of  seotiou ;  wU  —  mean  clrcumfe 
f itig;  surface  =  «  f  x  « Jlf;  =  -  w'  (d«  -  d"J  1  =  9.86!»5 1  it.  =  8 .46:11  ( 

volume  =  '  »  f>  a/.;  s=  2.467«(»  .V. 

Spberlcal  Kone«— ■Mii/'or  n/  n  xfthtvirnf  zone  or  aej^niei 

=  hs.Tlii  ii.:«-  ■  111.' i-licimirpiiiice  i.f  ii  frenl  t'livle  of  lli.>  t-yh 

li  the  eentr- 
he  HUin  of  ■ 


I 


I 


fuUnueof  a  »i>>i«rtc«\  •e^iment  ^tfct 


SOLID  BODIES. 

'  •^^■  spurment  t  >.  ami  lti« 

lnht  I  ailcl  till-  tn  I'e  Ilium 

wtlir-.  unci  twice  iiiunilri- 

(UCt     i'V    Um-    sijlliirt-    of   lllf    I  <  M,  lO  I|||'«K 

8r«  of  I  he  riulius  uf  tlu*  biutf  l  ibe  iK|iiaie  of 

muliip'y  ihf  Mtm  l>r  the  l.r. 

oreIllp»old.  —  When  tlren-v..jiii] [  uit-  spheroid  lit al>oi|t 

)  lUaiuetrr  ic  is  prulatr.  and  whru  about  tiie  coiijii^aio  It  U 

hre  /)/«  fi-gmfut  of  a  «p/i<Toi<f.— Square  tlie  diametcru  ot  the 
Inke  llie  s(|tiare  ixtor  of  half  their  suiu  ;  then.  a»  ilie  tUarnt^ler 
lie  neuiiieDt.  is  rut  is  to  thin  root  so  in  the  lielKhi  of  the 
r  iirrtportionule  hf  ikIu  of  (he  ««iriii«'i>t  to  the  inean  illnni<<(«-r. 
roduct  of  the  other  diameter  and  8,14IG  by  the  pr<>i>ortioiial>' 

\ice  of  n  fniitlum  or  zone  of  n  spheroid.  —  Procewt  as  by 
Tor  tlie  surfiice  of  a  secineut,  and  ohtaiii  the  proiKininoate 
rusiuin  Multiply  ihe  prrHliict  of  tlie  dianictt*i'  pmuilcl  lo  the 
Btnni  and  '!.l4ie  by  the  profiorllonaie  hriithi  of  th>-  fnisluin. 
rphervid  \*  equal  to  the  ni  odiiet  of  thf  sqiiiirc  of  llii"  rt-v  olviiiK 
Fil  axis  ami  hy  .&-£i*l.  The  vuliiiiie  of  a  spheroid  Is  iwo  ihlrdH 
eirciimwrihintr  cylindi-r. 

I  teijiiieiiC  uf  n  a])hiioid.—i.  Wlien  the  base  is  parallel  to  Ibe 
tnidllply  tlie  illfferifnee  bntwe^ii  three  times  the  (Ixed  axis 
leieht  "f  ihe  st-jtmciii,  by  the  »quai«  of  the  height  and  by 
Y  the  jn'odiiot  by  ibe  square  of  the  revolTiittc  >xis,  aud  divide 
I'f  I  he  fixed  axis, 

I  base  is  porptrndicidttr  to  the  revolvliiK  bkIk,  multiply  the 
Ire*-!!  Iliree  times  <lii"  revolving  axis  and  tn-lee  the  belflit  of 
l)V  Ibe  squaie  "f  the  lielgitt  ami  by  5J10.  Multiply  the 
t  luHfilU  Of  Ibe  Used  axis,  and  divide  by  Ihe  length  of  iht; 

llie  ntliidle  frustum  of  a  uplitrnid. — 1.  When  the  ends  are 
nrnllel  lo  the  revulTln)»'  bxIh  :  To  twice  the  >qunre  of  Ihe 
[er  add  the  >qn«re  of  the  diameter  of  one  end  ;  multiply  Ihe 
Igtii  of  the  fru-tlum  and  by  .2818. 

euds  ar^  ••llipHcal.  or  jifrpendicidar  to  the  revolving  axis: 
piXHluet  of  the  trnnxveme  and  cuujUKnte  dianidersuf  the 
I  add  the  pro<luct  of  ibe  Irahsverse  niid  conjiifrate  dinmelers 
mlilply  the  Mini  hy  the  length  of  the  fruKluin  aud  by  .'.tilH. 
— FiltUl'es  K»'tiernted  liv  the  revohiihin  nf  a  plane  area,  wlieii 
^idveil  about  a  chord  pcrpi-ndioiilar  to  its  «»iM,  or  aboiu  Its  1 
je.  Th>-y  are  drslgnaied  by  tin-  iiaiu«'  of  the  arc  or  curve 
ey  ore  ireneratcd,  as  Circular,  Elliptiu,  I'araliolic.  etc..  etc.  ( 

iiie  of  1  ciirii/'ir  npJuiilf,  zone,  or  nvgmrMl  nf  it  — Rule:  Mul- 
b  by  the  nitlius  of  the  revnlvinif  aiv;  inultipli'  this  ni'o  by  the 
•o,  ordlSlaiiCr  betttveii  the  ceidrt-  of  Ibe  Kpindle  nlid  uenll* 
lie  arc;  subtract  this  product  from  the  foiiiier,  dotilde  the 
a  nudtiply  It  bv  :i.M!0 

cimilnr  spiti'ile. — Multiply  the  central  dintanue  hy  half  the 
lolvtng  seginrnt;  subtract  the  product  from  one  thini  of  (he 
e  leuiith,  and  multiply  the  reniaimler  by  Vi  .WU. 
fiiutnnt  or  zone  of  a  Hniilnr  ."ijji"d/r.— Kroni  the  wpmre  of 
I  of  Ihe  whole  spindle  take  one  ihird  of  ibe  sqiuirf  of  half  tli» 
fruKtum,  and  multiply  the  reniaimler  by  Ihe  said  Imlf  Unijth 
I  ;  miiliiplv  the  ceutril  difitnnce  liy  the  revolviiig  ari-a  which 
tnistuui  :  Bubiract  UiIh  product  from  the  former,  and  luulii- 
derby0  2!<S3.  ,     ,   , 

I  wgiiienf  of  a  circular  fr/iMirf/e.-Subtrnct  ihelenitlh  of  the       | 
the  half  leiipith  of  the  spindle  :  double  the  lemaimler  and 
volume  of  ft  middle  friD'iuiu  of  this  Inneih  ;    suliiiact  the       I 
!  voliinip  of  the  whole  spindJe  and  halve  the  jcinaiuder.  I 

rvrt<j/rf"/ ■'P''"'f/r  —  (tre  fi^hihs  of  tlie  volume  of  thn  clrcutn-  I 
i-—ifiiltlply  the  firodiice  of  tb<-  iii]uare  of  twir-e  Ihf  dVutwetfet  ' 
re"vfeji,id3.lk.'ri,yitaclicuaifereuce,&nd  divide  iiiV>»  pro- 

^ mxisj.— Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  UaV| 


PLANE  TRIOONOMKTRY. 


t  of  tfaeaMU 


The  laugeot  of  (he  aupultment  ia  euUAl  to  the  Uuifeat 

uontrary  sipi.    Tang.  B  D  F  =  B  if. 

The  secani  ut  the  supplemeot  ia  equal  to  the  secant  ot  the  arc,  but 


contrary  Bign,     Shc 
Signs   or  tbe 


ruat-ttona   In   the   fonr 


_  onadrauta.- 

dlvlijr*  a  circle  iiDi)  fiitii' iitiHtii'»iil8  liy  a  vi-tlical  atiiT  a  li'iiizorital 
t«r,  the  upper  right  hand  qiiadraul  is  called  the  Qrei,  ihu  upper  left  I 
imd,  tlie  lower  left  ilie  iliini,  and  the  lower  right  the  fourth.  The  si 
tiio  functions  in  the  four  quadrants  are  as  follows: 


Sine  and  cosecant, 
Cosine  and  htecant, 
Tauifenl  aijil  cotangent 


First  quad. 


Second  quad. 


IViirdquad.    Foitrtt 

-t  — 

t  -  +  : 

The  values  of  the  (unctloua  are  as  follova  for  the  angles  apecified: 


I  Angle  
Sine 
Cosine 

Tangent.... 
Cotangent . . 

■  Secant  

Cosecant... 

Versed  slue 


fe 


« 

• 

9 

• 

• 

. 

■' 

A 

• 

0 

30 

4fi 

60 

00      ISO 

185 

ISO 

1W 

0 

I 

I 

V8 

*'8 

1 

1 

0 

3 

V-i 

2 

•i 

y'i 

'i 

^■A 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

V8 

-1 

M 

♦'a 

'i 

a 

v« 

e 

0 

Va 

1 

^3 
1 

□c 

I 
♦"a 

-1 

>3 

0 

X 

♦'3 

♦"a 

0 

- 1 

-  \i 

« 

1 

09 

1 

-9 

s 

-♦'a 

t 

-1 

0 

i-  Vs 

♦^-1 

1 

3 

fi+i 

2+ fa 

f 

■i 

v-i 

a 

X 

Vi 

3 

TBieONOmETmCAL  POBmCIiJE. 

The  fallowing  relations  are  deduced  from  the  properties  of  ilnl 
angleii  (Radius  =  I): 

cos  ^  :  Hin  /I  ::  1  :  tan  .il,  whence  tan  A  = • 

COB  A' 


sin  A  I  cos  A  r.  It  cot  A, 


ooa.^  1 1 


sin  ^  :  1 


tan  A  !  I 


a  1  I  sec  .4, 


1  :  eosee  A, 


1  :  cot  .4 


cotan  A  = 


sec  A  = 


co8ec.4  = 


ton  A  = 


cos  A 
sin  a' 

_I 

coe  A' 

_1 . 

ain  a' 

_i 

cut  A' 


sum  nf  the  <ii)uai'e  of  the  ^ine  of  an  arc  anil  the  square  of 
jimis  ui)it»'.    Siti'J  ,1   f  fos"  .1  ~  1. 
Formulge  for  tbe  fUnctlona  of  the  anm  and  dlVe**! 
two  BnKlexi 

Ijri  tbf  two  anirles  be  denoted  by  A  and  B,  their  sum  A  -f-  fi  =  j 
flJffetvtice  A  —  B  by  D. 

+  ff)  =  sin  A  COB  B  +  «»  A  »\u  B\ 


TBIGONOAIKTRICAL  FORMULiK. 

cos  {A -i- B)  =  cos  A  cos  B  ~  Bin  Asia  B;   .    . 

Bin  (A  -  S)  =  eiu  A  Kos  Ji  —  COB  A  sia  B; (3J 

cos  (A  —  B)  =  cot  A  cos  B  -\- aiu  A  sia  B ^H 

four  formiiliD  by  addliion  and  gubtractlon  we  obc&in  ^H 

sin  {A  +  B)  +  aln  (A  -  B)  =  S  sin  A  cos  B; ^M 

taaiA  +  B)-»iiHA-B)  =  iico8As[uB; JV 

eoa{A-^- B)-i-coa{A  ~ B)-ieos A oaa  B; (T) 

coaiA  -B)-coa(.A  +  B}  =  Ssin  Aein  8 J^ 

A  +  B  =  0,a>iiiA  -  B=D,  then  A^^0+  D)  and  B  ~  |<^H 

•ad  we  have  ^^| 

«in  C+8lnX)  =  asiu  ^C-f-0)t>os  ^O- J5):.    .    .    .     i^ 

riu  C'-slii  D  =  2cos^C'+ n)slu  ^(C- i));.    .    .    ,    (Ifl^ 

cos  C4-cosD  =  3co8^C+/>)co8  j(C— I>);  .    .    .    .    ^H 

COS/)  — 008C=S8in5(C+Z))8in  ;,(C- i>) (IP 

/«i  may  h<«  enuncfated  Uiuh:  The  sum  of  the  idnes  of  any  twr> 

■  ■■'  •,■■■■■■  ■>i(- sinf  of  half  the  sum  of  llie  angles  multlpllwl  liy 
iirereuee.    These  foriiiuls?  i-iialile  us  lo  ti/msfnnii 
pl'iiilllCt. 

n  iif  ^iii'-^  "(  uwD  HnKin)  is  Ui  their  dilTt^ivniie  aa  the  tiiiiKerit«^ 
f  tboHK  a-o^ina  is  lu  llio  taiii^ut  of  hulf  tlK'ir  dilTtfrauce.       ^^| 

.l-8laB      gcogif^l  ^B)sln^M-fl)      tnnlf/l-fl)         ^_ 

uf  t>u>  cofllnes  of  two  angles  Is  to  their  difTi^rvncp  ok  the  ct>^^| 
f  ttio  sum  of  lliose  angles  Is  to  the  tangent  of  tialf  their  liifTere^^H 

co.fi-co«^     Ssh.  i(^  +  fi)Blni(-4 -fl)      tanl(X-fl/''H 

<if  (lie  srnn  of  two  angles  Is  to  the  nine  of  tlieir  diffeivucu  iis  the 
iniiaeiits  ..f  those  angles  is  to  the  difference  of  the  tanxen 


\\A->rB)  __  tau  A  +  tan  S 


=ai>  (A  —  J})      (ail  a  -  tan  £' 


\tj±m 

I  4  MNt  A 


tan  A  +  UUI  R\ 


tan  J  '  Ion  B: 


1  -  taa  ^  tan  £; 


1  -(•  tan  J  tan  B; 


tan  {A+B) 
tan  (vl  -  B) 
cot  (a  +  fl)  : 


cot  (.A  -  H> 


tan  yj  -f  Un  B 


I  -  ran  A  tail  B^ 
tan  a  -  tail  B  , 

1  -|-  tan  A  tan  B^ 

cot  y<  cot  fl  —  J  , 
col  B  '+  cot  A  • 

gtA  A  coX.  •&  V  V^ 
MOlV.  B  -  <y*.  ( 


PLANE  TRIGONOMHTRT. 


F 

^m  Solntlon  or  Plane  Rlght-angletf  TrlanglM.^ 

^H^  Let  A  and  Ji  he  the  twn  acMirt*  anKlf!!  !liuI  V  iliu  m'kIii  niiKle,  Bni]| 
^^p tilts  sides  o[>|>OHUe  ihesa  angles,  respi-clirely,  Itivu  ue  bave 


1.  Bid  A  =  OOSB  =  ■ 


&  tAU  A  =  out  B  —  ti 
o 


COS  jd  =  sin  B  =  -;      4.  col  ^  =  tnn  B  =  -. 


I.  In  any  piatic  riehl-anRled  triatiBlc  Ihe  sine  of  Pitlii?r  of  the  ac 
is  equal  to  llie  i.|Uotii'Dt  of  tlie  <.>|>|)<isil<*  Ifg  iliviilud  liy  lh(j  hypothe 

a.  Till'  ciisini^  Iff  t-iiliei  of  tlie  ui'iite  aiiclfs  is  t-qual  lo  the  quolii 
adjacent  le>;  divlilt^il  by  Iht?  liypullii-iiiisi-. 

a.  thf  tai>^eii[  [if  i-ilher  tit  llie  ut-lite  aiigU'fi  is  equal  to  tlie  quotiCAta 

IO|i|'i^'<t^  IflC  divKfed  by  the  adjiic<?nt  Ifg. 
A.  'I  he  coLaiageiit  uf  elilier  i»f  tht' uciite  angles  Ih  liquid  to  the  quotl< 
f 


till- adjactMit  leu  divided  Ijy  thcoppusile  leg 

n.  The  sgiiare  of  the  hypulhi^iuiae  eqimla  the  sum  of  the  squa 
btber  two  sides. 


I 

KB 


Solution  or  ObUqne*aiieIed  Triangles, 

Thf  followine  propusltions  are  proved  ia  works  on  plane  tri^ni 
any  plane  irtaiitjln — 

TlK-oient  1.  'riie  sines  (if  the  aiiifles  are  proportional  lo  the  opi. 

Theorem  ij.  Tlit?  sum  of  any  tivu  tildes  i«  to  their  difft-reiiee  as.  tl 
of  half  the  aulii  of  the  oppcj^^lle  angles  is  to  the  tangent  of  half 
"Bee. 

Tlieorfm  3.  K  frain  any  unnle  of  a  triaMK'e  a  perpeiiiiicular  be  i)W 

le  opposite  sMe  or  base,  the  wliole  Imue  irill  be  to  the  suiu  of  the  otiMf 
sides  aif  the  difference  of  those  two  sides  is  to  the  difference  of  tlie  wga 
id'  the  liase. 

Uahe  I.  Uiveii  twt>  iiiiKleM  and  h  side,  to  find  the  third  anslo  and  tb«< 
two  sideH.  1.  Tlie  iliirri  anKle  =  IM"  -  aiini  of  the  two  anitlen.  i.  TlMI 
may  be  found  by  the  fttlUnviu^  proportion  : 

Tlie  sine  of  the  armle  opponite  tlie  (tiven  side  is  to  the  sine  of  the  anj 
piwiie  the  required  .side  a.s  the  uiven  Hide  is  to  the  required  6id«. 

Cahk  II.  (liven  Iwo  ^;lde.a  and  an  angle  oppD<!lte  one  of  Uiem,  toflntj 
third  side  and  the  reniainInK  aii|;les. 

The  .side  opposite  the  (fiven  anK'e  '»  I"  the  .fide  Opposite  the  requil^ 
as  the  sine  nf  ihe  jciveii  niiele  is  to  the  sine  of  the  reqiiireil  an{;le. 

The  third  uncle  is  found  hy  «uliliaclin(;  the  sum  uf  the  other  two 

id  the  third  side  Is  found  as  tii  (.'ase  I, 

(.'A»E  U1.  Uiven  two  sides  aurl  the  included  angle,  toflnd  the  ihi 

le  reiiiaiiilut;  angles. 

The  sum  of  the  nipiireiil  angles  is  found  hy  subtract Iuk  the 
from  l.tO".    The  difference  nf  the  reonired  aiiKle.'^  is  then  found  by 
II.     Half  the  difTereiu'e  added  to  Imif  the  sum  gives  the  greater 
linlf  the  ilifTeivui'e  siililrnete<i  from  half  the  gum  gives  the  less 
ihiiHl  Hide  is  then  found  by  Theorem  I. 

Another  method  ; 

(Jiven  the  sides  r.  b.  and  the  Included  angle  J,  to  And  the  remaiDlng 

id  tlie  remainirif!  Hiii/les  }i  and  C. 

From  either  of  Che  unknown  angles,  OS S, draw  a  perpondicular  A* 

jvwUe  side. 
h*n 

.-le^reng.^,    Be  =  fsln.4,    «C-b  —  At,    Be-*-fC-. 

Or,  111  otlier  words,  solve  Ae.  A  e  and  Bf  Cas  richt-aiigled  tr 
t.'ASK  [V.  (liven  the  three  side^,  to  nnd  Ilienn^IeK. 
I.'-t  full  n  ix'ipi'uill.'iilnr  np>in  the  Innpest  siile  fmni  the  oppo 
|l>idln«  the  Kiveii  triiinjfle  Into  twn  risnl-antrled  triani;le«.      I'liaJ 
enis  lit  tlm  Imse  may  he  found  by  Theorem  III.     There  will  the 
e  ■lyiMiiheiiUHe  and  one  *Uit)  at  a  rifrlit-angled  irlanele,  to  And  I 
I  Fur  <irca«  of  triangles,  see  Mensuration. 


ANALTTIOAL  aBOM£TBT. 


AITAI.YTICAL  GEOMETKY. 

Kl)rttiSB.1  geometry  i£  tliat  brooch  gf  Mathematics  which  has  ta. 
iM't  ihe  dtfiui'iiiuiauuu  of  the  forms  and  luaj^uitudes  of  geoiuetr(ca| 
tude^  l*y  meaiiR  of  analysis. 
Unatea  and  atwclaaaa.— In  analytical  geometry  two  int^rsectini 
Y  lliiiit  I'l",  XX'  are  ut>ed  as  cudi tiiiiali-  uxetj 

fl  XX'  ht-in^  the  axis  of  ab!K-iK!>a»  or  axis  uf  . 

/  p        and  YY'  the  axis  of  ordlnates  or  axia  of 

I- -I  A.  the  intersfction.  is  called  the  orli^lu  of  co^H 

/*'         /  ardlnates.    The  dfstanop  of  any  point /*  from 

/  '  the  axis  of  Y  lav&aured  paraliol  to  the  axi.s  of 

/  /  Jlscalled  ihe  o/'Sfi'wKi  of  the  fioiui,  as  J/' or 

CF,  Fig.  71.  Its  distaiici-  from  the  axis  nf  X 
measured  parallel  to  the  axis  of  Y,  Is  cnli<*d 
the  ordinnte.  oh  jlC  or  /'/>.  The  abscissa  and 
ordinate  takeu  tOKetlier  are  eullifd  the  cuiir- 
diaatpB  of  the  point  I'.  Tin'  an^'le  of  intei  »eo- J 
tloQ  in  usually  takeu  as  h  ri^hiaugle,  iu  which' 
case  the  axes  of  A'  and  Y  ore  called  reclamju- 
tar  codfilinatei. 

I  abscissa  of  a  point  is  degigoated  by  the  letter  x  and  the  ordinate  by  y. 
iquatiofix  of  a  point  are  the  equations  whioh  expie>«  the  ilistancH*  ot" 
oiiil  from  Ihi'  axis.  Thus  r-  =  u.  y  -^  li  ore  the  eniiiiliiins  of  (he  point  P.\ 
.UBtloua  referred  to  rectausular  cotfrdluates.— The  eijua^ 
■f »  line  expresses  the  relation  which  exists  between  the  caflrdinaie«  of 
p'iot  of  the  line 

istion  <if  a  strai);bt  line,  y  =  fix  ±b.\tt  whi<:h  ii  is  the  tauKeut  of  the 
the  line  makes  with  the  axis  of  X,  and  6  the  distance  above  A  In  which 
w  L-uts  the  axlH  of  Y.    ' 

ry  eqiiat  Lou  of  the  first  degree  betweeu  two  variables  is  the  equation  of 
Jght  line,  axAy  +  Bx+C  =  0,  which  can  be  redaoed  to  the  lorm  y  = 
6. 
iruioD  of  the  distance  between  two  points: 


V 


X)=  Vix"  -x')^  +  (.y"  -y')^. 

y,  r"y"  are  tlie  coVlrdlaates  of  the  two  polnta, 
of  a  line  passinir  through  a  given  point: 


J 


Ich  x'v'  itre  the  coOrdinatea  of  the  eiven  point,  a.  the  tangent  of  the 
the  tine  makes  vrlth  ihe  axis  of  x,  beln^  undetermined, since  any  uum- 
lines  may  be  drawn  throuirh  a  given  point.  j 

atioD  of  a  line  passing  tlirough  two  given  points:  ■ 

$aioa  of  A  line  parallel  to  a  given  line  and  through  a  given  point! 

^m  p  —  »'  =  a(x  -  x'). 

Htt  of  an  angle  rincluded  between  two  given  lines: 


rr      a'  —  a 

ell  a  and  a'  are  the  tangents  of  the  angles  the  lines  make 
r  aitacisKas. 

6  lines  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other  tang  F  =  xi ,  and 
1  +  u'a  =  0. 

tltklersecUoa  of  two  linen,  wboae  equatioDS  are 
Mr=ar-f-i,        and     V  =  a'x  +  b', 
u-  a' 


with  I 


■ 

I         cei 


TO  ANALYTICAL  GEOMEIRY. 


Equation  of  a  perpundicuUr  from  a  given  point  to  a  given  line: 

V -il' =--<'- 1- 

Equfttlou  of  the  lengtb  of  tlie  perpeudicular  P: 
p  _  y'_-  ax'  -b 
VI  X  a' 


The  circle.— EquRtioD  of  a  circle,  the  origin  of  coordinates  being  at 
centre,  aua  luaius  =  R  : 

a'  +  »'  =  [P. 

1(  the  origin  1«  at  (he  left  extremity  of  tbe  diameter,  on  the  axis  of  X\ 

y'>  -  SRx  -  i>. 

If  the  origin  is  at  any  point,  and  the  coDrdlnates  of  the  centre  are  *•/: 

ix  -  X')*  +  {u-  y')*  =  ff'. 

Equation  of  a  tangent  tri  a  c'rcle,  llie  courdmat«s of  the  poiut  of  taogea 
being  x"y"  and  tlie  origin  at  the  centre, 

yg"  -f  xjc"  =  Jf, 

The  elllpBe.— Equation  of  an  elli|)se,  referred  to  rectangular  ooSl 
nates  witli  iijub  at  the  centre: 

^l'B«  +  B*!*  =  A*B*, 

in  which  A  is  iialf  tlie  transverse  axis  and  B  half  the  conjugate  ailg. 

Eqiiatiau  of  the  ellipse  when  the  origin  is  at  the  vertex  of  the  transi 
nxU: 

The  eccenlricily  of  Rti  ellipse  is  the  distance  from  the  centre   to  eltll 
f(icn»,  divided  by  the  Beini-transverse  axis,  or 


'  = A • 

The  parnnneler  of  an  ellijiRtt  is  the  double  ordinate  paBsing  throUEh 
CtwiiH.    It  i»  a  tlilrii  proportii'iial  to  the  iransver^  axis  uud  Its  conjugate, 

2B* 
2 J  :  8B  ::  2a  :  pai'ameter;  or  parameter  =  — —. 

Any  ordinate  of  a  circli?  oircumnciibitig  an  elUpoe  is  to  the  correspond 
•inllnale  <if  the  eliips*  as  the  Sfmitrausvei-se  axis  to  the  semicnujugl 
.Any  urdinatf  ■■f  a  circle  inscribed  in  an  ellipse  Is  to  the  Curri'spotidingOl 
nntc  iif  tilt*  elliptie  as  ilif  seiiiiH:oningnlP  axis  to  the  seniilrau8vei-se. 

ICqiiiiliuii  at  the  tangent  to  an  ellipse,  origin  uf  axes  at  the  centre  : 

A^liy"  +  B-'xx"  =  A'*B*, 

y"x"  being  the  coflidinat*!*  of  the  point  of  taneency. 

Equaliiiu  i>r  llie  normal,  passing  through  the  point  of  tangenc]*,  andj 
[lendicular  to  tlia  tangent: 

V-y''xxyi^,(x-x-). 

Th(f  normnl  binectg  the  angle  of  the  two  Wncs  &T&vm  trotn  the  point 
faitgi'ncy  to  i}ih  fot'l. 
Tl^'  II, .p„  ct,„  „.„  fro^  (hp  focj  make  en«a\  ativ:\«?»  '"^^^  ^'^^'^  \a.W¥L«»l- 
»»«    P«*-a»oJ«.  -Equatioti    of    llie    parah.Aa  veteTfeA  \o  -twAaj:^ 
Ue^"""-  "'"  •"■'>'■"  t"-"n(r  al  the  vertex  of  Vts  ax\a.  ■«»  =  *j>x,\ii'«'V8 
P"    I^araine'ter  or  tJoiible  ortlijiate  tlirough  tt\e  tocMa. 


nal,  or  projectloin  ef  tbi  normal  on  tbo  axis,  U  constani,  and 
the  |>aminoter. 
IK  at  any  point  makes  equal  anglcK  \ritb  the  aziK  and  with  ihe 
rom  rb**  point  of  lanifenuy  to  tht  focus. 

^rbola.— ICquattuu  of  the  liyperboU  referred  to  reotaiiKular 
ui'i^iu  ai  llie  centre: 

^•^  -  B'x'  =  -  A*B^, 

tb«  semi-trarisTerse  axis  and  B  Ihe  seml-conJuKate  axis, 
hen  the  origin  is  at  the  vrrlex  of  Ihe  transverse  axis: 


(f!A  rx3fl). 


Ue  and  eqnilateral  liyperbol»«.— If  on  the  conjucrale 
l4iRveifie,  and  a  focal  Oistaiief  Pi|iinl  to  t  .4'  +  iP.  we  construct 
Itches  of  a  hyperbolii,  ilic  two  Ijyperboltts  ihiiii  eoi>Blruc-ted  are 
Ig.lH  hyfiei'liolaK.     If  the   trarisv*'rse   and  eonjtigaie  axf^is  ar»^ 

B[ierl>olas  are  enlleii  c<nji!ttt«'ral.  in  which  ease  y*  —x^  =    -  ^' 
e  trausverae  axis,  Kud  jt"  —  j/'  =  —  /<»  when  B  is  the  iruns- 

B^ter  of  the  transverw  axis  is  a  third  proportional  to  the  trauu- 
bd  it£  conjugate. 

I  iA  :  2B  ::  2B  :  parameter. 

mt  to  a  hyperb>la  hi<H?cts  the  anRle  of  the  two  h'nes  drawn  from 

'  iaii;:>T'".v  to  lh>'  fo<-i. 

luplot^a  of  a  hyperbola  are  the  diagonals  of  the  rectangle 

II  Ihe  K«e8,  iiKlelinitel.v  pri'iliiceil  in  hotli  directions. 

Duteral  liyiwrliola  llie  a.svinptoiea  ninlie  equal  angles  ivith  rlie 
IxiK,  and  are  at  ri^bt  an^jles  lo  eacli  otlinr. 

pt-ites  fniinuallv  appnmcli  the  liyp<>rbolR,  and  become  taiiK''>il 
Dtliilte  .listance  from  the  centre. 

Brtlonn. -Krery  equation  of  the  second  degree  between  two 
Hi  I  r..i„..,;..ni  .-iili.T  a  circle,  ati  elllp-we,  n  pnrrii.nln  or  ii  |iv|"M  i..  .1.1 

-':    up.^    nK»a<Ma#l   k«T    U-.t  ...'.- .•)... 


DIFFERENTIAL  CALCUXU8.         ^^H 

DIFFERENTIAL  CAIiCULUS.       H 

The  difTei'potlal  of  a  variable  qimntity  U  the  dllTerence  between  a^ 


of  itscousecuUve  ralues;  liMice  it  is  inilef]niU>ly  small.     It  is  expreiM 
wriliiig-  d  b«r<ire  the  quantity,  as  dx,  which  is  read  dilTcrential  oF  x. 

UOD  of  X. 

The  differential  of  a  fuoction  is  equal  to  its  differential  cnefndrol 

tiplied  by  the  differential  of  the  independent  variable:  thus.  -~dx  —  <1 

ax 

The  limit  of  a  variable  quantity  is  that  value  to  wfaieli  it  conlit 
approaches,  so  as  at  last  to  differ  from  It  by  less  Ihau  any  oaaignable 
tity. 

The  differential  coefftcient  in  the  lltnit  of  the  ratio  of  the  iDcremenl^ 
imiefiendent  variable  to  tbe  inerenient  of  the  function. 

Thf  difTfii-utial  uf  a  constant  quantity  is  nqniil  to  0. 

Thii  diffcretitiftl  of  a  product  of  a  coniitaiit  by  a  vniiable  Is 
constant  multiplied  by  the  differential  of  the  variable. 


If    u  =  Av,    du  =  Adv. 


Ignable 
-emenli 

oi  m3 


.1 


J 


III    any  curve  whose    equation  is  y=/{,x),  the  differential 

-r  =  lai)  a;  hence,  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  function,  or  the  aacen 

the  curve  at  any  point,  is  equal  to  the  'iiDgent  of  the  angle  which  tbeU 
line  inal<e!<  with  tlii>  mis  of  nltseiHsas.  T 

All  the  operations  of  the  Differential  Calciiluti  comprise  but  two  tMjA 

1.  To  find  I  he  rate  of  chaivfre  in  a  functiou  when  it  posses  from  ooe 
of  value  lo  nuother,  conKeoiitive  witli  it. 

1'.  T(i  finti  ilio  Acriinl  t'liaufre  In  tlie  functi><n :  The  rale  of  clianirel 
diffi-iinKnl  lo-lVifi-nf    .irnl  Ilif  ni-liitil  ohaiit'i- tin-  diffeivniial. 

Dlffer^nCialH  <>r  alKt^bralr  mnrllona.— The  differential 
sum   11'  ili(T'-n-iiri"  iif   juiy  niuiilier  uf  tunc:  10148,  dependent  on   the 
variatile,  is  i-qual  to  tile  sum  or  diffrreuce  iil'  ibeir  differeniiaU  taken 
rately : 

If    11  =  J  4- 1  -  w,    du  =  iij»  +  dz  —  dw. 

The  differential  of  o  prmluct  of  two  functions  dependent    on  tbe, 
Tarlable  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  products  of  each  by  the  diffu 

Kthe  other: 
aCav)  =  ran  +  tmu.     -^_-  =—  +  — . 
T 
Kn 


Tlie  differential  of  the  product  of  any  nnnilmr  of  functioMS  ig  i 
jum  of  the  products  which  arise  by  multiplying  the  (iiffet 
lunclion  liy  the  product  of  all  the  otbors: 


d(uU)  =  tudu  +  utdl  +  ufdf. 
The  differential  of  a  fraction  eqiialH  the  denominator  into  the  di 
of  the  iiuini'itilor  minus  the  nunieratDi  into  the  differential  of  Uie  I 

IJoator,  divided  by  the  square  of  the  ilenoininator  : 
I  ..       ./u^     odu-wdv 


If  Uie  dtwomlnator  is  constant,  dv  =  0,  and  dl  =  — r-  =  — . 


wiv 
If  the  numerator  is  constant,  du  =  0,  and  dt  =  — -r* 

IT" 

The  differential  of  the  square  root  of  a  quantity  is  eouat  to  1 
U*l  of  the  quantity  divided  by  twice  the  square  root  of  the  quantity: 


DIFFERENTTAri  CALOrTLUS. 


tal  of  any  power  of  s  fuiiL'tr.>n  f«  (Hjiml  to  llie  rxpnnrtit  m(il 
k-tioii  TtiiMni  til  a  pnwKr  less  one,  inullipllpd  by  the  di/Tereii'- 

Idiii't  =  iiii"  -  'rfu. 
Jia'erentladne  alffebralr  Ainctiona. 
6.  .i  i^\  -  "'''  -  '''" 
i 


■dg. 
dx  -  dy. 


7.  d  (*"*)  =  mar"  " 


'rfx. 


9.  d 


8  fj! 


(ix. 


lereivutial  of  Uie  form  u  =  (a  +  bx") 
ixponi-nt  of  the  paittulhcsiK  into  Ihp  exjionviit  of  the  vnf 
bareiithesis.  iato  the  cofftlcjfnt  uf  the  VArlahlt>,  Intu  the  . 
to  a  power  Ipsa  1,  hiio  i\w  varluhlf  wiihin  the  pareiillio 
ler  lesK  1,  iuto  the  (llffvrenlial  of  the  variable. 

1.1 


'dx. 


i.  =  d(a  +  fix")"*  =  mnb(a  +  fcjr")"  " 

%te  of  change  fur  a  given  value  of  the  rnriiihli- ; 

ireuUal  i'oe(BL-it«ijt,  and  ButtsUlutu  the  yalue.  'if  the  vaiiablei 

pber  of  the  LKjualioii. 

!  X  18  llie  siJe  of  a  cube  and  «  ila  vohiine,  ii  =  x*.  -r- 

I  of  chancre  lu  the  volume  U  tlii-fe  limes  the  .--qiinro  uf  i 
Ijre  U  denoted  by  1 ,  tli«  rate  nf  ohaiifce  is  S. 
'  The  cotifBti<'nt  of  fxpaniiloii  by  li««u  of  thw  voliiini*  of  a  I" 
he  Ihienr  Coi'fllL'ient  of  expftinslon.   Thus  If  th>-  Kiili-  i.f  u 
Ch.  its  volume  expiinds  .<m  iMihic  fta-h.    I.IK'I'  =  liltt'SHJ*!!)!.! 
OUnsrentlal  coefflelont  is  ihn  ilHTfrfntiul  coefllcleutoi 
yo  or  more  rui'iubli?^  uiadei-  ili«  sii;i|>osilioii  iliat  only  one  o 
pMl  its  value. 

ereiitlal  Is  the  differential  of  ft  function  of  two  or  more  v 
I  siippoNiliuii  that  only  one  of  tliein  hOH  L-haneed  Us  value 
breiitial  of  a  fiinurion  of  any  number  of  variables  i»  equal  j 
jyarUal  differentials. 

tbe  iHU-tial  differentials  are  —dx.  -^dy. 

I  dx      dy 

)  —  «,  du  =  -r<te  4-  -r-dl/  +  -^z;  =  ixdx4-3y*dy  —  dx. 
f  d£        '    dy  dx 

I— An  luteKral  i«  a  funotional  erj>refwlon  derived  from 
itCKiutioD  is  the  operation  of  flniliiu;  the  primitive  fuiietimi 
leiitial  function.  It  ih  iiMlienied  l>y  tli<>  sii;n  /,  wlileli  ix  rttud 
f."  Than  /  'i.cdx  =  jr'  :  rea<l,  tlie  i'tuegrul  of  "Jji/jr  ci]u<^Im  j". 
ftn  expression  of  tlie  form  nix"  "  ^dx  or  x"'<ijc.  add  I  to  the 
fe  variable,  and  divide  l)y  the  now  exponent  and  by  tbe  diflrr- 
•riable:  / aa;'d:r  =  ,r'.    (Applicable  in  all  cases  except  when 

Jx        dx  see  formula  3  page  T8.) 

of  the  product  of  a  constant  by  the  differential  of  n  vnri- 
I  the  constant  multiplied  by  the  Inleurul  of  the  differential: 

fax^dx  =  a/x"dx  =  a r-.  I"  +  '• 

y  ni  4- 1 

U  the  algebraic  sum  of  any  number  of  differenllaU  is  equal  to 
tini  of  their  integrals: 

B&ijr'i£r  —  bffdif  —  z'dsr;  /du  =  -ax*  —  -y» . 

o  »  8 

^atfal  ot  a  constant  Js  0,  a  constant  connected  with  a  vmV 
%^^'^J^'^^"  '"  "'^  J'/TerentiatioD ;  tlm«  cHa  -V-  «">  - 


74  DIFFEBEN'TIAL   CALCULUS. 

ai:in(>K  to  tlie  iutegral  obtained  n  cougtAnt  represeDted  by  C  I 
for  the  term  which  mny  have  buipa  lost  in  difierenliation.  Tl 
itu  =  adx;  Jiiy  =  afdr.    Iiite^ating, 

y-  ax  ±C. 

The  constant  C,  wtilch  Is  Rildi-d  to  liie  first  Intetrral.  niiiii 
value  a»  to  render  tl)e  functional  ('(jimtiim  inie  for  every  powibW  _ 
may  ba  uttribiit«i  to  tlie  vuriable.  Heuce,  after  liaviiiK  fuuiK)  I 
inte^rai  equation  and  Hdd«-V.l  tht«  constant  C,  if  we  tlien  nial;e  Ibu  1 
rqiial  to  zero,  tliw  value  which  the  function  ossumes  will  lie  tlu'  tit 
itiC. 

An  indeDnitc  Integral  U  the  first  Integral  obtained  before  the  vilB* 
cuustaut  C  is  dc^terintned. 

A  particular  liitfgral  Is  the  luteKral  after  the  valne  of  C  lias  b«n  I 

A  detirtite  iiil^grai  is  the  integral  corresponding  to  a  Kiven  vAlu 
vaiirilile. 

Integration  betvrcon  Ilnilta.— Having  fniind  tlie  inciffin 
i;nLt  III  Hi  I  lie  |iurlicular  idiTt'>;L'ai,  \\\e  n»*xt  step  is  to  Hnd  the  delliiit^i 
ami  then  Ijic"  fleriijii.e  iiitff;riil  iietween  Riven  limits  of  the  variable. 

The  intet;ral  of  a  fuuetlon.  tulcen  between  two  liniilo.  iudicuited  I 
values  of  x,  is  equal  to  the  differenoo  of  the  definite  integrain  oon 

I    jug  to  those  limits.    The  expression  J 

Is  read:  intetciul  of  tlie  diflferentlal  of  v,  taken  between  the  IIinl9||| 
the  lea-st  limit,  or  tlie  limit  correnpondlng  to  the  subtraetlve  Inl^ 
placed  Iwdow. 

Iuiei<ral<3  du  —  Bir'rix  l>etween  the  limits  *  =  1  and  a:  =  3,  «  being 
81  when  ^  =  0.   /du  =  fWdx  =  8a:>  +  C;  C  =  81  when  x  =  0,  tlien 


I 


/   rfii 
i/.i:  ^  1 


a:3)>  +  81,  minus  8(1^  +  81  =  78. 


I 


■ntegratlon  of  particular  forma. 

Tn  iiiteyrate  a  differential  uf  the  form  rfu  =  (a  +  ftx")"*" 

1.  If  ihere  is  a  constant  factor,  place  it  without  the  Bigii  of  l_ 
and  omit  the  power  of  the  variable  without  the  pareulhesis  and  t 
ential; 

a.  Augment  the  exponent  of  the  parenthesis  by  1,  and  then  dl' 
(|iiaiillty,  with  ihe  ex|">uent  so  increaseil,  by  the  exponent  of  tt 
Iliesin,  into  the  e.tixment  of  the  variable  withm  the  parenlhesin,  in] 
efllfient  of  the  variable.    Whence 


-'  <m  4-  1  hi6 


Tite  differential  of  an  nrc  is  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right-an 
which  the  base  iy  lix  and  the  poipendicular  dy. 

If  z  U  an  arc,  dz  =   t'dJ''  +  dff'      z  =/  Vctr»  +  (iy», 

lluadratnre  of  a  plane  Bgar«. 

j'lif  iiijffvifH  liiil  of  ilie  art'u  of  a  plane  nirface  is  equal  to  the  ordi 
the  diiTerential  of  the  abftcissa, 

ds  =  ydx. 

To  Arrly  th»  principle  enunciatad  in  the  last  equation,  in  finding 

of  nn-  ■  — '  ■■•:ir  plane  (surface  : 

1-1  •  of  y  in  terms  uf  x.  from  tile  equation  of  (he  bouni 

ulj  ->liie  in  the  differential  equation,  and  then  iut«gnttC 


Bg  tbc  partfcnlar  fnlCKruJ  hys**  **  ^  5  ^• 

et,  the  area  of  any  portiou  of  the  parabola,  estiiiuLted  from  the  ver- 
|u»i  »>■  Sjj  rif  tlip  rt'ciatiR-li'  of  tlie  abscissa  and  ordinttt*  of  (lie  exlrniiie 
rhi>  curve  is  ihcrff^ir-i-  ciiiailmblB. 

ratnre  orsarracea  of  reTolntton.  — ThedilTereniiul  of  a 
D(  revolution  is  tfqiial  to  llie  L-ireumfprnuen  of  a  circle  per]K*ndiciilar 
kis  into  the  diilerential  of  tlie  arc  of  the  ineriillan  I'urve. 

^  y  is  the  radius  of  a  circle  of  the  lionndlne  mirface  in  a  plane  |itir- 
uiar  to  the  axis  of  revolution,  and  j;  is  the  abscissa,  or  diatniioe  of  ihi- 
Klin  tlie  oritfiu  of  ooBidinati-  axiw. 

ifore,  to  iind  thi.»  volume  of  any  surface  of  revolution: 

Uie  value  uf  |/ and  dij  from  ilie  equation  of  tiie  nieridiun  curve    in 

tx  and  fijr.  then  NuhKtItute  these  vhIui's  in  the  dllTerential  o^untioii. 

Ignite  between  the  proper  Iiniilf<  of  x. 

plication  of  tiiis  nile  we  may  flnri: 

lirved  surface  of  a  cyliiKler  equulH  the  prnduct  of  the  circiimrereiice 

it«  into  the  altitude. 

Bnve.x  Rurfaoe  of  a  cone  equals  the  product  of  the  circumference  of 

B  into  half  the  plant  height. 

urface  of  a.  sphere  is  equal  tu  tlu'  urea  of  four  great  circles,  or  equal 

grvert  surface  "f  tlie  cireiimsciiiiitiB'  cylinder. 

Ltare  of  TolomeH  of  rcToIntlon.— A  volume  of  revolution 

inie  i^enerated  hy  the  reroluliuu  of  a  plane  figure  alHjiil  a  Qxrd  line 

|e  axis. 

Kenote  the  volume  by  V.  ill'  —  wy''  dx. 
?a  of  a  circle  desicriljed  by  any  ordinate  y  Ir  iry';  hence  the  differ- 
[  a  volume  of  rnvolul  ion  ia  equal  to  the  area  of  a  circle  perinndli.-ular 
lis  into  the  differential  of  the  axis. 

ITerential  of  a  volume  generated  hy  the  revolution  of  a  pinne  fltfiire 
me  axis  of  ¥  i»  irx'cii/. 

nd  the  value  of  I'' for  any  given  volume  of  revoluflon  : 
the  value  of  y>  in  terms  of  x  from  the  e<|U(itioa  of  the  meiidiau 
rfubstlt -     — 

Ua^ *k^ III.   I   U««i*A  . 


76 


DlFFKilENTlAL  CAXCULUS. 


which  Ik  road:   second  differential  of  u  divided  by  the  i 


cient 

llie  differential  of  x  (or  itr  squared). 

(i*u 

T)i«  ihii'd  difI«reDtUl coefflctoDt  .-^is read:  tlilni differential  o( u i 

ax' 

by  rfjr  cirhi>d. 
Tliu  illlTt-reiillals  uf  the  dlffureut  ordei-s  are  ubtolncd  by  inuitiplyia^ 

differeiiljtil  cotffllcieuts  by  Ihe  curreKpomlliiK  powera  of  rij:;  thus-j-j  iW^ 

lliii'il  [lifTi^reiiliKi  of  r^ 
81$;ii  of  the  lirat  dlfierenttBl  cocJUclent.— If  we  have  a  ed 

wliuntj  eqmniou   ia  j(  =  /x,  refen'eil  lu  reoumijular  coiirdioates,  the 

will  i-ocede  fi'oin  Ote  axU  of  X  when    -r^  \t  poaitlTe,  and  approach  I 

axis  when  it  is  nef^ativa,  wiien  the  cnrvi;  Ue.s  wlthlii  tlie  first  ansleoft 
coordinate  axes.    Fur  all  anKleH  and  every  relaiioii  of  y  and  jr  the  eat, 
will  recede  from  (lie  axig  of  A  wliuii  llie  urdliuite  and  (li'sl  dilTerfntllt I 
efflcRMit.  have  the  same  sijjn,  uiij  aiipi'UHCb  it  niien  tliey  have  diffe 
sigTiM.    If  the  tan^eut  of  the  eurve  becomat  parallt-l  to  the  axis  of  X  at  I 

pulut  y-  =  0.    If  Uia  taDK^nt  boeoiiies  perpeudlcular  to  the  axis  of  Xati 

point  — =^  =  =0. 
ilx 

Slfirn  or  the  second  dlirereiitlal  coofflciont.  -The  Drcond  ( 
feivriiinl  cueltleifni  Una  th"  saiiu-  sisii  as  (lu!  orilinut»  whi-n  rhe  cur*litj| 
Coiivi'v  Uiwnr't  llie  axis  of  aUseiH^ta  and  a  eonli'ary  hikh  when  it  is  CODCafl 

naclanrln**  Theorem.— Kor  ilevclopinK  taioa  oeries  any  fuoc  ' 
of  a  stnsl""  variablo  us  ti-  A  +  Bx  ■}-  Cx'  +■  Dx*  -f  £ht',  eta.,  In  which  A, 
C,  etc.,  are  independent  of  r: 

^  1 .  aVd*»^x  .0       1.3.  aNrfi'/, 


0 


..*•+< 


.0 


'  =  ''•1.0  +  ©., 

In  applying  the  forraiila,  omit  the  expremioBS  K  —  0,  altliough  the 
Oieutx  are  always  found  under  thia  hypothesis. 
Examples: 

(a-l-xr  =  o»  +mo'»  -  »*  +  "5^  ^JH^a"'  V« 

+  j — 2 8 — a      *«  +  eto. 


•  i  +  i 


.etc. 


Taylor'i*  Theorem.— For  developiiiRinlo  a  series  any  functtoo  o(| 

Buni  oi'  diltereuct!  cil"  two  iiiitepcudcut  variahleH,  as  11'  =/(x  ±  jf)'- 


i+etc, 


in  which  ri  is  what  u'  becomes  when  0  =  0,  :r  1^  what   .     b«oomss  «b 

»  =  0.  Bie. 
maxima  and  luluima.— To  And  the  niaxiniuni  or  minimum  «» 

of  a  tniii-Itt'ii  of  a  sini.'it<  vaiiable: 

1,  Find  the  llrsl  >l liferent iai  eoefficlent  of  the  fnnction,  place  it  equal  loJ^l 
ami  detpimhie  llx*  ronis  of  ihe  equation.  I 

2.  Find  the  second  liilTeieniiBi  eoefltdei)t,  and  substilute  nach  real  m*,! 
In  siU'cesBioli,  for  the  varialde  In  tlie  seciind  member  of  ihe  equation. 
root  which  gives  a  neeative  result  will  correspond  to  a  maximum  valne  ( 
the  fiinnilon,  and  eacn  which  gives  a  poBlilve  result  will  correepond  t«  ll 

/iiiuimnnt  r&lue.  1 

^XAUPhs—To  nnd  the  value  of  z  whicli  wUA  renAet  «\«  taiicAXoii  \  t] 
■a-xuaii/aj  orm/nimum  la  tite  equation  of  the  c\rc\e,  jj*  -V  i*  =  Bf-, 


MDd  dHI«reiitW  eoeffldent  ia:  ^s:  -  **^**. 

«P«         1 
=  u,  V  =  S;  hence  ^^  ^  ~  k>  ^liicli  being  negative,  y  b  a  niMd- 

■  S  poaitlTe. 

lying  the  mle  to  praeUcal  examples  we  flnit  And  an  ezpreaaioa  (or 

mm  which  i8  to  be  made  a  maximum  or  mlnimam. 

Boch  exprewiitD  a  oonatant  quantity  is  found  ax  a  footnr.  it  may 
ed  in  the  operation;  for  the  product  will  lie  a  maximum  or  a  miiit- 
«ii  the  vartabla  factor  Is  a  maxiniam  or  a  niinimum. 

Talita  of  the  indewndeat  variable  wfaich  renders  a  fnnctinn  a  max- 

r  a  minimum  will  render  any  power  or  root  of  that  fuociion  a 

m  or  minimum;  benoe  wejnay  80iiarelx>th  memi>en  of  an  eqos- 

rro  it  of  radicals  before  difrereutlatuiK. 

Ml  rvitr*  «re  maj  And: 

azimiim  rectangle  wlilcb  can  be  inocribed  in  a  triangle  is  one  whow 

ix  taHir  the  altitude  of  the  triangle. 

titudA  of  the  maximum  cylinder  which  can  be  insoribed  in  a  cone  is 

J  Uie altitude  of  the  cone. 

irface  of  a  cylindrical  Teasel  of  a  given  volume,  open  at  the  top,  is  a 

n  when  the  altitude  equals  half  the  diameter. 

titode  of  a  cylinder  inscribed  in  a  sphere  wlien  its  convex  surface  is 

mm  is  r  ^/i.    r  =  radius. 

Ititude  of  a  cylinder  inscribed  in  a  sphere  when  the  voiiime  Is  a 

Si- 
nn is  ~7-' 

Vs 
trentlal  of  an  exponential  Ainetton. 

If  «  =  o*. a) 

then  du  =  da"  =a''kdx, (S) 

1  J;  is  a  constant  dependent  on  a. 
1 

elation  between  a  and  fc  is  a'' =  e;  whence  a  =  e'', (8) 

ii  «■  =  ^.TISSSIS  .  .  .  the  base  of  the  Naperian  system  of  logaritlims. 
arltbius.— Tlie  logarithms  in  the  Naperian  system  are  denoted  by 
loe  or  liyperbolic  log,  hyp.  log,  or  log,;  and  in  the  common  system 
by  log. 

k  =  Nap.  log  a,    log  a  =  fc  log  e (4) 

ommon  logarithm  of  e,  =  log  2.T1S28I8  .  .  .  =  .4342945  .  .  .  .  is  called 
Inliis  of  th«  common  system,  and  is  denoted  by  M.  Hence,  if  we  liave 
>erian  logar  thm  of  a  number  we  can  And  the  common  lo^tarithm  of 
le  number  by  multiplying  by  the  modulus.  Reciprocally,  Nap. 
om.  log  X  2  .3035851. 
iquation  (4)  we  maice  a  =  10,  we  have 

1  =  k  log  e,   or   -  =  log  e  =  If. 

,  the  modulus  of  the  common  system  is  equal  to  1,  divided  by  the 
ui  logarithm  of  the  common  base. 
I  equation  (2)  we  have 

make  a  :=  10,  the  bate  of  the  common  system,  as  =  log  u,  and 

'    *  u       A       u 

f,"'y^^j:"J'.fL''J,?/'J"^"l''^  /o5»r/tiini  ot  a  quantity  is  eqna\  to  tlie 

%^J^JS^Te"&^'ottL%L^S'lf:"*'H^ '»'«  the  modulus. 

w  0     4  we  oaee  ot  tha  Naperian  ayet^m,  x  becomes  the  Nap» 


I 


78 


DIFFEKKKTIAL  CALCULUS. 


rian  logarithm  of  u,  and  k  becomes  1  (see  equation  (3»;  bence  11=%, 
a(Nap.  log  u)  =  ox  =  — ;  =  —  . 

qX  li 

TtiHt  i!<,  the  iliffi-ivDiial  of  a  Nafiei  inn  loi;ai'ithm  of  a  quantity  is  pquiv 
cli(Tt?r<-iitlal  uF  th«-  quaiotjty  itiviilnJ  tiy  the  quauiil^s  and  in  llie  N< 
H3>t4.*in  ttie  iiMdiiliiK  in  1. 

Since  k  is  tlie  Nniterinii  loKaritbni  of  a,  du  =  «'  I  a  dx.  That 
difTiTfiitlal  of  it  function  of  lliefoiiii  (r'iKpqual  U>  the  riinction,  {l 
NitiitM'titza  loguntlitik  of  Ikk^  taiu^  fi,  lititt  llii«  ditfrTOiitJitl  '>f  the fX|ioti«l 

li  »e  lifivi-  tt  diffpifiilinl  in  a  frai-tionul  r<>rni,  in  which  Ihennmef 
the  flilTc^reiitiiil  uF  ihr  il>-nnniinatoi'.  the  inteeinl  Is  tli>>  Nap«rian  ln0 
of  tile  ilenoinluaior.  liiii'giiiln  of  riavLlonal  (liftereiilTOls  of  otli«r  fori 
(jlv«>M  ]ii*low; 

DliTerctitlal  tbniiB  which  have  known  intein^a 
poneutlal  Itim-tloiu.    W  =  Map.  iug.) 

1.  /  ct^  ladx  =  a'  +  C; 

*•  /  -^=  J  (ixx-^  =  Ix  +  C, 

lit. 


I 


dx 


yf/.i«  +  x»  +  n/ 


10. 


y'a'  ±  Sax 

/ggrfx 
a'-x. 

/'iixdx 


=  '(- 


-  \/a!' 


y'(i« 


+  C; 


Clrenlar  ftanctlons.— LK  z  denote  an  arc  in  the  first  qii 

Bine.  X  iijt  cosliio,  i>  li«  versed  sine,  and  t  Us  tan^fnt:  and  Ibe  followii 
t/oa  be  enipJoxed  to  <lv«ignAte  an  arc  by  any  one  of  its  fund  ions,  Tia.,]| 

aia  ~'  If  denotes  an  arc  ot  w\>\c\i  y  \»  vVe  s\»\e 
cos  ~^  X      "  "     ■>     u        "      X  \a  VXve  coAw, 

tati~^t      "  "    "    "       "     t  V6V.\v6*K 


1 


DIPFEBENTIAL  CALOUIiUS. 


79 


Hd  "  aro  whose  sine  Is  y,"  etc.),— we  have  the  following  differential  forms 
Uch  have  known  integrals  (r  =  radius): 


I  coez 


dz     =  sin  z  +  C; 


/    dy 


tiuzdz  =  cos  x+C; 


=  «in-'y+C; 


y_=^    =co8->«fa; 

/'*"       =  vernsin  "*  »  +  (7; 

A^^  =sin->^4-C; 

/-rdx 
|/r»  -  x^ 


■■  cos     '  a:  4-  C; 


ver-8in~»-  +  C; 


=  tan  -  •  -  +  C. 


The  cycloid.— If  a  circle  be  rolled  alon^  a  straight  line,  any  point  of 
thecirciiinfeirnce,  as  P,  will  describe  a  curve  wiiich  is  called  a  cycloid.  The 
circle  is  culled  the  generating  circle,  and  i'the  generating  point. 

The  transcendental  equation  of  the  cycloid  is 


X  —  ver-sin-  '  y  —  |/2i-j/  -  p', 
and  the  differential  equation  is  dx  =     /^ 


^2)0 

The  area  of  the  cycloid  is  equal  to  three  times  the  area  of  the  genei-nting 
circle. 

The  surface  described  by  ihearc  of  a  cycloid  when  revolved  about  its  base 
is  equal  to  04  thirds  of  the  generating  circle. 

The  volume  of  the  solid  generated  bv  revolving  a  cycloid  about  its  base  is 
pq'ial  to  five  eighths  of  tlie  circumscribing  cylinder. 

Integral  calcnlns. — In  the  integral  calculus  we  have  to  return  from 
the  difTereiitial  to  tlie  function  from  which  it  was  derived  A  number  of 
ilillerential  expressions  are  given  above,  each  of  which  lias  a  known  in- 
lepral  corresponding  to  it,  and  which  being  differentiated,  will  produce  the 
given  differential. 

In  all  classes  of  functions  any  differential  expression  may  be  integrated 
'hen  it  is  reduced  to  one  of  the  known  forms;  and  the  operations  of  the 
tolf^ral  calculus  consist  mainly  in  making  such  transformations  of  given 
differential  expressions  as  shall  reduce  them  to  equivalent  ones  whose  in- 
tegrals are  known. 

For  methods  of  making  these  transformations  reference  ItlUSt  be  made  t.< 
Ae  teit-books  on  iHtterentlal  and  integral  calculus. 


!  H 
t  1 

IT 
'"■-4 
'-IVJ 


«« 


iA07 , 
S849 

.ooaaaioo 

.00a3\4fil 

'  .ooa«»»47 
A\  .ooaaons 

5\    .0t«a9RR.') 
t\    .00128833 

9'  .(KKariDft 

'4401  .onsKTKir 

g/  .ooe-jei44j 
ii  .ogeaamh 


-Ooias,'i,i.| 

.00180,  "l 

•j  -ym^w 
'  •;*'*»]«ii  CO 


,    OOJ: 
'    OOli 

00/7 
J   .00i;j' 

•OOlONli; 


OO-JOlUix 
.00-JOJ49» 

■<M-'(l3Br,() 

■  "O'.'iK'j^.n 

■  W-'Oiiiia 

■OlllltWiiij 

„  •<)oion-jn.-j 
0  ■ouiore-j!,!  ' 


8 
0 

1 


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n    •J*"'6<-/7< 

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•«»e05l4 

.Oi>l^,o^y,t 
■"<11.W730 

f1|'i7«78 
06l5T7-fl 


82                              MATHBUATIHAL  TABLES.                          ^^M 

No. 

Reulpro- 
cal. 

No. 

Beclpro 
cal. 

No 

Recipix). 

No. 

cal. 

No. 

V 

Oil 

.WlfHKXMJ 

roe 

0014)043 

771 

,OOl:2fi7CS 

S36 

.00119617     901 

.o^^l 

a 

.IMl5S7aS 

7 

.0ai4l4iil 

•i 

«01Sl).i.J4 

1 

00110474,1       2 

.o^^^^H 

» 

.0Uir>S6-.lI 

8 

.OOH1«1S 

8 

.O0iai3Wl 

8 

.00in>.3:i2'        S 

•Oi^^^^^l 

4 

.miiiijari* 

a 

Oai4IO«4 

4 

.iKiiair.itt 

U 

.OOIIUI8O:        4 

'^i^^^^l 

h 

.ix)i!»(m 

710 

.00140845 

^ 

OUl-.TOMd 

840 

.00119048         5 

•^^^^^1 

6 

oiiiaiTiiii 

11 

.TOI40M7 

6 

.TOIS8.HW1 

1 

.OOllSlWji 

6 

•i^^^^H 

1 

.um:.)5:jI) 

Vi 

.(.ti.un-i4io| 

v 

.001*700 

2 

.00118765. 

7 

■W^^^^l 

S 

.001-1  KWI 

13 

.Ml  iittaal 

H 

.001-J(K-A5 

3 

.001lSii24 

8 

!So^^^| 

9 

.0OPS4083 

14 

.00140056 

9 

.ooi-jaTo: 

4 

.UtllH483 

9 

(tf^^^^H 

6» 

,(KH:)3Ml« 

IS 

.OOlHOm) 

780 

.floias-jos 

G 

.(KU 18843 

910 

.o^^^^H 

1 

.001 536 II) 

16 

.00139005 

1 

.001380411 

e 

.00118203, 

11 

.od^^^^l 

3 

.ool.^8!r4 

17 

.O01.«l47O 

2 

.001278771 

7 

.01)118064 

12 

,|Q^^^^H 

a 

.001.54140 

1* 

.0O|.TO!78 

a 

.001^7714 

8 

.001179*1 

13 

.o^^^^l 

4 

.OOlSilKG 

IB 

.omstww; 

4 

.0lll-r551i 

9 

.001177861 

14 

'o^^^^H 

5 

.n(»i:iJ67i 

TiO 

.ft1|.1,M8S9 

5 

.ooiarsss 

850 

.001176471 

16 

.o^^^^H 

6 

,tK.il,Wi:W 

1 

.Wl«fi!Hi 

6 

\nv47-ii6 

1 

.OOI1750fl, 

16 

j^^^^H 

7 

.ooi-vjio; 

y 

.0tl|3S.')Or 

T 

.OtM27ll4a 

2 

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17 

ioo^^^^l 

t* 

.iwiaiars 

•i 

.011138313 

1   ** 

.OOia6DU4, 

3 

OOIIT^.'U 

18 

■  O^^^^l 

« 

ooi.m:4.') 

4 

.oot;*iai 

n 

.001518743 

4 

.001170M 

19 

.oo^^^^l 

BflO 

.OOlal.M.i' 

^ 

.O0[;i7!i8l 

7fl0 

.i»iai«8i 

5 

.ooiieuso 

920 

.OQJ^^^^I 

] 

.WilMJKti 

<^ 

.01(137741 

I 

, 0013642a 

6 

.fl<lll6H22 

1 

[m^^^^I 

1            2 

.onisinrjT 

7 

.0(1137.552 

a 

xmaxsi 

7 

.OOlIOfkSfl, 

2 

•^^^^^1 

1 » 

.OIll.'iOKW 

« 

.tJ0i;17»<! 

3 

.00101103 

8 

.(iQiitir«o, 

3 

[gn^^^H 

^■•^ 

.ooiweoa 

9 

.mi37lT4 

4 

.001-.*5a45 

e 

.ftH  16414 

4 

-O^^^^l 

^B» 

.ooiwa;« 

73t) 

.llOlSflOWJ 

& 

.00145780 

860 

.00110279! 

5 

'{Q^^^^H 

^Ve 

.00 1501  .",0 

1 

.001JM>7tt9 

0 

.00li'.C->H 

1 

.00116144 

6 

lo^^^^l 

^^7 

.OOliWJf) 

^ 

.ooisfloia 

7 

.00ia^47l) 

2 

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7 

Oflj^^^^l 

8 

.()0n9Tui 

3 

.00136426 

8 

.(Xiia::3i3; 

S 

.flOllSKTa 

S 

gg^^^H 

g 

.ooHuirr 

4 

.00130240 

1     e 

.WI125158| 

4 

.OJl 15741 

9 

ooB^H 

670 

.OOHLI-i'^iJ 

fi 

.OliSfiOM 

80O 

.OOl-iMWO 

6 

.00115607 

930 

^ooiSnnH 

1 

.OOHStUI 

1! 

.0OIX'i870 

1 

OOIMS^M 

0 

.0(1115173 

.(10 10741  (■ 

3 

.<XIHtMU<J 

1 

.ooi;)5oa5 

s 

.(«!24(i8H 

1 

.00115340! 

a 

.ooicn^ain 

S 

.00148588 

8 

.ooiasTiOi 

s 

.0(1124  53.1 

8 

.00115207 

3 

ODlOilfllH 

4 

.00148388 

9 

,00r»318 

4 

.00134378 

a 

.00115075 

4 

.OOIO^H 

A 

.0014SI48 

T4i: 

,001351.?5 

5 

.001242241 

870 

.OOlMMi 

fi 

6 

.001  i-iJ-Jil 

.0OliM953 

6 

.00124008 

I 

.WII14811! 

6 

iOQfl^^l 

7 

ottHrno 

* 

.0OI.S477I 

7 

.0012.^16 

2 

,00114079 

i 

^QQ^^^H 

R 

.otniTiya 

3 

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8 

,001 2:1762 

a 

.00114547 

8 

'og^^^H 

S 

.00147375 

4 

.00134109 

0 

.DOiaJflOS 

4 

.00114116 

9 

IratMiflH 

OSu 

.aH47ft'i9 

B 

(ioi:t4aiw 

810 

.O01-.'3457 

6 

.00111280' 

»40 

loQiwaM 

1 

,0O14«84a 

fa 

.00131048 

11 

.00123305! 

e 

.l«11415.'i 

1 

3 

.001 46*). 'H 

1 

,0O13S)Me9 

1     12 

.0012:1163, 

7 

.0011402.5 

t 

'wioeisfl 

S 

.00140113 

e 

.0Oi:i3ti9O 

13 

.00128001; 

8 

.0011»»,5 

3 

.LMnoGam 

4 

,00146109 

u 

.wrtmii 

14 

.00122850 

e 

.001137(16 

4 

.OOlUMflfl 

6 

.flOI459W) 

730 

.0013.«»:l 

15 

.00122iifl9 

880 

.001136.^ 

6 

0 

.0O14;'iT7.^ 

I 

.t)0i;J3156 

Iti 

.00122.549 

1 

00113507 

a 

*«|^^^H 

1 

.OOUaSBO 

S 

.OOi.'KaTO 

17 

.0012a:llfl 

S 

.0011.1379 

J 

iw^^^l 

8 

.001451111 

a 

.OOI,H-J803 

18 

.00122249: 

li 

.OOlKJ'i'rO 

8 

iodioS^I 

0 

.floi45i;rr 

4 

.ooiHaoai 

19 

.00  2JI0«; 

4 

oonsrji 

1       U 

!(N)t^^ 

oaa 

.fl(H4f9-.T 

6 

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fiiO 

.floiaiitsi 

5 

,110112091 

BBO 

1 

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e 

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: 

.m\-i\mi 

6 

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1 

](h)]|!j^;<jM 

i! 

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i» 

,ooi;«iM) 

s 

.00I4I6M 

7 

.00112740 

S 

.OOlO&Mfl 

3 

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H 

«M)13l!(2fl 

S 

.00121507 

8 

.00112013 

3 

.ooiomn 

4 

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fl 

.ooiaiT.sa 

4 

.0012135(1' 

9,'   .00112486 

4 

.00|0i>^ 

B 

.00148885 

760 

.tjoisrSTfl 

S 

.00121 2[,",    890    .1)0 112^60 

E 

8 

.aoi4S876 

1 

001.^1408 

6 

,001211165!        I     .1101122.3-1; 

6 

dOiOttdil 

rt  .oo\m:ii 

r 

.00131 -'34 

*" 

.UJi.'OSIlS         2    ,(i0ll2UI8j 

7 

■QQfli^H 

Sf   OONiXGjj      Sj  .00!Al(m 

9/  .ooH-mi      4  .onmofm 

8 

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jB^^^^I 

S 

.0t112«lB27\\      4\   .rnXW^tvlXX      «\  la^^ 

.ooi-awnaW    5>\  .«)v\r.«J;\\"iisR  nniEn 

QOl««92\\      7\   .«»\\\AS!i.\\\     'A  .W^«« 

!tlO    .MI4,-85T         S    .OOllOTta, 

8.% 

d     ^'-'-^V        8/  -aJ'-«>54M 

1 

If   iP-' '-■*'"//       '7    .  00/30378 

.. 

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s 

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^  -^f^?^!!    al  .ootsoo^l 

4 

oan«vo4\\     s\  .<w\\vffl.-\\    *\  -^^^ 

- 

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is'    nonwtvo\»  9no\    w\\\\\iv      ■a^   >^ 

J 

;il»K,OCAl,8   Of  KUMBBttS. 


lHo. 


Kecipro- 


■cipr' 

CBU. 


No. 


net 

Msa 
assA 

tsa 

BUS 
01S33 


1081\  .00O96998S 

ai.oo<>aowjr>4 

4^  .IXKJ'.MITI  18 

5      l.HH>M««J184 

0  .OOmMirr-Iol 
71    (KX>'.»64;fc!0 

8  .0O«nKV3:5ttl 

9  .0<"«»«V24li4 
1040  .COO'.Mll538 

1     l)OCt9t506ir> 

a  .(X)0'.>5«rr4 

4  0«H«»r)VJ'54 
61  0009f>6938 
6  00(>tt36<K3l 
T  .tKX»o3110! 

8  .00O»5419S! 

9  .OOOOa-iSfl 


t096 
7 
8 
0 

1100 
1 

e 

8 


Recluiv- 


linWS  1  I050i'.000«5a:!»l 


WIOOUX)  1 
lOlUUUOO 

noawooi 
mweewi 

KWM700B 

wmwoie 

IO(»l»(K!S| 


OOOBoHTS 
000950570 
S|.000»19(H>8 

0O0IM7B67 

oinrMCiiCO 

"0 


iijuUi.twjrwJO 
1  .ooo94.:w»r 

21 .0009416:30 
ai.lH)(l'.l40T»4 

41  iwoaaoHSO 

fii  .0000^85167 
01  OOOCRiMKW 
71 .0008:570)7 

el  .oougmsao 

9  .OO0e3M54 
1070;  .000934579 

V  .0n(w:i;i7fi7] 

.'H."i6 


4 
5 
6 
7 
6 
9 

1' 

r-' 
la 

14 
16 
111 
17 
18 
19 

iiao 
1 


OOOUI'^MOO 
000PI1577 
.0001110747 
.0(I0M09»I8 

.mrMymi\ 

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MiLTUIiSyATICAI.  TABLES, 


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11 


DTFFERKNTlAIi  CALCULUS. 


I  sine  Is  jr."  ew.),— we  have  the  toUowlng  difTerealial  forr 
own  lutegr&ls  (r  =  radius): 


f  =  co«  t+  C; 
^=:sln-'  J/  +  C; 

eo«~*i-  -f  (7; 

ver-Biii  ~ '  u  -|-  C; 

=  Bin  ~  '  J  -f-  C; 
=  cos  "'«  +  (?; 


/  sin  a  dz  =i  ver-rin  t  +  C; 

— ;—      =  tan  z  4-  C\ 

/rd  i> 

J    .•'  +  f 
P       du 

/      , =  COB     '--  +  C; 

/        d« 


ver-siu     '  v  +  Ci 


-1" 


:  =  ver-sin  —  '  -  -f  C: 


y'^u  -  It' 

-i-y — ;        =  Un     '  -  +  C. 


Md.— ir  a  circle  be  rol!.?il  aloni?  a  straiplit  Hue,  any  point  nf 
ence,  as  P,  will  ilt-si'iilw  a  cvm'e  which  Ik  called  a  cycloid.  The 
I  Mif  i?rniTatiiia  circl>'.  !ind  Ptlie  (;«"*''*t.iin,'  point. 
Iidental  equatii/ii  of  the  cycloid  is 


X  —  ver-sin-  •  y  —  ^*7/  -  p'. 
ydx 


Btisl  equation  is  dx 


yarff  -  V*. 


\  cvcloid  is  ryjiiui  to  thi^e  times  the  area  of  the  g;eticratine 

|d»*MTlbeil  by  ih>f  arc  of  a  cycloid  when  revoheil  about  Its  boKe 
ilbirds  iif  the  Efncrntirip  circle. 

Rof  the  xnlid  K>'n>-ra(eil  bv  revolving  a  cycloid  al>out  it.<<  base  is 
nrbiiiK  c.f  iliH  cin-iinigcribini;  cylinder. 

fral<*nlUH. — In  On-  lnL»j;ral  calciihis  wi?  hnm  torehim  from 
Itl  lo  till*  liiiii-tion  from  wliicli  It  was  deriv<»[|  .\  nmnbttr  nf 
kjiiftKRions  arn  >rlvcu  abuvi-.  i-a<>b  of  which  lins  a  Icnowii  In- 
DDdliiir  lo  It,  and  which  Xwm^  dilTcn-iitluted,  nlll  |>i'(Xlm'c  th<? 
lUl 

.1    fnni  liiiiiH  any  dlfTerential  eipreJ«l'm  may  l>i^   Inletrrated 

•:■  iif  the  known  fmiiis:  and  the  ni'peralions  cf  Ihf 

riiainly  in  niakitif;  yiich  traiisforinalionii  of  uivfii 

;is  Blialf  rediiCB  Uinin  to  eqiiiTaU-nl  ones   whose  In- 

,  rt  n . 

I  of  inakin*;  iheae  traiisforniaiions  reference  innst  be  made  to 
I  ou  differcQllal  and  iuirgral  calculus, 


1- 

M.\THE>UTIOAL  TABLES.           ■ 

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M 

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Recipro- 
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No. 

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Cube.   1 

'  10000 

innonnn 

10. 

4.G416 

240« 

8f?338T5 

^^01 

i*!m 

Kiyosoi 

10.0190 

4  C570 

158 

34a'«l 

8798118 

r     UK 

IU404 

10611KI8 

10.09» 

4.6733 

157 

31649 

3889893 

fc         103 

lOWit 

losarar 

10.1488 

4.tW*7.5 

l.'i8 

34U84 

S94431J 

lOtllfi 

11348&t 

10.1980 

4.7037 

158 

25381 

4019679 

11025 

1157035 

10.3170 

4.7J77 

lao 

35000 

4096000 

113  6 

llitlOIO 

Kl.ift'iC]  4.7:k'« 

iiii 

35931 

1173381 

1141fl 

vasm-i 

10.3111'  4.7175 

1B3 

38^44 

4361538 

110&( 

1339713 

10.3033    4.7(133 

16:) 

36569 

4330717 

11881 

1295039 

10.4403 

4. WOO 

104 

a0896 

4410941 

^Ho 

1210O 

1.131000 

10.4881 

4.7914 

1(15 

37325 

4493125 

^K> 

liSei 

1367081 

10.53.V 

4.8080 

IM, 

375,56 

4.57439C 

^^■i! 

1£S44 

nojtc's 

10.5890 

4.8303 

h'.t 

3;f-89 

1657463 

isrea 

1413X07 

III.  can 

4.S;(46 

iiiH 

S8334 

4741633 

^Hl* 

129(W 

USI544 

10.8771 

4.M88 

l(!» 

38661 

4838809 

ma 

I6B0«75 

10.7388 

4.8899 

170 

S89O0 

491.1000 

^^8 

13456 

issoems 

10.7703 

4.8770 

17: 

39841 

B00Q31! 

r    11' 

isase 

l(S(i|613 

10, 816? 

4,fi!»in 

173 

39SW 

6088448 

L        118 

13iH4 

16 18035! 

ll).8028 

4  aoisi 

173 

39939 

6177717 

k^s 

141GI 

1685159 

10.4«87 

4.UI87 

171 

80870 

ftSflHOM 

14100 

1-38000 

10,9S4.\ 

4.0331 

17B 

30639 

8359376    > 

^^nti 

14641 

177I.V51 

II.QOOOf  4.0461 

176 

;-)Oi)78 

.I5451778 

1         12-2 

14BS1 

18I.'>84R 

11.0454    4. 0567 

177 

31.339 

&.t4.V33S 

L     m 

I5I3B 

imwesT 

11,(190.=)    4  9733 

178 

31084 

5689768 

I&376 

1800824 

11.1355 

4,S8S8 

173 

33011 

5736389 

isa« 

i9."aia5 

11.1803 

50O0O 

180 

.S3400 

S«330C0 

i.'We 

8000876 

11.8350 

S  0133 

181 

•WOl 

5939741 

^r,^ 

laisa 

•JO  18383 

1 1 .3604 

&  038fi 

iKa 

:«134 

6aeK568 

198 

188IM 

3097152 

11.3187 

5.0307 

i.sa 

I'M  89 

613W87 

!•» 

10041 

ilKMWe 

11.3578 

5.0S38 

184 

3.3850 

6339604 

lao 

16900 

31117000 

11.4018 

5.0658 

IKS 

34*.'S 

6831691 

131 

iTini 

331S09I 

11.44W 

5,0788 

IKO 

31&D6 

8431888 

183 

17-1J4 

33(KK»68 

11.4WII 

.^,091(1 

l.'*7 

3iai;g 

66:)930S 

1        1.13 

K688 

23r)3l-W7 

11  5«0 

5  10)5 

IHH 

3.5,344 

6844872 

Lg64 

1^58 

341MI04 

11.575^ 

5.1173 

189 

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8T613S9 

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18i->5 

24fl0:Ci 

ll.fil'.10 

5  13911 

19(1 

38100 

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^n^ 

I84'jt) 

3S1WM 

Il.Ottlfl    5  1436 

101 

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8967871 

'     in: 

1HT«» 

SS7I353 

II.70i;i  R.1.%1 

yj'i 

■■JtiSfll 

7077888 

ISS 

i!WI4 

3B'J«)78 

11  71T3,  5.1«76 

1118 

373JU 

7IS1W67 

lau 

193J1 

3)Sa.)ttlU 

ll.;8W    5.1801 

1U1 

376«I 

7301881 

140 

IQOflO 

37H(X» 

II  8.138    .'i.lSBS 

iia 

38035 

7414879 

Ml 

I1WSI 

48(t3«l 

I1.H713!  5/.WH 

ii>ii 

38116 

75396.18 

11-i 

■M\«i 

tims» 

ll.Oinil  5  3l7t 

107 

38809 

7615378 

1    '<' 

JOHS) 

39.'4a07 

11  95aS    5.3391 

lUft 

39301 

7763393 

•jor*5 

3!WoU»4 

13,0000 

5  3115 

199 

.39601 

7880699 

K 

tlOW 

MMMiS 

I3.04IA 

B.iKWS 

20() 

40000 

8000000 

^^^^M 

<1SI8 

8113138 

la.osso 

5  31)58 

«n] 

40401 

8130601 

^^^Bf' 

«I«W 

317(1838 

12.1341!  .'S  37781 

303 

40801 

8343408 

^^^^K 

tim 

ai4l7W 

13.I(V.V)    5.38961 

308 

41309 

83B5I« 

^^H 

•HOI 

SaUTlMO 

13.3(W«i 

5,3013 

304 

11610 

84HK04 

^La! 

— ~»« 

13.8474 

5.S138 

«» 

4«k» 

8615196 

1        ' 

tl.M»83 

S  l«J 

aoe 

4M«A 

I  W*\«V* 

^^^^^^^^^1 

ti.muft 

6.S3U8 

Vn  \  ^644 

\  «(»!«& 

^M 

M 

\  <><vr<a««4 

so  lt8'l(l  !•  S-HH 

31.(XH)0;  '.r.WlKt 

8(i«.»;7i-,'H  ai  oic.i  (I  XT- ' 

88184 i:m  31  <Mb3  fl.K:s& 


89«i8Jr.'S  31.0614 
QftiaKKWSI  .OWlfl 

anrrtHfl-.'saaiii-."; 


9  8819 
n  8KV1 
«_8Nh8 


OlMTSrtOokH  H48    9  fflMW 
9IMUHtill|})l.I60il    9.9t>v!4 

fliHjpKKMHiai.irtnii  n  flow 

ltt40IOi!>»|:il.'«)!Wi  9,*Va6 
fl-2fta'in!175\81.9a60\  9  .«".«5 

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ills  1 1 \  -IVi  3 1 .  T,'M>    '.> . *i*''' 


F 

-1 

H 

90 

MATHEMATICAL 

TABLKS.             ■ 

No. 

Square. 

I'd  be. 

Sq. 
Root. 

Cubs- 
Root. 

No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

1 

Bo 

19.1 
19! 

V.H 
19 -1 
19.1 

821 

3,3 
334 

1CK4U0 
1113041 
103M14 
1043-.i9 
10-1K6 

82768000 
330761UI 
33388*18 
a30flttM7 
3401il*M 

17.8S85 
17  OIK 
17.9444 
17.9722 
18.00(10 

0.8300 
6  8470 
C.8341 

e  H<;i2 

C.S083 

.375 

;176 

377 
378 
879 

140625 
141-376 
142129 

14 -'884 
143641 

.')a78l373 
5:1157370 

.VWx2rj:i 
.'■>4il|OU.2 

Miauusii 

8s!5 

3!.'7 

3« 
33S 

10S6'J5 
lOfiJTB 

loes-jo 

lli:S84 
10!«!41 

31388125 
33ti4o»76 

:«llCfi7ia 
85287852 

3561  law) 

18.0278 
18.0555 
18.0831 
18.1108 
18.1884 

C  8753 
6.8824 
B.8894 
6. 8964 
6.9034 

380 

381 
»i2 

3f3 

144400 
145161 

145924 
U665-9 
14745Q 

548720O0 

557429(18 
56181887 
5ia23IW 

19  1 
IW.f 
19.! 

19.  e 

ID.S 

sao 

331 
3r« 
333 
334 

lOSOOO 
IlJO.Vil 

iioa-j4 

llOSHll 

111S5B 

35&S7000 

3t;a*j(i9i 
auMiiata 

3i3>,.*'.ii37 
3726y;04 

18  1059 
18.1934 
I8.S2«.'9 

1S.-J483 
18.2737 

8.9104 
fl.i}l74 
6.9244 

6  itiia 

C.»S82 

385 

38«l 
387 
388 

389 

1  1482S5 
1480DS 

,  14976U 
15IIW4 
151321 

57006635 
57512456 

;>7mms 

5>i41 10^2 
r>S86a869 

10  ( 
IB.( 
I0.< 
lO.t 
19.1 

335 

iiaaai 

112896 
H83ti» 
114214 
1141IQI 

87393375 
37«3:ja-.(l 
3827275.1 
38()l447'i 
8iill5U21» 

18.3080 
18.3303 
18.3576 
IK  S81N 
18.4130 

6.9451 
0.11521 
6.9389 
6.963H 
U.9;S7 

3S0 
391 
3112 
3113 
39J 

1 521 00 
152881 
1^664 
1M149 
15o:U6 

59S19000 
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«lfi{6;(« 
tt(lc.B84.'i7' 
(inH29K4 

ml 

19  1 

!<> ; 

19^ 
19.i 

340 
841 
348 
343 
344 

ILMOO 
110*1 
11«1»64 
lI-«4» 

Mtsm 

39304000    18.4891 
39051821   [18.4062 
400016K8    184WB 
4l)3MtMI7    18.5303 
4070:684    18  6474 

6,9795 
6.9f(H 

B  !I93-.' 
7.IHHIU 
7.01X58 

396 
397 
308 

i.-ieoss 

ir>6816 
157009 
158404 
151«01 

61628S75 

62ug91»6 
62570773 
IK1IM47II2 

19  ( 

I9.i 
I9.( 

SIS 
346 
847 
818 
34» 

11(1025 
]11»7IB 
I'-KMO!) 
121104 
131801 

410«a6af.  1 18  5742 
41421736  ,18.0011 
4I78:9J3  118.6279 
42144192    IR  OMx 
4a3UH549    18.0816 

7.0136 
7.0S(a 
7.02^4 
7  O:).* 
7.W0U 

400 

m 

402 
4il3 
404 

160000 
1B0^01 
lblU(>4 
162409 
163216 

64000000 

64I8I20I 

IHOlrlSlNS 

ir4.'i<i'<-.'7 

6ol»3a2t>4 

2tH 
SOI 
■M( 
■JO  ( 
-jO.( 

360 
DSl 
352 

8S:s 

364 

149500 
]2*»1 
13H904 
1-^U09 

lawio 

42ft7B00O    18  7083 
4324')55I   II8.7»tO 
4.?(il4208  JS.IBl* 
4.1986977    IB.  78-3 
443til8(>4    1H.S148 

7.0473 
7.0f*40 
7  0607 
7.06T4 
7.0740 

40fi 
40B 
407 
408 
401) 

1640S5 
104836 
105619 
1  (10464 
167281 

664-»ia5 

0(.irj.i4io 

67119143 
6;9I7.1I2 
6M 17929 

20  1 

20  1 
20.1 
20.1 
20.1 

3S9 
8-'U 

:«7 

338 
86» 

iai025 

laiTao 

127449 
128IIH 

44738875 
45II8(»IB 
43190293 

458S-'7I2 
4C2«8-rB 

18.8414 
18.8680 
18.8944 
18  9200 
18.9473 

7  0907 
7.087.-1 
7.0040 
7.1fl('C 
7.1072 

410 
411 
412 

«r> 

414 

108100 
168»-,'l 
169744 
170560 
171896 

Gr-92l00O 
6M26.'>31 
6MI84KBI 
70444997 
70007044 

20.  i 

aos 
an.: 
w.j 
so.) 

3fl0 
Ml 

l!t(l*Jl 
131044 
]3l7i;9 

4Rr..'>80flO 
4701.-*8| 
47437928 
4:8;«147 
48228.'>44 

18.9737 
19.0000 
19  0S63 
17  0528 
19.0788 

7  1138 

7  1201 

7.i2«n 

7.133.'-. 
7.1400 

41.% 
416 

417 
418 
419 

1782S5 

173066 
173889 
174721 
175661 

7I47837B 
7H»ia»6 
72511713 
Tdlta4«82 
;350006« 

ao.j 

SOi 
20.4 
20.4 
20.1 

■     305 

l__2? 

133S5 

4SlW12.'i    19.1050 

ifKi-i-TtiHi  rn  ifli! 

7.14fi<l 
7  1,«1 

7   K^,0« 

;wi 

1726 

430 
421 

42;; 
423 
424 

176100 

17^.'4I 

17^)84 
178MI 
17M776 

74088000 

T4''.lS|fll 

;  1- 

■20.4 

JO.; 

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■■'  e 

1 

1 

BOKSOOO  \l0.2.V<i    7.i:9l 

t/mt.ttt  19  wn'  7  !*'.'i 

425 

42R 

t  . ,' 

ifioi'in 

l«U7f, 

7ft7«562ft 

20  t 

.2) 
■ 

n 

1103 
S134 

|fMi'«'33.  i.WiTio.aiK 

133. ISiallO. 3197 

»|33.  IM2  I0.325fi 
0l'a3.1813il0.:*»9 

f?l»Wi33.I!»lh0.5-.'W) 

BTiSOJ  .{S.vM^  li).;i.!J1 
3i!6!B!33.24IS|  10.3381 

()i<)»3  iWiio  ."HIS 

•:if,:i(i.:W7 

-111  10.:'.17.S 
,  IT']0.3."<<)9 

BUXX)i33.3167ia.:»W 
ta06Sll3!l.3:3l7  10.3571 
[)3fl9-48*l.  34117  1(1  MW 

■  49Stt7  ;S3.^fil7  lll.;«.i.'S 
409MI  3;j.:i:C«'l0.3Ml 

iMsrs'ss.sote  10  36»6 

•28806:33. we  10. 37-.ie 
BS88I3  33.4315!l0..3T57 
»lS08ai33..4;«»il0.37S8 
1«8139|33. 151510. 3S1II 

(28000  38.4601 10.3850 

BIHMl  33.4813  10.3SH1 

M7848  33.'t»U3  IU.38L2 

lSM:86T3S.51l:iI0.!194.1 

soosia^'sa.seoi  lo.aora 

LmIIIIIIIII     III!    Klin  in  JAlU 


1151 
IIM 
U53 
1154 

1155 
11» 

115? 
1158 

1159 


■')  1709 

.1  4rio 


13340'i'5'l.'H0ras,ST5[:3.»«3  10  4921 
13!ffi33r>:i5448O14ltV:U.0OU0  10  4U&I 
13;«f;4y  ISIKSICS-Jij  -M  0147:i«.49«l 

I3i«wi  i.v'.aH.ii:.fjij  .ii,0i»4|lo..':0il 
i.ii ijsi  i.VjGw.'i;:'.! .ji.owrio.wj.' 


lift)  i:iljG<»r!.v.i)Kyr^«)ii.^i.ir.ss  u)  WTS 

lltill  i:3479:.*I  l,VJI9!iV,'si  :'.(  iiT:p  MI-5I0J 

lir.ji  l:i.•><h!ll't.M;MK^Vis  rii.iiHM  lo  M:fij 

IKK!  ir:-j:,i;;),ir)::wG77i7,3i  i(p-*i  1(1  'iin.' 

1104  i:Jo-i«wi  i.".;ti);ikmi  rn.ii74  lo.fiiaj 

1103  I3o7ii:.                         1    ISil'lO  5'i23 

HOC  laMi.Vir,  :                     :   l.J(i7  lOr/iVt 

1107'  l3iii.H.v,(  ;,.,  ■■......,  ,1.1011  10  :Titti 

URS,  Vifil-.';'!  l,V,i:tli.li;;i'j:tt.I7W)  IQ,.V1I3 

iiiio.  i.3i:.o."i;i  iw.jiy.t'oy.rM  ijoo  I0,.\^i3 


1170 
1171 
117.! 
1178! 
1174 


1171 
1170 
1177 
H7S    I 
IIT'J 


1.3tkS9iK)  IWir.l.'Umi)  :Jl.i».N3,in..'.n73 
1371-41  tll()57-.'-lJIl|:il.ai9a;ill  Rjo;» 
1373384  I0O9H|(j|lM34.i34-T  I"  ■%»« 
l.)75l)-iU  I0131«jl717:-i4.ai01  HI  .M63 
137R-.T«il018ii!H'iih;j  :i.t.:>6;!7  10.Ma3 


:  I.TS3  10  MJ3 
I  Vyiitl  10  .'..Via 
I  .'1074  10  .V)S3 
I  '^iO  10. .5013 
l.33C6'l0.M4a 


naei  uoii^/Ukl tAii)A<<;«kkiiiu  i»i ilin  mti 


93 


MATHEMATICAL  TABLB8. 


No. 


Square. 


&40 

044 


281600 
2U3T6I 


Cube. 


Sq. 

Root. 


Cube 
Root. 


I 


15T4640OO 

1^ra^01gl 

HjtHOSiXC 
UiOifcOlM 


B4.'5  ,  2!)7B-JS 

.■i48  ;  S»Si\a 

547  30fl--'(» 

648  .?00aO4 

649  ilONOl 


6M 

554 
S.Vi 

wr 
&&» 
nco 

6»l 
ftlli 
5t» 
fiU4 


3(M;04 


il618T8(ti5 
']B-?;7lSSlJ 

uaiiiT.'B.'J 

Iti4,"ifjC50* 
1051(19149 

I663TB0OO 

niriS4i.ii 
iiwimiioa 

liSiHl-.'iJTT 


03.4179  H.UiS 

•.■a.iilM!  8  M(*8 

23.»'09i  S.  1.VW 

•.':l.a(h;4|  8.15M:1 

as  3ii8  s.iiWi 


■.>3  !M&3 

ea  Sfifld 
•a.aaai 

ia. 40114 
a. 4807 

•a  47*1 

ei  4947 
!».S160 


80t*iaB  ,170as.WT5 
31KIIDB  nTI87n6ie 
.?10','49  ,17-.>fWMa3 
H\\:Mu  |17.>74I11U 
3I24S1   ll74«768T» 


fl.ica^ 
8.ir« 

S.lTWi 
8.  IKS 
8. 1802 

8.1932 
8.19ft> 
B.-JOSt 
S.V-OHl 


la  5.184  H  :>I81) 

a^  li7»7  K  •JS.It 

a:!  00O.H  8  -WS 

Kl  tttJO  H  -itJ? 

vra  tM3i,  8  i'.i;7 


SIMOO  in.'5«irOOO  •,►3.(1643  R.24-M 

.•ill7il  I7«y>8l81  liW  I18.M  8  1475 

H1.W44  l77.'>lU.'!-.;«  --SI  Tl)«."i  8  S5-.'4 

3lli!"HI  17fM.')*-H7  -JSi  7-.>7li  8  i.'.7a 

.'1I8(W  n840fiU4  |»3. 748:1  8  ^ttlil 


nro 

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K3 

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5(w  I  sioass  tifiosoaiai  r>i.Tfl97  s.iwto 

006  I  aeoasG  iHia-Juiw  iMrmiHl  s  i7i!i 

.^17  :K14S9  lK-.'*i4atB    iS).811H  8.:;TI)n 

fM  a»Ja4  lK'l»04.')->    iJ.'l  8W8  »■■>]<] 

•SOD  3-33T61  1844-3IWOII    23  8537 j  S.aWiJ 


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a-jfl/ii;  iki'iiKMii  jiKJ  8ft-.8l  h -.iOO-J 

.Y.':'  IS  ;M  BIC.'i  ft.SiilO 

.•!i"  ;7  hi3  U374  8  3(BU 


32U4.,,     ..     ,:^J;;4    23,9583 


575      .S'WCIS    ItXHOftHT.'S 

07(1  I  .'W I""  1'.    "I'  111- 1175 

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8.3107 

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8  :M0(> 
8  .3348 


'10511MO0  it.(»m  axm 

pjciJMtJI  24  1030  8.. -144.3: 

i:h  -14  l-i47l  8.3191 

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3«723(1  B^aWSOIfl 
3(»449  l»i«4e548 
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870681  taetem 


3t>IS7«    <'J-..iiii:i7n 

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395«41    -,-,....:.. 


fi.<n  3M900  li.V»47000  m 

e;U  398161  •>MHf»'.iH   I« 

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2S7»»4M 
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2S9C9I07S 
««09I7I19 


24  18«8    8  HKM    (MO  I  409(100   i«3t44O0O  8! 

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iflWIlT  I     S.T1.-.J 

«n»4.:tr  iJs.TwSj  s  Tins 

*«;M9II  (i-i-TBHS   8  7341 


DM  s  -a:'.} 

W«  |i96orro.'d  .::i.»i5r:  8.T4mi 


HI 


Ml 

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Mil 

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s,T.-ir 

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S(i>2>i^.  '.  8.781)7 

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r 


18B0I    ite.ISMi  8.S109 


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711 

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717 
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780 

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5(Kr71Mi    3(i3!«H3H 


iw.eis?! 

i!il.7<«t 
I -^.730(1 


T^\y■i•ir^  .'JO.WiVlTS  '.HI  7305 

fii-irifi  .S(i706i«iw;  -jii.i.ssv' 

•)NU8il  SttlstKHHIS  -.'U  77U!) 

SI 3544  370l4Bi'S«  rJ6.7flftr» 

518901  'xrmwm  ••JO.sii'-' 


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No. 


MATHEMATICAL  TABLES. 


I 


Bs: 

IMS 

ODU 
Wtl 
Wl-.' 
W( 
V»4 

90.-. 

'Mi; 
w, 

WH 
&UU; 

1000 

irmi 

i(«»-j 

lOOIl 
1(J04 

inos 

lOOT 

lUUU 

1010 
lOll 

wvi 

lOl.i 


070325 
9TB  M4 

»rHisi 

960100 
90(11 

ugoo^jl 
auaoicl 


Sq.    I  Cube. 
Root.    Boot. 


941198000  31. 30S0 

»Morei«itsi.»»g 

SmWle&Sl  .33691 
MMSaai67:31.35^ 
9X!;e39(Ml31.3688 

95!ieTlC35  31.38« 
9»&8a:ia631.«W6 
96ia04808'31 .4106 

ge44au«i!'3i.4a!s 

967981660  31 .44U 

gT0-.>9D000  31  .-1643 

J.?3-C-I.".'ri';!l.4802 


985074875  31.5436 

rt~S<lirti-tii':!I.559S 


0.9329 
0.9363 
9.9396 
9.9130 
9.9464 

9.9497 
0.9M1 
9.9G63 
9.9698 
9.063^ 

9.9666 
9.9699 
II  9TfB 
9.B7M 
'J.9SU0 

0.9883 
9 .98CB 

;■  !i'.«:ij 
'.I  wx. 
SI  uw;; 


1000000  looooooooo.ii.e-jas;  10.0000 
looaoo)  100300JJWII  aiiatw  lo  oosi 

KWKHM  liXM«irJHi>31  6,>l.H(l.0()iiT 

iiKKj(io!ii(>i!i(i-;:iv;  :)i.i;;ii-j  in  mm 
icoso  1  ti  j  1 0 1 -Awaooi  •■)  1 .  t)8W|  1 1.1 . 0 1 3;j 

1010025  lOlBOTTiiaS. SI. 7017  JO. 01 6S 
IOIOTJR|I'''l'f:i^"10'31.7175  lO.OiOO 
10I41M  ^  ;  :ll.7!)3Sl()  Ojai 

lOlft*  '   ;i. 74110  lO.O-.'Wi 

101»i-  ■  il.7ftlB10.0J»a 

lO-fllOOllOaoaOIOOOliil  ,7S05  10.08-32 
lOS-JiailftViSflCHllSI, 796-.'  10.0305 
Iih!4l44ll0;ill43:ir-Jtll3l.8ll0  10  039S 
HI-.'6Iliflll03a509l97l.11.M77  10  OJMI 
10141  lll3319a.I(M;ia(IU744|3i.!M3l.  10.04^ 

1016  IOg)03>B  I04.M!78375  31  8nnM0.O408 

]Oig|  io3-.>?:.(;!  to^srr-.fw,  31  «74!!  lo.ossi 

1017  •:      .  .  ■  .  ll.HUO)  10  (B63 

l»l^  .  ii.uwii  i(i.o5!io 

lOIlt    :     •  '  il.lhiltl  |0,0(tt!J 


I0."0 
Hi-.'l ! 

nn: 

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nut 


miOlOO  10aiJll8(X)0i3l  .9374' lO.OOtiS 

inji4ii'ifi»!r!'(.\i;i^i  roil  iohobs 

IIM4I-1  '  .  -:  10.07-J* 

UIIIL'.-  !  I  10.07(11 

lOIH.'.  'M  10. UTS 

OI58'l«  0836 

mi-.'  10  OKifi 

'I  III  iwg-j 

I"  i.''.»57 


103.1 
1036 
1037 
1038 
1039 

1040 
1041 
104i 
1043 
1044 

1045 
1U46 

]t(47 
1<MS 
1049 


1073-^99  11 119340:i«  32. 1870 
1075S69|111!>157lid3  3:: '.KkC^ 
107744411 1  l(t)«68Ti  35;  aiW 
10«63l  irJl6,'-i313-3-.',ai» 


loeiaoo 

1063681 
1086764 

10W)M9 
10»9936 

109S<.i4a 

low  1 1  r, 

w« 

11^ 

111-': 


I 


1134H&4aO0  32  £4tt) 
IliiSlllOil  Sa.iUi, 
liai3e60ti»<'.3'M8DQ' 
1134««6S0Ti3!.>.!S9M 
1187893184  3S  3110 

11411661S.'i32  3iU 

1 1 1 1  i i.'*!!;  3i'.s41D 

!.i74 


1050  110:!500|11ST(H5000  38.4037 

1051  11046011 11 00935«iSl  .1;  4181 
11154  1106704111'  1345 
10.-,3;  1106800  1  IMIO 
lu54  1110916  11                   :  -iiH 


1053 
lOJil 
1057 

liii.s 
lUOU 

1060 
1001 

lotii 

1063 
1004 

1065 
lOtiU 
106' 
l(W.s 
IU69 


1118025 
1115186 
1117J49 

]iiu:ttsi 
iiaiwi 

11^3600 
llfflTJl 
11«S44 
II-JIIOI'iO 
113;.>000 


1I74341376|33.48W 
1177583616  ail.'l 
118093-2193  32.9ll.t 
1 1818871  l-JS-J.fcHS 
1 187648379  ."U.MtS 

llOlOlflOOol.lS  d97« 
1194.388961  32. 57W 
I19777C3-Jg3a.5tiffl 
iaOll57047i32(IOH 

iaM5BO144  1.'.013P 


11»I225  I-i0794flt 

!i.3i;3-".r.  i-jn.av-4  • 

11-!-  : 
11  ! 

U-l.'  ■',       .   '  ,  • 


1070  1144900  laaMMSOOO'.-lS. 710* 
lOTll  UJTIMI  l™5S4W()II'rH  7.*l 
lOr-J;   111;-' 

1073;  n: 

1074]   Il^-^:         .      - 


1 0751 
1076 
1077 
1078 
1079 


1  I55«a5;ia48a)687.'i  sa.flsw 

n.'iTTTll  i?4r.Tr.n9T<i;35!.80« 

II.-.:',  1   .'  -■|:f.'H.Dl7V 

111  -iK.SS* 

llK'l-.  ,  .'..i|l[!K.»l81 


lOeO  11B640O  liS9TiaX*l,!H,88IM 

lOMil  iioKvii  lOT.T.'uiii  sa.isS* 

IlKt  IK.  .-TIS.MDO 

losi  11,  .ii4lS8.994t 


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SQUARES,  CUBB8,  SQUARE   AND   CUBE   BOOTS.      101 


Cube. 


Root. 


Cube 
Hoot. 


mXWM  llSg  11.5330 

:.'>*J  11..VJ.55 

■     .:i.)!ll.r):*)!i 
ii;iu)  ay.iwa  Ji.B3ao 

je«0M75'M>  1791  ]  1.5355 

;fcv,-  ■  "'HJil.i.'KtO 

ii;  11  ..'.HT. 

'36a  ..':)  II.MHIJ 

I'sw.'i  1  ja.-< I  '.I  -iv .  -aur  11 . 5455 

I       I 

I  ■i';s-.".T,iooo  19.  ;-i3<  1 1 , 


);uTisi  ai>.-r.i;jv'^  1!  ksu 

79.5»V,'.%  OT .  SMi  i  1 1 . 5(105 
.;;:);:;'. :!  i.:!:w  ll,.'.(J:W 

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i;:-  1.  '  ..-iiij  ]i.5ii*<) 
.  : .';  \i  :i'J  :iJ73|11.57(;5 


t  a'j.rJiiM  ii.os.'ii 

I  I 

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^ ■ ^H  11.  M<  a 

■    •'.  1,-,   11.  j'.KS 

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■)W7j;':m;;7.m4--:  :;'.!  :.m:-,  11  am 

•■'■■'<  :-,.!,.■-    '  ■  :::'i\  M  OO'T 
.,       ''.J'-'  .-,-v,,,  ,-.i,    ,.i  r,:l|K  11  (Xi,V,' 


isyi|  5X0*100  4oifl'vr9ivwii:?ci  <nwu 

1M>5    ?MI'V>S  .im7:i<«7".:-|1  WTS  11 


ItlOol  256(k>(O<09C0CO000U0,00001I 


6717 

■"!1 


7*39 


.((061 


8QVAKES  AND  CUBES  OF  DECIin.t.LS. 


CubB. 


.001)  001 
.«W  (K« 
.0(X>  0.'7 
.OlH  081 
.0(111  I -J!) 
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/  .(MMJ  3I-I 

/  .(WO  -;.«; 
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No. 


Square. 


:] 


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.(KH' 
.005 

Am 
(Jio! 


.00 
.»! 
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01) 
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.(X) 
.00 
,00 


00  01 
00  01 

(TO  01) 

no  le 

00  -J.j 
00  .% 
(»  49  1 

00  (U 
l»  81 

01  00 

01  4-t 


Cube. 

b 

OIW  OlX)  <K)1 
(WO  0(K)  (lOH 
Oixl  000  IK7 
IKIO  OU)  064 
(XiO  iH»)  1^ 

000  «x)  aw      il 

^)A0  OOO  %A» 
.000  WO  bW 

(xw  000  •;•» 
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.OOP  oov  Tga 


a 


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No. 


MATHEMATICAL  TABLES. 


gquar«. 


Cube. 


Sq. 
Root. 


Cube 
Root. 


144UKX)  ITliSOiKWOO  31  .frllO!  10.eSl36 


lT49C90121i  34.7131  W. 6413 
lT.M04yHlC  34 .  TOTSl  W .  M 13 
ir.'>H4lli74a  .'i4.rjl9|10.(i-ir2 

i;i;lT!>o«i-j  ;j4.tm:j  w.'XM 
i7onra.i«j,'H.T7or  10.05.30 


H641(X)  I7715«l000i34. 
HO&VJl  ITTSnSC!)-!!'?,) 


Mru7*;,i7ti;ii.-- 
wriiaa-)  i7»36i3.rs  .'54 

I478fc.'>6  inwiMD«Sli!:M 
lSl«4853l:Ji34, 

ifloe9;«i'K3i 

ISllSMtil.'ill  :M 


78;  1  KM'.,W() 

rm4  m.e.ii)!) 

■  I0.tit;78 

I 

8,'i69llO.B7(I7 

s7ia  io,«T3e 

(Wo-T  I0,t)7(i.'> 

nM;i  111  «:!tt 

9I4U  10.(1834 


ITiaao;  laiaorti 

12-J7'  lais.'jifl 

ISif'  I0O7lliS4 

1220  1510441 


lSli8480(»  34.»29fi  ICfrifiS 

1  W.TO  I  n»-'B1 '  S-l .  !M2S|  1 0  688-> 

•.t  'Xul  Ift  (liHl 

1  11711  lil'jitHJ 

'      .  ;i,&sri7ji0.e«i.i 

lAS9-:!556li!5|35.0flOO|  10. 69051 
limi;771 170  :!.'i  ni  13'  lO .  70-JS 

i.si7-j^  1  '    ■  .11  :•>:,■, 

l.HMv  '•..-. 


15rJ8<»  lS(Hl«>7000iSS.O714i  10.7144 
ir,l.'."!01  1SCM0!)391'3>'1.085C  10  717 

1,        ,  ,     M.-i:<i08;!.'..rtMm';0.7-J(tt 

r,.')37  .'i.'i.INl  10  7231 

i  .  '-iiycM  ao.n«3  ui.'.iw 


iS.i  1406  10.7280 
r..lS«H10.731.S 
■..171010. 73-17 

'..KCj-.;  lt).737li 
:.  l»B4llO,740a 


1290    iaS4l00i3l46fiEinO0i1  35 

lai I   iMwsi '-.MM w.iiri r.r, 

l!?96;  1«770'J5  2I7I747S, 

l-Jfle!  lB?.Wl(i  ''ITfiTf^";!-: 
IW.':; 


.giMliO' 


1076656375  35.4i«>  lOl 
19SI3i»S1«  a&.440l  lo: 
1986I->1593S5.4M»I9! 
1990e6M12  3S.488SIO. 

iin5<iie97g  3r>.i«H  lO. 

I-J«o[  15H76(X)a00O37C0X)35.4«li^lOj 

lifiil  ii59or.il ■axx'iu'jj.M  t,  .-.loc'ift. 

VX-i\  I.'>!li644'2001Hllli7','- 
l-a^l|   1505109!a014«8»)  I 
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1270 
1271' 
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1273 

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1385 

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1S.'.'*7 

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lfin0-»5  a034i848'a  S5.i8(B|lOJ 
1002750  3OaiKIH9OS«'.«.580(>l<H 


lOOO'JHll  •,'(13;fJ01163 
l(!07SL'4|'J0.3H7a0838 
1610.361  |2(V1354H109 


leiSBOol-XHSSRSOOO  35,6371  |0j 


101544  lafiU-ASSl  I 

lenoRi  aawwrsci 


S5.6M910' 
35.IW0JIO. 


]6ao.")i.>y 
16:^76 


162.'.025 

1B'?«1TC 


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lOiitMOOAWirj-itXiOlSS. 77711101 

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165122521218341- 

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1         102                            MATHEMATICAL  TABLES.          ( 

FIirrH  ROOTS  AlVD  FIFTH  POWB 

„ 

(Abiidged  ttom  TiurrwoiB.)           J 

•o^ 

fes 

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Power. 

C  5 

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6§ 

Power. 

Power. 

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3  7 

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3.8 

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95009 

aS.G     515:i6»J 

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3.9 

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10. 1) 

lOOOOCI 

232      5302180 

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4.0 

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10  2      110408 

22.4      6e:»4BS 

1            .30 

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10.4 

121005 

22,0      5SI»7»1 

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1306.111 

10.0 

13;iS23 

22.8     6161327 
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1470,08 

10.8 

1400!13 

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4.4 

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11.0 

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11.0 

210181 

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4.8 

2,'.48.01 

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228770 

24.0      7W2024 

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2824.75 

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24.2      8299876 

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12.6 

317580 

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12.8 

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13.0 

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5U3S.81 

13.2 

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27.0'  14348907 

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JMPERENCES   A>It»   AREAS   OF  CIRCLES.       103 


FEBENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  OIIKOI.SS. 


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129 

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HI 

442.96 

1J2 

446.11 

143 

449.25 

144 

452.39 

145 

456  53 

141! 

458.67 

117 

401.81 

14H 

464.96 

149 

468.10 

150 

471.24 

151 

4T4.88 

1.V2 

477.53 

na 

180  60 

l.i4 

483  81 

155 

186.95 

l.VI 

4'J(I  09 

157 

49.1  23 

l-i8 

49U.37 

159 

499.51 

IHO 

302  65 

161 

.W5.80  i 

1112 

.508.94  ' 

iia 

512.08 

164 

5r..2B 

16,1 

.il8,!)6 

IM 

•V2I.B0 

i«: 

.124.65 

168 

.527.79 

169 

.130.93  , 

170 

.534.0r 

171 

.587.21 

172 

540.35 

173 

543.50 

174 

.546.61 

17S 

.549  78 

176 

.W2.92 

177 

5S«S.0B 

178 

559.20 

179 

562.35 

l.HO 

S65.49 

mi 

568.68 

1.S2 

571.77 

1>^5 

574.91 

ISt 

578.05 

1,85 

S81  19 

186 

5«4.34 

187 

5S7  48 

188 

590,62 

I.Sfl 

593.76 

100 

596  90 

Itll 

000.04 

192 

eos.itt 

laneg.ei 

18-273. 83 
13478.83 
13U«4  78 
1.3«92.91 
14102  61 
I43I3.8M 
145'J6.72 
14741.14 
14!).57  la 
15174  08 
15393.80 
15614  .5») 
I.T»S36.77 
1G0U0.61 
10286.0-2 
16613.00 
16741  5fi 
10971  67 
17203.36 
1(430  62 
17671.46 
17W)'  86 
18145.84 
ISlW.'i.ay 
1 86-20, 5«l 
18(^09  19 
10113  45 
19.359. 2?( 
lW)0.tVS 
19(vj5  05 
■2(H0ti.l9 

-ji);ir>8  31 

20611.99 
20867-24 
2 II -.'4  07 
2i;JH2.4« 
->M642,43 
21903  97 
22167  08 
•22431  76 
22698.01 
-ja9C5.83 
S1235.-22 
-23.VH)  IS 
-j;tTT8  71 
■,'4i»2  82 
•.;j3-js.i9 
-24ea">  74 

-2-IHH4  56 

^.MIO  00 
2.'i730  43 
26015  53 
2«.'iO2.-20 
a<ri£W.44 
26K80  35 
27171  68 
87461. 59 

280».: 


1 
104 

MATHEMATICAL  TABLK8.           1 

DIam. 

Clreum. 

Area, 

DIam. 

Clrenm. 

Area. 

Dlam.'ClrA 

loa 

tm.aa 

ateas  30 

2GU 

816.81 

53098.92 

3-;!7 

10« 

IIM 

^K.ly.^7 

•.•yow.-j.-! 

am 

819. SO 

M.'«2  11 

328 

168H 

195 

612.61 

iS!«4.77 

•JOV! 

823.10 

5891 2. 87 

329 

KMH 

19H 

«I5  Tfi 

aiii7].«; 

263 

620.24 

54:«  21 

880 

i08fl 

187 

«IS.ti9 

SOI  80.. W 

S61 

MO.  33 

54739  11 

331 

10^1 

198 

B-J2  IM 

!W7li0.75 

•J05 

832.. 52 

65154  59 

s:i2 

lO^I 

199 

B'.'5.18 

31IOJ.,% 

SOU 

8.35,00 

55571.63 

3,33 

iohP 

200 

IWS  S-J 

31-115. iH. 

Sfl7 

KJ8.8I 

r)5mni  25 

884 

I04ff 

an 

«ai.4e 

317aO,87 

aoe 

841  98 

56410,44 

335 

10t>2 

2UJ 

Ml.fiO 

3-v1.H7,3!t 

319 

RI5.09 

beSAv;  20 

•336 

lO.'^ 

aa 

037.74 

3'ja<!.'i.47 

370 

848.23 

57255. M 

,3:17 

lOf* 

S04 

W0.!«( 

3'jiiHo.ia 

271 

851.37 

57«ai  43 

338 

loei 

205 

W-l  03 

aaxw.ae 

37'.» 

854  51 

58IW  90 

Xi9 

1065 

aou 

647.  ir 

SSCJJO  10 

273 

857.65 

58031  94 

840 

1008 

SKC 

(IM)  SI 

8.ilJ53.n3 

274 

860  80 

58Wfil.55 

:^4l 

'*^j.l 

208 

05S.-)5 

331)71).  47 

275 

863  94 

5K;«3.74 

:i42 

^^ 

aw 

li.'iO  flu 

34;ilHl.i)H 

276 

807.  IW 

ftP828.49 

343 

!!ll> 

6f>l>.73 

•34MO.()e 

277 

870  ti 

6<i2«2.8a 

344 

;.'ll 

(>li-'..''H 

34UIK1.71 

27S 

873, 3(i 

6*1698. 71 

3)5 

21 -' 

«B(i.l)-J 

avjlHIH 

'.>:9 

870  50 

61136.18 

346 

''^ 

21  a 

ti(i!>  10 

35ti;)-J.73 

£80 

879.6.5 

61575  8-.' 

.347 

I'JitJ 

su 

fi7v'.30 

3.M»tt-'<.WI 

2M 

882,  ;9 

W>Lll.'5.82 

348 

10« 

815 

«;5.-i4 

:iii3(i.">.0;) 

2i*J 

8*3,  W 

62158.00 

349 

aio 

<17H.5W 

m^Vi  54 

283 

889.07 

629tll  .75 

8iU 

"^ 

217 

«Hl.7:j 

3tlUH3.81 

2H1 

892.21 

6:iMr.07 

361 

"S 

SIH 

wi.fr 

3734^. M 

SS5 

695.35 

ei3793.9T 

3fiS 

"J 

3IU 

ose.oi 

37lHi8.4N 

266 

898.50 

64212.'<S 

a&8 

820 

1,91 .  15 

3H0I.-I  27 

2K7 

901.64 

64692.4S 

^ 

2JI 

0U-l.-.'9 

SWttfl  63 

SK8 

904  78 

65144.07 

"! 

'ilJ 

11117.  IS 

8H;07.Bfl 

289 

807  92 

05.'^97ai 

350 

iiJ« 

SS3 

7WJ,.5.H 

SfW57.07 

S90 

OlLUO 

6H0dI  .99 

3.57 

"S 

'iH 

70.j.7i 

391118. 14 

2»l 

914  20 

66B08.30 

368 

Hi* 

s» 

7(»..S() 

aw7ti(i.rs 

293 

917  :i-) 

661110  19 

359 

"S 

SSI 

7U).iliJ 

4(1115  IHJ 

21>3 

9'JIJ.49 

674-.'5.65 

800 

"2 

SS7 

713.11 

4IM7U.7H 

204 

923  83 

67886.08 

361 

"2 

S^it 

716. ■« 

4lHV'H,M 

395 

926.77 

eKM9.S8 

302 

It* 

2i« 

71il  4j! 

4im7,(»7 

2»fl 

949  91 

68818. 4S 

863 

"it 

980 

7aa.57 

1I5J7.56 

297 

9!13.n5 

69279.19 

364 

,ij 

»)t 

7«  71 

410<W.ti3 

2UH 

936  19 

69746  50 

m, 

n4j 

83-.* 

:•«.* 

4'^'73.-i7 

U99 

9.19.31 

7W15  8.8 

:100 

11  ••J 

1238 

731. 'JO 

4-.'(WH.48 

nuo 

942.48 

70685  S:i 

867 

IlOJ 

534 

735.13 

4*105.26 

301 

9)5.62 

71(57.80 

368 

iiftj 

845 

7:w.a7 

4ai;:j.t!l 

30el 

818. V8 

71681  45 

see 

iiM 

^|3U 

741.43 

4.i;43.5) 

303 

951. TO 

72106.03 

s;o 

iios 

^■bir 

741.50 

4I115.W 

304 

ftW.Ot 

72.-.83  88 

371 

no; 

^VS38 

747  70 

444H,-<.<KI 

305 

Q.i8.I9 

:»06i  m 

372 

1101 

^  S3B 

7.W.H4 

4  18(1.'.  73 

306 

Wll.3-3 

78.-)J1.54 

3:8 

ii^y 

340 

753  flu 

4V<;:*8.W3 

3()7 

9(14.47 

7402'2.1)9 

371 

li^M 

■ill 

757  !•-> 

451111)  71 

3(W 

«ti7  61 

71506  01 

375 

ll^B 

«li 

7W  ■i7 

45IKm  <16 

mi 

970  75 

74900  00 

376 

ii^B 

»13 

7I«  11 

4iW7rt.lJ« 

»I0 

9;3.fi9 

75176  7« 

il77 

11^9 

l!M 

7li6.55 

46759.47 

311 

B77.IM 

751161.51) 

378 

ll^B 

a  15 

76!!  eii 

4714.5  5i 

312 

980.18 

76153.80 

im 

ii^B 

etc 

T7J  S3 

475^0.10 

313 

IWV*.' 

76914.6; 

8N0 

^'^1 

i4; 

775.1*7 

47016. 3H 

814 

986  46 

774:17.12 

381 

11^1 

^K    CI4 

771).  11 

4M05.18 

315 

9H9  SO 

77931.13 

■162 

12^4 

^^i'.> 

7»<:.>  W 

4»V»5,47 

ai« 

992  74 

784  .-6.72 

.l-^S 

l$cKE 

^nffio 

7S5  tn 

4f«>S7  3a 

817 

9(>.'vsa 

78iC.1.W 

381 

12(J* 

^f"" 

-   .  - . 

■■:-ll.«7 

318 

999.03 

79*  .'2  60 

;:85 

!«-< 

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319 

IIKW.K 

7I»1I22.90 

SH6 

121* 

^^^B  - 

..  :  55 

8*0 

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80124.7; 

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^^ku 

.w.  y» 

.'niti,Ll.75 

S2I 

liNW  (5 

S0'.I.'8.2I 

888 

>2J| 

801.11 

Bioro.&s 

823 

1011  59 

8 1433  22 

889 

^m 

^^^^^^b 

M>l.!!fl 

Bt17t.fi 

S-JS 

nil  1  -A 

8HH9  »^ 

3»0 

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^^^^^H 

r  -■  '  -■  -!7n  1 

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mci'MFJiUIiNCBS   AND   AttEAB  O*  CIRCLES. 


DIam. 


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U. 


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sa. 


a;. 


s». 


Clrcum. 


MOM 
VS.OSS 
I0.426 
(l.%.6l» 
SNi  211 
90.004 

wi.wr 

07.880 

w.irs 

W.StiO 
09.353 
W.7W 

100. .VII 
I00.9'i4 

lui.sie 

lUI  T09 
lOi.  nw 

ini.4Ui 

lOJ  Wt" 
liri  •.'»> 
ICl  073 
104  (M» 
101  4^8 
10). SSI 
Ifti  •.•4.-J 
I  OR  636 
lOti.O^.m 
lOfl  4-.'I 
KW.tHU 
107.307 
107.000 
107 .9M 
108  8I« 
KW.TTS 

nw.iro 

in«.Bti:i 

iiio.usa 

HOSiH 

no. Ml 
lll.l»l 

111  ri'.'7 

Ill.Ultf 
11J.31J 
Hi- Til.-, 
in  (W7 
IH.llW 
113  !«) 
II4.'.»75 
II4.<108 

li.voiu 

115.4.'>t 

11.5.MW 

110  'jmi 

llfi.WJ 

IIT.OM 

117.41" 

117  810 

llS.Wi 

llS.SWi 

no  a»\ 


ri2. 
;i8 


77.1.  iil 


SID  MJ 

Hiu  an 

SJfl 

84H, 

S55 

R<ll- 

HlU.St 

874 

W1.411 

8*W,00J 

iwi  •» 

»14.Uti 


SfVS  ■». 
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»uv 

975 
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iWll. 

mw.Tl 

;ioo3.» 

llOltl  s 

lini7  0 
!io«  0 

10:t9-a 
1040.  Hi 
1033. »J 
llOiiO.Tl 
U'«H.O^ 
107R.il  ' 

ioa«.s  I 

10«9.8 

[\m-\ 
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120. MW     \\\^ 


1     106 

--■ 

MATHEMATICAL  TABLB8. 

1 

Slam. 

Clrcum. 

Ai-«a. 

Dlam' 

Clroutn. 

2082. H8 

.Area. 

Dlrnn- 

731 

Clroum.! 

BBS 

IStiO.'JS 

278050.58 

6(>i 

345236.60 

2296  6(1 

SOU 

isr-.'.aa 

i!78US5.»9 

064 

21)80  1)2 

3»«2;8.ai 

732 

W99.6i 

EBr 

1»75.58 

J79Ue-J.»; 

665 

2089.  Itl 

317.322  70 

73:1 

230.'.  79, 

(198 

I8TM  «; 

28H8IH.6-' 

006 

20!I2.»I 

:mh;ios  07 

VS4 

23i:i.'.  9S 

5UU 

1881. HI 

•J8IH01  (!o 

007 

2095.44 

34»1]5.(I0 

736 

eou 

ItftM.Uli 

'OiiT^i.Si 

litis 

2098.58 

350403.51 

730 

(JUl 

1888.  Ul 

■jsaiiHO-tto 

6tiU 

2101. '.3 

351513  59 

737 

eoi 

!SUI.a4 

vlH4(i:H.4l 

»>0 

2104.87 

852.''«  -24 

73« 

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1WJ4.38 

a85r.7T.« 

(171 

3103.01 

35:1018.45 

739 

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18W7.5-J 

iitWOi'i.B-J 

072 

an  1.15 

364073  24 

740 

MO 

IIWO.60 

■M7i:R.m 

073 

am  29 

355721). fiO 

741 

2:^7.92 

6oa 

1903.81 

iStH-J(J.4H 

074 

2117  43 

:i50787.54 

742 

2.131  06 

0O7 

1906.05 

a8y37U.17 

075 

2130.58 

357847.04 

743 

2384.20 

QUO 

1U10.09 

aU0a33.4:j 

070 

2123.72 

358908. i 1 

744 

2:M7.84 

tKKt 

19ia  2!) 

291283.26 

677 

2120.80 

359970  75 

745 

2840.49 

filU 

1010.37 

29224  8.  <ki 

678 

21:10.00 

361034.97 

746 

2843.68 

till 

lUia  51 

2'JU205.(J3 

079 

2133.14 

862100.76 

747 

£816.^7 

«l-J 

IJaj.fiS 

a94iM.i; 

880 

S134.28 

88S168  11 

748 

2»ig.oi 

613 

I'JiS.S) 

•.•951v'H.MS 

081 

2I30.4S 

364237.04 

749 

235.1.06 

614 

lU-'K.iM 

2900Ul,Ur 

682 

2112.57 

365307.54 

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iWMl.lS 

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297057.22 

083 

2145.71 

300370  00 

751 

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298ty4,05 

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a674,'i3.24 

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685 

2151. W) 

30852S.45 

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2155.13 

800005.28 

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370083.59 

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2170.84 

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8887.61 

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2177.12 

377188  B8 

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1900, 04 

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378-276.08 

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379306.95 

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£897.04 

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W»9748.47 

698 

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381558.50 

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3I27I4  92 

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2195.97 

383746.83 

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2199.11 

384845.10 

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108 

MATHEMATICAL 

TABLES. 

ClHCUmFEBENCKS    AKD   ARKAS   OF  CU 

Advauclug  by  Blehlll*. 

Dlam. 

Clroum. 

Area. 

Dlftm. 

Ctroum. 

ATM. 

Diaiii. 

CiR 

VIH 

.0-«9(l9 

.0(WI!» 

4   H 

7  ■1013 

4.4:101 

B    % 

19. 

vw 

.WHIH 

.0(M>77 

Wit 

7.6570 

4. (MA 

\: 

19. 

a/(M 

.UTiiO 

.01)173 

H 

7.8540 

4.110H7 

^ 

30. 

Vi« 

.196.15 

00307 

V 

S.OGin 

6  1.'.' J 

80. 

[ ^«/33 

.•m5-i 

.<mw 

8.)M07 

5  lll'J 

v;  1 

•0. 

^^k 

.39270 

.oi*>; 

11/10 

8.44S0 

8.0W? 

k 

St 

^^n^ 

.490H7 

.01(117 

H 

8.0304 

B.asod 

r 

31 

^Vs>i« 

.681)05 

.ftJ7lll 

13/1« 

8.t«S7 

o.siai 

1. 

41. 

7/33 

.B8;« 

.oarss 

■5^« 

9.0»t 

9.2384 

e.4UI8 
8.7771 

a. 

M 

.7B540 

.01900 

m. 

fl.SJ 

.flK«7 

.OHiV-i 

8. 

9.4IM8 

70086 

HI- 

f./lfi 

.9^175 

(i7«;o 

V 

eosn 

7.8003 

SS. 

11/*! 

t.WiHt 

.IV.'SI 

9.mTS 

.7.0000 

u. 

K 

l.lTBl 

lUMS 

a/iti 

10.014 

7  W7U8 

H 

»l. 

l.V*2 

1.27(58 

.  lilHi-.' 

M 

10.2)0 

S.L1I.W 

H. 

•A. 

T/lfl 

1  .r.u 

.  i5o;« 

5/lfl 

10.407 

H.uiru 

85. 

U'/Hi 

I  ilM 

.  1?AW 

7??<) 

lOJMS 
10  7110 

8.04*! 
O.«800 

as. 
so. 

H 

I  r.rns 

iwi'a 

\i 

10.IK)(l 

9,6311 

30 

r 

■  1 

•-'-'liln 

9/1(1 

)).1M 

U,1)B7H 

k 

v>^ 

■MS.'iO 

k     1  11  8X8 
ll/T«  1  II.ftM 

10  n-ji 

ri 

•J* 

1  • 

'•7^i^S 

10  0'<« 

H 

r. 

21/*! 

1. '."..;;■> 

8()0Ki> 

13/T« 

D.TSl 

11.015 

9. 

*t. 

a  otii7 

aiMii 

11. 077 

11  416 

L£ 

>». 

I  I/Ill 

Ml  WW 

.371JJi 

^« 

li.l74 

11  TBS 

U 

s». 

SS/SS 

1  U&HU 

.40571 

16/16 

i«.fno 

i-j.n; 

Q 

80. 

i. 

HMO 

1-,' .'.(;(i 

^ 

•M  1 

.,^-' 

e  Tiia 

41179 

1/IB 

U'lm 

11'  i)i;-j 

^ 

mi! 

'  <  i  1 

471W7 

fli        l'.'«8 

I3UB4 

n 

8B.I 

I 

.filHtll 

3/iB      IS.  lU 

i:l.7T3 

81.1 

^•. 

fi.WII 

f./Te    13.M8 

M.li*li 

Kl. 

n  ] 

, 

.(•JUS-.! 

UtliC 

t 

M.i 

V 

.(MMI 

^ 

n  7J4 

15(13.1 

c 

M.I 

l-i 

.Bimii) 

7/lU 

la.Mi 

ib.iM 

£ 

8«.l 

»I/:ia 

S.OIill 

.78708 

H 

M.ia7 

15  mw 

n 

S«l 

¥ 

14  8;i4 

16  3J!> 

< 

S».l 

t. 

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.T8B4 

14. MO 

16  800 

i 

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I 

1 

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lI/?6 

i-vte 

14  7i!8 

17  BS7 

t 

14.1 

.(»!M() 

14  Si» 

17.7»( 

11 

84  I 

M07o 

1».>I0 

ii^.uio 

M 

SM 

^H^r 

8  ti;^7i) 

i.ee7a 

i.V^e 

lliaiB 

18. 605 

I 

A.t»H 

t.»so 

»  51U 

19.147 

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^^^^^^^H 

E.8IK 

l.4(H-J 

5. 

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w  ex. 

< 

^^^^^^^^H 

■.»l«0 

l.<l!»0 

•a^ 

15.  WM 

VO.lliO 

♦ 

^^^^^^H 

S.Tti4 

l.7IV7t 

16  |0| 

»O.0J» 

£ 

^^^^^^Bfr 

'*4  SfttC 

1  017.^ 

a/io 

18  !»7 

i'l  115 

i 

r^ 

.'  '■.  '  ' 

5/1o 

111.  IBS 
16.090 

£\  r.4K 
VJICti 

f^ 

16.(*«J 

SJ.OOl 

ti 

1 

J  .'.•i'- 

7/ IB 

notu 

Ifl.iKl 

f 

\!  7«1-' 

H 

17a7B 

S3.75.S 

i 

^^iiM 

■J  VIM 

9/10 

17.475 

SI  W>1 

1 

»« 

17.671 

i'l .  n■^) 

^ 

^^^^^^^H 

c. 

III! 

1.^,.) 

17. 868 

■J."    nil 

^^^^^^^H 

^ 

.i;lO 

18.0(14 

«.'.  111.: 

18 

^^^^^^^H 

1 

•"v; 

l.'MO    18  an 

>.'«\  v«  \     vs 

^^^^^^H 

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"x        18  ii7 

«T.^*w  \     ^  \B 

1^ 

^H 

^^b4    t6-)*  i  •!».«» 

CUKFJEaBNCKS   AND   AS8A8  OP  CIRCLES.        l09 


Circum.  Area.     Dlam.   Circiim.    Area.     Diani.   Otroum.    Ana, 


01.040 

Q5.4J6 
OS. 819 

OO.QOi 
flC.!»7 
07.389 
07.783 
48.175 
U8.5U7 
OH. 960 
9».3:.3 
99.746 
100.138 

loa..";;!! 
loo.tnii 

101.310 

lO-Mttt 

10-i  lai 

10J.fW7 
KH.'iSt) 
103.  (iTa 

104  III15 
104.4.'>B 
lOLBTil 

105  •.;« 
105  (ine 

lOrt.O.'Q 
IOti.4'Jl 
lOU.ttM 
I 07. 207 
lOT.Ulrt 

lor.wK.' 

lOS.Si* 
K1H.77S 

nio.iro 
ioii.su:i 

UK). 056 
1UI.34S 

no  711 

Ul.litt 
III  V.'7 
111.919 

iij.svi 
ii-j.7iir> 

Hi  W" 
111.41X1 
11^  H.Sii 
in.  275 
114.1108 
liri  mil 
I  in, OS  I 
us  MW 
110  :'!» 
IIfl.(l:« 
117.0'i4 
117  417 
117  810 
1  la  Wi 
118. R96 


I 


7ia.7« 

718  69 
7«'4  «4 
780  63 
736  64 
74-.*  64 
74M.6» 
7.y.77 
760  KT 
766. f« 
771.14 
779. ai 
785. 5t 
791  73 
?J7  Hi 
S04.:..'V 
810  .M 
HIU.Ml 
8i3  •-•! 

sifl  .IS 

RT.  97 
84-.'  09 

uSM  .10 
HOI  It) 
H68.31 
874  *) 
fiM1.4t 

i  im.oo 
mi  68 

901  28 
«07,1li 
914.61 
ft-il.M 
9-»;  rw 
0!{4  »i 
941.01 
9414.13 
»i»  35 

wn  It 

OtW.OO 
976  (It 

mt  SI 

0«).90 
006.78 

inus.s 

1010.8 
1017  0 
in-ifi  0 

IO.-)3  1 
IIMO.-J 
1046  a 

I  ova  a 

tOOO.T 
ll«i.O 
1075  S 
10B2.5 

10«)  R 

l(Pli7  1 
1101, ■■ 

nil  H 


no 


MATHEMATICAL  TABLES. 


Circuin. 


JS1.737 

]iJ  llS):J 

ia4.-iHfl 

128.0,^8 
12(5. -t^a 

127. il5 

127  oar 

12«  VriO 
ViSiAlS 

129.1  US 
1-1).  5U1 
12tl,B83 
ISO ,  :JT« 
1*1. 7U9 
131. IGI 
181  ri.M 
131. WI7 
132. S40 
l*!.T!b! 
1X1.135 
1:1!].  518 

i;».wio 

iH4.:ia3 

134.GiMI 
135. 0H8 
1.11. 481 
1W.S74 
ISG.alT 
186.  BTA 
1:H7  OfB 
137.445 
187.837 

i^a.iHO 

1:j8.CU3 

i8i).ot:> 

13«.4I)8 

ia»  SOI 
110  \n 

1-10. 588 
H0,6?,» 
141  872 


Area. 


loB.fl 
IW.2 
171  7 
17y.ri 
IBC.3 
lUI.fi 
■-•O'.'.-i 
silO.l) 

iir.7 
■iii.t) 

■Ail>  rj 
•iat.n 

■JSO..S 

.304  •.' 
31-'. 3 

3ai>  :i 

;fj8  a 

3:i<;  4 
*J4.5 
3.V,'  7 
300. S 
:M«.0 
;l77.:i 
■^  4 
3fl:-J.7 
40-.i.U 
410  3 
418. B 
437.0 
435.4 
44-3  8 
45-.'  1! 
4IW.7 
4C<J  1 
477  0 
480.8 
4*1  T 
SOS  3 
Sll.U 
5*  3 
6J9.1! 
6»7  9 
Mii  0 
't'lTi  8 

im.it 
47a.  8 

S81  B 

sno  4 


Dialn 


16; 


47. 


48. 


48. 


50. 


51 


sa. 


Ciraum. 


44, 477 
4il.Htl9 
■)7.3I« 
47.655 
48.048 
48  440 

48  833 

49  a--'fl 

49  018 
50.011 
50.404 

50  7M 
51.180 
51.. Mi 
51.975 
52.367 
Sa.70O 
.■53.15.3 
.18.545 
53.838 
54.331 
1)4.743 
55.110 
5S.5()9 
.55.003 
.'111.394 
jT,  tiS7 
.■J7.090 
57.47S 
57.l»«5 

58.  aw 

.'>8.6.'i0 
59.043 
59.4.1(1 
59. »» 
(50.  mi 
Sa.014 
61.007 
01.390 
B1.79-.' 
I',2.1S5 
G'-',57T 

o.'.oro 

tj.3.au.3 
t53.7.M) 
114.148 
01.541 
61.1134 
Oo.SiO 
6,') -710 
(ill.  11  a 
00  :*» 

ti6.*»7 

07.  aw 


Ai'ea.     Dlam 


50. 


59. 


60. 


Ill 


PEREN0E8  AND   AREAS  OF   CIRCLES. 


Ill 


Dlam. 


Circum, 


Area. 


4079  .u 
4B8S.J 
5UH).S 
SOW). 

505S._ 

S<iHi>.S  < 

£105 .4. 
fil2l.«l 
nI3T.l{ 

MM  aj 

raoH  9\ 

5184. ft| 

fi-JOU.84 

riL'iti  8 
5-e3:;.8{ 

5218.  »J 
5v'(i4.*l 
.VJUl.Of 

Si's:.! 

.VrJia.3. 

3339.41 

taurt .  6l] 

MWl.S'J 

r.3iii.s 

541U  (tj 

M-'C  M 
5448.3! 
51.VJ  fl- 
5470.01 
641K.4. 
MllH.Sl 
Mi'i.S; 
M4I.8 
5Si>*  »' 
557'l.8, 
^'.91  4  i 
S(ia7  »■] 

Wi57. 
r>B74 
5II«1.    , 

B7J4  7  I 

5741.51 
57.')8.8^ 
ft7rS .  1  [ 
5701.9] 

.'«:«     81 

5f«,^  7 
MMS!  0  ] 
58a«  8  I 
6876.8  I 
SSUS.8' 
51110  8 
W.'7.ll 
o»M  7 


112 


MATHEMATICAL  TAULES. 


1 


Diam 


H8. 


89. 


01. 


Circuni. 


Area. 


aru.oc- 

2T6.4CO 

2TT.246 

278.031 
2T8.134 
278.810 
279  'J09 

a;9.e(« 

279.0M 

880,367 
280.7S0 

asi.iTS 

ssa.asi 
aea.743 

283.  D31 
2(M.314 
ffiH.TOT 

ass.ioo 

a8S.4»a 

)i8S.885 
280.278 
286.670 
887. (xa 
887.456 
287.848 
288.241 
388.(1^ 


1km 

I  8W.I 

I  (ititi 

filfH 

<!IM 

files 
6im 

tew. 

625*1 

ti  08 

«W4l, 
0301. 

03; ». 

0397. 
0414. 
64:t!. 
64r>0 
0408. 
64S6. 
6603. 
1)621. 
6333. 
<155r 

650-'). 

ueii. 


Dlaiu.l  C'iivum. 


92. 


9». 


U4. 


9o. 


«G. 


280.027 
38D.4IU 
281). 812 
$90,205 

aao.5S7 
auo.iiao 
i«)i,;)83 

391.775 
293.168 
292.. W I 
292  051 
393. 8IG 
283  739 
294  132 
2aH.5S4 
«M.0I7 
203,310 
20)  702 
29G.U95 
23S.-I88 
290. 8Sl 
297.273 
297. «» 

son.mt 

298.451 
298.844 
29B.287 
399.029 
300.032 
3O0  415 
300.807 
301.200 
a01.!>83 


Arc^ 


IIC47  « 

60(1,1.7 
Ot»J  8 

oroi  D 

(17V0.1 

61  a.'*.  2 
or.w  4 

6771.7 

i;7;i2.ii 

6S| I .v 

n.ssy.s 

6S47.H 
6806.1 
0884. B 
0902  9 
6021.3 
0039.8 
B9.')8  2 

rare. .  7 
!;«»  3 
:oi3.8 

71)3  i.  4 
7051.0 
7009.6 
708S.2 
7100,0 
7125.6 
7144.3 
7103.0 
7181, « 
7200.6 
7219.4 

»as.s 


DiAm. 


06! 


»0. 


Ciri 


aoi 
m 
90a. 
Ma 

sna 

308 
»01, 
Wl, 
SOS, 
306, 
80B, 

aoe, 
tna. 

807 
307. 
307 

ao« 

308. 

»oa, 

300, 
3O0 
310. 
310. 
311, 
311, 
311, 
312 
312. 
313. 
313. 

3ia. 

314. 


1 


DECiniAL.S  OF 
AND 


A    FOOT  E:aFlVAI>ENT  TO 
FRACTIONS  OF    AN    INCH 


Inches. 

0 

W 

H 

H 

H 

H 

9 

0 

0 

.01043 

.OJOJS 

Mm 

,0)166 

,0S90S 

.08 

1 

.0833 

.0937 

.1042 

.1116 

.1250 

.1354 

.14 

2 

.1007 

.1771 

.1875 

.1970 

.2oe3 

.9188 

M 

!1 

.8500 

.8601 

.3708 

.2«I3 

.8917 

.«0«1 

.»{ 

4 

.8333 

.8137 

.8342 

.8<M0 

.3750 

.■-t»4 

.» 

fi 

.4187 

.4271 

.43T.1 

.44;» 

4S8S 

.4688 

.47 

0 

.fiOOO 

.5104 

.5306 

.8313 

6117 

.6581 

.U 

7 

.B83S 

.H«7 

.0012 

.0140 

.0450 

.6SS4 

.61 

8 

.6«6T 

.6771 

.e.ST.'i 

.11979 

,708* 

TIM 

.n 

S 

.7SO0 

.7601 

.7708 

THIS 

.7917 

-WW 

.St 

10 

.6333 

.8437 

.8512 

.8I>40 

.8750 

.8864 

.» 

11 

.9107 

.9^71 

.9375 

.tMT» 

.BAKI 

.9«)« 

M 

CIRCLE. 


Ill 


.4M 

.S4U7U 

.455 

.W778 

.168 

.JMS7G 

.ir>7 

Mv;^ 

.i:.« 

.XM-.r, 

.*»» 

.S5I75 

w 

.V>-^i 

.m 

.rMT4 

.4B'.' 

.8M74 

.m  ■ 

,8457» 

.ict 

.3««-.-! 

.tK.  1 

.»77S 

1(M 

.rt.Vi73 

,<li7 

,Sa»7-.' 

.«8 

.36072 

.4ei) 
.47 

,471 

.aiani 

,473 

.iMM7l 

,473 

.aasTj 

.474 

.SC471 

.475 

.»ir7i 

,478 

.8rtS7l 

.4:r 

.JtM>;i 

.478 

.87071 

.47U 

,87171 

.48 

.arvMi 

.481 

.S737II 

.48* 

.37170 

.4HI 

.37.^70 

.4M 

,87«70 

.4«5 

.37770 

.4W 

.»7»:o 

.487 

.37970 

.4fH 

.amxro 

.m 

.,18170 

.49 

.,'»«70 

.41)1 

.SK.170 

.40a 

.afwjo 

.4OT 

.wr.TO 

.4M 

.:1S970 

.^!)r^ 

.,"IH77U 

.41X1 

,,1SS7lt 

.407 

.38970 

,4W 

,»IK'70 

.4og 

.30170 

.,'. 

.3W70 

page  59, 


^H16                            MATH  KM  ATRIAL  TABLES. 

^ 

V              AREAS  or  THE  l»EGnrEMT8  OV  A   CIKCLE. 

(DUmeter  =  1 )  KUe  or  Veraod  Nine  Id  fmrtn  or  DUai*^ 

K     lU'LE  FOR  UsB  iiF  THE  TABLE.— THvide  the  rlKf  or  li«ffKlil  o(  tbewgropol'! 

^Hthe  illuniBtfi'  tu  iiljtniu  the  versed  slrm.     Multiply  thp  area  in  Ihe  Uhteo 

^1  respontliDff  to  tlUs  vei-scrt  sine  by  the  square  of  thp  fllaniet«r. 

If  the  seuoient  erceetls  a  feiiiicircle  its  area  Is  areft  of  circle-sre'"" 

men!  whotc  rise  islJinm.  of  circle— rise  of  given  segment). 
1            Given  chnni  and  rlne,  to  And  diameter.     Diani.  =  (square  of  h&lf  wK 

H  rise)  4-  i-ise.    The  half  chnrd  is  a  mean  proportional  between  th«  twop* 

^■ioto  VI  hioli  the  clionl  divides  the  diameter  whloli  Is  p«r|'>wiUe"'»'"  ^"^}^ 

^■T.IMd 

V>n«l 

Vrmil 

Vumi 

Tamil      u 

■j    hiM. 

Area. 

Sin^ 

Ann* 

Sliii. 

Aras. 

Suxu 

Ana. 

Sill.       * 

™     .001 

.(lOOlM 

.054 

.01640 

.107 

.04A14 

.18 

.08111 

Mi 

.oooia 

.OiS 

.OI091 

.108 

.0457S 

.161 

.08185 

.J14     -l 

.008 

.(XKl-M 

.aiB 

.OITJIT 

.loe 

.04638 

.16i2 

.083.58 

.916     -1 

^m     AM 

.0(KH4 

.057 

,OI7S3 

.11 

,01701 

,168 

.08832 

■«ft     • 

■    .Oi» 

■  idHMT 

.058 

.niftio 

.111 

.04763 

,164 

.08406 

•«»I     1 

■    M16 

■  tKKKW 

.050 

.DIHT? 

.llki 

.04ti(!e 

.166 

.08180 

,«!«  1  ■« 

^     .007 

.110078 

.06 

.(lliW4 

.113 

.04689 

.166 

.08654         •'"■       ' 

.OOH 

.oaow> 

.061 

.01B^J 

.11* 

.04653 

,107 

,0H6-«( 

.000 

.001 1» 

.<X-i 

.o-awo 

.115      .05010 

,168 

.08704 

.01 

.00I3S 

.<m 

.(i*m« 

,116      .05080 

.169 

.08779       .ai- 

.Oil 

.001.S3 

.084 

.0^117 

.117  1   .05145 

,17 

.08864 

,899  1 

.013 

.eoi7,i 

.OliS 

.031U0 

.118    .oseog 

.171 

.owto 

•»1 

^    .013 

,m)i07 

.o&d 

OJJlft 

.119  1   .0,5474 

.173 

.09004 

*^ 

■   .Olt 

.OiWJ 

.067 

,UW(15 

,  13        .05.338 

.178 

.09080 

»s 

■    .015 

.00441 

OOH 

,t>«ll5 

.121  ,   .05104 

.174 

.091U 

•»I 

^     .01(5 

.OUitW  ! 

.uiia 

.oiatiB 

.k-i  '   .05469 

.175 

.09331 

^^s. 

.017 

.OlWSl 

,07 

,1WI17 

.yjH      .0,'>535 

.176 

.09307 

,ae9 

.018 

,0<W    : 

.071 

.0-,'408 

,I'J4  1  .05800 

.177 

.09384 

.8» 

.Oil) 

.WH7 

M7i 

.iv»ao 

.i«5    .mm 

.179 

.09400 

,«S» 

.08 

.00375 

.(fti 

.Oii71 

.MM      .0,5733 

.178 

.09687 

■^ 

.031 

.00403 

.074 

OMH 

.187      .057S9 

.18 

.09613 

^     O^i'i 

,00433 

.076 

.OJ(i70 

.108  1  .0.5866 

.181 

.00690 

.a^ 

■  ,0<iS 

.004«'.' 

.076 

.0-!7i9 

.  i-»    .osim 

.184 

.09787 

•81^^ 

■  .044 

.004(W 

.077 

.OiTii 

.13      .oaooo 

.18S 

.09946 

,Slfftr 

^    .0*5 

.OOBiM 

.078 

Mtm 

.131       .08(167 

.184 

.099IK 

Jlf^ 

.O'JO 

.00655 

.079 

oinm 

.  Vil      .08135 

.185 

.10000 

.S89 

,wr 

.0(»87 

.08 

.(miH 

.138      .DtisiOS 

.186 

.10077 

,g8^ 

^    .0>8 

.006)9 

.est 

.omm 

.134  !  .ooari 

.187 

.10155 

ji  ^^^ 

■    .O-.>0 

.01141.-.3 

.mt 

.03059 

.18S      .08339 

.188 

.ii>.>!i:<  •  ua^m 

■     <B 

.mm 

.08S 

.oaioe 

.188      .0840T 

.189 

.I03ie  ,     ,',24^H 

■  .031 

.00731 

.on 

.oaioa 

.137      .08476 

.19 

.lUIUI      .Ml^H 

■   .OTJ 

.110750 

.085 

.ossio 

.138      .08545 

.191 

.10IC9       .M^M 

■  Mi 

.00791 

.066 

.aiJ75 

.139      .OfiCH 

.19(9 

.10SI7       .i^H 

^   .084 

.00847 

.087 

.0IU31 

.14     1  .0868.^ 

.198 

.loatw  ^^^H 

.08.5 

.O0M4 

.088 

.03387 

.141  ,  .08758 

.194 

.10705  y^^H 

.088 

.00001 

.060 

.03444 

.l*i  ,  .00628 

.106 

.10»4    l^^l 

^    .037 

mm 

.00 

.03501 

.Kl  i  .08893 

.196 

n^B 

■    .03H 

.0CB7a 

.001 

.03550 

.144  ;  .08II63 

.197 

1094S 

.a^H 

■    .OilO 

.01015 

.00« 

.0.3610 

.145  1   ,07033 

.196 

iiioas 

.aiS 

■   .04 

.01054 

.003 

.03674 

.148  '  .07103 

.199 

.11108 

M^ 

■    .Oil 

.01093 

.OOi 

.0»7»i 

.147      .07174 

.a 

.um 

.m     \ 

■   .(M 

.01133 

.095 

.03701 

.148      .07\MB 

.iMI 

.um 

■    ,018 

.01173 

.006 

.aiti&o 

.149      .07816 

.aw 

.I1S4I 

"B^^^ 

■   .044 

-OliU 

,097 

.03009 

.18     1   .07387 

,908 

.MM  ^^^m 

■  .046 

.Pi^ia? 

.ooa 

,0iWS8 

.151  ,  .07459 

.ao4 

AMU   ^^^ 

■  .040 

.<nia7 

.099 

.0109! 

.JM  '  .07.531 

.UK 

.IIU4 

**^^^H 

B-(M7 

01. 'Wl 

.1 

IMOHT 

.1.53      .07003 

.908 

.11809 

.^^^1 

■  .04K 

01. "MS 

,101 

.0414K 

.1.54  ,  .07675 

.907 

.11746 

3iV 

^■.040 

lit   l\.r.     1             11  ID 

'>(*« 

.155      .07747 

.866 

.1I8>)7 

^^«6 

U'>t» 

.15<l      .07819 

.'J09 

.11006 

.908    ^1 

^^V 

MiHO 

.ir.7      .07S04 

.81 

.11090 

J8i  ^H 

^^^B^ 

1(39) 

.158  1   .OTOtt 

.i\\ 

.vwn 

,90^^^H 

^H 

"H.5a 

.159  1   .0B(H8  y   .«VJ 

V  .\*\ia\\  .11^^ 

^^ 

L 

SPHEBES. 
«rHKHB8-(Ce>Mfinu«/0 


Sur- 
face. 


5153  1 

,  5381.1 

,   5O0.7 

/  5.V41.0 

6«7<.5 

&808.8 

btH4.7 

eoft».i 

e22l.2 
036I.7 
63US.9 
6»«7.6 
OTOi.B 
e9SU.9 
7088. S 
•7S38.S 
7389.9 
7543.1 

roi«".7 

786  i-O 
H011.8 
81T1.3 

80B8.9 

8O<K.0 
0160.8 

9503.2 

Oe7<i.B 

ofisa.o 
looeo 

30307 
J038T 
J  0508 
10751 
1093« 

iir-;2 

11810 

114PU 

1H59D 

11883 

l-JOTB 

13--fi3 

12409 

1-2C68 

12868 

13070 

13-/T3 

13178 

13GN5 

13893 

14103 

11814 

14S^ 

J/,-/; 
M/r5  / 

/53W  / 


Solid- 
ity. 


DUm. 


rs. 

79. 
80. 


S«. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
BG. 
87. 


H 


80. 
!>1. 

ira. 

B3. 


93. 


98. 
99. 


100. 


Bur- 
fkce. 


^1 


BollA 
Ity, 


«;8i4i 

S8iM4 


MATHEMAllCAL  TABLES. 


SPBtERES. 

>me  errors  of  1  In  the  last  %ure  OD]y.    From  TllAmmtt.) 


Solld- 
tiy. 


.am: 

.01287 

.ai:6i 

.04909 
.076T0J 
.11015 

.150:W 

.loux. 

.24  KM 

.3oano 

.87123) 
.41179] 

.518481 
.00133 

.BSKfcSl 

.78M0, 

.wjoa 

2872 
.4tU9 

.7671 
1.07TO 
1.4053 
1.7811 

i.Hie 

i.uee 

1.0781 

.«ni 

.908B 

..48ia 

.0686 
■.6«W 
1.3957 
I.MBl 
1.6311 
l.iNl 
.014 
.7M 
!.50fl 
I.Ml 
1. 186 

i.on 

•  »M 

i.tt» 
■  Til 
1.686 
1.635 
)6:» 
1.618 
!.0»1 
1.738 
1.8.10 
i,«(7 


.floooa 

.00018 
.00013 
.00102 

.ooaoo 

.0034") 

iKi~:s 

.OIWJH 

.02127 
.0!.'7li1 
.03611 

.otsai 

.O!iS0a 
.0SS4S 
.00810 
.147*1 
.17014 

.aaoNO 

.S80H1 
.85077 

.43143 
.I«:100 

.T4SSI 

.87S8I 

1 .0-J  J7 

i.isu 

1  .SBl  I 
1. 5553 
1.7671 
l.»974 
3.«1IS8 
2.5161 

tt.aoej 

8.1177 
3.45H 
3.8063 
4.1883 
4.5»30 
5.0*18 
5.4809 
6.0611 
6.4751 
7.0144 
7.S88fl 
8.1813 
8.8103 
9.4706 
10.164 
10.8W 
11. MU 
12.443 
l*.>7d 
14.>«7 


}6 


33.183 
»I.J7i 
35.781 
37.1SJ 

88.484 

41  i!8a 
42.7IU 
41.179 

45  661 
47  173 
48.716 
60.-J05 
33.1'>A 
55.7'I5 
60.133 
63.617 
67.S01 
70  883 
74.«6.'l 
T8.510 
8-2.5IG 
86.5»1 
90.763 

09.<01 
103.87 
108.44 
113  10 
117.87 
I2:'.7i 
137.  (W 
\»i  73 
137.89 
113.11 
118.49 
153.91 
159.19 
165.13 
170.87 
:i76.7l 
182.06 
188.00 
IU4  83 
201 .  IHI 
•.W.SO 
lail  82 
'."JO  3'i 
«1  IW 
■233.71 
'210,53 
217.45 
;2.*^1  17 
2iil..")9 

aiw.si 

'2711. 12 

;a9i.oi 

l2ttl.G5 


Solid- 
ity. 


17.974 
19.031 
20.199 
2I.368 
92  449 
88.674 
24.942 
20.254 
87.811 
29.01B 
30.466 

z\.ve& 

.13  510 
.SO  751 
40.105 
43  847 
47.713 
51.801 
56.116 
DO.fiOS 
65.450 
70.182 
75.787 
8I.31>8 
87.113 
93.18B 
99.541 
ICX;  18 
113.10 
120  31 
127  83 
135  IJB 
113.™ 
182.25 
161.03 
170  14 
179.59 
189.39 
199  53 
210  118 
220  SO 
232  13 
213,73 
255.7a 
268  08 
880.85 
801  01 
307.58 
321.50 
8.^.95 
350.77 
.360.02 
381.70 
8S7.S3 
411  11 
I'jl    41 


H 


12. 


14. 


IS     7«  I 


H 


K 


20. 


31. 


1'  . 

^ 

1075,2                              1 

1101. r. 

IIIM  1 

net  2 

Ih'l  rt 

r.--  ■ 
I 
I 
1 

1 
) 

lWw* 


CAPACITY    OV  CYLINDRICAL   VESSKLS.               \i\ 

1 

^INDmCAE. 

VKSSBI.M,   TANKS,   OISTBRNS,    ETC. 

i«iPter  In  Keel  and 

Inolies,  Area    In   Hq 

uari-   V*'vt,  and 

v.  8.  Ciallon*  Capacity  for  One  FooTIn  J>«ptll.'               J 

1  gallon  =  231  cubic  Ini. 

,              1  ciiuic  foot       „  ...-.._       ....                      1 

'"^*  =  — ^rr;^ —  =  0.181)88  cubic  f«et.                1 

4.4WD                                                                      1 

M,    Area.      Gals. 

Diam. 

Area. 

Gala. 

\H* 

m.     Aran. 

1 
Gah. 

11 

*.    Sq.ft.    ^,       h. 

Ft. 

In. 

84.  ft. 

1  fuot 
ilepih 

Ft.  to. 

Bq.  ft.  ' 

.789          8  87 

S 

8 

2S.« 

188  OB 

in 

1 

283.63 

.ft«           «.89 

5 

9 

8S.«7 

iQi.ys 

19 

3    ' 

291.04 

2177.1 

1.060         e.oo 

6 

10 

s«7;i 

IWO-J 

19 

0 

298.65 

II2S4.0 

l.2S»7           9.18 

5 

11 

27.49 

20B.fi- 

19 

9    , 

300.86 

IR91.7 

l.SSe         10.44 

41 

S8.187 

^11  51 

20 

814.16 

»B0.] 

1.S76         11. 'fl 

6 

a 

30.t8 

SH9.M 

iO 

a 

ffcS.06 

2409.2 

I.;rt7         J3.2-2 

6 

« 

SI.  IN 

iM8.!3 

•Jfi 

« 

3.HO.O6 

8469.1 

1.909  1      14  73 

6 

» 

3.5.78 

i!«T.09 

30 

9 

838  16 

2,5a{i,6 

3.t8S 

16. .fJ 

7 

88  4H 

88- H8 

il 

346  36 

2*91  0 

8.4(15 

i:  sw 

T 

3 

41. S8 

30K.SI 

21 

3 

354.66 

swa.o 

£(M0 

19.75 

7 

6 

44.18 

5311.49 

SI 

« 

368.05 

271.5.8 

S,fW5 

at  .56 

7 

B 

47.17 

SSJ.88 

21 

9 

371.64 

2779.3 

U.nt; 

23.50 

8 

S0,47 

8T6.0t 

29 

380,13 

9M3.6 

S4i>9 

25.50 

8 

8 

63.46 

31)9.88 

SS 

S 

388.82 

2908.6 

8.087 

Sjr.-V! 

8 

6 

56.75 

«4.4H 

aa 

6 

897.01 

2974.3 

SVitf 

a9.74 

8 

9 

eo.13 

440.8a 

22 

9 

400,49 

3040.8 

fsre 

4  M7 

31.99 

S 

63«:i 

47S.89 

S8 

415.48 

3108.0 

81  SI 

0 

3 

67  40 

603.70 

ta 

S 

424..'>« 

8175,9 

4  wn 

fm.Td 

a 

6 

7fl.88 

530  24 

iH 

8 

4.1.'1,74 

aN4.6 

&.585 

39.21 

9 

9 

74.6ti 

K.8.51 

i!3 

9 

4  18  Ul 

S8I4  0 

41.78 

10 

78.  &1 

687.53 

24 

452  39 

SS84.1 

S.MO 
•.MS 
6,681 
7.009 
7.467 
7.876 
8.306 
8.727 
9.168 

9edi 

10.0S5 
I0.5S9 
11.045 
11.541 
K.OtS 
I8.M6 

44.43 

10 

3 

8i.52 

617.M 

24 

3 

4«l.fiC 

3455  0 

47.16 

10 

S 

86.59 

647.74 

■24 

« 

471,44 

3626,0 

A9  08 

10 

» 

90.70 

678.95 

24 

9 

4KI  11 

35(»*.9 

hi  K8 

11 

flS.OS 

7I0.9U 

86 

490,87 

3678.0 

5.'».86 

11 

3 

P».-)0 

743.58 

% 

3 

500.74 

374.5  8 

08  9-.^ 

11 

e 

ioa87 

7711.99 

as 

a 

510.71 

3»-«l3 

05  ti8 

11 

0 

K«.4a 

811,14 

SB 

9 

520  TT 

•■me>.<i 

\t 

113.10 

846.09 

s« 

530.93 

.3971,6 

681. -^S 
71  07 

la 

8 

iir.M 

881.68 

so 

8 

641.19 

4048.4 

13 

6 

ISKTJ 

9I8,(X) 

30 

6 

651.55 

4125.9 

7514  4 
78  99 

itf 

0 

137.68 

nss  ofl 

•M 

9 

562.00 

42(H.l 

JB 

I.li  7:1 

»lh),ltl 

■il 

.'.7i.M 

4283,0 

saca 

S6.3.3 

fKJ.1.3 

»4  «> 

»7.{>6 

J03.00 

106.12 

110.8J 

Xl4.tll 

iis.yr 
la-J  42 

13 

3 

18T.8fl 

1031.5 

27 

a 

583.81 

4302.7 

13 

e 

143.14 

W70.8 

27 

a 

698.06 

4448.1 

18 

9 

148.4U 

11108 

27 

9 

604.81 

4524.8 

14 

153.94 

1151.5 

28 

615.75 

4006.2 

14 

3 

159.48 

11»3.0 

28 

s 

626.80 

46N8.8 

la.ofB 

14 

6 

iivs.ia 

1S85.M 

28 

6 

687.94 

4772  1 

1S.6«5 

14 

0 

170.87 

H!78.1! 

28 

s 

649.18 

4866  2 

14.186 
U.748 
15.331 

IS 

15 
1.^ 

3 
6 

17G.71 
IW  fi.i 
188  O'J 

ISil.U 
l.')Crt.4 
1411.5 

23 
29 

a 
« 

660.52 
671.96 
083.40 

4941  0 
60W1I) 
6112.9 

15.00 
16.60 

15 
Itt 

V 

1M.M1 
•JOl.O-i 

1457.4 
ItOl.l 

29 
30 

9 

C.BS.IH 
7U6.H« 

5109  U 
5287.7 

17.10 

1  - '  ■    _ 

1^2  IS 

11! 

.1 

l.'(t7.3'.t 

15.M.4 

;jo 

s 

7I8.r,9 

6.370,2 

17.78 

16 

5 

aiSH-i 

1.-0S.5 

30 

6 

7.W.03 

.5165  4 

18.35 

]4G.eB 

l.-il  »i 

lU 

9 

!Wl).:i.'i 

1648.4 

30 

9 

742.84 

B5.'*.4 

18.90 

17 

avo.wJ 

JOtff.O 

»1 

7,54.77 

5648. 1 

I0.04 

17 

3 

13 1.7) 

ir-wa 

Hi 

3 

766  99 

'6-A'  .& 

90.» 

17 

a  ,  S40..'i!i  1  nms  i 

31 

6 

779,31  \  vaatt.' 

ir 

e   1  £47.45       />3l.l    1    ,11 

0 

791  .•;3  \  &»«.<•) 

tn 

Sli4  47      70(1.3,6   1  ni 

804  25  \  «)\«>.'i 

IS    .! 
IS    B 

re  9 

V 

/^'•50       Jfl.W.«   1    3-.' 

3 

816.66  \  ftWO.ii 

'.mJjmjiL 

/^W      WJO.H    1    8-.. 

6 
0 

889.58  \  6-iOt..- 
,    842.S»  \  6301. 

^■^^1^ 

1-20 


MATHEHATIOAL  TABLES, 


tiOT 


COfVTKNTS   IN    ritBIC    FEET    AND    IT.    H,   GAItl 
PIPK»*   AKnCVI.INDKRSOF  VAHIOL'S  DIAail 
AND  ONK   rOOT  IN   1.ENOTII. 

1  gallon  =  ^31  ciibio  inches.    1  cubic  fuot  =  7.4805  gallon*. 


I 


52 

la 


For  1  Foot  ill 
Leiicrth. 


Cubic  Ft. 
al9r)  Area 
in  Sq.  Ft. 


.oooa 

.0006 
.0006 
.001 
,0014 

.ooir 

.0041 

.oax 
.oust 
.wm 

.0043 

.0IM8 
,O0S5 
.0065 
.0123 

.oior 

.0«I8 
.0■^76 

.(n4i 

.0413 

.0191 
.0570 
.OUdS 

.oror 
.os™ 

.0085 
.1134 

.mi 

.1«M 
.150S 

.1000 
.1808 
.1863 

.«iai 

JOD* 


U.S. 

Oal», 

231 
Cu.  III. 


.0045 

.004 

,1)057 

.0078 

.0103 

.0129 
.0150 
.OIKS 
.0380 
.0-189 

.0312 
.OiKiO 
.OlOtl 
.(KM8 

.i>ai8 

.1249 
•  titl* 

.■JlltltJ 
.'iWO 
..S'>85 

.!)«72 

am 

.4DS6 

.r.7«8 

.0538 

.73M 

.fl-JOfi 
l.OsM 
1.13S 

I.S34 
l.S4> 

i.4ey 

1.504 
1.734 


as 


For  I  Font  In 
liPiilfLb, 


U.S. 
(jalx., 

S;ll 
Cu.  In. 


Cubic  Ft. 
also  Ar«ti 
in  Sq.  Ft 


.3(86 

.2073 
.•3W7 
.»0«8 
.!t370 

.S491 
.3713 
.:«Ml 
.4176 
.4418 

.4667 
.49-33 
.5185 
..S454 
.5730 

.601S 
.6308 
.M 

.ems 

.7313 

.7530 
.THH 
.8531; 
.0318 
.SM 

1.009 
1  147 
1.337 
I.SIO 

i.«n 

1.4% 
1.578 
l.BTO 
1.708 
1.807 


1.859 
1.9I» 
2.145 
2.3M 
3.45 

SOU 
2.777 
£.048 
.1.135 
8.405 

8.4Bt 

3.eSB2 

8.879 

4.06 

4.380 

4.4M 
4.715 

4.087 
.M64 
5.3iW 

6.083 
5.875 
0.375 
0,805 
7.4*1 

r.»07 

ft  578 
9.IH0 
S.itOl 
10.44 

11.11 
1178 
18.49 
13.33 
l$.W 


£5 
a 


19 

so 
aoH 

SI 
S3 

mi 

■a 

mi 

84 

« 
26 
87 
i!8 

ao 

80 
81 
33 
33 

34 

as 

30 
37 
38 

39 
40 
41 
43 

43 

44 
45 

40 
47 

46 


Fori! 


Cubic  Fl 
nlia)  Arn 
in  S<|.  Ft 


1.009 
2.074 
2  183 
2.293 
2.406 

«..V3I 
StOM 
S-THl 
2K» 
S.013 

3.1<3 
3.41)0 
«(»7 
3.970 
4.370 

4.r*r 

4.UU» 
5.341 
5.5H5 
6.940 

6.«B 

B.Ceil 
7  0tn 
7.407 
7.878 

B.206 

8.wr 

B.lM 
0.«i| 

lo.on 

lO.lM 
11.04.1 
11  Ml 
12.018 

i3.aH 


To  llitd  Ibf  iiiiiiiollv  <if  iilpes  Efealer  than  flu-  larRrst  )rivpn  In 
look  In  III"  "f  one  hair  (liek'ivcn  Hixe,  and  mullipjr 

Ity  by  4;  ■  ci.-.  tiiam,  (inii  ninliiply  ItH  capaeity  In' » 

T»  flnil  II  ■  r  in  any  uf  the  ^Iven  sires  multiply  ihp 

la  cubii-  fiMi  li.v  D'.'.ij  ur  111.;  iJialloDH  by  W^,  or.  if  a  cloMir  amiroxii 
itHjutreil,  by  ib't! »  eiKb'  of  A  cubic  fool  uf  water  BC  the ootuaf  lamp* 
the  pipe. 

(4WPII  ilieilliii'  ",  to  find  lt«  capacil; 

jmUouk:  Si|uai'>'  lenj;tli  anJ  by  ,0Ca< 


*~ 

1 

JAPAOITY   OF  CYLINDRICAL   VESSELS.              121     1 

BICAI.  VE88B1.8,   TANKS,   CISTBRN8,   ETC.        | 

In  Feet  and  Inc 

hen.  A 

rea   in  K4iaarc   Feet,  and     1 

GallouM  Capacity  for 

One  Foot 

In  I>«ptb.                 ■ 

it  -  331  cnbic  Inithes 

1  cubic  fuol      o„9ge8^„bicteet.                 1 
<.4n]&                                                                1 

"-_ 

Oals. 

Dinm. 

Are*. 

Onls. 

Din 

ni.  1   Aren.  1   Go  Is.        1 

1  foot 
depch. 

"     S  W 

Ft.  Id. 

Sq.  ft. 

1  fdot 
de|ilh 

Ft. 

In. 

Sq.ft. 

1  foot 

depih. 

^■^ 

5    6 

"^i  'H 

188  S6 

IB 

283.53 

2)20.0 

^^H 

f  tm 

5    9 

ffiisT 

19(.:ii 

19 

8 

291.04 

2177  1 

^^r 

*•    P.OO 

S  10 

26  7.1 

mi  W 

W 

0 

298,65 

•J234.0 

^^ff 

!),I8 

5  11 

27.40 

•J0,"!.0- 

1,9 

a 

300.35 

•2291.7 

^Eq 

10  44 

8 

2H.27 

^11  Gl 

20 

314,16 

!?»0.I 

■PQ 

11. in 

6    3 

30.68 

ISO..W 

20 

3 

S-JS.tW 

2409.2 

^■7 

I3.« 

Q    6 

8.S.I8 

£48.23 

•20 

0 

■XiOM 

8400.1 

In 

14T3 

6    9 

33.T8 

i!«7.69 

30 

0 

338  10 

iS-Jil.B 

jl^ 

!«..*; 

7 

3848 

887.88 

21 

:>J0  36 

•2691  0 

^■5 

17  1)0 

7    8 

41.38 

308.81 

21 

8 

364.66 

2653.0 

^HO 

19.75 

7    6 

44.18 

830.49 

21 

« 

303.05 

•2715.8 

BR 

31  .W 

7    9 

47.17 

852.88 

21 

9 

371  51 

2779.3 

ti4^ 

23.S0 

8 

».«■ 

870.01 

oo 

JW.IH 

•»4.'l.fl 

1.400 

25.S0 

8    8 

M.46 

890.88' 

28 

3 

388.82 

2S08.6 

1687 

87.  &8 

8    0 

liC.Tr. 

424,48 

2-2 

8 

397,01 

2971.3 

lyrti 

29,74 

8    9 

ao.13 

4411.82 

2S 

9 

406,49 

3040.8 

I.CT 

81.99 

9 

6SC;2 

475  m 

23 

415.48 

3108.0 

I5rt7 

Si  SI 

9    3 

07  SO 

503.70 

23 

3 

4'24..M1 

3175.9 

lOUO 

tMt.TiJ 

9    6 

70.88 

530  24 

23 

a 

433.74 

3244.6 

).'J4I 

Sfl.il 

»    9 

74.00 

MS.,51 

23 

9 

443  01 

8314  0 

s^&ao 

41, :h 

1» 

7H.W 

587,.W 

24 

452,39 

38(M.1 

•10 

41.13 

10    3 

8-J.5J 

6i:.2(i 

24 

3 

401.80 

345.5.0 

Vt 

47.  HI 

10    6 

Hn.no 

B47  74 

24 

« 

471.44 

11526.6 

Bl 

4U1I8 

10    9 

90.78 

678.95 

24 

9 

481  11 

.•«9h.9 

10 

WH8 

11 

|I5.<W 

710,90 

2,-| 

4M.97 

3072.0 

t7 

W.Sfi 

11     3 

99.40 

743  ;>H 

•i.') 

3 

.'.00.74 

374.VB 

'fl 

S8Qi! 

11    0 

1(^87 

!7ti,9fl 

25 

a 

510.7 1 

3820  3 

Ig 

ftS.lie 

11     » 

108.4;l 

811.14 

25 

9 

520,77 

38B6.0 

7 

K.-JSi 

IS 

113.10 

840.0.^ 

£« 

530.93 

:397l.« 

(W.r.3 

1-.'    8 

I17.H6 

881. 6.". 

20 

3 

Ml. 19 

4048.4 

ij 

71.97 

12    0 

]Sa.7-J 

91R.O0 

20 

6 

C51.5S 

412S.9 

5 

75.4) 

Vi    9 

127.08 

IKV,  00 

26 

9 

602.00 

4204.1 

SO 

7».9a 

18 

182  73 

69-3,91 

37 

.wa.no 

4283.0 

gg 

(«(B 

13    3 

137  89 

1 03  IS 

27 

3 

583,21 

4802.7 

11 

(«.!» 

13    fl 

1 4.-).  1 4 

1070,8 

27 

a 

698.  Ufl 

4443.1 

9 

lK).l.-i 

13    U 

148.49 

ino.8 

27 

9 

604.81 

4624.3 

IMOII 

M 

lKi.91 

1151.3 

88 

015,75 

4B06.S 

5 

97.SW 

14     S 

150.18 

11 113.0 

•28 

3 

6-20,  KO 

4088.8 

B 

KW.ftl 

14     0 

Hifi.ia 

1-J35.:j 

28 

0 

687.94 

4712  1 

M 

106  12 

14    0 

170.H7 

1278.2 

'28 

9 

649,18 

48A6S 

l« 

II0.3i 

l.> 

170.71 

1321.9 

21» 

000.52 

4911.0 

114.61 

15    3 

IHSO-i 

18M'..4 

29 

3 

871.90 

M'f20  V 

0 

II8.V>7 

1.1    0 

188  09 

UI1.5 

29 

fl 

083.49 

611-2.9 

t.M 

123  4i 

1.'.    U 

IW.Hl 

W57.4 

29 

9 

005.13 

5199.9 

7.10 

ie7.(ft 

III 

201, (Ifi 

If  04.  t 

sn 

706.86 

5287.7 

:.7i 

laa.sfl 

10    8 

207.39 

1551.4 

30 

8 

718.09 

6370  2 

«.»5 

i)»7iir. 

10    (J 

21.1  *i 

VM.h 

80 

0 

730.02 

5IS54 

1Hf» 

H'o: 

1(1    9 

a-.'o.s.-) 

154S.4 

SO 

9 

712.64 

KkAA 

17 

2*0.86 

MiiCO 

81 

7,')4.77 

5046.1 

17     3 

-.31.71 

i;4.s2 

31 

3 

700  99 

5737.6 

17    6 

240.  ,M 

17M13 

31 

0 

779.81 

5829.7 

17    B 

247  45 

I'-JI.I 

31 

9 

791.73 

692S.6 

IS 

2H47 

1903,6 

«a 

804 'JS 

60\6.4 

. 

in    !S    , 

«w;.fl»  , 

nm.s 

f  32 

3 

SIfi.«S  \  ftWO.K.     1| 

a>r'      /.,..-  i  IK  e  1 

SSI)  so 

iOlO.tt        JK 

e 

838.58  \  B'Jl^Ti.': 

^U.lJ 

soavs      38 

0 

tLt.)  tn  \  aufti  t. 

^»        MATHEMATTOAL  TABLB8. 

t         GALLONS  AND  CUBIC  FEKT. 

latea  Gallons  In  a  ^ven  Number  of  Cnble  F« 


s  7.4405ig  D 

.  8.  i^llons; 

1  Ralloil  =  231  cii.  ill.  -  . 

asGWjfciu 

Galloaa. 

Cubic  Ft. 

GalloDS, 

Cubic  Ft. 

GaUoMi 

0.75 

r.M 

3,7* 

SO 
GO 

70 
80 
00 

374.0 
4«.8 
5iS.O 
398.4 
873.a 

8.000 

9.000 

10,000 

$0,000 

80,000 

59,M 
6;.M 
74,l« 
149.111 

4.43 
5.« 
5.08 
6.78 
7.48 

100 
200 

aoo 

400 

500 

7-18.0 
1.496.1 
2,-iJ4.3 
2.993.3 
S,740.3 

40,000 
50,000 
60,000 
70,000 
SO.WO 

1174.01 

448,«n 
B1H,« 
5118,411 

14.96 
22.44 

S7.40 
41.88 

GOO 
700 
800 
000 
1.000 

4,488.a 
5.a.S6.4 
5,9(M.4 
6.712.5 
7.4S0.5 

iN).000 

100,000 
300,000 
300,000 
400,000 

74S,« 
l,48«.lfl 
S.244.l»t' 

Ki.sa 

DS.84 

er.3a 

74.80 
HS.6 

9,000 
3,000 
4.(XI0 
5,000 
«,000 

14,061.0 
£!,441.e 
29,022.1 
37.402.8 
41,(«9.I 

500,000 
6(HI,<t(iO 
700.1)011 
900,01)0 
900,000 

S,740JBU 
4.4Si).SIt,4 

^  ■>:»■.  .<iiui 

S34.4 
a»9.8 

7.000 

GS,368.6 

1,000,000 

7.4gl).6lil<l 

|lbl«  Feet  Ira  a  given  Number  or  Gallon*. 


CAPACITY  OS   RECTAXODLAH  TAXKS. 


125 


fACITIES    OF    RECTA!VGrr,.*R    TA^'KS    in    V. 
CALLOM!*,    VOB    EACH    FOOT    IN    DliPTIl. 

1  cubic  foot  =  r.4805  V.  3.  galtous. 


S. 


lyjiiglh  of  Tauk. 


fe«t. 
i 


lU  in. 


»M 


tvet. 
9 


ft.  Iti. 

8  e 


8T.40    41.88 
46.75    56.10 

e7.3« 


ss.as 

09.4S 
T8.M 
91.04 


feet. 
4 


ft.  In.;  feet. 
4    6      S 


ft.  in.  feel. 
6    0      8 


ft.  in. 

0  e 


59  >  I 
7J.' 

l(M.7!i;nT 


,s-.'  iwi.yi  1 II. im  ir.T  ir.i  ITii.IH 


f»"t. 


101.73 
130.91 

lat.oa 

I88.ST 


ll9.C9;l34.6S149.GI|10i.S7|17e..^S|194.'10j309.4a 


151.48  1(W.?118.M  I 
187.01  2ir. 


^b'.l.ail  -",*!.. 4  .114.18 

8I6.(»  340.3e 


MUM 


rutii 


( 

t 

i  ( 


i: 


LengtU  of  Tank. 


ft.  in. 
7      6 


iisn 

140.86 
16&81 
196  36 
2i(.41 

MS.47 

ao.M 

8(IH.57 

sM.m 

M4.67 

393  79 

4a0.7B 


feet. 
8 


119.69 

149.61 

ira.iw 

a09.45 
«».37 


ft.  in, 
8    11 


187.17 

15S.96 
190. 7^ 

asa.si 

SM.34 


feet.  |ft.  in. 
0     10    s 


feflt.    ft.  In. 

10    10   b 


184.65   142  13  14n.«I 
168.31    177.t)(J!  187.01 
*-ia.97  213.19 
11)5.63  248.73 
W9.m,  384.86 


feet. 
11 


ft.  In. 
11    6 


tevt. 


•jfto,80i  as*. IS  s<i-^«  ^'1' 

'>99.*J1  317  9!J   ri" 


■no   1RJ  .iT   17^.05   179  5.1 

I'Sl.'i.Oe  8*1.41 

3->4  4l  ■'■■  rvS.07  269.30 

3B1.8;;   ^.  ..-,;   ..- .i«il  3l)1.09iiai4.IR 

299.»!i  SU.lJJi  liJit.H  344  lU  a.'>'.l.tN) 


8'.'9.I4  349.71 
3.S9.0S  881. .-M) 
888.98  413,30 


4IS.9I 
44H.^8 

478.75 


3' 

4itt  J.    1. „..,.; 

JSr.UOi-lOlSrj 


mhivi'   1-.5  lis  370.S!Sl  387.11 

■  411.4.1,  480  13 

4n'.'.57l  47a.  M 

... .::  49fJ.7l'  BIB.IS 

510.54  5S4.85  559.18 


445  09'  471  87'  497.45 
47».H8t  504.93  .^Jli.ns' 
508.97  53S.59  568.5! 
540.46  572.35;  fiOl.iB 
606.9-J,  639.5H 


fiTS.ll 


/ / 


710  65 
748.05 


I 

•JO  ?<1    575  99 

■   617.14 

6r*.'.J8 

...  '/  !  69(1.42 

7UU.90,  740.S6 


608.18 
645.19 
6S8.-» 
731  SI 
77483 


4a-J.B4 
44M,a3 
493.71 
53a  59 
583.47 

fl-»36 
673.34 
718.18 
768  00 
80T.8S 


746.17  7?>I  .71   817-24  882.77 

7S5,I5'  82>!  8(t  960.W  897.IM1 
831.78  KCI.Od'  90:f,>«  04'.'.S« 
905,14  MB.Wi  087,43 
989.89  103-J.3 


ivn.'i 


m 

•^ 

■124 

MATHE.MATICAL   TABLES. 

m                      SQVABB  FEBX  IN   PLATESMCuntfaiMd.) 

Ft.  and 
tos. 
Long. 

Ins. 

Long. 

Square 
Fe«t. 

Ft.  Bud 
Ins. 

I-Ollg. 

Lonir. 

Squnte 
Feet. 

Ft.  and 
Inc. 
Long. 

S7.4 

Ins.     8i 
Loor    ] 

328 

17.  a 

aio 

1.488 

S2.  5 

869 

1.868 

7 

311 

1.46S 

0 

870 

1. 875 

5 

S29 

8 

21S 

iiTi 

7 

271 

1.888 

6 

330  1 

9 

i!13 

1.4T9 

B 

ar* 

1.889 

1 

331 

10 

2U 

1.480 

9 

278 

I  898 

8 

8W 

11 

ai5 

1.493 

10 

271 

1  903 

9 

ass 

18.0 

216 

1.5 

11 

275 

1.91 

10 

381 

1 

217 

1.507 

SS.  0 

279 

1,917 

11 

335 

2 

316 

1.614 

1 

277 

1.924 

88.0 

S» 

3 

319 

].5l!l 

2 

278 

i.9;ii 

I 

1137 

4 

280 

1  528 

3 

279 

1  1IS8 

■a 

(438 

5 

221 

1.585 

4 

880 

1  W4 

3 

339 

6 

2« 

1.5)3 

5 

SSI 

1.951 

4 

.■MO 

7 

288 

1.549 

6 

889 

I  958 

5 

3)1 

8 

an 

1.55S 

7 

88-1 

1  yes 

a 

Mi 

9 

2SS 

1.S63 

8 

884 

1  072 

7 

3)3 

0 

2S8 

1.569 

9 

886 

1  979 

8 

3)1 

11 

227 

1.57B 

10 

28« 

i.ge« 

9 

345 

19.0 

aas 

1.S88 

11 

287 

1  993 

10 

316  1 

1 

•JSS 

1..W 

S4.0 

288 

8. 

11 

317 

3 

290 

1.597 

1 

889 

2  007 

9».  0 

.-MS 

ft 

Hi 

I.IXM 

8 

890 

a.014 

1 

319 

[ 4 

SS2 

1.611 

8 

891 

2  021 

2 

8W 

^^HB 

2S3 

1.018 

4 

898 

2  028 

8 

351 

^^K* 

884 

l.tW5 

S 

898 

8.0:« 

4 

8.W 

^^■7 

83a 

1.833 

6 

204 

2.012 

S 

{{."ij       1 

■          8 

ssa 

t.RH 

7 

898 

2.0)3 

0 

8-Hsri 

■ 

28T 

1.645 

8 

898 

2.0M 

1 

3.''^^| 

w 

238 

i.ftsa 

9 

297 

2oea 

s 

35^^B 

11 

289 

1.G59 

10 

306 

2.00S 

9 

SST^^I 

30.0 

240 

l.ft07 

11 

809 

8.076 

10 

85^^| 

1 

841 

1  1(74 

£3.0 

3(» 

8083 

11 

891^1 

i 

242 

1.681 

1 

!HM 

2  09 

80  0 

3gq|^| 

» 

243 

1.68S 

a 

.'XW 

2  097 

1 

381^1 

4 

844 

l.OW 

3 

803 

8.1»t 

2 

3MI^| 

6 

24S 

1.701 

4 

301 

2.111 

3 

m 

e 

84« 

1  708 

5 

305 

8.118 

4 

3Ui 

7 

847 

1  715 

6 

aofl 

2.125 

& 

306       , 

8 

248 

l.TJia 

T 

807 

2.IS2 

C 

nMHB 

9 

849 

i.rjo 

8 

308 

2.I3U 

7 

^Q^^l 

10 

2S0 

l,73fl 

g 

809 

2,14(1 

8 

M^^l 

n 

2S1 

1.743 

10 

310 

2.153 

9 

ao^^l 

n.o 

252 

1.75 

11 

311 

2.10 

10 

XT^^^w 

1 

■m 

1.757 

S0.  0 

.312 

2.167 

11 

37^^B 

s 

254 

1.764 

1 

313 

2.174 

81.  0 

9i4^H 

3 

8SS 

I  771 

2 

314 

8.181 

1 

4 

2S0 

1.77S 

3 

315 

9.188 

8 

6 

857 

1  rsi 

4 

310 

2.  KM 

3 

Sn^H 

6 

858 

l.Tftf 

6 

817 

2.201 

4 

ST^^I 

T 

899 

1  791t 

6 

318 

2.208 

5 

22^^| 

8 

980 

1  «W 

7 

'    319 

2.215 

8 

-ST^^H^ 

9 

m 

1    HIS 

8 

3J0 

2  222 

7 

87^^H 

10 

UK 

1.81'J 

9 

1  an 

2.229 

8 

38^^^l 

11 

888 

1  HIUl 

10 

1   as 

•i.'lM 

9 

S^^l 

M.O 

881 

1  nai 

11 

328 

2  24S 

10 

^^^^1 

i 

805 

1   !*1 

87.0 

■HI 

2.25 

II 

^^^^1 

388 

J,H47 

1 

8« 

2  257 

«.o 

3^^^l 

8 

•-«- 

1  .SM 

8 

S£8 

2-2(H 

1 

38^^H 

1 

m 

1.861 

8 

827 

2.271 

8 

^^^^ 

^_ 

LOGARITHMS. 


137 


RUIIBER   OP    BARRELS   (31    1>2  GALLONS)    IN 
CISTERNS    AND   TAyfLS.—Conlinueii. 


Di&meter  in  Feet. 


ii 


06  686 
493.3 
$93  0 
0BO.T 
7S9.8 

888  0 
W6.7 
lOtt.3 
1184.0 
1SK.7 

im.n 

1480.0 
1578.7 
1877.3 
1776.0 

1874.7 
1973.3 


S4 


107  432 
5S7.2 
814  6 
758.0 
8&9.S 

966.9 
1074.3 
1181.8 
l-SQ.S 
1396.0 

1S04  0 
181 1. S 
1718.9 
1836.8 
1933.8 

30tl.2 
3148.8 


Iie-Wl 
582.9 
699.4 
816.0 
93-2.6 

1W9.I 
1IB5.7 

ia«a.3 

1398.8 
1515.4 

1632.0 
1748.6 
1865.1 
1981.7 
2098.3 

«314,8 


86 


130.083 
630  4 
756.5 
882.6 

1008.7 

1134  7 

1260. « 
1380.9 
1513.0 
1U3S.1 

1765  S 

IR9I .2 
2017.3 
2143.4 
2269.5 

2895  6 
2W1.7 


87 


1.15.968 

6T9.8 
815  8 
951.8 
1087.7 

12S1.7 
13.W.7 
119.5.0 
l(i31.6 
1767.8 

1903.0 
2033  5 
2175.5 
2311  5 
2447.4 

2583.4 

2719.4 


38 


146. SS» 
731.1 

877.4 
1023.6 
I1G9.8 

1316  0 
1163. 2 
lti08.5 
1754.7 
1900.0 

8(M7.2 
2193  4 
2:m.O 
24H5.8 
2632.0 

2778.3 
2024.5 


2» 

80 

157.858 

«e7.88l 

7»4.3 

830. S 

941.1 

I0O7  2 

I09HO 

1175  0 

I2&4  9 

1342.9 

1411  7 

1510  S 

1568.6 

1678  6 

1725.4 

1846.5 

1882.3 

2014  4 

203B.2 

2182. 2 

SlWO 

S350.1 

2W2.9 

2517.9 

2M)9.7 

'.'t>«5  8 

S«W.6 

2853.7 

2823  4 

30SI.a 

29803 

3180  4 

8137  2 

3367  3 

LO«ARITH!fIS, 


_     Ithnm  ^abbreviation  J03I.— Tlie  loff  of  a  nnmbPr  Is  the  exponent 

Tpower  to  which  It  is  necessary  to  ralw  a  fixed  munlipr  to  prmlnee  lliu 

iJiumber.     The  llxed  niiralwr  in  called  the  hniw.    Tims  if  the  tia»e  is  M, 

Ho(f  of  1000  is  3,  for  I(»"  =  lOOfl.    Tliere  are  two  syHlenm  of  logs  in  i^riiprikl 

Mhe  ornii iiir>n,  in  whicli  the  base  is  10,  and  llie  Naperian,  or  hyp<!>bolic, 

L*1llclt  the  base.ia  a.718'2SlS28  ....    The  Naperian  bane  is  commonly  de- 

Ihy  p,  us  In  the  equation  e'  =  x.  In  which  y  i.s  the  Nap.  ioff  of  x, 

ay  system  of  logs,  the  lo^  of  1  is  0;  the  lu«;  of  the  bax«.  taken  in  that 

I.  IS  I.    In  any  system  the  base  of  which  is  greater  than  1,  tlie  loi;s  of 

■hers  greater  than  I  are  positive  and  the  logs  of  all  nnmbeni  less  than 

kKatire. 

linndiilHa  of  any  syBtem  Is  tHjual  lo  the  reciprocal  of  the  Nafwrliin  log 
Ibusr  of  tliat  system.    The  modulus  of  the  Naperian  system  is  I.  that 
^Commou  system  i.s  .4342945. 
Iok  of  a  number  in  any  system  equals  the  raadnlus  of  that  system  X 
Krlaii  loe  of  the  number, 
ypcrfcohc  or  Aaperiim  \og  of  any  number  equals  the  common  log 

£.  of  two  parts,  an  entire  part  called  the  chitiact»:rintic,  or 
nal  part,  or  iiiautisioi.    The  nianUssa  only  is  siveii  in  the 

_ ,  ,  ..imnon  logs,  with  the  decimal  jininl  omitted.     The  charnc- 

J  i»  found  by  a  sunple  rule,  viz.,  it  i.s  one  le.sa  than  the  nuuiber  of 
It)  the  left  of  the  decinial  point  in  the  number  whose  low  Is  to  be 
„  .  Thus  the  characteristic  of  numbers  from  1  to  9.99  +  is  0,  from  10  to 
.  l+b  1,  from  100  to  999  +  is  a,  from  .1  to  .99  +  Is  -  1,  from  .01  to  .089  -*- 
P-J,MC-    Thus 


jtv  of  MOO  /h  .?  aoim; 
"  ••     go  ••  i.iniDs- 

"    "        »  "  0.30103; 


logot 


.2/8  -  I.aOIO.^; 

.02  ■'  -  2.:«)103; 

.(m  "  -  a.30108; 

000-i  "  -  4.30108. 


128 


MATUKMATlUAL  TABLES. 


W"^ 


W  The  mtitus  Bies  is  frequently  written  above  th«  c)iar«ct«i^ 
lOK  .OOS  =  y.SOIW.  The  uharacterialfc  only  |8  negatire,  lh«  awlm* 
nianlitsa,  liiiliiR  always  pasit I ve. 

When  a  loi;  cuu!ii8lHi<r  a  negative  Index  anJa  po8itivemai]li»<A.  IlitV 
to  Write  Ihe  negative  sign  over  the  index,  or  el(«f  Ln  tiiU\  10  lo  the  la'  ' 
to  indiuate  tlie  subtraetion  of  10  from  tlie  resiiilint  loearillitn, 

Thus  log  .'3  =  1 .8010.1,  aud  this  may  be  wriiren  0.30103  -  10. 

Tu  lal)l<^K  of  logarithmic blnea,  etc  ,  the  —  10  Is  generally  onillte 
In.Uirnlornl. 

Htulen  for  uae  or  the  table  of  EiOgarltbmB.-  T« 
log  of  any  ivhole  number,— l-'or  I  lo  lOO  inelutlve  ihe  lo 
c:oiu|>lete  iu  the  suiuU  talkie  obi  page  U*9. 

For  IhW  to  !K>9  inclusive  tlie  deeimal  part  of  the  log  la  givfn  o|l(_ 

Klvon  miiuber  In  the  column  lieadeil  0  lii  the  table  (Incliidiiifr  lli«  ti 
B  the  lefi,  iiittkiug  six  flgiii'en).    I'reftx  tin'  charaeieristic.  or  IdiI«x,I 
for  lOOO  to  IW'.IU  iucliicive  :   The  lant  fnur  llKnren  of   iho  loit  •( 
piiosite  I  he  first  three  ligiires  ot   the  given  number  and  in  Ihel 
oliiiiiii  headed  with  tlie  fotirth  flgtire  of  the  ^iven  uumber  ;  predct 
Inures  under  coliunii  0.  and  thu  in(l«uc,  whieh  is 3. 
Kor  numbers  over  10,000  linviug  five  or  more  digits  :  Find  the  clueii 
nf  the  log  for  the  first  four  di^ita  a.s  above,  multiply  the  diiTrrotml 
in  the  last  eoliiuin  by  the  reinaming  digit  or  digits,  and  dividr  liy  10 1<* 
~"  e  only  one  digit  more,  by  lOO  if  there  bo  i«o  more,  aud  s- 
uotient  to  the  log  ot  the  tlrst  four  digits  and  prefix  the  i>; 
I  there  are  five  digits,  5  if  there  are  six  digits  and  so  on.     'I'' 
'  pnrtioiial  parts  may  Ue  used,  as  shown  below. 

To  dnd  tliii  log  or  a   deelnial  0«etlon  or  or  •  wM 
uumber  unci  a  decimal.— i'ir»l  find  the  log  of  (be  quaniily  Mlftl 
nverp  ni>  deuiinni  piilui.  then  prefix  the  Index  according  to  rule  ;  thelnW 
^ue  less  than  the  nuiuheir  of  flgures  to  the  left  of  U>e  decinial  poiDt 
Betjuired  log  of  3.UI5KI. 

log  of  3.1-11     =o.497o<ia        i>iff.  siaa 

From  proportional  parts  5      =  fiOO 

'•        -       09    =  VMi 

**  003  =  041 


log    S.I415»)       D.4UT1408 

To  Dnd  th«  number  corremponding  to  a  given  I*Ht*~^ 

"he  table  llie  I.hj  ii^'uretft  lo  the  deeuiial  part  of  the  given  log  (MuTiatol 
|Xoiir  digits  of^  the  required  number  from  the  onlumu  K  and  (be  I 
|lOf  the  colimin  containing  ih«  lug  which  lg  the  next  les«:  than  ili<^ 
.    To  find  Ihe  Sth  btvI  litii  digits  subtraet  the  login  ih.-  ratil-,'] 
given  log.  iuulii|ily  the  dilTereiic^e  hy  100,  and  divide  by  ll" 
ItiR.  Oulumii  opposite  the  log  ;  annex  the  quutieot  to  the  foi; 
fiiimd,  and  pla<re  the  ile<diiial  polm  aofoitling  to  the  rule,  ' 

Qgurea  to  the  left  of  liie  decimal  point  Is  one  greater  lliao  ll>»  u< 


i 


Find  nuinl)«r  (>orre«pondin||;  to  the  loir •fEU 

Mexl  loweatloK  in  table  corresponds  to  8M1..... 


Tabalar  dlfT.  =  138;  83  - 


DUT.  ai 

■  188  =  .&«  + 


T>n»  Index  being  0,  the  number  is  iherefoi-e  S.141^9  +, 

To  mnUlply  tt«-o  nnmbera  by  the  uae  of  lograi 

Add  together  tile  logs  of  the  two  uumbera,  aud  find  the  immlwri 
ifl  the  wim.  ' 

To  divide  two  numbers.- Subtract  the  I04;  of  the  I«w  1 
I'lg  I't  the  greater,  and  rtnd  the  numl)er  wlioiie  log  is  the  dllTerenc 

To  raise  a  number  to  anr  Klven  power.— Mult iplyj 
'  nnml>er  by  the  exponent  of  the  power,  ainl  titid  the  number  ' 

I-  fiiiMluet. 

I'.i  Dii.i   ai>v  ro<»t  of  a  itlven  nnniber. — Divide  tb?>  I 

|ti  lie  I.,.. I.     Tlie  L|iiMt  lent  is  the  log  of  the  I 

'  proral  of  a  number.  -SiiUtraei 
..  .isilwr  |r<>in  u,  ndd  1  tu  the  Uwlex  aad  cL 

*•  •  '(it  ia  the  log  of  th«  reciyrocai. 


LOQARITHMB. 


1 


i-.>.>ir>r.)cal  of  s.i'iisgs. 

in  found  «bi>»e 0.497M98 

!]  part  from  0  Rives. O.W-t^OO-i 

-iiu  I  lu  ;i..  imipx.  and  ctiaugliiB  sign  of  the  Index  gives..   T-SO-JS-WJ 
fcV'hiMh'lneof  0.31«3I. 

To  Bad  the  foarth  term  ofa  proportion  by  loearlthniH. 
iiriibni:!  of  ti>e  second  and  tUud  leritis,  aud  frum  iheir  sum 
^.-ariLhni  of  fl.e  first  term. 

KiiT  itbra  is  to  l>e  Kiilit meted  from  anotlier,  it  may  be  n-ore 
■■■■I  ihe  Bulitrai'lioti  Into  an  oilciiiinn,  wiilcJi  miiy  be  (*' 
■1.^1  givMii  lot'iiritliiji  from  10,  a<ldliig  tla'  difference  t 
rift<nvvard.s  rejcctliii?  the  10. 

>>  given  logurlthin  and  10  is  called  its  aritlinietii 
'.  »i. 

inn  from  another  is  the  same  aa  to  add  ilB  coinple- 
I  10  fmm  tti(>  result.    For  «  —  6  =  1(1  -  b  -|^  fi  -  10. 
rtiou,  tlieu,  by  lOKarithitix,  add  thu  coiiipli^iaKiit  i>(  the 
-t  torm  to  the  loBftrllhins  of  tlit>  second  Rdd  lliird  tiMiiia. 
iiml  BfttTivards  l»'  <litiiinish('d  by  10. 
luearithms  tvlth  a  neaalive  Index,  — Sulvo  I 


•ore 

ieal 


130 

tOQARTTHMS 

OF   J?U11BER«. 

^ 

Ko.  100  L..  000.] 

LNo.lWl.. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

s 

4 

S 

e 

J 

8 

•  i 

100 

000000 

0134     ORGS 

1301 

1734 

8166 

8506 

8089 

U61 

am 

4331 

47S1      6181 

StUJO 

0038 

0466 

6894 

7 

fil 

7748 

8174 

emo 

9036     SH.-.! 

9H70 

4581 

0784     1147 
4940     5360 

l.'jTO 
5779 

ISKB 
6197 

811SI 
6616  , 

(M2837 

8259  1  3880 

4100 

70S3 

7451    -tm 

8a»j 

8700 

9116     9538 

QtLl'? 

1 

W 

ir»» 

0881     0T7B 
4486  1  4896 

081189 

1603  1  2016 

3428 

2841 

1  3858 

S6&1 

4075 

saiie 

571,5     eii-) 

oass 

0942 

,  7850 

7737 

8164  '  avTl  1  8978  1 

g3»( 

U781> 

■  i)it)5 

0000 

4628 

IIKM 

5029 

1  1408 
5130 

1818 
5890 

8816  1  8619     30S1 

62S0    wsa    Toas 

8 

033424 

989S    4387 

g 

7J<M 

7825  1  8838 

HHH) 

B017 

9U4 

sen 

W 

(HOT  1  0608  1  0989  ' 

PBOPOBTIONAL  PiUlTS. 

IMH, 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

434 

^HA 

8t>.« 

180.S 

irs,6 

217.0 

380,4 

8C8.8 

847.9  1 

4.13 

48.3 

80.0 

189.0 

173.2 

816.  R 

259.8 

ao8.i 

346.4 

432 

43.8 

48.1 

811.4 
86.2 

129.9 
129.8 

172.8 

816.0 
215.S 

259.8 
8S8.S 

308.4 

aoi.7 

345.6  , 
S44.8' 

■  ^  4S1 

78.4 

B4S0 

430 

80. 0 

129.0 

172.0 

815.0 

8S8.0 

aoi.o 

S44  0 

^H4S9 

4)i.» 

85.8 

128.7 

171.6 

814.  S 

267.4 

300.3 

843.3 

^^E43B 

4S.6 

85.6 

128.4 

171.3 

814.0 

2S6,8 

890,0 

S4I.4 

^H'4S7 

^.7 

f6.4 

128.1 

170.8 

818.  S 

860.8 

898,9 

341 .« 

^^P496 

4S.6 

85.3 

127.8 

170.4 

313.0 

2S5.6 

898,8 

iHO.8 

^Kias 

4S.S 

8S.0 

127.B 

170.0 

818.5 

sas.o 

807.6 

310.0 

^ft^M 

48.4 

84.8 

127.3 

109.6 

812.0 

8S4.4 

296.8 

not 

■1^488 

48.3 

84,6 

126.0 

169,8 

811,5 

858,8 

806.1 

388.4 

m 

48.ie 

84.4 

120.6 

166.8 

an.o 

858.8 

895.4 

«7.l 

4S1 

42.1 

84.2 

12G.3 

IQ8.4 

210.S 

258.0 

884.7 

nc.8 

430 

4S.0 

81.0 

lae.o 

168.0 

210.0 

358.0 

894.0 

SM.i 

419 

41 .» 

811.8 

185.7 

lB7.fl 

200.6 

861.4 

803.3 

418 

41.tt 

H3.6 

185.4 

187.8 

aoo.o 

850,8 

898,6 

aH.i 

^^ 

41T 

41  .r 

83.4 

la-il 

106.8 

808.5 

850.8 

891.0 

a>.« 

K  416 

41.6 

88.3 

134.8 

160.4 

208.0 

849.6 

891.3 

m.6 

■  415 

41.5 

83.0 

184.5 

1S6.0 

807.6 

840.0 

890.S 

8S.0 

■414 

41.4 

Re. 8 

liM.S 

166.6 

807.0 

848.4 

880.8 

sn.f 

413 

41.3 

826 

123.9 

165.8 

806.6 

817.8 

889.1 

00.4 

412 

41  .a 

84.4 

183.6 

164.8 

sc«.o 

847,8 

888.4 

a»,« 

■  k  *^^ 

41.1 

^.2 

138.3 

164.4 

806.5 

«e,6 

88T.7 

8B.8 

B  410 

41  0 

82.0 

123.0 

164.0 

205.0 

946.0 

887.0 

8)».e 

H  406 

40.U 

81.8 

128.7 

163.6 

204.6 

815.4 

88Q.3 

8>r.s 

^^■flft 

40.S 

81.0 

182.4 

163.8 

204.0 

M4.8 

86S.e 

8)6.4 
88S.( 

^^I^Bb 

40.7 

81.4 

128.1 

108,8 

203.5 

814.8 

984.9 

^HHHF 

40.« 

81.2 

121.8 

168.4 

203.0 

9436 

M.3 

8M,« 

^n 

-w 

40.6 

81.0 

181,5 

168.0 

808.6 

M3.0 

888.6 

881,0 

4M 

40.4 

80.8 

181. 8 

161.6 

aos.D 

943.4 

881.8 

8».l 

406 

40.8 

HO  e 

1S0.9 

161.8 

801.5 

841.8 

948.1 

89.4 

K  403 

40.2 

80.4 

130.0 

16(1.8 

801.0 

811  3 

SKI. 4 

aet.( 

■|«>1 

40.1 

80.8 

120.3 

HM.4 

aoo.5 

840.0 

!»l).7 

3a>,8 

40.0 

80-0 

130.0 

IflO.O 

800.0 

■,?iii  ti 

■*Sil  il    1      ^l-ii'l  {1     1 

^JLij^ 

.as 

1107 
11V.4 

15».« 
IM.S 

19U.5 
lOff.O 

".' 

^^^^^^H^^H 

■■itatt-i 

158.8 

«».n\  ■•.   . 

...  .    „         

^^^^^^^^^^1 

^^^■M 

158.4 

\mM  ,  'iv,  ii 

iV.  .i.     *V>J^<J 

1^^ 

■V^ 

t4»ft 

197,5      «M .« 

•€X>A'    ■ttV>j 

1 

1 

^^ 

1 

■ 

IH^HH 

lOGABITHMS  OP  NTJHBEB8, 


111 


w 

[No.  119  L.  078. 

ii •  ( •_ ' 

« 

6 

7 

S 

• 

Dlff. 

1787 

2l8i  i  2576   1  2860    ,' 

33ti3     3755 
7OT6     TIKM 

4)4« 
8053 

4W0 

ma 

40SS 

etiito 

3D8 
3U0 

0380       07(M$  11 

1J53  '  3538 

iiei 

fiTW 
»5n3 

saoa 

Ulti 
9912 

888 

1^ 
99M 

sm 

4330       4»13        -*90«     S37« 

aas 

1 

08» 

4ues 

7815 

m 

878 
873 

1R29     aeo*-!  II 

5.VS0       .WM 

2588     2888 
OSiX     6690 

&333 

7071 

7448 

w 

(m<o     yoon  PI 

Kvn    oior 

0778 

44f)l 

am 

1145 
4«I0 
W57 

1M4 
5188 
8819 

870 

BSD 

ail? 

2!IH5   1   3353  //  3718  ( 

tmo  1  rtxM  //  raos 

4086 

rrsi 

866 
868 

Pbopobtiowai,  FAaTS. 


long 

.     108.9  J    ,^ 


jyr.o 

39i5.t> 
JIM-O 

jgs.o 

ii>i-^ 
lal  ^ 

190.0 

18T--'* 
187.0 

JS4J.O 
1-1 

1P2    ° 


.o 


t 

182 

tOOABITHMS  OF  NUMBBRg. 

1 

No.  laO  L.  079.] 

IN...  la^ 

N. 

0 

1 

B 

S    1     4 

6 

« 

7 

8 

J 

H 

9*04  !         -'^ 
"^JOaW     08!6 

3503  :  8801   ,  4319 

■ 

^H 

UO 

07V1B1 

vua 

09W  1  1W7 
457S  ,  4931 

1707  j  20e7  '  iMSf 
5391      5(M7  1  aOOi 

I^H 

1 

OHZTSr. 

1  3144 

^H 

ft 

0716     7071  1  7*«  1  77S1 
OaW      OUIl   I  OIKB     1315 

8130 

8490 

8845  1  91UH  ^  HSA3 

V 

S            vviv 

1067 

*)18 

3370  1  2721     3071 

^ 

4     <Kmvb! 

3773      •1123  '  4471      4.Sai 

5161) 

5.-318 

.')Hll(l 

6315 

KM 

^H 

S        ivoiii 

7857     7U4H      TMOt      »aM 

8(H4 

SSHJO  1  HICB 

UUHl 

C 

iim^ 

H^^l 

KKxiir 

0716  1  1050      1403     1747 

,    3091 

iWH 

3777  <  3110 

sSa 

^^1 

7 

saw 

4146  \  4IH7  ,  4»m     5109 

6510 

.tW.1 

0191      0.531     68rt 

P^^^l 

8 

nil) 

1  7!MU  '  7M88     8327 

8540 

!    8U03 

9341 

9579     9910   

1  ^H 

1.^59 

i^l 

»    uma 

0930  ^  1303     1599 

1934 

i   8370 

3605 

2M0     ;a75  ,  30IB 

^^H 

m ,     3MS 

4377     4011     4944 

sns 

Mil 

6B43 

6270 

6608     0»tO 

^1 

1         7371 

7003  1  7aM     8385 

8595 

1    9998 

mJi 

9iH0 

lH>in  ' 

VtfiO 

3535 

^H 

8  '  130574 

0903      1281      vm 

1888 

'  aaifl 

2S44 

3871 

8198 

^1 

S         3H5S 

4178 

4.V4      4K)0 

sirifl 

64S1 

5800 

6131 

6466 

67H1 

.^H 

i         7105 

7439 

7753     807U 

SJ9B 

6733 

9045 

0368 

9000 

— «, 

^^^^1 

.  33 

1 

1 

oai«i 

^^H 

PnoPOBTloNiL  Pabtb. 

5 

Dur. 

1 

'   1    » 

4 

e 

e 

7 

'i 

■ 

:«B 

as.B 

71. 0 

100. S  .'     143.0 

177.5 

213.0 

SiS.O 

2M.0 

!^H 

3&J 

a'i.4 

70.8 

lUO.S 

Hl.U 

177.0 

213.4 

247.8 

383.S 

I^^H 

JKKi 

85. S 

70.0 

105.0 

141.3 

17B.6 

211.8 

SIT.I 

283.4 

I^^H 

353 

35.2 

70.4 

1».0 

110.8 

178.0 

311. S  '    246.4 

S81.« 

■^Hr 

851 

3,^.1 

TO  3 

105.3 

MO.  4 

175.5 

210. B       216.7 

380.8 

1 

850 

35.0 

TOO 

105.0 

uo.u 

175. U 

210.0       245.0 

380.0 

all) 

».9 

na.8 

104.7 

KIB.O 

174.5 

208.4       214.3 

2t»,4 

SIH 

ai.g 

09.0 

101.4 

139.8 

174.0 

206.8 

213.6 

8^,4 

!H" 

34.7 

09.4 

104.1       13S.H  1 

17:^.5 

209.8 

dlS.9 

zrr.e 

»ia 

34.0 

09.2 

103.8 

138.4 

178.0 

207.0 

242.3 

27S.B 

^^Hii 

»in 

34.8 

09.0 

103.6 

1.38.0 

11^.5 

307.0 

211.9 

276.0 

^Hii 

m 

84.4 

B8.8 

108.8 

137.6 

172.0 

206.4 

210.8 

2;s.i 

^^^H^ 

943 

».3 

OB.S 

103,9 

187.8 

171.fi 

305,8 

240.1 

874.4 

9i 

ai3 

S1.8 

U8.4 

103.6 

180.8 

171.0 

305,8 

239  4 

8!3.« 

341 

iM.l 

88.2 

103.3 

130.4 

170..'! 

304.6 

838. 7 

«».• 

j^^^H 

.<uo 

94.0 

fW.O 

HB.O 

136.0 

170.0 

SIM.O 

238.0 

273.0 

^^^^1 

339 

33.B 

07.8 

101.7 

1.35.0 

169.5 

203.4 

337.3 

271 .» 

^^H 

33S 

Si.^ 

07,0 

101.4 

iJK.a 

IGB.O 

208.8 

236.6 

2J0.4 

^^^1 

33- 

33.7 

07,4 

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71W 

7178 

72I80 

«C7 

7814 

7361 

7408 

7464 

7801 

8 

754S 

7596 

7WS 

7688 

7735 

7783 

7829 

7875 

7888 

7888 

0 

8016 

8062 

8109 

8156 

aaoe 

SiUg 

8896 

8848 

8380 

8<at 

980 

»m 

8530 

8876 

8«83 

8670 

8716 

87es 

8810 

88B8 

WN 

1 

mo 

8096 

flO« 

9090 

9138 

9188 

9S89 

8276 

9888 

nao 

S 

M16 

9403 

9609 

9656 

9602 

9M9 

9686 

8748 

9788 

9sa> 

3 

8882 

9908 

9975 

ooai 

0486 

0068 
0683 

0114 

0579 

Olfll 

(ma 

0907 
067X 

0864 

nsoo 

4 

87(»17 

0393 

0440 

0T66 

6 

081  a 

OftSS 

0004 

0«51 

0997 

1044 

1080 

1137 

1183 

IS89 

0 

1878 

1333 

13SD 

1416 

1461 

1508 

1564 

leoi 

1647 

1688 

7 

1740 

1788 

IKSS 

1!*71> 

1925 

19n 

2018 

aoM 

2110 

sisr 

8 

ssn» 

sua 

sao5 

2:ttJ 

2388 

24*1 

2481 

8537 

8573 

861* 

9 

S866 

2718 

2758 

2H04 

2851 

2897 

2943 

8888 

3006 

8081 

040 

8188 

3174 

8B30 

seas 

8S13 

3368 

8406 

MM 

a«87 

asa 

1 

8S00 

asM 

seas 

8788 

8774 

8880 

8866 

8818 

88W 

4008 

3 

40M 

4097 

4143 

4188 

43S6 

4881 

4887 

4S74 

4490 

44(8 

II 

8 

4513 

4566 

4604 

iffOO 

4696 

474S 

4788 

4884 

4880 

4888 

4 

41178 

6018 

6064 

6110 

6156 

6808 

6848 

6884 

6840 

6881 

1 

l»" 

Pboportioi 

(alPakm.                            fl 

0!(t 

.        1 

9 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

•" 

1 

MV 

//'V 

S.4                     1.1.8 

83.5 

».S 

\  182  <j  \  m.* 

\ 

K 

'   <*/ 

r 

:s.4    1 

sa.o  1    an.ft  \  aa-j  \  w.« 

\ 

■ 

1 

■ 

^ 

m 

i 

w^ 

1 

lOGAIUTHMS   OF  HUMBEBS. 

155  1 

3 

[So.  969  L.  995.      | 

1 

a 

> 

i 

s 

« 

1 

a 

e 

DiJT. 

wrs  i  ssat 

5B7D 

6616 

5663 

B707 

5753 

5799 

6846 

VSi     ^^HSi 

6089 

8075 

6121 

0167 

esiv; 

11258 

6304 

396 

W43 

M8H 

6533 

6579 

6(i25 

B671 

0717 

0763 

B54 

««00 

(KHO 

0998 

7037 

7083 

7129 

7175 

7830 

na 

7358 

7403 

7449 

7496 

75JJ 

7580 

7632 

7078 

7M> 

7815 

7881 

7906 

79S3 

TBI* 

8043 

R0R9 

8135 

EB6 

eanz 

8817 

8368 

8409 

8454 

8500 

8&16 

8591 

B68 

«rs» 

«n\ 

8816 

88fi6 

euii 

8956 

0008 

9047 

1S8 

9\U 

9S30 

9675 

0331 

338(3 

9418 

0457 

»5in 

CM 

0889 

9CW 

9730 

9776 

9&tl 

0867 

991 

7 

9068 
0412 

KMS     «»« 

0140 

0185 

0231 

0278 

0322 

038 

te03     (kM'J 

flaw 

0640 

,  008S 

orao 

0^7B 

(IK21 

0887 

967      nXM 

1048 

lUtXl 

1139 

11H4 

1880 

1275 

1380 

411      1456 

1501 

11M7 

1592 

1637 

1663 

1728 

1773 

8S4  ;  1909 

1954 

SOOO 

8045 

3090 

2135 

2181 

2£M 

B16 

as(S2 

aw? 

8452 

8497 

SMS 

258S 

8683 

2678 

789 

2814 

£8S» 

3904 

2019 

89S4 

:»40 

3085 

strio 

8S0 

Kxa 

3810 

8356 

8401 

3446 

3491 

35;«i 

SCSI 

em  !  sna 

37tta 

3807 

3R5S 

3897 

3948 

39S7 

4033 

laS      4167 

4212 

42.57 

43(e! 

4847 

4392 

4437 

4482 

En  1  4(117 

4662 

4707 

1  47B2 

4797 

4848 

4887 

4933 

45 

■■EtH167 

5113 

5157 

KUti 

6S47 

5898 

5337 

5388 

^■Imio 

oeci 

B606 

6651 

S696 

8741 

6788 

5830 

' 

^■lues 

6010 

(tm 

6100 

6144 

6189 

6231 

6279 

^■iMlS 

S4fi8 

0503 

6S4S 

(vm 

6687 

6688 

6727 

^Hl^«8ei 

Otoe 

0951 

6996 

TO40 

7085 

7130 

7175 

■PFf  7300 

7853 

7396 

7448 

7488 

7638 

7577 

7022 

pni    TTsa 

7800 

7845 

7800 

7934 

7979 

8024 

8068 

IB157 

tu>j 

8917 

BSSI 

8336 

8381 

84S5 

8iro 

8514 

8048 

8093 

8T87 

87«» 

889S 

8871 

8916 

KWO 

9004 

9188 

9183 

9887 

9272 

9316 

9301 

910K 

9689 

9683 

OttiS 

0678 

9717 

9761 

9806 

98S0 

tMica 

^^^HbL"*** 

0038 

oor-j 

0516 

0117 
05(11 

OlOl 
0005 

(»06 
06SO 

0250 
0691 

0894 

0738 

^Hn»^ 

■H^oen 

ma 

09ao 

1001 

IW» 

1003 

1137 

1188 

)S1S 

ISIVQ 

1403 

14+9 

1482 

1B3C 

1580 

1685 

1^ 

1758 

1809 

1»I6 

IHOO 

1935 

tQ79 

3083 

3007 

8Kn 

su 

SS88 

8333 

237? 

8481 

84es 

8509 

9S4» 

3886 

2730 

S774 

2819 

8863 

S907 

2951 

■iS   Kxn 

S1S7 

8178 

8210 

3380 

83M 

8348 

S392 

HH   85^ 

85«» 

8613 

8ffj7 

3701 

8745 

3788 

8833 

^■1  »*(» 

40oa 

4058  1 

4097 

4141 

4185 

4229 

4273 

■■f  4405 

4449 

4493 

4587 

4W1 

4625 

41M0 

4718 

44 

SM  1  4M» 

A>m 

4933 

4977 

6021 

SfJttS 

5108 

Sl.'rt 

BSiO      tfXA. 

SSOA 

5379 

M16 

MOO 

55W 

5547 

5591 

fsoi 

POBTlOMlt.  Pabtb. 

J 

9 

a 

4 

S               « 

7 

B 

.■ 

f 

!■ 

».a  )  3S.S  J 

J 

8.4    1 

SiO   1    37.6 

ss 

i.a 

,11,      ,1 J 

g.8  /  /J.J?  /  /; 

e    1    JSQ    1    IT 

s.o  /  a;  5  !   jjT.o 

S] 

,$  ^^^^^^^H 

^  /  i'i-a       as.a 

at 

>4J^^^^^B 



1 

1 

^^1 

156 

K4.KlOL.ta).] 


KATUEMATirAL  TABLR9. 


[Vo.  ML 


». 

0 

1 

a 

«0 

tmbii 

6679 

6TS3 

1 

6074 

Bin 

mm 

» 

6St« 

(IS55 

arm 

A 

l)M9 

axa 

T1B7 

4 

7af» 

7430 

J4,-4 

l> 

Twaa 

7Mt7 

70)0 

6 

B!2S9 

6303 

8»17 

7 

8(U« 

8T3» 

87« 

H 

»131 

9174 

9218 

g 

swin 

96IM 

9658 

B7B7 

S611 

0305 

owe 

(U^W 

6087 

7t)K) 

7124 

7ni7 

75B1 

7964 

79!« 

8SM 

84.-U 

m6 

B8U9 

BJ61 

in» 

SOW 

0789 

S8U 

6293 
6731 
7188 
7UU5 
Soil 
8177 
8913 
9348 
9783 


6774 

7648 

eoas 

8531 
8BS6 
9893 

gass 


EIMS 
6380 
6H1B 
7»6 
7602 
81S» 
8564 
9000 
9436 
9870 


nm 

64M 

tm 

6609 

m 

7899 

m 

779S 

m 

KITS 

ant 

fM08 

HN 

904S 

m 

9(79 

M 

9913 

tm 

HYPEBBOLIC    LOGARITHMS. 


I 

I 
I 


No. 


1. 01 
1.03 

1.03 
1. 01 
1.03 
1.06 
1.07 

i.oe 

1.09 
1.10 

1.11 
1.1? 

t.l3 
1.14 
1.16 
1.10 
1.17 
1.18 
1.19 
l.-JO 
l.Sl 
l.«8 
1.38 
l.iM 
l.SS 
l.»6 
1.27 
l.SS 
l.'JB 
1.30 
l.SI 
l.HL- 
1.M 
1.34 
1.35 
1.8B 
1.37 
1  fli 
I.Vi 
.40 


hag. 


No. 


,0099 
.0198 

.o-jae 

.OJWS 

.0488 

.0588 

.0677 

.0770 

.0909 

.09^3 

.1044 

.11.13 

.1*B 

.1310 

.1306 

.1481 

.1570 

.16.55 

.1740 

.1833 

.1906 

.1988 

.SOTO  I 

.8151 

.3331 

.iHIl 

.3390 

.S4flti 

.■.•546 

,!!6«4 

.i"00 

.sms 

.;!9a7 
.iUOl 
.3075 
,3148 
.3^1 
.8S«8 

.aw5 


1.4S 
1.46 
1.47 
1.48 
1.49 
1.50 
1  51 
I.OS 
1.53 
1.54 

i.as 

1,50 
1.57 
1.58 
1.59 
1.60 
l.Ol 
1.C3 
1.C3 
1.64 
1.6Q 
1.6rt 
1.87 
1.68 
1.69 
1.70 
l.Tl 
1.7S 
1.73 
1.74 
1.78 
1.76 
1.77 
1.78 
1.71) 
1.80 
1.81 
1.8S2 
1.88 
1.84 
1.85 
1.86 


Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log.; 

.S-.lfi 

J.90 

,6366 

8.83 

.8468  ' 

.87M 

1.90 

.6419 

8.84 

.8808 

.8853 

1. 91 

.6471  1 

8.85 

.8M4 

.3980 

l.tt-i 

.6583 

8.36 

,8SP7 

.3988 

l.«3 

.6S75 

8.37 

.80*9 

.4055 

1.04 

.6487 

8.88 

.son 

.4131 

l.BR 

.6678 

8.39 

.871;; 

.4187 

1.96 

.6780 

8.40 

.87K. 

.4253 

i.vr 

.6780 

8.41 

,87911 

.4dl8 

i.gs 

.6831 

2.48 

.883.^ 

.4383 

l.OB 

.6881 

8.43 

.8879 

.4447 

2.00 

.6931 

8.44 

.8880 

.4511 

2.01 

.6981 

8.48 

.8961 

.4574 

s.os 

.7981 

9.40 

.9008 

.4637 

2.03 

.7080 

8.47 

.9018 

.4700 

8.04 

.7189 

8.48 

.9083 

,4:62 

i.05 

.7178 

8,49 

.9183 

.4834 

i.W 

.7287 

8.60 

.9163 

.4886 

2.07 

.Tare 

8.61 

.O-JOB  , 

,4947 

8.08 

.7384 

8.52 

.9818 

.5008 

8.09 

.7378 

8.59 

.Wgt 

.S«C8 

»,I0 

.7419 

8.54 

.9m 

.6118 

9.11 

.7467 

8.6S 

.9361 

.5188 

8.18 

.7514 

B.M 

.9400 

.5847 

8.13 

.7561 

8.57 

,9489 

.5306 

9.14 

.7WH 

8.58 

.9178 

.5366 

2.15 

.76.'.5 

2.f,9 

.9.117 

.5423 

8.13 

.7701 

8.60 

.95AA 

.6481 

8.17 

.7747 

a.«i 

.9594 

.6639 

8.18 

.TTiei 

8.«'J 

.9(W.' 

.5696 

8.19 

.7S:ilt 

S.63 

.96;i 

.58.S3 

a. JO 

.7885 

2.64 

.970h 

.5710 

8.81 

.7930 

8.65 

.9746  1 

.5TtW 

S.iS 

.7976 

8.68 

.9783 

..'*A' 

a.«i 

.WSI) 

8.67 

.9831 

.5878 

8.24 

.8065 

8.68 

.««V8 

.6933 

8.25 

.8109 

".'.60 

.0895  1 

.5088 

S.S6 

.Sl.M 

8.70 

.91H3  , 

.6l>48 

i'.27 

.8198 

8.71 

.0069  ' 

.6008 

■2.1» 

.8848 

i.'i 

I.UUM 

.r,i.'.j 

■J  VK 

.8-J86 

8.73 

1  .lX>43 

:ih 

.NiSW 

8.74 

1.(H»)  . 

.KVi 

8.76 

i.oiid 

i/Ci  J 

,-' 

.8416 

a. 79 

t.oi58  ; 

^^^^-i 

1 

\ 

\ 

\ 

No.  I  Id 


2.77 


8.IS 

3.1* 

3  i» 

s.ir 

3.l» 
3.19 

s.ao 


168 

MATHEMATICAL  TABLES. 

— C5 

No. 

Log. 

no. 

Lob. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No.    bsT"^ 

'e.si 

1.8T33 

7.15 

1.9671 

7.79 

8.06S8 

8.66 

8.1B87 

I6.S2 

1.8749 

7.18      1.968^  1 

7.00 

2.0641 

8.68 

2.1610 

e.s3 

l.H7(M 

7.17  1  1.9699 

7.81 

2.0654 

8.70 

3.1633 

9.M[  ^^^^^H  M II 

'e.M 

1.9779  1 

7.16      1.9713 

7.82 

2.0667 

8.72 

2.1656 

10,00  ^"I^^hAI 

'JM 

1.8T95 

7.V9      1.9727  1 

7..H3 

S.O^tO 

8.74 

2.1679 

10.85  ^*^^EbM 

1.8810 

7.«) 

].«741 

z.m 

S.0688 

8.76 

3. 1708 

10.K> 

%3B8«« 

1.88Sfi 

7. SI 

1.0754  , 

7.85 

£.0605 

8.78 

2.1725 

10,75 

%^B^«.i 

^H  1.8840 

7M 

J.mffl 

7.86 

2.0618 

8.80 

3.1748 

11.00 

^H  i.8f»e 

^.•^a 

i.&rte 

7.87 

S.OUil 

8.82 

S.1770  1 

11.25\  Yj^^^ 

^H  1.8871 

7.S4 

].m»  1 

7.88 

2.0648 

8.84 

2.1798 

18  0O\  l^Bfl 

1.8886 

7.85 

1 .9610 

7.89 

2.U656 

8.86 

2.1815  1 

1.8901 

7.S6 

1.9834 

7.80 

2.0660 

8.86 

S.1838  1 

KS 

1.8916 

7.47 

1.0888 

7.91 

2.0681 

8.80 

S.18U1 

n.Dt 

l.MHl 

7.38 

1.9651 

7.92 

S.06S4 

B.n 

S.18B3 

!«-«» 

i.seia 

7.SB 

].88(1& 

7.93 

3.0707 

8.94 

8.1906 

12.70  ^S^^H 

1  O.BG 

1.8961 

7.30 

1.9H7V 

7.04 

a.07I9 

8,90 

2.1028 

13.(lC»  ''  l^^l 

S.67 

1.8W6 

7.81 

1.WB2 

7.95 

a.orrat 

8.96 

2.11)30 

I3.-.^^<^^H 

8.  US 

1.H991 

7.82 

1.9B0tt 

7.96 

2.0744 

9.00 

S.l&K 

is.s^^i  y^M 

H  6.8B 

x.atm 

7.33 

1.DS-.» 

7.97 

2. 0767 

9.02 

3.1994 

n.'^^r\  ^^H 

•8.70 

1.9021 

7. 34 

1.9U33 

7.9S 

2.0769 

9.04 

2.2017 

]4.(|CZ^^\  ^^^^H 

,«.71 

1.9036 

7.35 

1.9947 

7.99 

3.0788 

9.06 

S.2039 

14.S^^^2  l^^^l 

t.li 

l.MttI 

7.86 

1.9961 

8-00 

2.0794 

9.08 

2.2061 

14.£C^^  ^^^^1 

18.78 

:.mm 

7.87 

1.9374 

8.01 

S.0807 

9  10 

2.3083 

r«.74 

l.SOMI 

7.38 

1.B988 

8.09 

2,0819 

9.12 

2.3105  , 

l«.ra 

I.MNS 

7.ao 

s.ooot 

8.0S 

2.0832 

9.14 

2.3127 

l&.Gi^^^J  ^^^^1 

(8.78 

I. SI  10 

7.40 

S.OOli 

8.04 

2.C«H4 

9.16 

2.2148 

1«.0II^  J^^^l 

M.n 

i.msQ 

7.41 

s.ooes 

8.05 

2.0657 

9.18 

2.2170 

K.tO    /^^H 

rt.n 

1.9U0 

7.43 

2.0O41 

8-06 

2.C*«!8 

9.30 

2.2192 

noo/  ^^H 

"8.79 

I.91B.'i 

7.48 

!j.0O55 

8.07 

2.0682 

0.22 

2.2214 

17,  SO^       J^^^l 

8.80 

l.OlflO 

7.44 

2.0O0B 

s.os 

2.0894 

9.34 

3.2235 

i^H 

I>8,81 

1.9184 

7.45 

:;.00e2 

g.09 

2.0SOO 

9,30 

2.2257 

18.50          I^^B 

[••.Hj 

1.9199 

7.46 

2.0096 

B.IO 

a.OBlB 

9.28 

•J  2:^9 

19.00        .^^^1 

"•8.88 

1.9218 

7.47 

2.0108 

B.ll 

2.0081 

9.30 

jiiaaoo 

19.50      S^^^ 

■6.« 

i.oass 

7.48 

a.ois« 

8.12 

£.0943 

9.33 

2.2333 

so.oo     ^^^H 

e.85 

1.9'i4a 

7.4B 

2.0138 

8.13 

2.0956 

9.84 

a.234S 

?^^H 

8.80 

1.9-J57 

7.50 

2.0149 

8-14 

2.ooes 

9.36 

2.2364 

n 

''^^^^^H 

•  .W 

l.SOTS 

7.51 

•.'.01&! 

8.15 

2.0980 

9.88 

2.2386 

28 

^'^^H 

8.88 

1.SJ86 

7.52 

a.0176 

8-16 

2.09D2 

9.40 

2.2407 

34 

^-^^H 

'«.8a 

1.9301 

7.53 

3.0180 

B.IT 

2.1005 

9.43 

2.2438 

25 

9-^^H 

'«.90 

1.9S15 

7..M 

a.oao--' 

8-18 

2.1017 

9.44 

2.2450 

20 

9-^^H 

1.3M;» 

7.55 

a. Oil  5 

8.1B 

3.1029 

9.40 

2.2471 

27 

g.t^^H 

1.IIS14 

7.56 

2.0*S 

8.20 

2.1041 

9.48 

2.2492 

28 

8.!^HI 

r  6.9.1 

i.tw.™ 

7.57 

2.0242 

8.aj 

2.1OS0 

9.50 

2. 2513 

20 

a.il^W 

6.M 

1.9:173 

7.5S 

2.0255 

824 

9-1090 

9.52 

2.3534 

80 

s-^fl^l 

6.So 

1.9;j«7 

7.59 

2.0-J68 

8.28 

3.II14 

9.54 

2.2555 

81 

1  6.96 

l.!J4(M 

7.60 

2.0281 

8.2B 

2.J138 

9.66 

3.2576 

82 

sii^^^lH 

'  6.97 

1.9118 

7.61 

2.0205 

B..'iO 

2.1163 

9.58 

2.2597 

88 

£4^^H 

.  e.w* 

1.9«0 

7.02 

2.0308 

8.32 

9.1187 

9.60 

2.2618 

84        a.ii^HH 

I  7.00 

1.0445 

7.63 

a.oiwi 

8.34 

3.1211 

9.62 

2.3638 

sft             a 

1.9450 

7.fi4 

s.ra-M 

8.36 

2.1235 

9.64 

2.)i6a» 

88                          1 

1  7.01 

1.94T3 

7.65 

•J.0347 

8.38 

2.1258 

9.66 

S.S680 

87      .                  A 

1  7.08 

1.948S 

7.6S 

2.0.tBO 

8-40 

2.1382 

9.68 

2.2701 

38 

3.63Jlii»_  1MB 

[7.ai 

l.OoOv! 

7.07 

2.0.373 

S.42 

2.1308 

9.70 

2.2721 

88 

gl^mliiBiSl 

17.04 

I.9SI6 

7.CS 

2.03B6 

8.44 

2.1.330 

9.72 

3.2742 

40 

siOM  V^  si 

|?.0B 

1.0.WI 

7.09 

2.(899 

8.4t} 

2.13.^3 

9.74 

3.2702 

41 

3*7j)g  i^^l 

F7.0B 

1.9M4 

7.70 

2.0'II2 

8.48 

2.1377 

9.76 

2.8788 

48 

uiTtlTT   P^l 

Ir.or 

I.93S9 

7.71 

2.04^5 

,H..W 

3.1401 

9.78 

3.2f»S 

4S 

?i!?BiyMj^M 

i7.08 

l.S.'i73 

7.72 

2.tM3« 

tt.Si! 

3.1424 

9.80 

2.2824 

44 

siwHI^I 

'  7.09' 

l,ftM7 

7.73 

2.0451 

«..M 

2.1448 

9.82 

2.8844 

45 

sil^^^^^l 

fT.IO 

l.StWI 

7.74 

3.0464 

H..S8 

2.1471 

».81 

2.2865 

46 

sIh^^^^I 

7.11 

1.9B15 

7.75 

S.047T 

8.68 

2,1494 

9.86 

3.2885 

47 

siS^^^^I 

17.12 

1,S6«» 

7.76 

2.0190 

8.60 

2.1518 

6.88 

3.S906 

48 

siSI^^^^I 

■T.:3. 

1.964.3 

7.77 

2.0508 

8.62 

2.1S41 

9.90 

2.2935 

49 

sidMH^I 

r../.^rll 

T.78     S.OSIti 

1 

8.64 

2.1564 

\  ft.OS  \  ^."ewt.  \ 

yv"" 

l^3.91»Wj 

i              ^^^K                             ■■ 

|RfOMJiTKtOA.L  P0NCTIOK8.         159 
ON ^i.««-g»«CAl.   PPWCTIOWg. 


'  Tbjic* 


CoUM>> 


.00000  injn»«t« 

.004:50  •i-*9.»« 

3M.1HH 


a«ra»l.  I  Vrr.  SiE. '  Cwlw.  i 


I.OOOO     M 
.WMB, 


i    IMIII.        <IIHHil 


S90\ 


\ . lO&iO, 

\. 113931 

.ia8«» 

.105*78' 
1  .1310S 

'    iaao9 

1 . 14054 

I  .1»*90 

E^\ .  ia08:J 
J,f^\  .-208*51 


ijO.HlU       1  ' 

JT.611  1. 

I0.:i50  1. 

15. -257  1. 

14. 301   '  1. 

1:3.457  1. 

12.708  1. 

12.035  1. 

11.430  1. 

10.833  I  1 

10.885  1. 

9.9310  1 

9.blU  1 

g.iao9   1 

8.7789  1 

8.4Jt)0  1 

8.1443  1 

T.BOOe  I 

7.5958  1 

7.S479  1 

T.1154  1 

6.SI969  1 

6.601-J  1 

e.'tfliii  : 

e.ai.-iS  ■ 
c.i-w-i 

fi.9758 
B.HI!»r| 

s.e"!* 

5.r.301 

D.3955 

5.5!n7Si 

B.IWM 

6.(H73l 

4.015-2 

4.8077 

4.7040| 

4.0067, 

4.5107 

4.4191 

4.3S15 

4.84fi8 

4.16.'i3 

4.0667 

4.010B 

8.9375 

3.8667 

3.7B83 

8.7*» 


.96801 
.99083   80 

.M)0T6 

.»in6« 

.99963 
.00989,  %t) 
.POOfl'         I 
.99(06 
.99885 

.wmi  97 

.9l»<:» 

.004*13 

.WTM 

.'.19750   8« 

.OOnB, 

.WKiShi 

.yoftso' 

.90019'  86 
.90580 
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;:  .gotss  84 

,i  .99406 
I  .093,S7, 
I  .093071 

)  .M-JOO, 
1  .09144, 

I  .90«#! 
»  .990-J7,  83 

&|  .98065 
8  .g«HB, 
4!  .98t«6 

II  .9ft7fi9l  81 

10    .!«7flO, 

14  .9K556I         . 

19  .aS48l    «0 

W  .»MOi| 

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55'  .oeiMsl       , 

Xi,    .98103   TO 

rJl  .OHOrii 
08'    .OTIHS 

i»r.  .n79i)r. 
IM    .'.rTBl.'. 

nr  .9*7-J3 

j70i   .97(Viil! 
KM    .975841 
.9r437 
.91388 
.972*7 
.97134 
.97030 
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.96815 
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5*ecM.t.  )  c,.u=.  !    T.mc.    /  C<»^ 


.0-3503 

.09668 

.037631 

.<KbB6' 

.08970 

.080771 

.0318.^1 

.0ai!9Ci 

.034071 


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_j„  \    ■^ecM'^   I I : -= 

^^TT^dO-ont  bottom  of  table  upwaf**' 


Keo 

MAtHliMATrCAL  TABLES. 

1 

1 

• 

M. 

Sloe. 

Co-Ver*. 

c«»«. 

T.»B. 

Cotas.      Uaauk 

V>r.  Sin. 

CliiH 

1 

H  '^ 

0 

.S68SS 

.741 18 

8.8037 

.2(1705 

3,7820    1.03.M 

.08407 

:»Mn 

It 

15 

.Maoa 

.738B7 

S.»Hh!.-J72C! 

S.flUN.!    I.a3(t5 

.03631 

^H 

80 

.aeriM 

.Tai'.fl 

3.7)i!(),.a7;3i' 

8.(KI.MI    1.03:7 

.08687 

:«3H 

^H 

•Ifi 

.37144 

.7!*.i6 

3.0S40 

.28:03 

8.5457,  1.0390 

.087,'i4 

■  16 

0 

.47564 

.r-i430 

3.6*0 

.28674 

8.4874>  1.0408 

.038741  .MI^H 

15 

.27083 

.7*17 

3..'j738 

.29147 

8.4308'  1.04IS 

.03995!   .Mt^H 

^H 

30 

.asioa 

.T16W 

a..'i-joii!.aiMJi 

3.8759'  1.0420 

.04118 

.96H^^H 

^H 

■J5 

.assM 

.711H0 

3.4CW  .aooM 

3.332C 

1.0148 

.OKU 

.flOI^^^I 

H  17 

0 

.«|-.J87 

.7()7IW 

3.4-,t« 

.80673 

8.S709 

1.0157 

.04870 

.Kl^^^l 

■ 

15 

.2BflS4 

.70346 

a.87-ja 

.31051 

3.2205 

1.0)71 

.04498 

.96^^^| 

80 

.3007M 

.fliwai 

a.aasfi 

.31530 

8.1716 

1 .0485 

MtOH 

.flC^^^H 

^H 

45 

.30486 

.6B514 

3.21411 

.32010 

3.1240 

1.0500 

.04700 

wi^^^l 

■  18 

0 

.aoixw 

.0901)8 

3.U361 

.3-J195! 

8.0777 

1.0516 

.04894 

IS^H 

■ 

IS 

.31310 

.08<i«4 

3.193i! 

.32975 

3.0326 

1.0580 

.05010 

■ 

ao 

.31730 

.6B-J70 

a-lol."!  .33459 

2.9887 

1.0545 

.05108 

-i^'^^H 

45 

.32144 

.B78S(t 

8.1110 

.a«fl45 

2.9159 

LO-iieO 

.058(17 

04^^^^! 

19 

0 

.^£557 

.01443 

3.0715 

.34433 

2.9042 

1 .0576 

.05418 

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15 

.aaflo'j 

.07031 

3.0331 

.»1821 

2.8036 

1.0692 

.OUWl 

.944l^H 

ao 

.asasi 

.0(HI19 

S-IW."!? 

.35412 

2.8239 

1.0608 

.06780 

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^ 

45 

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.(tfiBfW 

2.U.V.I3 

.35904 

2.7852 

1.0626 

.06882 

.94118 

80 

0 

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a.  Dais 

.3Ca97 

2.7475 

1.0648 

.060(1 

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n 

15 

.S461S 

.assiw 

S.tTO;! 

.30H'J3 

8.7106 

1.0600 

.06181 

.9MII« 

SO 

.860£l 

.04070 

2.S55^ 

.37388 

8.6740 

i.oero 

.06888 

.tow; 

45 

.354129 

.64571 

a.fe>j5 

.37887 

S.6aS5 

1.0694 

.00486 

.9SEU 

91 

0 

.35887 

.04103 

S.7S0I 

.38380 

8.6061 

1.0711 

.06042 

.sasa 

m 

15 

.3fl*M 

.88750 

2.7591 

.3gSS* 

a. 6716 

1.0729 

.06798 

.vtm 

30 

.36050 

.08350 

2.7-.'«.'J 

.39301 

2.5886 

1 .0748 

.00958 

.980a 

45 

.37056 

.Ot.>S44 

8.6980 

.30fl:« 

2.5065 

1.0700 

.07119 

.ssni 

ee 

0 

.374(51 

.a-.i539 

S.6BR'-| 

.40(03 

8.4:51 

1.0785 

.07282 

.92718 

M 

15 

.S78B5 

.62I.H5 

S.S410 

.40011 

8  4448 

1.0H04 

.07446 

.aiU4 

30 

.88«i» 

.6178a 

«.613l 

41421 

a.4I4J 

1.(«24 

.(fXM 

.(MM 

46 

.3897: 

.e)3Si» 

a.  5869 

.41B33 

2.3847 

1.0644 

.07780 

9»» 

9S 

0 

.aS073 

.601W7 

85663 

.42447 

2.8659 

1.0604 

-01900  ■■amiH 

16 

.a»4T4 

.00530 

2.6383 

.43903 

83276 

1.0R84 

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H 

ao 

.88875 

.00125 

8.6078 

.43)81 

B.2908 

1.0904 

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W 

45 

.40275 

.50725 

2.4829 

.44001 

2  2727 

1  0985 

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84 

0 

.40074 

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S.4580 

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8.2400 

lOIMO 

.  oflsi^^^^^^^l 

15 

.4107'J 

.SSOUS 

3.4348 

.45047 

S.2199 

1.0908 

.OSBH^^^^^^I 

30 

.4Mtra 

.BM531 

2.4114 

45673 

8.1043 

1.0089 

flOOOfl^^^^^^^l 

45 

4mio 

.53134 

2..H8W 

.40101 

S.]fl9'J 

1.1011 

.09186 

^m^^H 

36 

0 

.i-aoi 

.57738 

2.8flC2 

.46681 

8.1445 

1.1034 

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gOI^^H 

15 

AM.',7 

.5T»4a 

8.3443 

.47103 

8.1203 

1.1056 

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w^^^l 

ao 

.43iei 

.SOW!) 

2.3228 

.47697 

2.0965 

1.1070 

.09741 

OM^^H 

45 

.43445 

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2.8019 

.^an 

aowa 

1.1102 

.09980 

^OQI^^I 

do 

0 

,4SAn 

-MlC-i 

s.sats 

.48773 

2.0603 

l.ll2tS 

.10)21 

^^^^1 

15 

.HMt 

.55771 

2.2610 

.49.114 

8.0278 

1  11.50 

.10813 

w^^^l 

^B 

30 

44eao 

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2.2li:i 

.411858 

8.0057 

1  1174 

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SB^^^I 

^H 

« 

.4501(1 

.SlilM) 

S  *«17 

.60404 

1.08*1 

1.1108 

10702 

^^^^^1 

■   ST 

0 

*;>!m 

.54001 

2.J027 

.60054 

1.96-.'C 

1.1228 

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ggi^^^l 

15 

4-.TW 

.54-JI3 

2.1840 

SISUS 

1.941'f 

1.1248 

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BH|^^| 

^H 

at! 

.4«l7.'i 

5a8-.'-. 

2.1M7 

.58057 

l.Stilfl 

l.lCTl 

1T2W 

gH^^^I 

^^B 

45 

40501 

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8.1477 

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1.900T 

i    1                -  .1 

SM^^^I 

B  SB 

0 

.40un 

.53053 

S.1300 

5*171 

1.S80T 

1    ■ 

wi^^H 

15 

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S-JCOH 

2.1127 

53732 

l.sr.ii 

1                        1 

HQ^^I 

^H 

8() 

47711! 

5MS4 

2  0957 

M2!>fi 

1  841« 

1  i.:;'i  .i'Jii8 

^^^^H 

^H 

45 

imiv 

.51901 

2  0790 

. 51802 

KK22H 

1   I40C 

.12887 

nii^^l 

■  '** 

0 

i^m 

51"il0 

2.0«'-'7 

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I.Sftlo 

1.1433 

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^^^^^1 

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50(11 1.1 

1.7,'i-iC, 

11461 

.12750 

fi^i^^^l 

^H 

i.0308 

.56577 

1  7c;.-. 

1   1490 

.12904 

BTB^^^I 

r 

ta 

2  OIW 

.67155 
.57736 

1.7I0«, 
1.73-,'0 

1.1518 
1.1547 

.18180 
.18)197 

MBflfl 

■ 

.Him 

.T.   »U 

a  iXXKl 

Htm 

1 

.^tft-kiit. 

r.rt«n. 

Twg. 

c«... 

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L 

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mail  rroi 

k 

a  1>ottoin  of  \*%k\«  ^VVWJ 

TBIGONOMETRICAL  PPNCTIOXS.         Ifil 


I«n». 


Sawrt.   T>r.  Bin.    CimIm. 


3.0000  .57735 
1.0650  .58318 
1.9703  .58804 
I.9S58|.&(MBl| 
1.9416  .OOOeOj 
l.ftJTfi  .B0081 
l.«l 80  .61280! 


I 


l.*XM 
1.8871 
J .g740 
1.86ia 
1.84«5 
1.8361 
1.8238 

i.eiis 

1.7099 
1.7883 
1.7768 
1.7655 
1.7544 
1.7J.-H 
1.7337 

1.7116 


1-6915;     733^ 

I  6?!?  -"S?S 


116713 


1.1521 
1.04S7 
1.-334 

i.':>«a 

1.C153 
1,6064 
1.5970 
1.S803 
1.SS06 
1.6731 
1.5639 
1.6587 
1.5477 
1.6398 
t .  53;K> 
1.6343 
1.6166 
1  BO»f 
1.S018 

1  .  487-J 
j.48<>3 

5    4595l-940n 
J. 4537 
1.4461 
1.439« 
1.4iW» 

1.420T 

1.4204 


.C1HS2 
.62487 
.0.3005 
.637(»7 
.6452-3 
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65563 
.66188 
.60S18 
.  67451 
.68087 
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.  e937-J' 

rorwi 

.70673 
.71339 

.7n)«»o 

-3654 


7-4«73 


7ti«M-' 

707aa 

774-JM 

78120 

.78884 

.79543 

SOS58 

.8O078 

.817M 

.8«434 

.8-3169 

.SS910 

.84«>6 

.65408 

.8«105 

.864)39 

.87698 

.884rJ 

.89253^ 

.  OIH140 

1M.>834 

91 63! 

.93439 


.94896 
05739 
96569 
97416 
98370 
99131 


J:5t^U,oooo 


1.79'» 
1.7147 
1  0977 

i.csoe 

1.0043 
I.(H79l 
I.63I0I 
l.BliK), 
l.tilJOSi 
l..Wt9 
1.55071 
1.55471 
1.5399, 
1.525.1 
1.5108 

i.4«ee 

1.4806 
1.4S87 

l.iMiJ 
1.4115 
1.4'J81 
1.4150 

Moia 

1.3891 
1.9764 

i.aosB 

1.8514 
1.83K 
1.8270 
1.3161 
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1.S015 

i.w&r, 

1.3573 
1.J460 
1.2319 
l.Wfl) 

i.aiai 

\.9>ii 

1.1918 
t.lSlJi 
1.t70fi 
1.1606 
1.1504 
1.1408 
M30SI 
M-J04 
l.llOG 
l.JilOfl 
1  0918 
1.0S18 
1.07*1 
1.06.S0 
1.0538 
1  .CH4( 
].0«>5 
1  .W65 
1.0176 
1.0088 
1.0000 


/  <:.v«ui.  /  r»ntf 


1.1547 
1.1578 
1.1600 
1  lflS« 
1.1666 
t.1687 
1.1738 
1.1760 
1.1798 
1.18«4 
1.1857 
1.1800 
1  1984 
1.1958 
1.19W 
l.!»*7 
1.9062 

i.sooe 

1.31S4 

l.'il71 
l.-iS» 
l.-i.'45 

i.sisa 
t.asa 

l.!M61 

i.aioo 

l.?440 
1.2480 
1.2531 
l.Sira 
l.'J605 
1.2647 
1.3«90 
1.2784 
1.2778 
1.28»J 
1.-.SB8 

i.-nm 

1.2960 
1.3007 
1.8054 
1.310-i 
1.3151 
1 .3MI 
1.3'.250 
1.S.W1 

i.aw.' 

1  .S4rV4 

1.iJ4.v; 
1.3r,'«i 

i.:)6i8 

1 .3873 
l.»7M9 
1,3786 

l.liHlH 

i.aoos 

l.SBfil 

i.4oao 

I.KW! 
1.414-.! 


.1S3»7 
.18816 
.13837 
.14aB» 
.14388 
.14600 
.14738 
.14965 
.15195 
.15427 
.150(11 
.16896 
.10183 
.16.171 
.16811 

.ie«>3 

.17096 
.17341 

.17687 
.17835 
.1908.- 

.isase 

.18588 
.18846 
.19098 
.1B&56 
.19614 
.19875 
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.20400 
.90065 

.aoflai 

.21199 
.21468 
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.22012 


.82561 


.28116 

asm 

.28« 

.2.1959 

.a4''44 

.•J4,5-J» 

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,  2.^104 

.  -i'lUT 

,  2tJ'.'7 

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.•27704 

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/  r<M*c 


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.86884 
.88163 
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.88717 
.85491 
.86984 
.85035 
.84805 
.84573 

.m.'wg 

.84104 
.83887 
.8!]6'.*9 
.88389 
.88147 
.82904 
.82659 
.82413 
.82165 
.61916 
.81684 
.81418 
.81157 
.80902 
.80M4 
.80886 
.80125 
.79884 
.7W)00 
.798.% 
.79089 
.78801 
.785.32 
.78261 
.77988 
.77715 
.77438 
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.78884 
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.:.ti32 

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.71019 
.70711 


8ln>. 


60 


t9 


•8 


67 


56 


6iV 


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SS 


it 


il 


30 


48 


48 


4; 


4U 


0 
45 
30 
15 

O 
45 

au 

15 

0 
45 
80 
15 

0 
45 
30 
15 

0 
45 
30 
15 

0 
45 
30 
15 

0 
45 
30 
15 

0 
45 

:» 

15 
0 
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3" 
15 
0 
45 

15 

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45 

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15 
0 
15 

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15 

0 
45 
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15 

0 
45 

30 
15 

0 
(5 
30 
IB 

0 


ei^a  nroia  bottom  of  table  upwmrto. 


162                            SIATHEMATICAL  TABLES.              M 

LOGARITimiC'  SINES,  ETC.         ■ 

Pee, 

Sine.       Oooee. 

VbtsJb.   Tuiguit. 

Cotan. 

Oovers. 

-1 

0 

IB.K-      '   "   •■    'in.Nee.  Iii.Nee. 

[nnoite. 

10.00000 

lo.oooom 

1 

8.'Ji                      :    O.lB-.Tll  H. 34)94 

ll.;5808 

0  ooes.'i  10.00007(1 

3 

8.5h-                    ^    6.TMT4 

8.  Maw 

11  4569)» 

9.9H457 

lO.OUOStl  8 

3 

S./lNTH)  n   .j^r^i)    7.13687 

8.71040 

11.28000 

0.97665 

]g[^M|u^ 

4 

8.&13SSill.l5til3    7.3866; 

8.84464 

ii.KAao 

9.90e«0 

"^^^1 

6 

S.O^OW:  11. 05970    7.58089 

8.94105 

ii.nsflrtj 

9.96040 

lo^iRRPI 

a 

9.01923  10. !»077    7.7Jtt«3 

9.ttn63 

10.07838 

9.95303 

lo.oosio  3 

7 

g.OtWSilU.UIIl)    7.8T-<»8 

9.08BU 

10.9I08G 

9.94S56 

lo.nvsb  a 

8 

8.H4M  Mi.Ho644    7.88830 

9.14780 

10,85^20 

9.9349-.' 

10.004«  J 

9 

9.19433  10.80567    8.0903i> 

9.10071 

ICSOO-JO 

9.82012 

10.0053^ 

10 

9.2:!i -V— 1    8.18162 

9. ?;-■■.' 

•"  '-■v,q 

0.91717 

10  nmm  1 

11 

9.'.'-'                    '    8.-.'«l8 

9  - 

9.00805 

lo.oom  ] 

18 

9,;i:.              .-  s.s-.mm 

9.:,.                      ■■: 

8.80877 

10.00060  1 

ts 

9. ».-.■..  ...  ..i.;.|.  8. 40675 

9M,.^ri 

H'.i>:..i(»4 

9.88983 

10.01128   1 

u 

9.383tW  lO.HIKiai  8.4?J82 

9.39877 

I0.li0323 

9.87971 

10.01310    t 

IS 

9.41.100  I0.f>8700    8.63243 

0.488(6 

lo.snos 

g   gpr).>.l..,    r,.^.-,,.     | 

10 

0.M0a4!lO..V)9i,fi    8.58814 

9.45:.% 

lO..'J4iW 

o.K"           '■  i 

17 

9.4«5!Uil0.r,:MU«'  B.M(M3 

9.4&Vi4 

I0.514BC 

9.HI.                     .  1    i 

18 

9.48998 

10.510  JJ 

B.68!K;U 

11.51  i:s 

10.48822 

9.83iH.  '  .v.tr.;.;u    1 

19 

9,61SM 

io.48;» 

8.736jS> 

9.5,%97 

10.4630:1 

e.8u'tf»4|to.(»i3S  i 

ao 

9.SS«» 

10.46505 

8.780S7 

9.56107 

10.4«f93 

9  (,,SN„l,n    „.>-., 1      ^ 

21 

0.55433 

10.44587 

8.8Ai30 

9  58418 

10.41582 

9.^11,                   -     1 

% 

9.ftT35S 

10.4a64-.' 

8.86ai'3 

9.60641 

l0.Sd3.t0 

9.Ty                      .  1  1 

« 

9  .'.BIXS 

10.4081* 

8  90WM 

O.fc.W'i 

IO.a7J15 

9.'^^^l 

.„  „......,    1 

■M 

9.60031 

10  390(59 

8.93079 

9.64858 

10.85142 

9.77825 

10.03827    1 

85 

9  BaiBf. 

10  37405 

8.97170 

9  f  ^- - 

.,>  ;-..■,., 

9.78I4r 

10.04878    1 

ao 

9.54184 

KI..«8I9 

<J  OO-dl 

<),  . 

9.74045 

:0.(>4«M    1 

at 

S.fifiTCfe 

10.84095    9  03:40 

9.,    . 

9.73720 

lO.a'iOis  ( 

38 

9  07161 

10  3-.'83a 

O.OaSJH 

9.:: 

....  ..i-i'>. 

9.7J!47l 

10.06407    ! 

30 

9.68.557 

10.31448 

9.09823 

9.74375 

10.25025 

9.7II97 

10.05818    1 

ao 

9.6089: 

10.30103 

9.1S709 

9.76144 

10.!38B0 

0  09807 

10.1)0247    1 

31 

9.71184  10  2RSI8    9.1.54K3 

9  77877 

10.22183 

9,68571 

10  itO-M    1 

Sii 

o.;i43i  10  i75;9  8.18171 

9  7Wi70 

10.80481 

9.67817 

10  O^l.-iS    1 

aa 

9.73CI1  io.ao.Jrt»  9.90m 

0.81852 

10.18748 

0.65831) 

III  07C41     t 

» 

9.74;H10.»S44    9.:a:M 

V.Sid99 

10.17101 

9.64425 

10.08143    1 

85 

9.7^**""  *o  -iv'^    "  -i^'«. 

n   cit.>'i 

11  15477 

9  62981 

to  OHM    ^ 

m 

9  7'                                                        "  13874 

o.ei5i'.> 

I04iua04    i 

a7 

«.-..                                                           1.12389 

0  OOdOS 

in.lK.7B5    1 

m 

9  ;.N-.,.  .'.  -.0.-.  ... ........  ..  .-...^...  jii.iOTia 

0.58471 

10.  IffiM'    1 

30 

9.;»iW,IO  ■-'OtlS;  9  8480-.' 

0  fiUt«7 

10.00103 

9.5C900 

10.10950    1 

40 

9  sn'^T  „n  ,«..,•;    9.38913 

9.99381 

I0.D7V10 

9.55203 

10.11576    t 

41 

0  *■  •                        9..W068 

e.OH»l« 

IO.O60S4 

9  53048 

IO.121M8    1 

« 

O.X  ■                        9.409«9 

9.96444 

IO.a4.W6 

9.51900 

lO.lSKOa    1 

U  RTti,  ,  ... ^    9.«ni8 

9  969)!*! 

10090S4 

9.60843 

10.1S.V<T    1 

0.8417i 

10.15828.  9.44818 

9.98484 

10.01516 

9.48479 

10.14307    1 

9.A4M9 

10.15052'  9  48671 

1000000 

10.00000 
Tangent. 

9  46A71 
Venin. 

10.15052    t 

Coatn*. 

SecMiL  1  CoTcra. 

CoUb. 

C09WS         ,1 

4 

1         Wrom  4S'  to  Oo«  r««d  ft-om  bottom  or  table  »wM 

SPECIFIC  OUAVITT. 


MATERIALS. 

THE   CITEMICAIi    ELEIITRNTS. 

Vbe  Common  ElemontB  (42). 


^^ 

M 

So 

Xlme. 

II 

i  41 

Aluminum 

<# 

6« 

27.1 

F 

iliUinony 

IMA 

Au 

Aiwnic 

T5,l 

H 

hriuiii 

is;.  4 

I 

esmimtli 

201. 1 

Ir 

Biiniii 

10. '.1 

Ke 

Biouiiiie 

79.9 

Fl. 

r«ili)tinai 

lll.D 

Li 

C«ldimi 

JO.l 

Mp 

CKrbon 

I'i. 

Mil 

Cl]l.,riae 

S-S  4 

Hit 

Itniiuium 

M.t 

Ni 

OMMit 

59. 

N 

Copper 

63.« 

O 

Name. 


Fluorine 

Gold 

Hydrogen 

ICKlillL- 

Iriiilum 
Imn 

Liihlum 

MH^esiuni 

.Maii^raDeiie 

Mercury 

Niekel 

Nitrogea 

Ozygeo 


^ 

OJi 

9Ti 

1^ 

~i 

St: 

^'i 

<^ 

g«" 

10. 

P.I 

197.2 

p 

1.01 

PI 

lai.s 

K 

19).  L 

Si 

W. 

AK 

2*1.9 

N« 

7. in 

8r 

34.  :l 

S 

55, 

Rn 

30">. 

Ti 

58.7 

W 

H 

Vo 

10. 

Zu 

i.'hu  rtf  many  ot  Ilie  elemcnm  vary  in  the  d<H-lmnl  placrt  as 

:,i  niiHiorllit'B.    1  lie  aljove  ni  f  llir  most  rofeni  values  re- 

iiiil  II  =  I.(IU8.    Wlien  H  is  lukrui  as  I,  (i  =  \h.K'i.  niid  llis 

hmiti  me  dlinliilahed  proportionately.    (Seui/uur.  Ani.  Chem,  due, 


The  Rare  Elenicnta  (27). 


,Cb. 
urn,  D. 
.E. 

1.08. 

|Bn,Qe. 

INclflc  efi'avitT  <^'^  S'  Biibi^tBDce  is  its  weight  as  compared  with  the 

if  an  nqual  Imll;  •<(  pure  wattr. 

nd  ta«  apeclflc  (gravity  of  a  subatance. 

veiglit  of  body  iu  air;  w  =  weight  of  body  subuierged  in  water. 


OliKMiiinu.  U. 
Indium,  In. 
I.niilliniiuiii,  La. 
Miilybdenuin,  Mo. 
Ni<>biiili1.  Nb. 
Osmium.  Or, 
Rliodiuui,  R. 


Rubidium.  Rh. 
Riitlifiiiuiii,  Hu. 
Sainnriiiiii,  Km, 
Scajidiiiui,  Sc. 
Se-lenlutn,  8*. 
Titiiialiiin,  'I'o. 
Telliii  iuiii,  Tu. 


Tlinlliiim.  TI. 
Tliuh'iuiii,  Til. 
Ui'ivuliim,  U. 
yneiijluiii,  Yr, 
Ytlriiiin.  Y. 
ZlivoDium,  Zr, 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


Speciflc  gi-avity  =  - 


ir 


substance  be  lighter  than  the  water,  ulnk  It  by  means  of  a  heavier 

re.  and  deduct  the  weiehi  ot  the  heavier  milistance. 

If-Kravity  deteriniimtions  are  usually  referred  to  tbestaiidnrd  of  the 

if  wal-r  nt  ei°  K..  tW.3So  Iba.  per  eiibio  fo.it.    Sotne  expeHiiieiiterg 

■d  60°  F.  as  the  standard,  aod  otliera  32°  ttiid  39.1°  F.     There  is  no 

agreement. 

ap.ffr  refcrre,!  to  tracer  at  39.1'  F.,  to  reduce  it  to  the  BtanUftTa 

llUptr  it  bf  I  (HVJt'. 

'i Ei "'Oj','^' ''^  'r^'^''^t ffi." F..  to  And  Kcit'tit  per  cubic  tt.oV  mwV 

Ptrrcubicinch  multiply  by 


r 


f 


64  ^  MATBBIAL8. 

Welgbt  and  Specific  Oravlly  of  JVIetaU. 


Alutninurti ,,, 

Aiitiiiiony    

Bisuiutb   

^^   Brass:  Copper  +  Zinc] 

B  TO  30  [.. 

■  69  40 

H  M  SO  J 


BroDze 

Cailmluin. 
CalciiiMi  ... 
Clironiiiiin. 

Cobalt 

GnM,  pure. 


Speciflo  Gravity. 

KaoKe  acoord- 

ing  to 

BevenU 

Aiitborititij. 


Copper. 

Iridium 

Iron,  Cast  

"    Wrought 

Lead 

BlaiieanMjie 

Magnt^Hiuiu.... 

(   S-J" 
Mercury  -^  tlO° 

I  Hi* 

Nickel 

Plalinum 

Potassium 

BUver 

Sodium  

Steel 

Tin ', 

Tliaoium 

Tungsten 

Zinc 


a.iiO  to  S.Tl 
6.06  to  6.86 
9.74    to    9.90 


.8     to    6.6 


8.Sa    to    B.H 

8.6     to    8.7 
1.58 
G.O 
8.5     to    8.6 
19.345  to  ]».861 
8.69    to    S.W 
to  23. 
to    7.48 
to    7.9 
to  11.44 
to    8. 
to  1.75 

to  i-i.es 

13.r.8 
to  13.38 
8.;>79  to    8.93 
80.3)1    to  iS.(n 

0.86S 
10.474  to  lD.su 

0.97 

7.69*  to    7.1]88t 

7.S91  to    7.409 

fi.3 

17.        to  17.8 

0.80    lo    7.ao 


88.88 

0.S5 

7.4 
11.07 

7. 

1.69 
13.6U 

13.87 


Speclfle  Qniv- 
Ity.  Anprox. 
Mean  Value, 

used  in 

Calculation  of 

Weight. 


2. 07 
6.76 
9.83 

re. CO 

8.40 

8.86 

U-30 

6.8S3 
8.6« 


19.i»8 

I900.» 

6.es8 

o5i. 

1396. 

7.818 

4.'iO. 

T.ro 

490. 

11.38 

7(».7 

8. 

49». 

1.76 

I0«. 

18.68 

849.3 

18.68 

846.8 

18.38 

a34.4 

8.8 

548.7 

SI  .5 

1347,0 

10.806 

SM.l 

7.8M 

48B.6 

7.3CO 

4U.S 

7.00 


430.6 


•  Hard  and  burned. 
t  Very  pure  and  soft.    The  sp,  gr.  decreases  as  the  earl>on  i&  Incr 
In  the  nrgt  caluiiiu  of  njjjures  the  lowest  are  usualls'  lh>.>«e  nf  ca»t  I 
which  are  more  or  less  porous;  the  highest  are  of  metala  Hneljr  • 
draiTD  Into  wire.  ~ 

Sp«elllc  Grarlty  of  lilquldn  at  60*  V. 

Acid,  Muriatic 1.200    Oil,  Olive  

••      Nitric  1.217      "    Palm  

"     Sulphuric 1.849     "    Petroleum 

AkM>boI,  pure TW      "    Rape 

"       Kpercent 810      "    Turpentine 

60    ••     "    9W      "    Whale 

Ammonia,  S7.0  per  c«nt 891    Tar  

Bromine  3.97      Vinegar , 

Carbon  dlaulpblde 1.26     Water 

Ether.  Sulphuric Ti  "    MMt 

OU,  Unseed 94 

Oomprevilon  or  the  ToIIo^ivInK  Flalds  under 
IS  Iba.  per  Square  lucb. 

H'afor OOOOUMVi  1  F.thf-t ... 

Alcohol  . . .  u^^ . s . . .  jOOOOiW    I  MevcttT| 


TlIK    LSKFIL  METALS. 

raoPEBTIES  OF  THE  CT8EPTTL    niBTAIiS. 

nlnaiUt  Al. -Atomk-  weight  27.1.  Sppciflc  Bravitj  2.6  to  8.7. 
Iitfst  <jt  iili  ihc  useful  zueiair<  except  mnenexiuiii.  A  sotl.  ductile, 
)lie  DifUl.  ui'  a  wbico  c<)lor,  approncliinj;  silver,  but  with  a  biulRh  cast. 
UKorrosive.  Tenacity  about  one  thiol  tiiat  of  wrouuhtlron.  For- 
irare metal,  but  »iuce  1890  it«  prixluclion  and  use  haw  fcreatly  in- 
loa  account  of  (lie  disooverv  of  cheap  procensea  for  redueine  It  from 
t  Melts  at  about  11  ()0°  F.  For  further  descri|>tluD  see  Aluniinum, 
te»tieili  of  Materials. 

llBloni'  (Scihitinii,  Sb.~At.  wt.  1-20.4.  Sp.  gr.  0.7  to  B.8.  A  brittle 
of  II  Wiiisli  white  cnlor  ana  highly  cryslalHne  or  laminated  structure. 
Uf*i°  F.  Heated  in  the  open  air  it  burns  with  a  bluiMh-ivhlte  flanir. 
Mntp  ill  for  the  manufacture  of  certain  aJloys.  a.«  type  in>-tal  lanii- 
1,  tead  1).  britanoia  (autiraony  1,  tin  9),  anil  various  unti-rrifiion 
si*e  .Mlors).     Cubical  cjtpatiBlon  by  heat  from  Si"  to  Hi*  F.,  O.OOTO. 

Sf  ll.-AI.  (fill 

intith,  Bl.— At.  vrt.  SW.1.  Bisiuutb  is  of  a  peculiar  llt;bt  n-^ldish 
.bishlTirystalllne.  and  «!>  brittle  that  it  cau  readily  »>?  pulverin-^l.  It 
I  •1Mb"  F.and  boils  at  about  ^UW  F.  Sp.  gr.  9.S33  at  .W  F.,  and 
IjuHpiboTe  the  meliing-poiiit.  Speoifli'  heat  about  .ttiOl  at  ordinary 
--•  I  '...fnr.-ient  of  cnl)icnlexpan«ion  fromSaofoi:-'",  IXKHO.  Con- 
about  l/.'se  and  fur  electricity  only  about  l,Hiof  that  of 
stretiRth  is  alM)Ut  fi-UlO  lbs.  per  !iquar«  inch.  RiKiiuilh  ex- 
-■''■]■!;;.  and  Tribe  has  shown  tliiii  thin  expansion  does  not  l«lce 
!™iu.'ti-r  soljdiflcalinn.  Bisinulh  is  the  most  diamagueiic  element 
•".«!jl>«re  ijf  it  being  repelled  by  a  makruet. 

■itnlnoi,  C4.— At.  wt.  lis.  Sp.  Kr.  8.6  to  8.7.  A  bluish-white  nieUl. 
"iUkfllha  BbrouB  fracture.  Melts  below  SOO"  F.  ami  rolaliltjiea  at 
mVF.  It  ia  used  a.s  an  ingredient  in  some  fiiBible  alloys  n'lth  lead. 
>«il '  Ismuth.  Cubical  expansion  from  32"  to  212"  F. .  O.flOOl. 
*fP»r,  €u.-At.  wt.  C-V2.  Sp.  gr.  8.S1  to  8.95.  Fuses  at  about  19ao» 
"Wlng^uijtii'K;  from  all  other  metaU  by  Us  reddish  color.  Very  ductile 
(Mllwljle,  and  its  tenacity  is  next  to  iron.  Tensile  streufrth  20.01X1  to 
"*  persqua™  Inch.  Heat  conductivity  73.0S  of  that  of  silver,  and  Bii- 
^l»l!iat  of  other  tneials.  Electric  couducllvily  equal  to  that  of  ifold 
•"•W.  ExpanBlnii  by  lieat  from  .fi"  to  aii"  F.,  0«»1  of  li.s  ToUime. 
Melieat.993  (See  Copper  under  Strength  of  Mat*rial»:  al.so  AIIojk) 
•M  (iiirumi.  Au.— At.  vrt.  197.2.  Sp.  pr.,  when  pure  and  preaseil  in  P 
^Jl  Melts  at  alxjut  1915"  F.  The  most  malleable  and  ductile  of  all 
*  Ooeoiince  Troy  may  be  beaten  so  as  to  cover  tflOsq.  ft.  of  surface. 
"Wgt) thickness  of  ^old-leaf  ia  1/282000  of  an  inch,  or  100  »q.  ft.  i>er 
*■  Wi-Rraln  may  be  drawn  into  a  wire  500  ft.  in  leneth.  The  rtnclil- 
'"tro.Vfd  by  the  presence  of  1/2(X»  |Mii-t  of  lead,  hismulh,  or  an  iiiKHiy. 
iilan'leued'by  the  addition  of  silver  or  of  copper.  In  U  !S.  sold  coin 
'•"SOirarl.u  nold  and  10  parts  of  alloy,  which  is  chiefly  co(iiier  with  a 
'Dfrr.  By  jewelers  the  OuenesK  of  Rold  in  expressed  iu  carats,  puru 
Mii(;-il  carats,  three  fourths  line  1«  cariits,  etc. 

Jumii.— Iridium  is  one  of  the  rarer  metals.  It  has  a  »lilte  lustre,  re- 
™(i  that  of  ateel ;  its  hardm.'ss  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  ruby;  In 
••liitisqiiile  brittle,  but  at  a  white  heat  it  is  somewhat  malleable.  It 
!af  the  Heaviest  of  metals.  havinK  a  specinc  Rravity  ot  2J.iJW.  It  Is  ex- 
')r  Infusible  an  d  alinoiitabfolutely  inoxuluable. 
iss  of  iridium,  methods  ot  manufacturine  it.  etc.,  see  paper  iiy  w.  u. 
roft  ttiB"  Iridium  Industry,"  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E1H81. 
■  (Ferrumi  Ke.-Al.  wt.  EC.  Sp.  Kr.:  Cost,  e.FS  to  7  4S:  «r.>uKht. 
7J.    Pure  Iron  is  extremely  infusible.  Its  meltloit  point  Ix-inK  above 


I 


IllB.  Cast  Iron  exposed  t.)Oo.iLinued  heat  becomes  r.r'T"'""'  >_'''^, 
I  imo  3  per  ceSt  of  its  lenulh.  Orate-hars  Mumld  t'ft^r'^^  l«- 
)  -.;:.„,   ,  ,,„r  cent  play.    (For  other  properties  see  Iron  and  Btcei 

,;'i*',.''pb!-,U.  wt.  206.0.     Sp  ^.-   11.07  to  11.44  by  dUIeveut 
. ..,      ..AiJi  at  abouf  OST,'  F.,  softens  and  becwnea  pasty  aX.  ^*^^^ 
itbrvkca  br  n  sudilen  hlovr  ahca  just  lif  low  the  melliuis  poVnt  W.  » 
iuJg  and  the  fracture  appears  crj'slalhiie.     Lead  is  very  marte&uw 


IGG  MATERIALS. 


Welefat  and  SpeclOc  Gravity  or  Btonea,  Br 

Cement,  etc. 


Pouuds  (ler 
Cubic  Foot. 


Agiibaliam. ., 

BriVk,.Sort  

Coinnion 

•■      Hfti-d  

"      Pressed  

"         Fii-H 

Brickwork  in  mortar 

■•  oi-ment 

C«inent,  Roseatlale.  loose 
Porcland,        " 

CUiy ... 

Concrete 

Karth,  loose  

raiiuuetl 

Emery  , 

Glass , 

"    flint 

Gneiss   ( 

Granite  f •■" 

Gravel  

Gypwnni 

Hornblende 

Linie,  qiilclc,  in  bulk 

Liin«>slane 

MaBncsla,  Carbonate 

Marble  

Masmury ,  dry  nibble ...   . 

dressed ., 

Mortar 

Pitch  

Plaster  of  Paris 

QuarU 

Sand 

Sandstone 

Slate  

Stone,  various... 

Trap 

Tile ... 

Soapstone 


1.44 1«1 

3'.S  tt« 


Sp««lfle  GrtiTltr   ana   tVelght   of  Gaaea 
PrcMure  and  32°  P. 


at  At 


(Fur  other  teiiipvralurt-s  and  pressures  see  pp.  tSti  i 


Air 

Oxyuen 

flydrocen 

Nitrogen 

("arboiilr  nxid^.  «Vt. 


CH., 


1    Density, 

GramnieB 

Lha.per 
Cu,K 

■ 

Air  =  1. 

p«r  Litre. 

1 

1 

J.ODOO 

1.8911 

o.ttafm 

MII51 

1.4SVK) 

0.08KU 

^ 

o.oaas 

0.08987 

O.OIRIil 

0.0714 

1.9S61 

0.07849 

1 

D.D6T4 

1.%1 

O.OT«tO 

i 

1.IK90 

i.»:t 

0  law 

c.seoo 

O.TID 

U.0I4(I8 

1 

0.DHI7 

l.«7» 

o.orMS 

J 

HEASURES  XXD  WEIGHTS  OB  TAEI0U8  MATERIALS, 


.1^4 


L-Uic  liettt  .096.  Eleolric  conduccirlty  99,  )ie«t  condiicUvily  80, 
;  too.  lis  principal  uses  are  for  coaling  Iron  surfuces,  GiUled 
Dg,"  and  for  makiiii;  biiiS!*  and  other  alloys, 

Table  Showing  tbo  Order  or 
lea1>Ut(r.      Dactllllr^     Tenacity.     luniHlbUJty. 


Cild 
SUTcr 
Aluminum 
Copmr 

TiD 

liMd 
Zinc 

TIatloum 
Irou 


Plalluuiti 

Iron 

Silver 

Copper 

Iron 

Aluminum 

^oFr"- 

Plalinuin 

Silver 

Aluminum 

Zinc 

Zliiu 

Uuld 

TId 

Tin 

Lead 


Lend 


Pldtmuiii 
IfuU 

Silver 

AUiminum 

Zinc 

Lead 

Tlu 


rL.E    AND    T.^HKiE    FOH    <'AL.<  I  I. ATING    TUB 
rEIUHT  OF   RODM,   BARS,   VLATKti,  TrBEM,   AKD 
|PUER£S   OF   ]>IFF£BENT   MATERIALS. 

An:  6  =  breadth,   I  =  thickness.   »  =  side  of  square,  d  =  external 
",<!)  =  liiltimal  diameter,  all  in  inchns. 

1  ireas :  of  £((uare  t)ai-a  ^  s';  of  flat  bars  =  b<;  of  round  rods  = 

f  tubes  =  ,T854(dJ  -  d,»)  =  8.14U)(d(  -  <«). 

eofl  foot  in  length  :  of  sqiuirf;  bnrg  zz  V-Im*;  of  flnl  bars  ^  Mbt;  of 

'  ■■  D.4848d';  of  tnlj«s  =  9..4»48(rf«  -  d,')  =  8r.69»;;idr  -  f),  in  cubic 

lit  per  foot  lenetb  =  volumf  x  weight  per  cubic  inch  of  the  material. 
•  oMiiphere  =  diam.*  x  .5iiS8  x  weight  per  cable  Inch. 


luerlit 


^4i 


Ill'  %U 


m 


40.8  3.4a' 


7.218  450 
7.7  ;4«0 
7.854,4M>.6 

11.88  TOg.fil  5e.l4.d.Sx> 
S.6T  'il«6.5l  lS.g<l.lSii> 
i.OS  {163.4  lS.S]1.18s> 
0.481    30.0     S.&lO.Sls> 


46. 
43.6 


3.883«» 


It 


3.8.33^d 


Mht 
.lUW 
.13M 
.31b( 


.2604  IB-16 
.2779  1 . 
.l»aJI.09 

.3105  1.15 

.3039|l.09 

.41011  l.^S 
.«HWU..'Ur 
. 094 r.  0.94 
.0174  1-16 


Hi 

ill 


a.454d» 

i. 61 fid' 


.854(f 

a.H70d> 
0.  ootid' 


,136Sd> 
,14.Vid» 

.14H4d> 

.iaT3d» 

.1586d» 

.SlMd* 
.tWMd* 
0.89Iff';.0495d» 
O.Iftld'  .0091d> 


(tnbofi  uae  tlie  coefficient  of  d'  ia  ninth  colnnm,  as  for  rodx.  and 
!■  It  into  (d*  —  d]');  or  take  four  timeh  tliis  eoeftlcient  and  multiply  it 

'  hollow  splierea  use  the  coefficient  of  ri>  in  the  last  culumn  and 
ttplyit  iDio(d*  -  d,'). 

KTEAStTBES   AND   WEIOHT'4   OP    VARIOUS 
niATERIAIiS    (.tFI'ROXmATE). 

-Brtckwork.— Brickwork  is  e^timulcd  by  the  Ibouiuiiid,  and  for  various 
wkoetsea  of  wall  runs  as  follows: 

SU-Iq.  wall,  or  t  bricic  In  thickness,  14  bricks  per  superficial  foot. 
I^ 1V4 81 

i\%  "        "     •'  SW 88      "         "  '•  " 

tn  ordioa/y  t>r/et measurea about  8!4X  4Xi  inches,  which  Is  PQUtt\  \0 <6 
^lelnchea.  or  se.S  bricks  to  a  cubic  toot.     The  average  weljiM  Va  4V6  \V». 


170 


MATERIALS. 


Foel,— A  bush#l  of  bituminous  coal  weigbs  70  pounds  aud  contalu*  1 
cubje  tucheH  =  l.SM  ciilile  feet.     '^A'  Inishfla  =  I  RroNS  tou. 

A  Inieliel  of  cokr  wcielis  *)  lbs.  (S.'>  to  12  llw.l. 

Oni*  aore  or  biLuiiiiiiuus  ooul  lOtiluius  lOUU  long  of  'JHiO  lbs.  perJ 
thickness  of  cool  worked.  15  lo  '-15  ptr  ocnt  iiiuiii  be  U«duct«d  for  | 
jiiiiiiiiK.  'I 

11  to  I'l  ouliic  ft^t  bItumiiKiuM  coal  niieu  lirokfii  down  ....    =  I  toOiil 

{Mto-ll      ■'       ■'    anlhindu*,  preiNHeil  (or  iriftikrt —  =11 

123  "        •'     ofehRicoal =  I  ton 

T0.9  •'        '•     '•  coki' =1(om; 

1  t-'illilu  fniit  nraiilhraeiie  coal  liwe  also  pa^e6iii) =551 


•  tat 


bitiiiiiiiioiiii 
1      "        "    Cumb*rlanJ  coal  ..    . 

1      "        "     Caiiiiel  ccial 

1      "        "    cltatcoaUhardwood). 

1      "       •'  "        (pine) _ 

A  bnabcl  of  charcoaJ.— In  IRS)  ilic  Ainnrican  Cburroal  Ironl 
fiti*  ANsiociKiion  aitopttfil  for  ii»ti  In  its  ofHcial  piihliontionK  fi>r-tlie  sfan 
liiislitl  of  charcoal  JViH  cubic  iui-ln-s,  or  -■(•  pnnnd«.     A  Ion  nf  cliarcoaJ  lljf 
bu  lAlcen  at  2000  pounds.     This  tl^iii'L'  of  M  pouiidi^  to  the  bushel  was  I 
U8  a  fair  «verag<'or  dillfreiii  buhljels  used  Lbrcmghont  thu  country,  I 
htm  Hiuve  been  egiabli^ht'd  by  law  in  some  Stales. 

Ores,  Barlha,  etc. 

13  cubic  feet  of  ordinary  gold  or  silver  ore,  iu  iiiloe =1  ton  =  aOOBJ 

SI)     broken  quartz , =  ]  ton  = 

18  feet  of  gravel  In  bank 

i7  cubic  feet  of  gravel  when  dry ., 

str>     ''       "     "  sand 

18     earth  In  bank  

■j7     ■'        "     "       "      when  dry 

17     "        '•     "   claj   

Cement,-Engash  Fortland,  sp.  frr.  1.86  to  l.Sl,  per  bbl . . ..  -100  to 4W 

Knsenilale,  U.  B.,  a  struck  bushel (M  to 

lilme.  -  A  Bi  ruck  bushel 78to 

Grmln.— A  Btruek  bushel  of  wheat  =  60  lbs.:  of  corn  =  56  IbiL;  of 
an  Ills- 
Suit.— A  struck  bushel  of  salt,  coarse,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  =  SCIba.; 
Ixlniid  =  70  to  HO  IbK. 

Welebt  of  Earth  FtlllDg. 
(Kroin  Howe's  "  Retaluiug  Walls."> 

Average  weigbt 
IbB.  per  cubic  fool 

Earth,  com  moo  loam,  loose 7-<!  ti<   80 

'■  "  "      Bbukeii.. 8310    !W 

"  "  "     rammed  moderately 90  to  luo 

Uiavel flOtolue 

Sand 80  lo  K* 

Soft  nowlng'mud 104  to  120 

Band,  perfectly  wet 118lolfi9 

COmSIEBCIAIi    SIZKS   OF   IKON 
FUl8. 


BASS. 


Width. 


Tliickneas. 


Width. 


TUckneM.       Width.      Thi( 


W«ol« 
U  to  134 
klol« 
Wtol^S 
8/16  to  194 

k'oli^ 
a  lo  a 


4 

0 

7 


iiot 

toi 

tot 
toi 

I  toll 
tot 

to 


WEIGHTS  OF  WROUGHT   IRON    BARS. 


n; 


[I  ^  to  IM  'nches,  advancing  by  l«ths,  aod  1%  to  S  iocbes  by 
I  S/16  to  l}4  inchdf,  advancing  by  I«h^  and  I^to  S  inches  by 

Hiiidai  T/I6,  H,  %,  11/10,  «.  1.  H»,  114,  !><,  j«,  ginobea. 

met  91  lo  lU  ini-htra,  anvancin);  l)v  8ih8. 

W  X  M.  «  X  S/16.  «  X  as.  ?i  X  '/lb  iiiLh. 

T«l«  t  «  X  «,  >6  X  8/33.  ?4  X  3/16,  Js  X  7/88.  IW  X  «.  I«  X  H, 

edffe  tttLtrnt   IMi  X  ^.  I9j  X  M.  1}^  X  ^Inuli. 

>v  '"  'i*  iiiOies,  advaiicitiK  by  eiljs.  7  to  16  B.  W.  gai)ir)>. 

i;Ji»-s,  Aiiriinciti^  by  -libs,  7  to  16  gaui^  up  to  3  inclieH,  4  to  I* 

!>  iD^'Jies. 

ffTS    OF     SOITABK    AND    ROCIVD    BAR!*    OF 
IT   IHOIW    TiV     POVBIDS    PKR    L.  IN  UAL.    FOOT. 

Iff  480  tbs.  per  cubic  foot.    For  steel  add  i  per  cent. 

e^ 

75.04 
77.40 
7U.1U 
(<l.l)0 
8--M-8 
84.00 
86.5(1 
8H.15 
90.:J6 

ua.sit 
98.a 

1(M.S 

100.4 
110.6 
1M.8 

iis.a 
lira. 7 

]«.3 
132.8 

i3T.e 

14W.4 
147.3 

isa.a 

157.8 

]&.>.« 

167. 6 

17K. 

1H9. 

5.W.4 

•iVi.\ 

•J24.0 

sao.s 

;!48.B 
201.8 
27.5.1 
2SR.6 
!Wi!.3 
:il6.8 
.131.3 

art-.. 


MATERIALS. 


^|iffisessss5s=?gs2a8aaxi?iss35ssv-ia 

^^      '-N  5JOT  T  «o£-^x  a»c  ^  ?*«^«B'iece'i-oees  cJ  —  7»  97  -!•  tf;«  w 


■-  04  02  TT  4D  lA  ca  C^  OD  a  C3  O  M  9*  OS  «r  >d  iO  ^  t-  OCJ  Qi  o  c  ^  w  n  <s 


*  i-t  ^  ?«  fJJ  «  ■*'  TT  lO  lO  ^  03  t»  QC  1»  ci  Q  C  O  ^  7»  «  C^*  £C  Tjl  *^  O  C  W 


S! 


r«  fM  91  9>  30  OQ  V  ^  O  iA  qS*  (9  I-  (*  C-  00  (£  O^  A  d  O  '-^  —  ?(  C*?  9?  93 


'  ^  ^  ^  71  5^"  ^"  fl?"  ?5  -^  -f  ^  ,;;  iO  iQ  qj  :©  ^  t^  iJ  a;  gc  go  ai  a  oi  ^  qI  j 


X 


'  rA  r^  T^  oi  Si  oi  95  'li  n-n'  -v-  -v  ta  >d  id  *n  ^  td  <a  t^  t-^  t-^  -x.  ia9i 


*  ^  r^  1-1  r^  ct «  cj  M  «'  w  ?:  m  '^  ^  ^  -*  i^'  td  *.'?  JO  o  to  e  t-i  i"C  i>jj 


T-irn  ?-i  1-.  ■i-i  SJ  CI  t»  S*  ^  SO  ■?;  9>  «  B^' TP -^  ^p  TT  ifi  *a  «  lOlOAl 


/to     0     o     a?     « 


to«o<pcotAqeiOi-«     mJ 


■i-  /j^=i -^i^;:^*i»;i^:,  :m^m«i«d»4 


^ 


s 


I? 


^ 


? 


WKIOIITS   OF    FLAT   WliOLGHT   IKON. 


r  •*  la  «c  • 


«-•«  »C  t>  C9 -^  pf  «--'  C 


SS8855SSSSS2fi«S?82SSS?8e$8 


:;£lJ5S53aSS'-;iE?<§SS?S2SPSS?2g 


SSi^8SSr3S9RS^i.^S;^SS8S8S8SS 
-»»"««» «^»2d?!2S2SS8??SS8SS  sites 


-«'«>*«'^'^»2r2i£ei:2»iS?!S3e3SS 


2S?SSa8i:w^Si'3gS2?;SS?;S?.88S5 


— ■««5'»  «  »i-ooo>  =  jj  »j ;»  «  w  5;  g  ^  55  g5g  ji  jj  jj 


S$2t?;?!:3SS3?SSSSSBS5S8Si:83 
-;««•»  «i » t^  «■»■  =  pw«  3  ««  2815  sis  SsS 


-O       S3   „«5 


I 

§     8SS8 


?       X 

o 


?     2i|«55 


o  §  c  o 


••s. 
£& 


t<3 


MATfiKIALS. 


^|iSfeS«Sgg5S?fS£S5S35?RfSt:fS{SS{?Jltr:i 


'  .-^  ;i  eo  -r  lo  !D  t*  ot  o>  o  •-  ?» w  ^  119  rf!  «D  «-  X  o;  c  ^ 


8^!:S35s8g£Sn:SSSSJ:SS£r:S^SV. 


C^3^"S3&SS£SSSSS?^St3SZS;?&^SS8si 


r^««WVlO(Oi-l*SDC»00--WP3'«P'^*C»e-l--gOCS 


8s;5l 


5:  §?ss3?55sgssjS;'K?ssa?2SESi;5h2gss?! 


— .C^'?l^9'T•'30«^'«x^oe-^5*er;e■^^^/^«=*e*-x,  gc^ 


5< 


ViVi  M  sios  "J"  ••  10  «»  e  l-asod  oi  ei  »«>  —  N  5»  «  oi  ^^  -r  del 


s 


ss 


Hg?a2ggsgs^?:2'-;J6S?§?5S2St9=5aE5 


sii«»SSSSS3riSiiSSSS3SSSSS» 


^^MOi9«OQeQa;mv^^iOM?iOiotB04O 


«      «0   .«   _<o 


-B— 5 


w^    ^    •^ . . J 


^ 


* 


s 


k 


h 


WRIGHTS   OF    FLAT   WnODODT   IRON. 

SSzSS5SSgaSSS8Sg8S8SS8SS8 


••  W  *C  C- O  »•  CO  in' 'is  X  O  «  -T  W  CP  5  <9  (^  *"  **"•  3?  -•  ^  ^5 


eS8£SS8USSgSaS8SsSSS;S$»!DSI?'<£8i8 


5sas85sasst;3:sgss;;s;Si?ggB28 


3$2t:;s§aS!$i;ss;^S-3!=-i=5S8St:S8 


n^ 


1  ^y  (3  ^s  ^3  ^  ^7^  ^ 


1 


88es 


5 

s 


x1 


K       --?« 

-      ogoc 
•g.     «5ji^ 


In 

I 


»<§ 


^fl 


H^-74         ^^^^                                  ^^^^^^ 

^L             WEIGHT   OF    IKON    AND  STEEL.   8BRKTS. 

^B                                  WeightB  per  Square  Voot. 

^"^               (For  weights  by  new  U.  S.  Standard  Oau^e,  see  page  31.) 

Tlitcknesa  by  Blnuinghain  Qauge, 

Tbickiiess  by  ABierii-nn  iBrows 
Sbarpe'8)  (iuuge. 

Thiclt- 

Thick- 

1 

No.  of 

ness  In 

Iron. 

8t«el. 

No.  or 

ness  In 

Iron. 

8t 

Oau^e. 

lacbea. 

GBUge. 

iDchea, 

18.40 

"t 

OOOO 

.454 

18.JB 

IS.iSS 

0000 

.46 

ooo 

.439 

ir.oo 

IT. 34 

ooo 

.4006 

16.38 

14 

00 

.88 

15.30 

is.ao 

00 

.3048 

14.59 

M. 

■  " 

.84 

13.00 

18.87 

0 

.3240 

13.00 

It 

■  1 

.a 

13.00 

la.SM 

1 

.8893 

11.57 

II 

B    » 

.afti 

11. sa 

11.59 

3 

.8576 

10  30 

wl 

■       3 

.259 

10.. ?8 

10.87 

3 

.2804 

9.  IS 

«.l 

■        4 

.238 

i>.5a 

9.71 

4 

.8043 

8.17 

JJ 

■       ' 

.S3 

8.80 

8.98 

5 

.1610 

7.28 

1  < 

■       0 

.203 

8.18 

8.38 

6 

.1680 

6.48 

a 

7 

.18 

7  20 

7.34 

f 

.1443 

8.77 

1 

8 

.1C6 

e.tx) 

6.T3 

8 

.1286 

5.14 

? 

« 

.148 

5.0« 

6.04 

9 

.1144 

4.S8 

i 

10 

.134 

S.S6 

6.47 

10 

.1019 

4.06 

,1 

11 

.18 

4.80 

4.90 

11 

.0007 

8.68 

IS 

.log 

4.36 

4.4& 

12 

.CI80H 

8.33 

IS 

.<m 

3  HO 

3.8U 

13 

.OTIW 

t.tss 

14 

.083 

8.3S 

3.3» 

14 

.0641 

866 

u 

.078 

8.88 

8.91 

13 

.0171 

8.28 

—    " 

.066 

2.60 

2  6.^ 

J8 

.0«08 

s.ot 

B    17 

.0S8 

S33 

2  .^7 

17 

.0453 

1.81 

■    18 

.040 

1.96 

8.0(1 

18 

.ftWS 

i.ei 

■     10 

M-3 

1  68 

l.Tl 

19 

.0&%9 

1.41 

^     SO 

.08* 

1-40 

l.-ta 

30 

.0320 

1.28 

1 21 

.032 

1.88 

1.31 

21 

.oaai 

1.14 

K    ^ 

.OM 

1.12 

1.14 

no 

.oafa 

1.01 

■     33 

.<W5 

1.00 

i.ua 

s 

.0226 

.904 

V    ^4 

.eriS 

.83 

.898 

84 

.0201 

:??J 

~    as 

.08 

.80 

.816 

25 

.0179 

as 

.018 

.72 

.734 

86 

.0160 

698 

«r 

.016 

.64 

.653 

27 

.0142 

.S«8 

28 

.014 

.S6 

..i71 

88 

.0126 

.»M 

89 

.013 

.53 

.530 

2S 

.0113 

.458 

80 

.018 

.48 

.490 

SO 

.0100 

.400 

81 

.01 

.40 

.406 

81 

.0009 

.330 

Si 

.009 

.36 

.387 

as 

.0080 

.880 

88 

.008 

,82 

.*» 

83 

.0071 

.l»4 

84 

.007 

.28 

.286 

34 

.0068 

.«5S 

■  " 

.008 

.20 

.804 

36 

.OOM 

.884  r 

^F                                                                                Iron.                BtoeL 

^H                  Spi?<*iflc  KTKvifr  . T.T                  7.854 

^V                  Welglil  iwr  cubic  foot 480.                 481.8 

Inch ?778              .S833 

•hen?  wv  IPItqv  (omifs  )n  ii»<-  HKI.>rin(f  from  i>iich  other,  ami  ennl 

^^       •»                    ■  'II  «tKvilit-<l  cauKi*.  iistlii-  BiniiiaKtuun,«r*  niiti 

|M 

^^K                                  ••c'tiircRii.  oiilf r*  tor  »heeiA  ivuJ  ^\t<«.  (Ikvwfl 

■ 

^B                                      jp  rool.  or  the  IhlcVmean  In  tUouaWo&Ua^^H 

IIP  AXD    WEIGHTS  OP  STRUCTURAL  SHAPES,     I'^fl 

pB  ANO  WEIGHTS  OP  8TBCCTUR.4L,  SHAPfiS,    H 

Imam  aad  KlBXlinuni  Welcbtii  and  Dlmen  Ion*  ot  ^U 

Cariieeie  I-Beama.                                            ^H 

STEEL,  BEAMS.                                                      H 

£ei 

Weight  per 
Foot,  in  ItJB. 

Flange  Width. 

Web  TWcknesa. 

Increase  ot 

Web  and 
FlrtiiKcK  for 

f-?  c 

Mat'b  Ih.  jn- 

s^- 

MiD.       Ifax. 

MlB. 

Haz. 

Min. 

Max. 

crea.se  of 
weight. 

M 

80  00     lOO.OO 

B.OS 

7JW 

.BO 

.75 

.0128 

SO 

80.00     lOO.OO 

TOO 

730 

.60 

.00 

.015 

ao 

84.00       73.00 

0.8S 

6.41 

.60 

.66 

.015 

IS 

80  00     100  00 

6.41 

6.70 

.77 

1.16 

.020 

15 

60.00  1    7?.00 

601 

6.34 

.64 

.84 

.(SO 

IS 

60.00       69.00 

6.75 

&.»8 

.45 

.63 

.020 

IS 

41.00       49.00 

5.60 

6  60 

.40 

.66 

.020 

12 

40.00       5fl.70 

6.60 

6  91 

.38 

.80 

.025 

IS 

3d  DO       30.00 

6.26 

5.42 

.85 

M 

.025 

10 

SS.OO       40.00 

5.00 

6.21 

.37 

.58 

.029 

10 

25.60  :    3>  00 

4.75 

4.«4 

.32 

.51 

.029 

27.00 

83.00 

4.75 

4.se 

.81 

.51 

.083 

SI  .00 

20.00 

450 

4.66 

.87 

.«9 

.088 

S».00 

87  00 

4.60 

4.68 

.87 

.tt 

.087 

Ifl.OO 

91.70 

4.«5 

4.39 

.85 

.89 

•OST 

20.00 

22  00 

4.25 

4.33 

.27 

.30 

.048      m 

15.50 

19.00 

4.00 

4.13 

.23 

.38 

.048         ■ 

16.00       SO.OO 

3.63 

883 

.26 

.48 

.049         V 

13.00 

15.00 

3.60 

3.60 

.•IS 

.81 

.049 

]«.O0 

]S.00 

3.13 

3.31 

.2ii 

.44 

.069 

10  00 

112.00 

8.00 

3.1! 

.23 

.33 

.050 

10.00 

13,00 

2.75 

2,97 

.24 

.46 

.074 

7.50 

9.00 

2.63 

2.71 

.20 

.HI 

.074 

«.00 

g.OO 

9.18 

2.33 

.18 

.83 

,074 

tmn.       Strel.        V 

iweig'ht  in  poirndi  per  foot,  to  find  seel lonal  arca-i-  !H^         a. 4 

"             "     X     0»            .Wtl 

9  sectional  area,  to  And  wrigUt  in  lbs.  per  foot        k    3^         3  4 

"  lbs.  per  yard      >i  10          10.8           ■ 

dmnnt  and  mnlmnm  'tVeight*  and  Dlmeniilona  ot    H 

Carneele  Deck  BeaniK,                                       H 

STEEL.                                                               H 

,    Beam, 

Weight  per 
Foot,  Iba. 

Flange  Width. 

Weh 

Thickness. 

Increase  of  ^M 

Web  and     ■ 

Flanges  per  ■ 

lb.  in-        ■ 

lachet. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max, 

Min. 

.as 

Max. 

cieHSP  or     H 
welKbt.      H 

10 

87.23 

a.'i.TO 

5.3S 

6.50 

.63 

■^       1 

« 

ss.&a 

30. (10 

4  91 

5.07 

.44 

.87 

.082       ^ 

8 

ao.15 

•J4.48 

5.00 

5.18 

.31 

.47 

.087 

7 

16.10 

23.44 

4.S7 

5.10 

.31 

.H 

.04» 

J    •  y 

is.ao 

)  ia.se  1    4.38    1    J.M 

.«8 

.43                .04»      __ 

-             ^ 

■ 

Jj3 

MATRKIALS.                                        ^M 

I 

WEIGHTS  OF  STUKE.  BLOOldS.               ^M 

H       Soft  stee 

.     1  cubic  inch  =  0.284  lb.     1  cubic  foot  =  490.73  II*. 

1- 

Lengths. 

1 

1" 

6" 

W 

164 

18" 
245 

387 

SO" 

400 

88" 
491 

«" 

48" 

64" 
788 

60" 

818 

■1 

IS"    X  4" 

13.63 

83 

B78 

654 

11      X  6 

IS.'iS 

113 

SS5 

838 

450 

563 

679 

788 

soo 

1013 

lias 

m 

■L    x5 

15.63 

94 

188 

281 

875 

469 

S6S 

656 

7S0 

848 

987 

m 

m.4 

la.sa 

75 

ISO 

SS5 

800 

375 

450 

68S 

eoo 

en 

780 

m 

■  xr 

19.88 

130 

889 

m 

477 

596 

715 

835 

9S5 

lori 

■  xB 

ir.oi 

103 

«04 

807 

401» 

511 

613 

716 

818 

9-.' 

H  xS 

H.iO 

6S 

170 

KS6 

341 

426 

611 

606 

689 

m: 

K  x< 

11.38 

6S 

186 

a» 

273 

341 

409 

477 

616 

614 

ua2 

a 

■   x» 

8.K! 

51 

103 

158 

204 

2SS 

806 

898 

409 

460 

6U 

M 

T    x7 

17.89 

107 

ai.'s 

323 

490 

697 

644 

751 

859 

006 

1078 

IK 

X  8 

15.34 

92 

184 

276 

366 

400 

652 

044 

736 

828 

0» 

toi 

X  5 

Ig.TB 

77 

153 

280 

807 

888 

460 

687 

614 

090 

787 

m 

x4 

10.38 

61 

133 

184 

845 

aor 

868 

429 

490 

5S8 

'Hi 

1 

8x8 

18.18 

109 

218 

327 

436 

S4S 

66S 

764 

873 

982 

lOjl 

■ 

X  7 

15.9 

05 

191 

286 

882 

477 

672 

668 

763 

839 

■ 

X  6 

13.68 

8S 

164 

an 

327 

409 

491 

678 

664 

788 

Blfl 

■ 

X  5 

n.SB 

68 

136 

805 

278 

811 

400 

477 

«4< 

614 

■ 

X  4 

».09 

95 

109 

164 

218 

278 

827 

882 

486 

491 

S45 

« 

7x7 

IS.99 

83 

167 

asi 

334 

418 

E01 

ses 

688 

7SS 

en 

! 

X  a 

It. S3 

r^ 

143 

215 

286 

358 

430 

601 

573 

644 

716 

9 

X  $ 

».9l 

60 

119 

1T9 

238 

ase 

858 

417 

477 

536 

&W 

• 

X  4 

7.6a 

48 

96 

H3 

1»1 

389 

988 

884 

382 

490 

477 

n 

X  3 

5.S6 

36 

72 

!«■ 

143 

179 

214 

8S0 

286 

322 

888 

m 

e»xG>ii 

12. 

78 

144 

216 

288 

360 

482 

SM 

676 

648 

720 

n 

X  4 

7.88 

44 

89 

1.13 

177 

221 

866 

sto 

354 

890 

443 

0 

6x6 

10.22 

61 

128 

184 

845 

807 

388 

499 

49U 

551 

613 

m 

X  S 

8.M 

51 

102 

158 

sot 

ess 

80? 

8B8 

409 

460 

BII 

m 

x4 

8.88 

41 

82 

123 

164 

S(M 

845 

888 

327 

9138 

408 

• 

xS 

3.11 

31 

01 

92 

128 

1&3 

184 

214 

345 

276 

807 

u 

W«x5!4 

8.M 

52 

108 

155 

906 

ass 

300 

861 

413 

464 

516 

a 

X  4 

U.2S 

87 

75 

112 

150 

188 

825 

302 

300 

*r 

375 

6     X  S 

7.10 

43 

8S 

138 

170 

213 

256 

299 

311 

<se\ 

426 

i 

X  4 

5.68 

34 

«S 

103 

186 

170 

205 

239 

273 

807 

341 

4Mx4H 

5.75 

35 

09 

104 

138 

178 

207 

243 

276 

811 

MS 

9 

X  4 

a.ii 

31 

61 

n 

123 

153 

184 

215 

246 

270 

897 

n 

4      X  4 

4.M 

27 

6S 

83 

100 

186 

164 

191 

219 

248 

e» 

wk 

X  3)^ 

8.97 

24 

48 

TS 

06 

119 

143 

167 

181 

215 

288 

s 

k3 

3.40 

90 

41 

ei 

82 

102 

1S2 

148 

163 

184 

204 

1 

3»xS)i 

8.48 

21 

42 

88 

84 

m 

125 

146 

167 

IBS 

am 

jj 

X  8 

2.08 

16 

36 

&4 

n 

89 

107 

125 

14.1 

181 

>1 

^M 

8x8 

8.56 

IS 

81 

46 

61 

77 

99 

108 

128 

138 

i 

1 

^    .                  1 

Ai'Ks.  i:y 


rEIi; 


■•»  TBI    Tix^si 


-.*     ■ 


or  VariKUd 


-;r.  .::    -;:  i.>«i 


IT. 7  ■•li.:) 


A   • 


■11. lis  ptT  FiMit  fur  Variiuis 
.  in  In.-h.-s. 


ir.ii 
i.'i.o  ir.i 

14.1  Hi. 4 


i"».'.i  •.'11.' 

I'.'.:'  -,1 
IX  li  -."O 


•,'1  :i-.''. 


11..-. 

13  ei.").(i  iT.i; 

'.',1 ; 

•-■1  ; 

-.':)  •• 

ji   K 

ij.o  i-i.s;M.ti:  iti.4  :h  -j 

11.0 

VJ    !l4.li    Hi. 4  IS.-,'    -Jii  11  j;  V 

1_^ , ',  ■ 

10.3 

ja.u  13. «|   l.'i.a  lU.s    !■>  .•.-.'•1  1 

^uU 

».T 

11.3  la.if  14.3  ].•.  «  ]',  :;  1-  ;■ 

SnT 

li 

10, B  13-1     13. C  1,»,.0    Hi..',  |s  1' 

lO.fl   S.l     13.11  !,'■  0    III.,-.  IS  .1 

V"i 

B.fi 

10.0    1.4    la  H.14  i 

mA 

7,9 

(i.iiio&  n.Hia.i; 

r 

m3 

7.1 

8.3    6.4 

1 

IlI 

e.7 

1 

» 

u 

T.6    B.» 

7,1    8.2 

QdH 

s.* 

B.3    7.-2 

as 

4,6 

33  ej 

1.0 

178  -^^i^»-  MATERIAIS, 

w«iglitt  and  iMnHinrtftiMi  ot  oaxseBie  stect 


Seo 

tlon 

Index 


CI 
(•« 

c* 

C5 
CO 
C7 
C« 
09 


Chan- 
nel. Id 
Inches. 


13 
10 
9 


'    ^oTM. 

Flange  Wdth. 

Wob 

Thicknew, 

Min. 

Uu. 

Min 

Hh. 

SI  to. 

HAz. 

33.00 

61  00 

a.40 

8.T8 

.40 

.78 

40,00 

30,  i» 

if. 90 

S.IS 

.ao 

.5f. 

l.i.25 

2.1,75 

2.66 

i.9I 

.'M 

.51 

Vi.1!, 

SiO.50 

•1.44 

:.'.e0 

.a 

49 

vi.m 

n.» 

a. 30 

2.47 

.so 

.47 

8.50 

H.50 

8.00 

8.«5 

.20 

.46 

TOO 

IS. 00 

1.89 

S.14 

.10 

.44 

B.Ol) 

lO.iS 

1.78 

s.oa 

.18 

.43 

S.OU 

H.25 

l.«7 

1.91 

.17 

.41 

ortat, 


WelKbta  and  Dlmenalona  or  C«rneicle  Z>B«| 

I 

8«ction 

Thicknpsa 
of  MeUI. 

SUM. 

wj 

! 

Index. 

Flan^^. 

Web. 

Flange. 

Iron. 

J5 

Z  1 

9^ 

3    H 

6 

5  A 

16.» 

jj 

** 

7-18 

8  9-16 

«  1-16 

18.0 

J 

•• 

H 

m 

6    >6 

"  H 

S0.6 

I 

Z3 

9-10 

6 

a  H 

st.i 

ti 

K 

9i^6 

6  1-16 

S9?6 

24.9 

" 

ii-ie 

l^ 

6    H 

^  H 

«T.5 

Z3 

is^fs 

6 

'  »l 

ess 

** 

i  9-1« 

6  1-H 

8  W6 

SI.S 

M 

» 

s  M 

6    M 

a  H 

3a» 

' 

Z4 

B-IB 

8  5-10 

5 

8    u 
».')-T6 

11.8 

" 

% 

S  1-1« 

13.7 

<i 

7-16 

3  H 

s   ^ 

S  M 

16  0 

zs 

H 

3  a 

5 

3    k 

17B 

'* 

9-10 

8M9 

S  1-16 

8  &-16 

19.8 

•• 

H 

'    ?^ 

s  M 

>  K 

K  1 

z« 

11-16 

3    Q 

5 

8    k 

SS.iC 

<4 

H 

3ft-ifi 

81-16 

3  W6 

».6 

" 

13-16 

3    H 

5    « 

8    H 

a. a 

Z  7 

M 

S  1-16 

4 

3  1-16 

8  0 

1 

•' 

B-11 

8    M 

4  1-16 

i  .Vl6 

10.  t 

1 

»4 

% 

8  3-16 

4    ^ 

It* 

\ 

Z8 

f-16 

3  1-16 

4 

3  1-16 

18.9 

\ 

" 

9^6 

3    ^ 

4  1-16 

3    H 

U.S 

\ 

" 

3  3-16 

4    H 

3  ."HO 

17.« 

\ 

Z9 

H 

3  1-16 

4 

8  1-16 

18.9 

\ 

" 

11-18 

3  a 

4  1-16 

3  3-16 

J»,B 

\ 

II 

H 

S  S-16 

*    M 

St.i 

' 

ZIO 

^t 

1  11-16 

3 

9  11-16 

6.« 

'• 

3    14 

a  1-16 

3    H 

8.3 

zn 

:% 

i  lUie 

a 

3  11-16 

98 

*  h' 

3  1-16 

»    H 

>i  a 

.     }it» 

4  11-18 

s 

i  11-16 

19.8 

■H^H 

^^^H^B^^ 

«  H 

8  1-16 

1 

y     \&.» 

^^^^^^1 

- 

.^- 

ES  AND   WElOHtS  OF  STRUCTURAL  BQ 


EVKJ*  LEGS. 


ThJcknessea  In  Inches. 

nt 

1 

1 
t.ofl. 

kca. 

% 

.1S75 

.25 

5-lB 

.1^ 

H.8 

T-16 
4376 

J7.a 

IB.D 

8-te 
.soai 

S.3 

94  B 

11-16 

Hi 

il 

■e 

■ii.a 

11.91 

16.4 

IH.i 

SO.T 

ast.a 

a.1.0 

i».» 

83.4 

>i 

8.3  ' 

9.S 

11. S 

la.o 

14.6 

30.1 

17.7 

iB.a 

«ni 

7.1 

a.e 

10 .0 

II.4 

la.S'U.S 

XJ 

4.9 

B.O 

7.1 

a.a 

0.4 

lO.olll.fl 

51 

S.l 

«.7 

4.5 
4.1 
3.6 

6-1 

6.7 
6.1 
B.4 

7,1 

S.tt 

13 

•J.44 

!t.:!l 

4-1 

4.» 

<l«j 

a.  4 

i.9 

3.a 

4.1 

.13 

1.1P 

1.80 

j.4 

a.u 

3.B 

hnju.re 

1,63 

a. 04 

"1    Ifl.K 

i.ie 

1.61 

■UNEVEN  LEGS. 


ApproKlmatB  Wi^jtrhr  ir;  Voiiruis  tjer  Foot  for  YarfouB 

fini 

Tliii.'liiif ssps  in  I(iuhe6. 

.li 

3-lfl 
.1876 

.^ 

S-16 

.3123 

.1^5 

7- IB 
.437S 

-50 

»-16 

.^' 

11-16 
.987* 

.^6 

.is 

1 

i.oa 

'  "^ 

IT.O 

1B.9 

iW.O 

ss.a 

m.6 

38.6 

m  6 

%>t 

13. U 

IS.O 

r.i 

lu.a 

U,4 

USA 

SS.T 

ao.ti' 

31. < 

M 

li.a 

14.4 

IS. 4 

1S6 

aaf 

l;j,B 

S4.9 

CT.i 

HH.H 

11. .'i 

13  fi 

in,» 

17.6 

19.7 

B1.7 

iSH 

27.fl 

di.g 

11. u 

1-2. fl 

14.6 

16.4 

IB. 2 

'  "I 

Tl.fl 

13, H 

14.6 

1«.4 

tS.'J 

aoo 

ai.s 

M|^ 

s.r 

10  a 

U,0 

13.6 

IS.2 

lO.B 

IS.S 

40.1 

i.1 

9,2 

a. 7 

\1.S 

\'l.» 

14.3 

^^.» 

17. S 

1R  E 

4 ,7 

9.i 

10. « 

la.i 

la.B 

la.o 

16.5 

Ifl.O 

>A( 

7.7 

fl.S 

lU.B 

i«.i 

13.6 

16  0 

16.6 

Ifl.O 

7.1 

5.6 

10.0 

11.4 

13. B 

14  Z 

llfi 

T.a 

».-2 

10. B 

J1.8 

JB.I 

4.9 

6.0 

7  1 

S.S 

a. 4 

1*8 

4.!> 

5.B 

6.7 

;i?* 

4.S 

6  6 

B.7 

7.B 

s.s 

nt 

4  1 

G.l 

5.1 

7.1 

R.-J 

hi 

2.7 

S.8 

4.S 

5,4 

6.8 

7.2 

NK 

a.s* 

3,na 

ft.fl 

4.G 

Uil 

1.B4 

S.7 

3.S 

4.0 

j^,^ 

180 


MATERIALS. 


Pencojrd  Teea. 


EVEN  TEES. 


UNE\*EN 


Chtrt 

Kumber. 


70 

ri 

W 

m 
ea 

84 

n 

74 
75 
7« 
7? 
TS 
',9 
80 
Si 


Size 

in 

Incbes. 


4  k4 

914 '3% 

8  «3 

3  x3 

3  x8 

2  x2 

1  xl 

4  x4 


Weight  per     1 
Foot. 

Churt 
Number. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

:a.40 

13.65 

107 

lo.ir 

10.S7 

lOB 

8  33 

9.M 

09 

6.13 

o..-** 

93 

7.S.3 

7.68 

90 

4.*« 

4.U3 

109 

6.r>o 

ma 

91 

6.73 

5.8fi 

94 

s.ao 

8.B8 

9fi 

3.93 

4.01 

96 

S.47 

3.M 

97 

a.-r 

2.41 

US 

a.oo 

2.04 

110 

l.SO 

1.53 

111 

1.03 

re's 

117 

10. B8 

11.19 

105 
104 
100 
108 
101 
112 

lo-.; 

103 
116 
113 
114 
115 
118 
US 

8lEe 

in 

Inches. 


^ 


66 

M 

83 


Pencojrd  Car-Bultder*'  Cbannela,  Ire 


13 
ill 


&? 
=  •? 


m 
s 

|2H 


-  it 

=  a  f 


9  8.' 

7-16 
.VIA 


•=  t  c 
.5  oA 


80S 
5i  4 

17.8 


Approximate  Weight  In  PonBdi 
Foot  (or  Eadi  Thlcknea 
Web,  til  liielies. 


e-16 


28.6 
17.« 


H 


S9.S 
86.1 

10.8 


-16 


m.i 

S3.6 


H 


84. 9 
81.1 
!5.8 


i»-16 


)C.« 
38.0 


Peaeord  Cur»BntIdeni>  CbanneU,  St«el« 


:M.l 


17  tt  I  SO 


30.1 
!«l  6 


:\ 


9 
99.2 
84  .\ 


86.6  I  38.4 

81.7  I  S4.S 


1 


ETSIGHTS   05    fiOOFINO   MATEHIALS.     ISj 
IGHTN  OP  ROOFIIfO  TnATERIAL.8, 
rrnfrated   Iron  i Phoenix  Iron  Co.i. 


ACK  IRON. 


iht 

r 


Weiebt 

in  Lbs. 

per 

8q,  Ft.  on 

TRoof. 

FUt. 


3.03 
3.30 
1.68 
1.31 
1.03 
0.84 


Woieht 

in  Lhs. 

j>er 

Sq.  Ft.,  on 

Ro.if. 
Corru^ftti^Ll 


8.S7 
2.54 
1.82 
1.45 
l.U 
0.03 


GALVANIZED  IRON. 


Weitfht 
in  I.lw. 

per 

Sq.  Ft., 

KInt. 


8.00 
2.37 
l.Tfl 
1.31 
l.Oti 
0.94 


Weieht 
in  Lhfl. 

[K"r 

Sq.  Ft. 

on  Roof. 

Flat. 


WeiRht 

in  Llw. 

per 

Sq,  ■Ft..on 

Rimf. 
CorrUKOIed 


350 

a. 03 
1.53 
1.44 
1. 00 


8  8S 
8.07 
a.  26 
1.71 
1.37 
LSI 


arp       I 


lie  is  calculated  for  the  orilinary  size  of  sh(>et.  which  is  from 
le,  and  from  G  tu  fl  feet  luiig,  allowing  4  inuheM  lap  in  length 
I  widtti  of  sheet. 
\g  of  sheet  iron  adds  about  one-third  of  a  pound  to  its  n-vi, 

Iron  niiiile  by  llie  Keystone  Bridg^e  Co.,  the  ei>rrugal  Ii  ins 
iKun-d  on  the  straight  iiue;  lliey  rctiuire  n  lenKtJi  nf  iron  of 

one  corrueui  1(111.  und  the  tlHinli  «t  cdrriipatiuu  iw  ai  aS". 
I  is  allowed  for  lap  in  the  width  of  the  chret  and  6"  in  the 
■sual  pitch  of  roof  of  two  to  one.  Sheets  cnri  he  corrugileil 
lot  exceediiiK  ten  feet.  The  most  ndvButapeoiis  ninth  is 
lowInK  ii"  for  irregiilaiitieg)  will  make  etereri  eorniftatlnns 
ag  allowance  for  laps,  will  cover  '^14"  of  the  surface  of  the 

I  it  was  found  that  oorruffited  Iron  Xo.  20,  spanning  6  feet, 
K  a  permanent  dHflectlon  fur  a  load  of  30  lbs.  [ler  square  fciot. 
tollapse  with  a  load  of  GO  Dis.  per  square  foot.    Thn  dislance 

I  of  purlins  should  therefore  not  extieeU  I)  feet,  and,  prefer 

II  this. 

Terra-Cotta. 

coltti  roofing  3"  thick  weii^hs  16  lbs.  jier  square  foot  anr]  J 

r  Hquare  foot. 

of  ibe  same  material  S"  thick  weighs  It  Ibe,  per  square  to 

Tile*. 


*  X  lOW"  X  H"  weifh  from  14W)  to  1880  IbB.  per  squai«  t«f 
UK  ODe-nalf  the  length  of  the  tile, 

r««  and  fillet*  weigh  from  740  to  9i^i  lbs.  per  square  of  roof. 
X  VM    laid  10"  to  the  weather,  weigh  850  lbs.  per  square. 


I  Tin. 

les  for  roofing  tin  are  14"  x  JO"  and  20"  x  28".  Without 
jn  or  waste,  tin  roofliig  weighs  from  50  to  63  lb*,  per  square. 
IT  weighs  from  8'J  lo  75  Iba.  per  square. 

»  or  tenie  plates  Isteel  plates  coated  with  nn  alloy  of  Hn 
lade  only  in  IC  and  \X  thickuesses  ("JT  and  23  Biriiiiiif^hnui 
l"  and  "charcodl"  I  in  plates,  olil  names  used  when  Iron 
and  charcoo)  was  used  fiir  Ibe  tinned  pinle,  are  still  used  in 

Sgh  steel  platens  have  l>een  sut)stiliited  for  iron;  a  coke  plain 
ueaidng  on<'  made  of  BeK.semer  steel,  and  a  charcoal  plats 
rth  steel.    The  thicknegg  ot  the  fin  coating  on  the  p\aV«» 
Ifi  "  hrAtids.'* 

tUoa  oa  Tin  Roottog,  se«  circulars  of  Merob 


—182 

1 

v 

MATERIALS. 

^^ 

1 

TIN  PliATKS. 

TTNNKD  AHEKT 

STREL.i 

H    standard  Stork  SIjeph, 

\ii'1th  Nnntber  of  Sl>e«la  an^  5^ 

■ 

U'elehl  per  Box. 

^ 

Thkkiim. 

She. 

8li«ti<^ 

11* 

B.  W. 

TbldtacM. 

^'.M 

™~M~ 

TC 

10x14 

©5 

108 

~W 

IC 

10x20      2fi    ' 

V    ST 

IX 

10x14 

S25 

135 

27 

IX 

10x20    as  : 

SA 

IXX 

10x14 

S!2» 

ItJO 

26 

IXX 

10x80     la 

39 

IC 

12x12 

225 

110 

29 

IC 

ll«22  .    SSI 

57 

IX 

12x12 

i25 

13S 

27 

IX 

11 .22 ;  s5  ; 

■    S6 

IXX 

13x12 

225 

166 

26 

IXX 

11.22      » 

■    S» 

IC 

14  X  20 

112 

108 

29 

IC 

12x24       tl> 

■    87 

IX 

14  X  20 

lis 

135 

87 

IX 

12>34  '    lit 

■    -.'6 

IXX 

14x21) 

112 

160 

26 

IXX 

12  .  24  1    lU 

H     '-^ 

IXXX 

14x20 

112 

180 

29 

10 

lSx2«  1    lit 

^1     S4U 

IXXXX 

1-1x20 

113 

aoo 

27 

IX 

13>2«  :    lit 
13.26       lit 

■     UQ 

K! 

S0x28 

112 

aia 

28    i    IXX 

■     ST 

IX 

aOxit) 

112 

270 

29         10 

14.22    m 

■     26 

IXX 

20x28 

112 

320 

27 

IX 

14.22  1    111 

■    as 

IXXX 

20x28 

r>6 

180 

26 

IXX 

14x22  1    III    ' 

^B     IM^ 

IXXXX 

20x28 

58 

aoo 

89 

IC 

14.24  I    lit     ) 

■   su 

IC 

13x13 

225 

laa 

87 

IX 

14.21  1    lit 

H  ^ 

IX 

13x13 

225 

102 

«6 

IXX 

Uiit     in 

■  ae 

,IXX 

13x18 

225 

192 

29 

IC 

14x28  1    lit 

H_^ 

IC 

14x14 

225 

155 

87 

IX 

14..*  1    lit 

^^kR 

IX 

14x14 

S25 

ms 

88 

IXX 

14.88  1    Vi 

^^^luV 

IXX 

14x14 

225 

2S0 

89 

10 

14»Sl       lit 

^^ps 

IC 

Llxl.') 

»» 

178 

27 

IX 

14.31  i    111 

87 

DC 

ISxIS 

225 

218 

26 

IXX 

14.31       lit 

se 

IXX 

15x15 

225 

260 

27 

IX 

14.. %« 

»  a 

S9 

10 

lOxlS 

225 

200 

it) 

IXX 

14>»6 

w  i 

S7 

IX 

lexiD 

325 

S18 

17 

IX 

il.on 

M    1 

36 

IXX 

ICxlti 

885 

800 

86 

IXX 

14x60 

»    1 

S9 

IC 

17x17 

335 

SiW 

29 

10 

15x21       111     9 

87 

IX 

17  X  1" 

825 

889 

87 

IX 

15x21       111     1 

4* 

IXX 

17x17 

225 

340 

46 

IXX 

15.21       til     9 

SB 

IC 

18x18 

lis 

138 

89 

10 

10x19    111  a 

27 

IX 

IHxl8 

112 

158 

27 

IX 

16x19       lit     9 

SB 

IXX 

16x18 

lis 

178 

26 

IXX 

16.19  1    111     2 

S9 

IC 

20  x  20 

112 

100 

29 

IC 

1U.20 

"!  . 

27 

IX 

S0x20 

112 

1B5 

27 

IX 

16  xM 

lit 

se 

IXX 

80x20 

lis 

822 

26 

IXX 

16x20 

lit 

SB 

IC 

82x2a 

112 

100 

29 

IC 

16. 2t 

"! 

37 

IX 

23.2? 

112 

235 

87 

IX 

16x28 

lit 

sa 

IXX 

22  X  22 

112 

273 

26 

IXX 

16x22 

lit  ' 

29 

IC 

24x21 

112 

320 

87 

IX 

34x24 

112 

276 

■ 

96 

IXX 

«4k24 

1I« 

880 

^r=^ 

B.W. 
S8 

■nick  MM. 

Six. 
I«^xl7 

100 

U4 

aw. 

2:1 

Tllldlli««. 

BiK. 

H 

DC 

DXXX 

15x2) 

10) 

85 

ox 

12Hxl7 

100 

123 

22     DXXXX 

l.Sxai 

lot    ' 

S4 

DXX 

12Uxl7 

100 

14.1 

iS     DC 

I7«*5 

■ 

*a 

DIXX 

\-Mx}7 

inu 

1«1 

25 

DX 

17  «« 

»0 

S 

DXXXX 

12j|.l7 

100 

185 

24 

DXX 

lTx2S 

•! 

S8 

DC 

1&X21 

too 

1«0 

23 

DXXX 

17. a 

a» 

s 

DX 

iax2l| 

1(11) 

180 

s« 

DXXXX 

17x85 

M 

w 

DXX 

Iftx2ll 

ino 

2I!I 

1          U 

T.TT       1 

..  1  10 

■n'.ir..  soibfi,  IX  100  n 

».  per  '■"■»    ■» 

^^^ 

'■.  112  IbH,  IX  140 

•Vj^H 

^^^ 

•  .  2^"4  ll)s.,  IX  280 

•  >  ^^^1 

k 

•  Til' 

■■    a.,10.  tlmd  Ux 

eo.  tuni^H 

^^^^H 

^^^1 

■■■■■■1 

i^BHi^^^^^^ 

■^^^H 

ZES  ASV  WEIGHTS   OF   ROOFING   MATKEIALS,      It 


wr  lad  auperflctal  area  of  slme  rKiiuired  for  one  square  of  roof. 
(1  ?quAr«  =  liM  square  feet.) 


UODS 

Nuuibrr 

pur 
Square. 

Siiperncial 
Art-a  in 
Sq.  Ft. 

Dlniotision* 

in 

Inches. 

1 
Number 

per 
Square. 

Huperfloial 
Area  in      • 
eq,  Ft.    d 

18 

tit 
■It 

MS 

«; 

m 

ft.7 

ail 

iWl 

■m 

213 

m 

887 

12»J8 
lOxX) 
llxiU 
12x20 

i4«ao 

]«x20 
I'Jx'ii 
HxSS 
Vi  X  J4 
Uxe4 
16x24 
1-1x20 
10x26 

1(10 
1(M 
liM 

HI 
121 
137 
l-.'0 
1U8 
IH 
1» 
86 
f*9 
T9 

340 
i35 

■It 

IH 

lU 

lit 

iai" 

ai 

iM 

lU 

>l« 

sii 

288       \ 

lIB 
■  18 

sio" 

•JSS 

Mtiliujaallr  laid,  Che  niimber  of  iiqiiare  feel  of  roof  uuvereU  by  one 
""  oubuinwl  from  the  following  (orrauln  : 

I  llaiKtIj  —  S  Inches ) 


tffl 


=  the  number  of  square  feet  of  roof  coTered. 


t  o(tlu«  of  various  lenKtha  and  Chiclcnesses  required  fur  oue  square 


^Th 


Welglit  In  Poaiids  per  Square  for  the  Tlilcknese. 

l>" 

»-lfl" 

H" 

«" 

W 

«" 

H" 

1" 

^ 

724 

867 

1450 

1SS8 

2419 

ssos 

S8i3 

m 

068 

93n 

ISTfl 

IMS 

3.<K)| 

2790 

Misa 

i» 

667 

»iO 

1330 

17S1 

•J-J-.tl 

2670 

8667 

m 

6S0 

86» 

l.«H 

17W 

2174 

2607 

8480 

«B 

637 

•891 

I27ti 

1704 

2129 

2S53 

S4(» 

418 

»26 

836 

IJ.'il 

1075 

■■Km 

2S0H 

S8S0 

412 

617 

81» 

laM 

1W>3 

20C6 

2478 

8306 

«r 

610 

815 

\ta 

itiai 

2U30 

24^19 

8269 

•^rtli!  gl»en  aboveare  ba«ed  on  the  number  of  slate  required  for  one 
oiroof,  lakiDg  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  8lat«  at  175  pounds. 

Pine  Sblnglea. 

*'  tad  weight  of  plue  shlnj;)es  required  to  cover  oue  tiquare  of 


Ita 


Number  of 
Shingles 

per  Square 
o{  Roof. 


Weight  in 
Pounds  of 
Shingle  on 
Ont-- square 
of  Roofs. 


BetnarlcB. 


316 
192 
173 
JS7 
144 


The  number  of  shlnRles  per  square  is 
for  common  gable-roofs.  For  hip- 
roofs add  five  per  cent,  to  these  flRUrea. 

The  wetehta  jier  squai-e  are  \}&a«A  oti 
Ibe  number  per  square. 


J  84 


MATKU1AL8. 


SkyllKltl  GIsM. 

The  weights  of  various  riies  and  ililukiiesses  nf  tluled  or  rougb] 
.  required  for  one  square  of  roof. 


Dim«nsioiiB  io 
Inches. 


18x48 
ISxSO 
20x100 
Mxl56 


Thickness  in 
Inches. 


3-16 


Area 

hi  Square  Feet, 


6.246 

18  HHO 

101.788 


WeiKht  in  ] 
Sqiinrcofl 


Id  the  above  table  no  nllowanee  is  luude  for  lap. 
ir  ordlnarjr  window-class  ie  uaod.siiielethielc  t'la-^.-ilnbout  l-IG"l  wUlM 
'  about  88  lbs.  por  sqiuire,  and  double  ihtct  i;la!<s  laboiii  ^")  will  oelgtiM 
Itil  lbs.  per  square,  no  itHointncn  being  mitde  fur  tap.  A  box  of  niilll 
wlndow-g-la-*  conUiiDS  a.s  nearly  Ml  fiquare  feet  as  the  sljte  of  ili<- 1*** 
ndmic  of.  Panes  of  any  size  are  made  lo  order  by  the  JiianufnotiirarM 
great  variety  of  sizes  are  usually  kept  in  stock,  ranging'  fruin  dst|H| 
ai)  X  CO  inches,  ^H 

APPBOXIISATE  WKIGHTS  OF   VARIOUS   ^H 
rOVKBINGS.  ^H 

For  preliminary  estiinat«B  the  weigliti>  of  various  roof  coTeiliq(M| 
)  taken  as  tabulated  li^low: 

Coat-Iron  plates  (%"  thick) LWO 

Copper 80-  185 

Felt  and  asphalt lOOj 

Felt  niiJ  gravel  800-10 

Iron,  (■nriiitrated  100- xn 

Iron,  gulvainzed,  flat 100- 

Lnlli  and  plaster WO-H 

Sheathtnir,  pine,  1"  thick  yellow,  iionhem,. 

•'    •'       ••          "      southern..  40 

SpiTice.l"  thick  aw 

8lveaihing,  chestnut  or  maple,  I"  Ibick 4M  ! 

ash,  hickory,  or  oak,  1"  thick....  MO 

Sheet  iron  (1-16"  lhick> SDO 

■'     andlaths 800 

Shingles,  pine iOO 

Slates  114"  thick) WO 

8kylisbt^  Itrloss  S-I(i"  to  H"  thick) SBO-  mO 

Sbeetlead BOO-  BOO 

Tliatch , oao 

Till 70-  Itt         I 

Tiles,  flat ..  l.'WO-aXIO^^ 

tKroove*  and  lllleta) TUO-1OB0^H 

pan lOOV^H 

"      withoiortar SOOMOOO  ^H 

Zinc 100- «00 


lElUHT  OF    CAsr-lllOX    I'H'KS   OlC   (.OLrMSS. 


^■(TElUt 

^nSHT  OP  CAMT'IRON  PIPB8  OB  COLtiniNS, 

^■^  In  Ith».  per  Mueal  Foot. 

^^m  Cast  iron  =  450  Iba.  per  cubic  foot. 


185 


fThlck. 

of 
,  Meu). 


'       Ino. 


WeiKht 
fiei-  Foot. 

Borf. 

Thick. 

of 
Metal. 

WHigllt 

per  foot. 

Bore. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

IM. 

LI*. 

Ins. 

18  4 

10 

f 

79. « 

•M 

17  J 

10^ 

■ 

MO 

22. -J 

OMX 

la 

H.3 

6i.» 

ID. 6 

U 

■ 

M.Q 

•J5.8 

1 

71.3 

84 

10  I 

86.6 

W.l 

HM 

■ 

: 

S8.9 

28.4 

n 

74,4 

ss 

IT  9 

n 

W.3 

04  A 

13 

H 

61.3 

81  5 

» 

77.5 

w 

10.8 

» 

S3.9 

S70 

12^ 

fi 

038 

SI.4 

SL 

BO.S 

87 

21  < 

S 

BT.fl 

SO. 4 

13 

71 

M.3 

87  « 

?l 

sa.u 

3S 

i8  5 

« 

101 .» 

31  8 

U 

J* 

71.9 

40.7 

!» 

8B.7 

U9 

«3.3 

H 

I0B.6 

34.4 

15 

» 

0S.9 

43.7 

9. 

ne.o 

30 

S7.I 

n 

1S6.4 

30  8 

16 

P 

ice.o 

4(1  3 

1S3.3 

31 

t!UO 

1^ 

145.0 

9U  3 

17 

79 

lOH.S 

40  U 

» 

130.7 

te 

30.8 

» 

153.0 

41  T 

IB 

!* 

114  3 

B3.0 

$ 

138.1 

33 

UM 

i 

183.1 

90.0 

10 

ia>4 

W*  1 

145.4 

34 

40  t 

170  7 

fiO.I 

■JO 

1S«.« 

71.8 

isa.s 

85 

40.1 

1 

1793 

6i.\ 

81 

h 

18v!7 

^^,.s 

S 

100. t 

30 

Si.r. 

!« 

1«7.» 

Oi.l 

« 

^ 

i 

l:W.8 

Thick. 


Wflfflit 


Inn, 


LbH. 

167.5 
196.5 
174.9 

a».i 

£35.0 

iHS.a 
ais.7 

»454 

IMI.O 

s-a.s 
as.'i.a 

197.0 
230.8 
•J«.I 
21)4.8 

iaa.i 

274.0 

211.7 

£48.1 

•Jbi  T 

SIO.l 

336.6 

294  S 

285.2 

304,3 

348  7 

2;  .'1.8 

311. 

3.>1.8 

•iM  4 

3J4.0 

3tl6.8 

201  0 

*«.8 

370.9 

299  6 

34-1  7 

38H  U 

3.%3  4 
3UU.0 
3111  » 
.mH  I 
410  0. 


te  aelKht  of  tiie  two  aoiiBwl  tuay  be  reukoued  1=  weight  of  one  foot. 


186                                         MATeRtALS.           ^^^^H 

WEIGHTS  OF  CAST-IRON  PIPE  TO  t.A¥  l*W 

LENGTH. 

Wcighta  are  UronM  Welgbtn,  Iiirludlne  H(|^ 

tCalculuttiU  by  F.  H.  Lewis.;                    ^M 

Thicktiess. 

Ihside  Diaint-ter.             ^| 

Incbett, 

Equir. 
Deolmalct. 

4" 

6" 

8" 

10" 

1«" 

U" 

16" 

18" 

% 

.876 

SOD 

304 

4O0 

l.?*l 

.40825 

!i!!H 

•«l 

4S5 

-Jj 

r-iii 

.4370 

247 

85S 

470 

.Wl 

m 

15-*i 

.4tW7 

X66 

3S8 

505 

684 

603 

804 

■ 

1^« 

.5 

•Mi 

414 

.Ml 

608 

744 

803 

■ 

..■jJias 

SOB 

44v! 

577 

Tia 

TBS 

m 

1060 

■ 

»>I0 

.50-.a 

3-7 

470 

013 

756 

M6 

WS 

1118 

■ 

IJI-ft! 

.59873 

4»H 

649 

801 

sm 

I04.S      1IS6 

m 

^■S 

.C35 

686 

(MS 

951 

1101      1254 

MM 

^^B>« 

.8878 

935 

1U03 

1163      13« 

US 

^^^ 

.75 

.8195 
.875 

10X6 

1110 
I£1G 
]3i>l 

12(<5      MW 
1408      l.'iftH 
l.')31      ir*S 

I7h' 
194 

1        iSia 

^ 

.... 



L         lB-16 

.9375 
1. 

1.125 
1.25 

1433 

lu.ie    istu 

21« 

an 

Uh 

■na 

K      I 

1783 
1909 

)t163 

■        k 

'i 

1.375 

.... 

am 

■          Tbickness. 

Iiuide  Diameter.             ^m 

1    I-^-ll^Ullk 

S3" 

81" 

87" 

30" 

33"       88" 

42" 

m 

11-16 

.635 

1799 

1985 

SI  60 

2428 

i 

_         ,|<,g 

.75 

•J17I 

ajBJ 

■^648 

■JOSt 

3391  '  8S07 

.Hl^i 

■£09 

2565 

5W7a 

31IS6 

3196      3MI6 

4426 

■         ^ 

.87.1 

2.T4; 

•27(1B 

SI  03 

8 137 

3771      4103 

4771 

544: 

■       IVie         .93TG 

!ns7 

2975  ]  .I*!-.' 

SbDO 

4U1»      44riO 

5122 

Stffi 

■     ] 

;»•.'( 

;iihO    :i,'>tu 

:1?WJ 

4*!5      47118 

54Ta 

em 

■      1W(             1  !'» 

MIO 

.■iSBS      10-J7 

4456 

4«*i      5116 

817« 

7ia< 

■   m 

1  SB 

DtiM 

4UIU 

44!« 

4070 

5417     MM 

iwsn 

r<r 

^^m  sMi 

1  375 

44.19 

49U4 

5401 

OlM.i      6.540 

^^V^^w 

15 

54.1U 

0012 

a'>84  1  7ir* 

^^B'lIZ 

1  6i!5 

05%) 

71. '.y     77N--» 

:». 

^r  ^n 

1.75 

... 



*  -•  1  > 

7737     8105 

071-' 

1  Il'7> 

H    '^ 

1.875 

I04IIH  1 

iiiy7 

llfW 
l'J7« 

H  ^ 

^^k  HU 

a.a 

... 

IIIK 

^^^kj59 

».75 

L 

1 

4 

1 

1 

CAST-IKON   PIPE   FI'iTIKOS. 

OAST-mON  PIPE  FITTIIVG8. 

Approximate  mrelKht. 

Addjstoo  Pipe  and  Sleel  Co  ,  Cincinnati.  Oliio. 


REDUCERS. 

188 


10  k  4 
JSxIO 

l-,'.4 

11x12 
14  »  10 
H«S 
H-<6 
lllx  li 

1L1«  II) 

Lllx  1(1 

atlxll 

•.tixVi 

->0x8 

•i4  X  ■.•() 

30  x  -,'4 

SUxlS 

an » 30 


278 

aso 

■JSO 
4TS 
4% 
34U 

am 

475 
43S 
6ill) 
i73 
r.4U 

.wa 

74B 

laos 

1!M5 
ITSO 


ANGI.K  REDUC- 
ERS FOR  UA8. 


»k4 

6nH 


86 

ao 


S  PIPES. 


00 

IM 


PLtros, 


2 
8 
4 
G 
8 
10 
ii 
U 
16 
20 
■H 
W 


& 
S 
li 
Sfl 
46 
66 
TO 
100 
1MI 
IHB 
870 


CAPS. 


8 
4 

fi 
H 
111 
1-J 


la 

!B 

flO 
75 
1(10 


DRIV  BOXtS. 


4 

H 
10 
-iO 


149 


188 


MATERIALS. 


IVEIGHTS  OF  rAST-IBON  ICrATEB-  AND  GA«*rir: 

(Addyston  Pipe  Knd  Bte«l  Co.,  CiDciimali,  Obio.) 


If                    THICKNESS  OF  OAST-IRON  PIPRS. 
P.  H.  Bncrmaim,  in  a  paper  read  befoiv  ilie  Eiii;m  \,  of 

delpbiii  iu  IKK;!,  ^ave  twenty  different  roiiiiuliis  for  n  -  ih< 

Bess  of  cast-iron  water  pipes  under  pressure.    The  1  ,  n."  o 

classes: 
1.  Dei»ni|inK  upon  ibe  <itamet<^r«>nly. 
2.  Tiiosv  deprndliig  iiiioa  rlie  diameter  and  head,  and  wbleb  add 
•Cant. 
3.  Those  dependliiK  upnn  the  dlaiiieter  and  head,  contain  an  addlt 
■ubtractlve  term  depemliiiK  upon  the  diunieler.  and  add  a  uonstaau 
The  moiii  miHlerti  furiiiulas  are  of  the  third  class,  and  are  as  fi 
t  =  .(100(Wiie4-  .(!!(«  4- .30 Slieild. 
t  =  .OH<KNl/id  +  ,01!l8rf  +  .«H$ Warren  FouuJry, 

(  =  .OOOOfix/iW -f  .01.V2<J  +  .3I« Fraocia, 

<=  .000O48/.rf  4-  Ol**  +  88 Diipiiit, 

t  =  .OOOiMhd  +  A  »ri  +  .15  B«X, 

(  =  .noi)|.%//d  4- -4  -  ,001  Id MllitmAII, 

t  =  .OiXWC  h  +  2:»)d  -1-  .3S3  -  .OOSSd Faiininit. 

/  =  ,0«tl5»ir/  +  .2S  -  .005W  ..  MegBa, 

In  whloh  /  =  thiokiieas  In  Inches,  h  =  head  In  feet,  d  =  dlan 

RankUie,  "Civil    KuKineerlnj?,"  p.  7"J1,  .xayn:  '■I'nsllriHi  ^<»~-^  »)ir.i 
made  "(  a  miH  niiil  toiiKb  qimlltv  of  iron.     Urent  nltetilloii   - 
lo  inoiildin«:lbeinc<>rrt^:lly,si)  t but  the  lblel>n''»»  may  l>r  rx  i 
rcmnd.     Ettib  pipe  sliuiiUl  l>e  tested  for  .Jr  bubble*  ftlni  llu'       :  .     ..  , 
with  a  liaiiiiiier,  and  for  .^rength  by  eviKixInK  U  to  <laiil  Ir-  ilt^  l>•^ 
(i-eatest  workinK  preH-.ure."    The  rule  fur  euinp.iiliiK  the  tldckiieaaofl 

to  realst  a  Riven  workili);  prejwuns  is  t  =  -J',  where  )•  is  tile  rudltw  la  li 

l>  the  preaaure  In  ponnd:*  per  Rrpiare  incli.  and  /  the  tenacity  of  (Im  lr| 
•quar*  loch.  When  /  =  l^mtkl,  and  a  factor  of  safety  of  3  U  uaed,  (1m 
ejtpressed  Iu  terint  uf  tl  and  h  beonnies 

'~     SOW    ~  iwuw  ~  ■"*^"'*'^ 


II  addU 

!tM^ 

'tSi 

Ko.4, 

No. «. 
No,  T, 

No  It. 
letrr  in  In 


"nmrw"^   '     '      una,  however,  arising  from  dimculU««  tn 
•A«  •»  bv  ■<bri<-k«.  whiob  eimsw  ^Vw  v\v\«VM«a 

■  the  m1»>vc  ti>rm»\a." 


rS5 


THICKNESS    OF    CAST-IBOK    PIPE. 


189 


I  ar  SKcUiI  sn<l  1W«l|Ebt  per  Lengih  for  IMIIler«nt 
iorcui>lrou  Plp«ii  under  Various  BeadH  of  Wat^r. 
(Warren  Foundrj  and  Machine  Co.) 


S6 

lOO 

ISO 

•00 

990 

800 

FtHwd. 

Ft.  Head.    Ft 

.  Hvad. 

Ft.  H»«d. 

Ft,  Head. 

Ft.  Head. 

i"3 

1^     1 

1 

si 

i3ii 

i! 

II 

P 

^^.,^ 

"a 

^•5   *| 

.880 

.ago 

'i 

^^■11    M4 

t4« 

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isa 

.871     167 

161 

166 

^^^U  wp 

«;a 

aoi 

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s.ai 

.897     8I« 

.400 

sae 

.431 

285 

^^H  w 

ROT 

365 

.408 

S!75 

.428     380 

.438 

£98 

,45.1 

800 

^^^m  sn 

.411 

330 

.4-.» 

845 

.447     361 

.405 

877 

.48."l 

393 

^^BK^    44SI    .450        4TQ 

.474 

SOiJ 

4S8      539 

.5J« 

557 

.M(> 

584 

^^KkdI    iu«;    .iHol      Rii 

.519 

m 

.519'     788 

..^79 

7«« 

,6011 

8aH 

■P^.«!     768i    .»27        i^2tS 

.588 

KB5 

.599     844 

.635 

1U04 

,071 

inu4 

■f     .m    Wt    .5661    103I 

.600 

nil 

.650    Il»l 

.69» 

187S 

.784 

135$ 

■f      ,U?  11M    .601      13^) 

.«Si! 

1360 

.700    1463 

.748 

1568 

.798 

lOTTJ 

■i    .m  iffM)    fits    isou 

.697 

1680 

.751    1761 

.806 

1894 

.8.111 

att 

■l     .tu  ignsl  .682     tT6.3 

.742 

19£4 

.803    3088 

.sm 

2848 

.«a 

■t    .iw;  si«)'  .-:69    :2S4U 

.8X1 

tmi 

.903   «8ll 

»TB 

3045 

1.047 

S 

■H       Iffi  »>30    .876     Sil76 

.9(15 

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I.OCpS;  4095 

1.145 

4458 

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9 

■M   '    Sti   4070!    .9SlO     4581 

1 

.09S 

50fW 

1  aoa'  .')6i8 

1.814 

Bias 

1.438 

S 

■«  1  »»)  sattii.ioei  5058 

1 

.s;k 

CMT  1.358!  T3(W 

1.4S4 

8070 

I.CIO 

<■ 

BM   'l.O'  66161,222"    75-Jl'   1 

.800 

8«1  1.510   9340' 

1.C.M 

10:.<CO 

1.798  imp 

'.  All p)p«  cast  vertically  In  dr>'  wind;  the  3  to  13  inch  in  li^ngihs  ot  13  f^t, 
"^Urger  Biles  tn  lengtbk  of  12  feet  4  Incben. 

Prennrea  mnA  Equivalent  Head*  of  Water  for  Cant* 
Iron  Pipe  of  DlflPerent  Sizes  and  TI»l«fcne«se«. 

(Caictilated  bf  F.  H.  LewLs,  from  FanniUK't  Formula.) 


E 

aim  of  Pl(«.                                                              1 

IL 

4" 

«" 

8" 

10" 

12" 

14" 

18" 

19" 

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90«    4r,5    168 

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ai«i  612  an 
v.'.'.]'.'.'.'.  '..'.'. 

616 

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p 


190 

^^^P                        ^^^^H 

Safe  PreMurcs^  etc.,  for  Cant-Iron  Pipe,— (CbiiflH 

Size  of  Pipe. 

Thick- 
ness. 

23" 

«4" 

27" 

80" 

gS" 

86" 

42" 

♦8" 

II 

3j 

II 

s 

El 

II 

tis. 

fill 

u 

ft.c 

HI 

1! 

a 

S  3 

u 

11 

n 

31) 

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in 

H 

• — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

11-16 

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IM 

80    13» 

4> 

11.1 

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u    u 

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10    IM 

M 

IM 

5tl 

180 

31      M 

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101 

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s«  m 

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n 

n 

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m 

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101 

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m 

lilM 

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ag 

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161 

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All 

114  wa 

M 

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IM 

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tl 

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1  It 

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4U 

167 

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list 

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no 

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4M    171 

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,,  ,, 

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bi 

' 

Nora.— The  absolutu  safe  static  pressure  which  mftv  b« 

sr    s 
put  upon  pipe  la  Blven  by  the  formula  P  =  "^  ^^  T'  *" 

which  formula  P  is  th«  pressure  per  square  inch;  T,  the 
Uiiekoesa  of  ihe  shell;  if.  the  ultlmale  .itretiBlh  per  square 
inch  of  the  metal  in  tension:  and  D.  the  inside  diameter  of 
the  pipe.  In  the  tables  S  Is  taken  as  IWOO  pimnda  per 
square  inch,  with  a  working  .mrain  of  <<ne  tiflh  this  aniounl 
or  SIKX)  tioundc  per  square   uich.     The    furmula  for  Che 

TSOOT 
absolute  safe  static  pressure  then  Is:  P  =  — =r— . 

It  Is,  however,  usual  to  allow  for  "  water-ram  "  bj-  in- 
creasin^  the  ihickoess  euongli  to  provUe  for  100  pomwlg 
additional  static;  pressure,  and,  to  Insure  sufficient  metal  for 
good  castin:;  and  for  wear  and  tear,  a  further  iiicreaoe 

eqimIto.S)a(l  -  j^). 

The  expression  for  ilie  tllickoeas  then  becomes: 

^      (P-HOO)D 


7JO0 


•+««('-l^. 


lOO. 


and  for  .safe  worUinp:  prossiire 

The  nil(IIiii<nal  section  provided  as  above  reprenents  Mi 
liicrea<ted  vnliie  under  static  pressure  for  the  different  slses 
of  pipe  lis  follows  (see  table  In  innreiu)  So  that  to  lest 
the  pipes  up  til  o(ie  fifth  of  Ihe  ultimate  streneth  of  the 
material,  llie  preSHures  In  the  mnr»;inal  table  shoulil  be 
•tided  to  Uie  pressure-values  given  in  the  table  abov^ 


1 

SHEET-IROX    HYUKALLIC 

PIPE. 

191  ■ 

1 

8HEET>UtON   1IT0RAI7I.IC   PIPK. 

1 

■ 

(Pel ton  Wat«r- Wheel  Co.) 

■ 

R> 

r  foot,  with  safe  bead  for  various  sizes  of  tJoubLe-rivetrd  pipe.     ^^M 

j||,l=  ; 

«-  •-£ 

0 

.£-i 

.is 

-iu^     V 

=^1 

|£5 

■3^ 

< 

s  ^  i 

m 

d  1 

|Jo. 

B.W.Q. ' 

feet. 

lbs. 

in. 

eq.in. 

B.G.W. 

feet. 

lbs. 

7 

18 

400 

S 

18 

854 

16 

165 

16K 

» 

18 

850 

s« 

18 

254 

14 

252 

aoH 

18 

18 

625 

8 

IS 

854 

18 

385 

27Ji 

1>0 

18 

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18 

854 

Jt 

424 

80*           ,, 

m 

IS 

SOO 

18 

254 

10 

505 

84           Ji 

B 

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675 

5 

20 

314 

18 

148 

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314 

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227 

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12 

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192 


MATKntALS. 


HTANDABD  PIPE  FLANGEtt. 

Adopted  July  18,  ISUl.  at  a  coufeience  of  committees  of  'lie 
Society  of  Meclimiienl  Engineer*,  ftiid  tlie  Master  Sleiiui  nnd  Hot' 
ter»'  A6:»ciatioD,  witli  representalives  of  leading  niauufncturers 
of  iil|ie 

T lie  lint  is  divided  Into  two  giMiip^;  for  medium  and  1iii;ii  pirf 
Unit  rRnRiu^r  up  to  75  lbs.  per  sqiiaiv  Inch,  and  llie  second  up  toj* 


e  dirideil  into  iwu  scales,  one  (on 

or  lilgli  presaiii^.    For  tnedium  JW 

nines  2  to  Jil  Indies  diameter  iliclua 


NoTBs. — Sixes  up  to  24  inches  are  deatx' 

Sixes  fioiii  a  to  IH  inches  are  < 

ni  liei'  for  le>«. 

riie  sizes  of  bolts  (rfven  are  for  I 
ili«iiiett!rs  are  !r(j-iiicn  less  for  pipes  ; 

inch  le«s  for  laitter  slaes,  except  Jt^-liiuh  pipe,  for  which  the  sine  ol 
inches. 

When  two  lines  of  fipiires  occur  under  one  headlni?,  the  wlnitlec 
to  tf4  Incliex  are  for  both  niediiun  nnd  liiKli  pressures.  BeKinnI 
hii-)!  ■■•  ■'•  '  ■"  hand  columns  are  for  medium  and  the  rlKhtban 
fi.i  '  res. 

I  ':orease  in  diameters  at  IB  inches  is  due  to  the  po« 

tioi  '•■■—  pipe,  making  with  a  nearly  connlant  nliith  i 

gr<  I  ii'iihle, 

\^  ^  pipe  is  used.  If  thinner  fInnKPS  than  tlioM 

(III I  sed  that  IxxsM'K  Ik-  usimI  U*  brlnif  the  mits 

etj«  Ids  avoids  iliH  use  of  a  reinforcement  aroinii 

•  I    f<Mirth,  fifth,  and  last  ctduinos  refer  only  I 

ei  n  verliCHl  line  ^araWeV  Vo  fVv««^^ 
I-  4M  tUc  upbtil'  suitt  ol  \-^*  AM>i«a. 


CA8T-IR0X    PIPE  AXD   PIPK    FLANGES. 


raiONB  OF  PIPE  FI.ANCES  AND  CAST-Il 
PIPKS. 

(J.  E.  OAdman,  Engiuet-rs'  Club  <il  Pliiimlt-lpliin,  lijctU  ) 


c 


II 

111 

i£ 

j-ss 

0^ 

o 

¥ 

n 

a 

i  m 

ni^ 

.  P  =  Dmiiwler  of  pipe.    All  dimensions  in  inches. 

•^fLt  -TIiIl-Uim-ss  of  flnuee  =  0.033O  4-  O.il). 
.;■  |il|.e  =  on-";)/)  J-0  3iT. 

|p.>  per  fiKit  =  0.2JD'  ^-  3D. 
•  iiigt- =  .0010'  + 0.1//»  +  Z)+8. 
M.uii-t-;r-r  (I'lnge  =  1.1»0  +  4.25> 
riliiiii.'irrof  bolt  (Micle  =  l.(Hh.'D4-*J.5l)U. 
fliaiiifU<r  iif  iHill  =  U.OllO  +  0.73. 
NiiiiilK-r  of  holts  -  ll.TBf/  +  2.56. 

'IPE  PLA.NGES  FOB  HIGH  8TKAJn*PRE;SSl>HK. 

<(.'l>upuiun  Vttlve  .Mf(r.  Co.) 
ifof      Ditttuel)'!' 


194 


MATERIALS. 


I 


8TANDABD  SIZES,  ETC.,  OF  WmorCiHT-lB< 
For  Water,  «■«,  or  Steam. 

(Briggs  Standard.) 


1 


Diameter  of  Tube. 

is 

lii 

E  3  c 

1^?!^ 

1 

■3  i 
II 

<  =  ^ 

Ins. 

=5i 

pi 

Ills. 

I..S. 

IllM. 

Ina. 

Ins. 

Fwt. 

Feet. 

^ 

» : 

.370 

.405 

.068 

MS 

1.272 

14.15 

9.44 

.OR 

1 

.364 

.540 

.088 

l.Ui 

1.096 

10.50 

7.075 

.l«1 

M; 

.494 

.673 

.091 

1.55  J 

a. 121 

7.67 

6.6.-7 

.»» 

il 

.823 

.»40 

.lOB 

l.i»57 

S  653 

6  13 

4.502 

•*{!! 

K 

.894 

1  ftMt 

.US 

3.0*9 

3.289 

4.635 

8.687 

.M 

1 

1.048 

1.31A 

■  W 

3,292 

4.134 

3,079 

sm 

.Mfl 

Hi 
1^1 1 

1.380 

1  BfiO 

.uo 

a.3:i5 

5.215 

2.768 

2.801 

I.4M 

l.BIO 

i.aoo 

.MS 

5.0«I 

5.969 

a  371 

a.oi 

3.m 

3^ 

8  0B7 

3  375 

.l.'-.l 

0,494 

7.461 

1. 818 

1. 611 

s.tss 

S^4 

i.m 

a.87S 

.•J04 

7.7.54 

oOTa 

1.547 

i.jae 

4.WI 

3 

8  067 

3  500 

.'JI7 

n.iao 

10  99£ 

1.245 

1.091 

7.W 

MM 

S.MH 

4.000 

.sae 

n.i4H 

12.f*8 

1.077 

.965 

»-S 

4 

4  Am 

4.500 

237 

r.'.ojH 

14.137 

.949 

.849 

It  MO 

m 

4.!H\» 

.-,.000 

.•JW 

14.153 

15.708 

.848 

.765 

15.W 

S 

5.04.5 

.■>..',63 

.2.50 

15. W9 

17.475 

.767 

.699 

It.MO 

(1 

6.U«5 

H.tW5 

.cso 

lUOM 

20  818 

.63 

.577 

aw 

7 

7.043 

7.«--'5 

:m 

22.  Otis 

SI.HSI 

.544 

.506 

.50^3 

H 

7.083 

s.oa.'i 

Si-l 

2.5.070 

27.090 

.478 

.444 

♦9 

9,000 

9.688 

,344 

28.J77 

30.433 

.42S 

.384 

«}M 

10 

10.019 

10.7.10 

.aisa 

81.476 

88.772 

.881 

.355 

■n.m 

*  By  the  uclioti  uf  Ibu  ^lanufucturers  of  Wrouelitiiijii 
TiilifS.al  ft  meftine  helil  in  Ne«  Vi>rk,  May  9,  lSi<9.  a  clmnw 
iiiitsiilf  iliiiiiieler  of  l)-inoli  I'ipe  wns  a<t(i(ilt'<l,  niuliiiii;  ihe  I 
of  9.&SH  iiichas,  tt-s  given  in  the  liilik-  nf  Uri(;irit'  siiaiKJard  1^1 

Fitr  itiscnssliiii  uf  the  Briefs  Slniidarrt  of  VVrfniEht-inin   1 
Xfe  Kypnri  of  iIil-  Committer  nf  ilie  A.  .S.  M  E.  in  "  Stand.i 
Threails,"  18«(j.    Trans,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  29.    The  flares  In  I  he  o< 
coliiiiiu  are  deriFed  from  the  formula 


D  -  (0.052)  +  1.9)  X  — , 


!«X« 


sr  of  tfiit 


in  wblcti  D  =  outside  diainetf  r  of  the  tubes,  and  n  the  number  of  tbrt 
the  Inch.    The  figures  in  the  last  column  are  derived  from 

0.8—  X  3  +  d,  or  l.fti  +  d,  in  which  rf  is  the  diameter  at  the 

ihrend  at  the  end  of  the  pipe.  , 

Having  till-  lup<T,  lengih  of  fiiU-iUreaded  portion,  and  thn  suesstt 
niid  top  of  thread  at  tiie  end  of  the  pipe,  a»  givcfo  in  tho  tilt>l'*.  rii{M»i 
fan  be<  inadi*  to  seciiie  these  points  oorreclly,  ihe  iengih  '  •'  '"■■ 
tlireadi-d  porlioil.i  on  llm  |>1|W.  nnd  Ihe  lencth  tlietap  Is  no. 
tieyiiod  Ihe  point  at  whk-h  tlif  sine  is  as  Bi'fU,  or,  in  oil., 
the  end  of  the  jiine,  havinj;  no  ,.frfet  upon  ihestandanl.  ihk™..!... 
tliread  is('<^*.  and  it  i*i<iliglitiy  roiimlt^l  off  ai  top  and  bottom,  ro  ttiM, « 
of  its  depth  lieing  equal  to  its  pitch,  as  is  the  ciua  wiih  a  full  V- 

4/5  the  pitch,  or  equal  to  0.8—,  n  being  the  oumber  of  thread!  1 


AVJIOUGHT-IBON    PIPE.  lUfj 

Msea,  ete.,  of  W^roaglit-Iron  Pipe— (Con/inned.) 


Sixes,  ete. 

Screwed  Ends. 

'   .s^ 

b 

s 

-fc 

^ 

^ 

'"ssS. 

o  's.i 

5   .CO 
Sao  o  o 
J)   .=&. 

III 

I  pwt. 

Lba. 

Lba. 

No. 

locb. 

Inches. 

Incheo. 

aoo. 

843 

.0006 

.005 

ar 

.19 

.8a4 

.893 

.13B&. 

.423 

.0036 

.021 

18 

.^ 

.433 

.5SBi 

7&1.B 

.£61 

.0067 

.047 

18 

30 

.567 

.650 

<:^.l 

.845 

.0108 

.085 

14 

,89 

.701 

.Si.'! 

sro. 

i.r.>« 

.0*30 

.19(1 

14 

.40 

.911 

1.085 

■    1*1  9       l.r.TO 

.0406 

.840 

1U$ 

.61 

1.144 

i.8*«a 

■  !>' 

.063H 

.S-i? 

iiH 

.54 

1.488 

1.627 

^B '. 

.0918 

.760 

inj 

.55 

1.737 

l.StKi 

H^' 

.1033 

1.:5C 

11^ 

.68 

a.2 

a.ssu 

^■o.i:,    ^."3 

.2550 

S.116 

8 

.89 

8.62 

2.8J 

^B  40      T.MT 

.3678 

S.049 

8 

.95 

8.341 

3.441 

^■i  M'     U  IKA 

.4998 

4.158 

8 

1.00 

3,73S 

3  039 

^^■M  10  T2H 

,«5a8 

6.406 

8 

1.0S 

i  -iV, 

4,435 

^^Hl1!>4{K> 

.8-3(13 

6.861 

8 

1.10 

4.732 

4.93J 

^^H^J  .'M 

1  OiO 

8.800 

8 

1  16 

5. Hill 

5.491 

^^H  je.TBT 

1  4G9 

18  ai3 

8 

1.2C 

C  310 

6  MO 

^^H  83.410 

1.099 

i«.oca 

8 

1  30 

7  34 

7.64 

^■■■t8.«4a 

J  6)1 

41.750 

8 

J  46 

8..H34 

8,634 

1       t.MI  34  OTT 

a.aoo 

27.r«0 

8 

1.57 

».8» 

9.59 

1       \.m\  40  Ml 

4.0B1 

84.000 

8 

1.68 

10.445 

10.645 

■rc(« 

ical  tubt 

ends,  1 

iu  a  to 

axis  c 

f  tube  = 

=  ?i  inch  to  the  foot 

I 


^Bl below  are  butt-welded,  and  proved  to  SOO pounds  persquai'«'  inch  I 
^^niui  khove  are  lap-welded,  and  proved  to  600  pouiidn  per  sqaarel 


SIZES   ABOVE  10  INCHES. 


I.Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Limited.) 


B96        ^^P^ 

Ttt.VTERI.VLS.                         ^^^1 

WROlfeHX-lBOW 

wmijDkh  tc^bbs,  extb%  netmgm 

^^                                  Standard  Dimenalona.                  ^^| 

v* 

Actual  Oiit- 

TlilfkiiK*). 

TliicUiiess. 

AOual  Inside 

A«9 

Nominal 

Kxtra 

Dmible 

lllunitflnr. 

Ol^^^l 

, Diaiuewr. 

Dlainet^i'. 

.Sli-oug. 

Exira 

Kxira 

[Ain^H 

fe 

_ 

Strong. 

Strung, 

mw 

^1    Incheg. 

Indies. 

Ineheg. 

Indies. 

lacbes. 

iBdJ 

1 

0  mi 

0.51 

0  075 

0.100 
0.138 
0  I'JT 

• 

0.805 
O.Wi 
0  4ai 

..,..•..  *i 

li 

, ii 

0  81 

0.H9 

0  298 

0M» 

C.ttt' 

^H          al 

1.05 

0.157 

0  .'in 

0  730 

t.m. 

H 

1.315 

iMHa 

0  :«} 

0.951 

DS9 

1     1^ 

].66 

0  191 

0.!«8 

1.S72 

?:a 

1.9 

0  if« 

n.40B 

1.494 

H 

S  875 

0  -i-Jl 

0.442 

1.933 

14W 

■       «Hi 

51,875 

o.asn 

0.560 

8, SIB 

i.a 

■ 

3.5 

0  .104 

0  im 

4SiW 

lati 

■       »\4 

4.0 

0.331 

0.M2 

11.858 

tni 

1        ^ 

4  5 

0.311 

o.mi 

8  818 

j.at 

STANDARD    SIZES 

,    ETC.,  OF    I-AP.WEI.DKO  Cud 

^_                            COAL- 

IBOX    BOILEB-Xr'BES.                   1 

^B                                  (Uori'iis,  Tasher  &  C"..  Limited).                         I 

m\ 

1 

i 

is 

OS 

luU^rnnl 

£iteiiial 

2     -  'r. 

6^            i.  s  1    J 

mh 

■a 

ES 

Ai«a. 

A  I'M. 

•2^  -" 

■1^ 

1^ 

i' 

r 

^ 

Ft 

14 

J- 

_; 

^^-1^ 

^Plnsk  1  Ins. 

Inrt,    Iiifi.  1  Ins. 

"-■%% 

Bq.  In.i9q.Ft 

^.7l»l   .oilM 

Fl. 
1  4«n 

n.  1 

salt 

:a1 

1  1-4  l.iM  .ow    ;t.i:i  a.ftjT 

Mu  .ow; 

I.SM7     .(1KB 

a  44r. 

S  .1. 

»  i-«,  i.as*i  .lua    itoi  4.7IS 

i.xsM   .oa»7 

|.7«7     .IIIS3 

8  SKS 

!     - 

1  a-4  i.eiui;  .iKn    rvDi  s.iwi 

l.»lt     .01» 

»,4l>.i     .01f,7 

S.MS 

'!  ; 

^^t      '  i.BM  .ws    5  m;,  II  -aa 

H.&W    .0177 

n  HJ     .(fJlH 

S  lilt 

1  »' 

^K*  i-i'  -■'^•t    o^*    I'  <«*  '  oo* 

.1.SII   .cnao 

a,»7lll     irKO 

I.IVW 

1  • 

^■■1-8   t.iSSl   AM      7.173    7. KM 

4. mi    uM 

t.Willl   .0341 

1.1)73 

1 

^■n  3-t'  S.6XI|   .lilD  1  7.m:    KMI 

6.ie»  .011 

lllKi    .l>ll« 

l.liOS 

I  ■■  ■ 

^■l          S  tiu'  -llN     .t  ,«.-!    g  ij.> 

n.Mu   .«m 

J.MU    .W»l 

1..173 

1  'i.j      1  ■.-' 

^H  3  1-t'  i  ui3|  .1111  ;  »  MS 

III  2111 

7.rili     .lll«6 
11X57     .IL-UI 

ItiSt)    .1J.-.7I1 

I  »« 
I   171 

I  IIS    1  lat  , 
1  Ml     1  la 

^■3  1-»   3  3113 1     119    tu 'il« 

ill  Ml 

^l s  s-t,  :  .'>ii!  .iiv  ii.imii.7Hi 

v.Mi   .m-i 

11,  IM.'.    ,n;«7 

I,"** 

l.0)»        I.Oj 

^■t      >x.;tii    ISO  u-.muMK 

w.<m  .ii:m;    la  .-^   .<»;2 

I.OtS 

.•U        .ID 

^mil^'tm'    iw  1113^14  i>; 

14  1!K     .iMl'     ie.»l4'    .IKit 

aoi 

.II4(     1     .K) 

^■1       1  l.77tll   .1(11  il(.M8ir>. 

KM 

17.111!,  .ISI.'ll     ID.IW     .1.V.4 

.8n» 

■""  1  •'S 

^^■4                                             IK 

'I,-,  .Tllli    .1771      SM.J/Ii   .IIWS 

.«:i> 

.«S7          .M 

^^Bff                       '    ' 

■  ^it.'.    .■;il7      S«.(84    .8II73 

-J74 

.W       JN  1 

^^Hh 

..ki    .JUS       »».'.■<»    .MW 

.mo 

•^    1    'i!  1 

^^B^ 

'11     ^l>ln     «:>  1117     44111 

.444 

.M4    .4M  n 

^^K^ 

^         ■^   '-('11     MM 

.aw 

.W        .»)   1 

II        1 

•■•Mil 

.Ml 

.S47  1  ,p>  a 

U        1 

^.i4 

.9M 

.91I         M   I 

IS         1 

■';I1 

.aa 

.tin 

91 

.JRl 

M 

^^Hi 

!^H 

.J4T 

KM 

^M 

,  ;C,  J 

Kill 

tit 

11 

f.:i 

^^H*             '"" 

■r-.<.l 

.»"7 

,*» 

«l 

^■pi 

I-II7 

.1»7 

IM            »   1 

^^Kci        "^1 

.     .      lUO 

IM 

i»i   '    laj 

."I?  IT  boiler  liurfACC  of  tittM«,  lb«  Wig 
■^  heitiiM'  iut«mAj  orcxtriiijtl  tntiHMM 

^^Ls 

^HLii"  ' 

Miiwrtimllint  »Vi-Mn,  or  W>tt<.HT»\»«  'U^^l 

■1 

M 

H 

■ 

■ 

J  eurlouc 

Ql  vUe  luVt 

I 

kV>V:\ 

kklCVk. 

I 

■ 

BIVETED   IBOX   PIPE. 


197 


he  square  feet  of  gnrfooa,  S,  In  a  tube  of  a  Ki^en  lenetb,  L,  in  fee r, 
^inneter,  d.  In  incliM,  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  tb>^  diHuietrr  la 

landby.aCJS.    Or,S=-^~- —   =  .'iO}8dL.    For  the  diametera  in  the 

Ikrlow,  multiply  tbe  length  in  feet  by  the  flg:ure8  given  opposite  ifae 


SqimiH  Feet 
pt?r  Fool 
Xenjctb. 

Inches, 
Diatuoter. 

Square  Feet 
p*^  Foot 
Length. 

IncheB, 
Diameter. 

Square  Fert 
per  Foot 
Length. 

.0AM 
.18<» 
.l!M3 
.2618 
.3^73 
.3927 
.45SI 
.5238 

4  * 

.SBSO 

Mia 

.7199 
.78M 
.flSOS 
.9163 
.9817 
l.(MT2 

e 

8 
1 
8 
S 
10 
11 
12 

1  9000 
1.6708 
1.83M       , 
S.0M4       ! 

9.ei80 
8.8798 
S.MIfl 

BIVETED  IRON  PIPE. 

(Abt'iiilnith  A  Runt  Mfg.  Co.; 

1  puncheil  anil  rolled,  ready  fnr  riveting',  are  packed  tu  convenient 
>(«r  Fliipoienl.  Tim  follow  iiig  (able  »howi)  the  Iron  and  rivelH  rt:<)iiired 
Mliched  and  formed  sheet*. 


t9i|n*rt  Feel  ut  Irun 

ti  Id  lnivl«-  ICO  Ltnt'ill 

truitchffl  iLtKl  K<»nin'(l 

•  *hMi  put  toother. 


11^ 


Sana  re 
Feet. 


go 

IIS 
ISO 
1^8 
Sl« 
884 

3S9 
314 
343 
3611 


mm 

Siiiiibi'r  8qunre  Kcrt  of  Iron 
irqllliltl  III  nlnki-  IWI.IUHiI 

'.~=~-cC 

Slit'elt*  W'tllMl  )iitt  lo^etlLel-. 

«it=      1 

csij-t^S 

Dlaiii- 

Width  uf 

te.-^ 

Eo  ecb  S3 

•< 

eUT  In 
Inobuii. 

Ijip  111 
Inchej. 

1,600 

14 

]W 

897 

1.700 

ys 

]^ 

43S 

l.fKW 

]<) 

1  w 

45.' 

1,900 

18 

Jl2 

ftOG 

a.ooo 

so 

}W 

fi6a 

a.axi 

S3 

1^ 

fll7 

V,:<t>0 

S4 

1^ 

(170 

?.JIM1 

BB 

1  i^ 

7^'> 

a.soo 

88 

]S 

rio 

a,  BOO 

HO 

)S 

«HB 

S,700 

3fl 

1% 

ees 

8,800 
«.«O0 
3.000 
3,800 

3.rino 

8,700 
3.000 
4,100 
4.4CO 
4.fi00 
C-JOO 


HT  OP   ONE   KQirARE   FOOT   OP    8HEKT>IRON 
POR  RIVETED  PIPE. 


Thicknea*  by^  th«  Rlrmtngtaam  Wlre-Gauffe. 


Ttiick 

111"*  in 

IVvimalB 

I  if  an 

Inch. 


.I'lft 
IKi 
OJX 

iOS 


WeiRht 
III  ll« , 
Blucli. 


.I<8 

t.m 

J  40 


\\ViKh< 
hi  lliH.. 

BlUL'k. 


l.W 
8  «1 

8.113 
4.37 


Wpieht 

in  His.. 

(JmIvhii- 

Ized. 


«  19 

4.ao 


198 


MATERIALS. 

SPIRAI.    BIVKTBD   PIPE. 

(AUcndrutb  &  Root  Hfg.  Co ) 


Tbicknesii, 


B.  W,  G. 

No.     ■ 


9S 

93 
80 
18 
16 

14 


Inch  eg. 


Diam- 
eter, 
Inches. 


.018 
.Ota 
.(M8 
.OSS 
.049 
.065 
.063 


3  to  6 

S  to  IS 

3  to  U 

S  Co  34 

S  to  -24 

B  to  Si 

B  to  ti4 


Apprivxlmat*"  Wpiglit 

ill  Ihs.  per  fool  iu 

Lenglli. 


lbs.: 


=a  of  diun,  in  ioa. 
=.4 

=  .B 
=.6 
=  .8 
=  1.1         " 


AppfoiliiuI«j 

iDg  Preaurel 

|ier  sq.  il 


!T0O]bs.-HlM 

aooo  "  f  '• 

4H00    "  -I-    " 
B400    "  ■*■    "j 


The  above  are  black  pipex.  OaWanbsed  weighs  from  10  to  N  |i4 
heavier.  Double  Galvaaized  Spiral  Riveted  Flanged  Pressure  Plpe^ 
to  150  Ills,  hydraulic  preBBUre. 


Inside  ditttneUM's,  Inches 8 

TblcUuesu.  B.  W.  G ,30 

Nominal  wefght  per  foot,  ]ba,..j  9)4 


SI  61  T 
»I8  18 
4    &I  6 


B  9  IDIII 
IS  18  16  IS 
6  1112 


l-.'|M|l< 

16  leu 

14llS|«0 


DIMENSIONS  OF  SPIRAL   PIPE  FITTlNeS. 

DltuenitiouB  lu  luchcs. 


Inside 
Diameter. 


ins. 
3 

4 

e 

B 

7 

8 

S 
10 
11 
1! 
IS 
14 
IS 
18 
18 
80 


Outside 
Diameter 
Flongea. 


G 

7 

8 

B% 
10 
11 
13 
14 
IG 
16 
17 

ai  3-1 e 


Number 
Bolt  Holes. 


Diameter 
Bolt  Holeit. 


4 

B 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8. 
8 
13 
13 

n 
la 

18 
13 

I« 
16 


11-18 
11-16 


Diailiefi  !• 
Circles  on 
which  Boll 
Holes  are 
Drilled. 


SEAnrLBSil  BRASS  TITBE.     IRON>PiPB  SI 

(Kandolph  Jt  Clowes). 
(For  actual  diraenBlons  see  tables  of  WrouKbt-troa  Pipe.) 


Kom- 
iiiai 
Size. 

WelRht 

p«<r 

Foot,  lbs. 

No.n.      ^ 
Inal 
8t»-.     F 

4 
S 
6 
T 
V      »     V 

4 

6.833 
8.S«U 

\ 

BRASS  TUBIXaj    COILED   PIPES. 


199 


SIVKSS   Ita.A\ni    BBASS-Tt/BINO. 

(Baodolph  &  Clowes,  Waterbury,  Conn.) 

meter  3-16  to  T^  inches.    Tliickiie«!i  of  nallg  StoiS  Stubbi* 
(13  feel.    Tbe  foilowiD^  nre  the  standard  sizes: 

SEAMLESS  DRAWN  BBASS-TtTBING. 


IF 

Stuhbs' 
orOl.l 

Outside 
Diam- 

I^eiiKt]] 
Feet. 

Stubbs' 
or  Old 

Oiitsidp 
Diiiio 

Len*;tli 
Fett. 

Stubhs' 
or  Old 

a 

Gauge. 

eter. 

Uauge. 

eter. 

Qauge. 

ao 

m 

12 

'-*      1 

^ 

IS 

2 

10 

13 

14 

la 

a 

19 

12 

13 

3 

li 

« 

18 

18 

13 

^ 

u 

a 

18 

I  i.*-ifl 

le 

la 

13 

a 

17 

I  15-16 

12 

12 

4 

10  to  la 

a 

17 

12 

13 

a 

10  to  12 

i 

J7 

2 

IS 

12 

fti. 

10  to  IS 

a 

17 

1 

IS 

IS 

10  w  12 

» 

16 

18 

12 

5^ 

10  to  12 

a 

16 

18 

12 

0 

10  to  12 

L 

15 

3M 

12 

11 

COI1.KD    PIPES. 

'ational  Pipe-betidiiiK  Co.,  New  Uavcn,  Conn.) 

DF  STEEL  OR  fRON  PIPE  ;   WELDED  LENGTHS. 


I Inches 

1e  dlAineter  of  coll  contaiu 
t  of  pipe  HQd  less.  .  Iiichfa 
d*"  dianietpr  of  colli)  ov«r  S^ 
Wt  o-ver  5»0  feet Inches 


Butt- welded  Pipe 

I.d 

Wfi< 

I'll 

H 

H    H 

H 

1 

IM 

m 

s 

8W   3« 

4 

6 

6 

I'j 

A 

7    ^^7H 

m 

S 

11 

14 

f  SEAMLESS  DRAWN  BRASS  AND  COPPER  TUBING. 


H 


» 


m 


Id 


14 


16     IS 


Hrawosteel  tiibM.  imported  ly  P,  B.  Justice  *  Cn.  Pliila- 
^e  In  Klzes  from  i^  to  4H  Inc'ics  r.;.i.  .1  diameter,  varying 
»itli  thlckneM  ot  walla  from  1-IC  to  1116  inches.  Themaxi- 
115  re«t. 


LEAD   PIPE. 

I.BAJ>  AND  TIN«I.INKD  liEAD  PIPE. 

[Tathniii  A  Broti.,  fTew  York.j 


.. 

II 

1 
1 

iT 

S 
^ 

I     in. 

E 

0 

•• 

D 

» 

■  « 

0 

12 

•t 

B 

10 

1* 

A 

la 

M 

AA 

87 

•* 

AAA 

l^ln. 

K 
D 

7 

•  1 

0 

9 

•  » 

B 

]l 

i 

A 

13 

•  • 

A  A 
AAA 

18 

l^lD. 

E 

19 

D 

48 

*» 

C 

85 

*t 

R 

8 

•* 

A 

9 

■I 

AA 

IS 

** 

AAA 

IS 

m  In- 

C 

to 

B 

ii 

•* 

A 

iB 

ll 

AA 

8 

3     111. 

C 

10 

B 

la 

'* 

A 

15 

M 

AA 

ay 

It 

AAA 

Xi 

ao 

Weight  r>or 
Foot  aad  Roil. 


Hi  11)8.  per 


foot 


OP   I.KAD  PIPK  \«'III<?H  KIIO«<LD  BK  CSED 
FOB   A  GIVKN  HK.tD  OF  WAT1i:K. 

(Taihani  *  Bro.s  .  Ni>w  V<ii  k.)  j 


11^      m\   iDcli. 


lSlb«. 
»lb«. 

aoibs. 
nib*. 

Ll«0  )b«. 


CftllUra  Bii4  Wciiflit  per  Foot, 


Letter.  Hlnob.  H inch.  ^  Inch,  ^incli. 


D 

C 

B 

A 
AA 
AAA 


to     M. 
IS      07.. 

1     lb. 

lUllHi, 
lU  ll>8. 

If4  lbs. 


Mlb.  1     lb.     l^llix. 

1  Iti.  mibH.   1U  Ihv 

iWlbB.  »       lbs     I'W  1I)M. 

l»ilW».  -njlbs.   :|     llw, 

2  lbs.  ^ii  lbs.  auibs. 
»      lbs.  4t  IbH  I  4Pi  IhH. 


I  Inch. 


1)4  in. 


3  lbs.  2U  IbB. 
-J>ilb!<.  a  IVm. 
;ilH  ItmJ  a^i  Urn. 

4  Ills.'  44-4  I   s. 
4^1bH..  0      III 
0     llR.^  e^i  lb 

>la4  tbe  IblrkiieMn  ol*  lead  plp«   required  wlieu   the 
1  of  wmer  I"  Iflven.     iCbnuwick  Uyicl  Worksi. 

I.e.  beail  lu  feet  by  sl2«  of  pipe  wanlwl,  •'X! 
7W);  the  qiiolleiit  will  give  tblclcness  rcu 

-/cvguimJ  tbIckaesB  of  half-inch  pipe  tor  a  head 
sex0.a>-*- TOO  =0.16  inch. 


MATEK1AL8. 


«i  w 


issilEllsSSiiiSiss 


^»5 

S5 


•  a 
o  d 


* 

1^ 

1 

-p 

=  s 

|J 

-J  3 

1' 

5e 

^ 

ss|§SiBS§iiS23=8il 


^«ss3ill§iiiisl§ii 


vs(5^Sssi:322=2SgSa8i 


S^S^$!S^3;i33S3SSe3Si 


-^  s  si  IS -«>  K — c>  e> « t-° « lo  le  V  « id  a 


b 

s 

a 

1 

^^ 

m.  ft 

°~, 

J3 

K 

^ 

? 

^- 

u 

.ioooioeoeao9^7t<pgS2S2r*d 


BOLT  COPPER — SHEET  ANT)   BAR   BRASS. 

'WEIGHT  OF  ROUND  BOLT  COPPEB. 
Per  Foot. 


Founds. 


.485 

.786 
1.18 
1.70 
2.31 


Incbes. 


Pounds, 


3  08 
«.83 
4.TJ 
5.7^3 

«.B1 


Inches. 


UrSICHT    OF    SHEET    ANV    BAR    BHAM. 


nesi. 
I  or 
III. 


» 


K 


SUeeta 

Squai-u 

Roilticl 

per 

Uki-b  1 

Bars  I 

sq.  ft. 

It.  lOII^. 

ft.  lung. 

i.n 

.014 

.011 

a.  Li 

.050 

.045 

8.17 

.I4S 

.1110 

10  M 

.iv? 

.178 

-18.85 

.aw 

.S7S 

.510 

.401 

19  (r 

.eon 

.645 

M.80 

.907 

.ri-.' 

?4.S3 

1.15 

.904 

.27  25 

1.42 

i.ri 

ay  B7 

1  72 

^.s.•> 

8J  70 

a. 04 

1  60 

*5.4-J 

2.40 

l.M 

.t^  l.'S 

a.7s 

a  iH 

40  87 

3.10 

2.50 

43.00 

s.ea 

a, SB 

Tliickness, 

Sht^etw 

Square' 

Siiln  iir 

|.er 

Barn  1 

DIani. 

sq  ft. 

ft  long. 

iDChcH. 

1  l-IU 

40..*!! 

4.10 

JllB 

40.05 

4  .59 

51.77 

5.1;i 

1  5-10 

54.5I> 

5.B7 

!>'.ti 

fi  Jfi 

I'^.IB 

^9  95 

li.S6 

IW.«7 

7.50 

\%10 

fiS.lO 

8.16 

«H.\i 

S.80 

m 

70.85 

9.. "59 

1  11-10 

73.57 

10  .»« 

i« 

78. W 

11   IV 

1  I3-1« 

7!l.il.' 

II.IKl 

m 

SI.  75 

I.'  7B 

I  is-ie 

H4.47 

18, «3 

s 

87.1» 

14. B« 

Koiind 
l^r^  1 

ft.loil),'. 


3.01 
4  Ih! 
4  45 
4.01 
5.39 
5.89 
0.41 
fl.95 
7,W 
8  IS) 
8.73 
9.30 
10.01 

10. ;n 

11.40 


4 


6ITION    OF    T.lRIOrS   GRADES   OF    BOLLKD 
BRASS,    ETC. 


Trade  Name. 


non  bigh  brass 

w  metiil 

idgebraw. 

brass 

;bram 

rod 

ebnus. 

r  cent  German  silver. 


Copper     ZlDC.       Tin.      Lead,     Nickel, 


81 .5 
60 

60 
60 
60 


88.5 
40 

m 

40 
40 
83W 
90« 


1  above  table  was  furnlslie<l  by  the  Bijpprinleti(l<"nt  of  a  mill  In  Corinec- 
hi  1>i91.  He  says:  While  each  mill  lias  its  own  proiHuiioiiB  for  snioux 
iirvs  ■!epeti(liii(;  upon  the  purposes  lor  which  (lie  pioJiici  Ik  intfiiilea, 

u  are  alioiit  tlie  averRui.-  st-andnrii.    Thus,  helwecn  cailrldiris 
per  cent  zinc  niiii  coiiimoii  hi(th  brnas  wfilv  .^HW  pri'  ceiil 

my  number  of  dilTpirnt  mlxtiirpg  known  eeuerally  as  "  \nc« 
(.    or  >jti-rit)ca//r  na  ••.</<////(/«;?•  firfl.ss. "  "drnvinK  brass,"  elc  ,  ■Vfbetvw 
monnf  nf  sine  Jf  dependent  upon  the  Hmouiii  of  scrap  used  In  the  Tn\x- 
"  itftrn/e  ot  votklu^  to  uliJcb  the  meti\l  Js  to  be  subjected,  eUS. 


JfATRRTALR. 


AKKBIOAN  STANDARD  SIKBfl  OF  DBOP^NIiai 


Diameter. 


Fine  Duet, 
Duat,.  ... 
No.  18..... 

"    11.  ... 

"    10 

"    10 


S-100" 
4-100 
5-100 
B-lOO 

Trfip  Shot 
7-100" 
Tl-np  Shot 
S-100" 


=  2 


lOi^ 

vii'ii 

ftl8 

aes 


Diameter. 


No.  8    Trap  Shot   4TJ 

•■  8   9-100"  3911 

••  7   Tmp  Slioti  33H 

•'  T'lo-iwj"        aoi 

■'  t)'l!-100  2lS 

•'  5  12-100  !  1«S 

"  4  1.1-100  I  i:« 

"  8!  14-100  I  lOS 


No. 


«... 

1.. 

B. 

BB 

BbB; 

T.    . 

TT..I 

v..  j 

FF.. 


elet. 


15-100' 
IS-tOO 
17-100 
IS-ICO 
It-lOO 
SO- 100 
•21 -100 

•a-m 
as-ioo 


OOniPHBSSED  BUCK-SHOT. 


No,  a 

"    8. 

"  1 

"     0, 


Diameter. 


S6-roo" 

S7-100 

80-im 

SS-IOO 


No.  of  Ball* 
to  t-lie  Jb 


S33 

in 

140 


No  00.. 

"    000 

Balls... 


Diameter. 


No.4 


M-IOO" 

:i-ioo 

88-100 
44-KW 


I 


SORE%r.TSREAD!!,  SELLERS  ^U  V.  8.  8TANOA 

In  ISM  a  cuiiuiiiltmi  of  the  Ki-aukllQ  Institute  recoil  irii  cm  If  d  ibeW 
of  the  system  of  ucrew-threads  ani'  bolts  wbich  wn.s  licvj... d  hv  Mr  v 
Ssllers,  of  Plilladolphia.    Tliis  Bftin«  Bystfjin  was  fh! 
the  slnndanl  hy  Imili  1 1.«  Army  and  Navy  Uepartinei 
and  hy  llie  Mn-sttr  Mechanics'  and  Ma.ster  Car  Bni: 
that  it  may  now  iw  regarded,  and  in  fact  is  called,  the  UuilvJ  JjlcUe 
dard. 

The  rule  fflven  by  Mr.  Sellein  for  proportlonlnir  the  thread  Id  m  f< 
Divide  the  pilch,  or,  wimt  is  llie  same  thinp,  the  side  nF  the  thm 
ej^ht  equal  pwris;  take  off  one  part  from  the  top  and  till  In  our  part 
bott4itn  of  the  thread:  ihen  the  flat  top  and  hotiom  will  eqiial  onrell 
the  pilch,  the  wearing  surface  will  be  three  quartern  of  the  pitGlkt 
diameter  of  screw  at  bottom  of  Uie  tliread  will  be  expressed  by  I 
niula 

1.890 
diameter  of  bolt  —  ; 


no.  threads  per  inch 
For  »  sharp  V  threAd  with  angle  of  60*  the  formula  ii 

1.738 


diameter  of  bolt  - 


I 


DO.  of  threads  |M>r  inch 
The  angle  of  the  thread  In  the  BellerB  !<yslem  ia  W".    lu  ihe  Whitu 
English  system  it  is  .W,  and  the  point  and  root  of  the  thread  arv  nw 
8crew>Tlireada,  C7nl(ed  States  StandaNI. 


a 

a 

s: 

so 

18 

i 

o 

10 
10 

m 

Q 

E 

1 

i  18-1« 
i 

s 

1 

S  l»  1 

^la 

liie 

ii,. 

T 

a 

»!• 

16 

14 

itie 

9 
» 

6 

!«6-I8 

«6-U 

M 

i 

ijd 

8 
7 
7 

i 

1' 

it 

\' 

l^. 

V.  S.  OR  SELtBRS  SYSTEM  OP  SCREW-THREADS.      205 
Srr«<r>Tbreadii,  Wbitwortb  (BttEtliib)  Standard. 


11-18 
15-16 
15-16 


n 
11 

10 

10 

0 

9 


k 
SH 


8 


.  L  OB  8KLLEKS  STSTEn  OF  SCKEW-THBE ADM. 


iOin  AND  THREL&DS. 


^:  it 


< 


s 

'" 
J" 

In 


llli.    tUS.| 

.issj.Ofwai 
.tmi.oin* 

.'2W  .(JOTS 

•atf  .008a; 

.«»I.00W1| 


.(MO 
.077 
.1IU 
.150 
.196 
.549 
.307 
.IIV 

xw 
rm 


HKX.  NUTS  AND  HEADS. 


g   . 


Ins, 


.04.1     19-82 

.c;3    n-ifi 

.093     2»-3S| 
•  IW   M 
.164     fl-3a' 
.■-'»2|1  1-16 

.aO'.'iu 
.lao  I  ;-iB 

.V.51K 
.fiw'i^  li-16 

:  .1-16 

■%    1 

i -I'jy-tfi 

•J.05I  la  15-16 


4  11-16  10^4 

4  LVIB  10  -lO-M 

5  8-16    11  iH-61 

ST-16  \m 
511-10  1!^ 
5  15-16  Vi  is-".* 


r^.trGJSfl  #Y>J»  #BO.V  FOR  STRKW   THRKAOA. 

"•er  wze.  and  as  ihere  are  no  over-svw 


MATERIALS. 


STANDABD  HBT^SCBGWS  AND  CAP-8CBK1 

AmorlcAii,  Hartford,  and  Wcircestcr  Machine-Screw  Coiiipanies.  ~ 
(CoDipiled  by  W,  8.  Dixo 


iinet^r  of  Screw. . . 

IjreatlK  prr  Inch 

lot  Tap  Drill*..,. 


tmeter  of  Screw.. 
ndH  per  Inch... 
BeotTap  Drill*... 


(A) 
No.  43 


(B) 

3-16 

34 

No.ao 


<H) 

B-ia 

12 
31-64        17-Si 


(I) 


(C) 

No.  5 


(J) 
21-38 


(D) 
&-I6 
18 

i;-*i 


(E) 

a 

si-ei 


8 


Set  Screws. 


^n  ort 

1 

Lou? 

^Blaiu 

Diaiii. 

of  Head 

.35 

iDl  5-j6 

.44 

'E)    « 

.S8 

(F)  T-10 

.tK 

tQi   H 

.71 

(H)0-18 

,80 

ll)       i 

.89 

(•»    4 

1.06 

CK)     2 

l.» 

(L)    1 

1.4«     > 

'»)  m 

1.60 

<N>    IM 

1,77    1 

(irnder 
Hand). 


itoa 


Hex.  Bead  Cap-screws.  |    Sq.  Head  Cap-a 


SUort 

Long 

Dlam. 

Dinra, 

of 

of 

Head. 

Head. 

r-16 

.51 

«-1« 

.58 
.S3 

n 

.78 

.87 

i3-ia 

,»t 

?«i 

1,01 

1 

I.IS 

iH 

1.80 

't 

1.45 

1.5» 

iS 

1.78 

Letielbs 

luiidrr 

Bead). 


SlioH 

Long 

Dlam 

Dlam. 

of 

of 

Head. 

Head. 

■Hi 

.9S 

7-16 

.82 

H 

.71 

9-16 

.80 

% 

,80 

11-19 

.«8 

l.Ott 

2 

1.S4 

1. 1 

i.eo 

]U 

1.77 

]U 

l.»& 

>« 

«.ia 

IVlWj 

i«»i 


«H»' 


•  Kor  roct  Iroo.    Kor  numbers  of  twlat-drills  «?«<  p,  SO. 
[  Tlireatls  ar«  U.  8.  StBiidard.    Cap  sf  rews  are  Ihrf  aded  *i  letiRlh  m>  I 
BludlDK  I'dlam.  •  4"  I'Hik,  and  l^  Irnijlli  ahnve.     Leii^ftlis  incniwi'l 
'    '         u  tlio  liinil!!  kIvvii.     Leni^tii*  of  tieadt,  eiMI*  I 
i  screws 

I  tlie  flat-bead  screw  i«TG<>,  ilie  alJea  msklocj 
Do  n>>J. 


IZE8  OP  SCREW-THREADS  POB  BOLTS  AND  TATS. 

ilurnetl  to  the  Hize  t;iveii  la  Uib  dIdcIi  column,  theiw  sJiMi  l»Hiiir  ' 
^it  tliubH  of  ihe  ruKular  L'.  S.  Standard  bolt,  at  ih»  boitmn  cil  the 
'i  phis  tin"  ntnouiit  allnwed  lor  (it  .'lUii  wear  uf  tap  ;  or,  lu  dOier  viniiln. 
J. 8.  Slftndard  d  +  {D'  —  L>).  Gttiipea  lik«  tlie  one  itl  tlit«  out,  Yijt 
Humigked  for  ihi8  sizing.    In  flnisluug  the  tbreaUs  of  I  lie  ta|i  a  Uiol 


Fio.  78. 

Id  which  lias  a  removable  cutler  flnislied  aaeuratsly  to  Ksuge  hy  Krlnd- 

"■'nlool  being  correct  U.  S.  Staniionl  a«  to  angle,  ami  flat  nt  the  point. 

)  in  and  the  threads  chased  until  the  flat  point  ju<.t  ti:iiiclie.<i  the  \:ur- 

[the  tap  whiiTh  lias  bei-n  turned  to  size  li'.    Cai^>  haTinii  l>ecii  taken 

|Uw''jmi  (if  the  tool,  with  Its  griudini;  on  tlie  top  foC'-  la  tixliire  beiOK 

Tll*i  for  this  to  insure  its  being  ground  properly),  and  also  uitli  the  !i»>l- 

tlhs  tool  properly  in  the  lutlie,  the  result  is  that  the  tliiends  of  Ihe  tap 

nwily  silied  without  further  attention, 

letidenc  that  one  of  the  puiuiK  of  udvantage  of  the  Sellerx  Kysteiu  Ik 

'"Bi). I.e.,  Instead  of  the  tapB  beinp  flatted  nt  the  top  of  the  threads 

Btharp,  and  are  consequently  not  so  durable  a-i  thej'  otliernlsewuuM 

tpracticallv'  this  disadvantage  is  not  found  t<~>  he  xeriniiB,  aiwl  l.s  far 

biced  by  the  Kreater  ease  of  getting  iron  within  tlie  piv«Tllie<l 

y,  "Mleany  rou^  bolt  when  reduced  in  size  at  the  loii  i.f  iho  threadc, 

"T  Or  otherwise,  will  flt  a  hole  lapped  wlili  tlie  V.  S.  Stuiidard  ham) 

mttfording  proof  that  the  two  kinds  of  hnlt^  or  wiew.s  marie  for  the 

Berent  kind*  of  work  are  pructieally  interchangeable.    By  I  his  ftyatem 

I  aui  he  .005'' smaller  or  .OlOS"  larger  than  the  nominal  diameter,  or. 

*»onls,  it  may  liave  a  total  variation  of  .Ol.'**",  while  IJ"  iron  can  be 

Ignaller  or  .08OT"  larger  than  nominal— a  total  variation  of  .0414"— 

Wb  these  limits  it  is  found  pnirlicable  to  procure  the  iron. 

BA&D  SIZKS  OF  SOREW^THBEADS  FOB  BOLTS 
AND   TAPS. 

(I.'HAS.    A.     lUCEH.) 


1 

% 

8 

4 

r, 

6 

7 

s 

9 

10 

4 

n 

~~o 

rf 

h 

/ 

IJ'-D 

V 

tV 

H 

Inches. 

iDChea 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inchw!. 

luchef 

Uichex. 

iS* 

» 

.9G08 

,1855 

.0S70 

.nofia 

.006 

.3668 

.191.'. 

.205(4 

16 

.a94S 

.8408 

•wai 

.0070 

.006 

.8905 

.8468 

.afi«9 

^ 

H 

.3885 

.29.351 

0474 

.OOTB 

,006 

.DIMS 

.MHW 

..3I.W 

14 

.4AS0 

.344; 

.iKMl 

.(IW9 

.006 

.4900 

.35(y7 

.3fi7i> 

A " 

.SIM 

.4000 

.05ft-i 

.0006 

.noii 

.ri*Kl 

.4060 

.4iao 

i-tU 

13 

.5805 

.4543 

.OtiSI 

.OlM 

.007 

.68715 

.401.1 

.4804 

,& 

II 

IM47 

.50611 

.0680 

.0114 

.007 

.6517 

.ftl.%1 

.NHO 

S 

1(1 

,7i-|7 

.6201 

.0T5.S 

.01 K 

.007 

.7787 

.6371 

.6499 

,a 

g 

.81»1 

.rsor 

.OtM'i 

01!i9 

.007 

.flOIll 

.7377 

.7830 

li 

8 

I .rta7i 

.8:170 

.0047 

.OIE»i 

.007 

1.0S41 

.844B 

.8731 

!L 

7 

i.i»a 

.BiXU 

.lOiQ 

.0179 

.007 

1.1039 

.9464 

.BTM 

7 

1.2809 

1.0044 

.1083 

.0179 

.007 

1.S8T9 

1.0J14 

1.1089 

i~a 

ominal  diameter  of  1 

>oIt. 

:!16S 

''ctctual  diameter  of  bo 

It. 

D 

=  ^4-' 

>i 

i  =  liiiuneter  of  bolt  at  1 

lottoin  of 

d 

=  .4-' 

.21)904 

4 

^^H 

thread. 
*/=  timber  ot  tJireada  pet 

iacti.        /      A 

.7677 

•n 
D-t 

■                4 

■ 

-  ibt  of  bottoia  of  tbrenc 

'•               / 

n 

.ise 

-  — 

a 

\^IJ>  of  thread. 

/      /  = 

A 

^^^1 

^ 

nu 
1 

aaieten 
t  befon 

of  tap. 
Cappuig 

d 

1 

£  = 

n 

I.3S8 

^^^ 

a6^»u'> 

r 


208  MATERIALS. 

STANDARD  SKT-SCBGWS  AND  CAP-8CBEWS. 

Ameiiuau,  HartCord,  Biid  WorcesUT  Machine-ScreM'  Coiiipiinitn, 
(Compiled  by  W.  8.  Dix.) 


Diameter  of  Screw 

Tlircatls  per  Iiicli. 
Size  of  rap  l>rill».. 


STANDARD   MACHTXE   SCREWS, 


iOi 


STANDAan  JIIA€BI»S  8CBEW8. 

lAui.  Screw  Co.'s  (.'atulogue,  1883,  iBOi.) 


Threads  per 
Inch. 

1 

DUun.  of 
Body. 

DIam. 
of  Flat 
Hea4. 

Piani.  nf 
Hound 
Head. 

RIani.  of 

FlliHier 
Head. 

I^Dgtha. 

From 

To 

56 

.0843 

.1631 

.1M4 

.1383 

8-16 

\4 

46 

.OBTS 

.1894 

.17S6 

.1545 

8-16 

1, 

3i,  3fl.  40 

.1105 

.M58 

.3038 

.1747 

3-16 

i 

3^,  W,  40 

.1338 

.'J4ai 

.aaro 

.UI85 

3-16 

1 

30.  3a 

.l.Tfl8 

.3084 

.■£,12 

.8175 

.Vie 

1 

,         30.  3J 

.ISOO 

.aojT 

.-.•754 

.aaog 

11 

IS 

baoo.  34 

.(£31 

.3S)0 

,•,■986 

.aeio 

"4 

^H4.  30,32 

.i:o8 

.3474 

.am 

.2600 

'4 

■Si.  30.  8i 

.litM 

.3737 

.a^ao 

.30)5 

1^ 

r^Ki-aj 

.ai5» 

.4263 

.3*a 

.3445 

H 

m 

T    so.  S4 

.4421 

.4701) 

.1364 

.38C5 

>i 

„|      18.  18.  30 

.9684 

.&3ia 

.48a<S 

.4300 

{ 2 

^ 

m^m  Iff.  IB 

.aM7 

.584J 

.5248 

.4710 

l2 

^■IC.  18 

3'JIO 

.(i3*l.S 

.5690 

.5SO0 

5t 

^Hrin.  IP 

.3474 

.S894 

.0106 

.SS-W 

8 

^Vi4.  in 

.3737 

.740O 

.«3*J 

.eoo5 

!^ 

8 

^Vl4. 

.40l)() 

.74JO 

.i;938 

.64::.'. 

»4 

3 

^Vl4 

.4-.'ll3 

.7010 

.7854 

.OOiM 

it 

3 

T  "•  '* 

.4540 

.tM;a 

.7770 

.7840 

1 

3 

\ffta  vary  by  lCib.<t  from  3-16  to  ^,  b^  Stbs  from  K  to  1)^,  by  4th!i  from 

^■rZBS  AND   WKIUHTS   OF  SQUARE  AND  | 

^r  HliXAUONAL    NL'TS. 

Mfl  Stales  Standard  Sizes.    Chaiuferrd  and  trimmed. 
Punched  to  salt  V.  S,  Standard  Taps. 


F 


MATERIALS. 


Diameter  in 
inches. 


45  to  85 
40  ••  52 
So'**) 
a4  "  35 

a4  "  ao 

18  "  24 
16  '•  30 
14  "  Itt 
8  •'  IS 
8  '•  10 


5     H9.16 
5     x« 

4]Zt7-16 
4     X  7-16 

8     "% 


400 
4K 
550 
TSo 
820 
1250 
1350 
1550 
iKW) 


SO 
K 
S3 
iO 
15 
13 
t 

e 

7 

5 


STREET  B.iHUWAir  SPIKES, 


g 


I 


Splkee. 


5Uxo.ie 

5     xU 

43iix7-ie 


Number  In  Keg,  300  Iba. 


Kt>Kii  per  Mile,  Tle>*t 
betwevD  CenirrS. 


400 
575 
SOO 


30 
19 

la 


BOAT   SPIKES. 

Nnmber  In  Keg  of  SOO  Iba. 


1 


SPIKKS;   OUT  IfAILS.       ^ 
IKumber  of  Nalla  lu  K«v  of  1£0  Po- 


SbB. 

Mtn. 

i!-l4  tu. 

Kin. 

7-lB  In, 

Hill. 

thfrtt 

SS50 
18B0 
1650 

1101 

"  ihm"" 

UilS 

]oe4 

8SS 

6T3 

"      

11^ 

""■7«"" 
670 

45S 

4sM 
3S1 



445 

884 

am 

E70 
349 
1S% 

m 

MO 
SS2 

fll 

SV8 

■!■ 

ISO 

^nB£   SPIKES. 


Site. 


fike 


Approx.  Eize  Ap.  Ho. 
otWireKikits    ill  lib. 


a  in,  Nq,  T 
3W  "  ■•  8 
I       "    "   6 

m  "  "  4 

S       *•    "    3 

b^  "  '■  a 


w 

S5 
SO 

IS 
12 


8!w. 


eod  Sp!i[« 
0^  in.;; 

8  "  " 

9  "" 


of  Wire  Sails,   in  lib, 


6  In.  Fo.  1 
BU    "    "    1 

7  "    "   0 

e     "  '*  00 


(0 

a 

r 

B 


.KNGTH  AND  NmBER  OF  CVT  NAII.S  TO  TUG 
POUND. 


31a, 

3 

i 

1 

5 

61 
48 

i 

1 

1 

be 

B 

1 

K 

0 

5 

"sod' 
am 

lliB 
Hi 

ss 

TO 

44 
34 

18 
14 
10 

71 

ffij 

46 

4a 
iW 

iiw 

410 

£oa 

1S8 

]ie 

130 

IDS 

76 

OS 

"iooo 

3GS 

BOO 
BOQ 

878 
»>4 

IHO 

■  '."'.'.',. 

"m 

'■'■"•'•' 

isb' 

86 

m 

.^a* 

"m 

!10 

SI 
71 
M 
40 

sa 

ISO 

TS 
65 
&S 
40 
ST 

,,.. 

se 

)b! 

"si- 1 

'iM.. 

...... 

■■■/"■■/ ""'7 

.■-.. 

..PPROXIMATE  NUMBER  OF  WIRE  NAILS  PEK  POUND. 


^ 


z 


sows 


So-v* 


^^40tfitvOk 


IQIOK^ 


Cc^iQOi^niaco 


•*=2£««SSg5i_ 


CkOWVt^S 


^;:?:S2a8Kfc92§?5§ 


a2SS?Jssgs?5gpgus3 


>  — -c  Sjs 
a  ?-  o  r 

IB   '«.   =  • 


2  =  C       I 


e  t  — ~  s 


I  I   SUSSSS%SSSSS^|2g| 


«  I  85SSSS!5S3SSg3feS|||g^  ;  :  : 


^w^CAB*^^ 


:8|52iSgg=S5sii^||||i 


♦^r-^etw-Tiot-tflt  — 


fl 


I 


m~' 

^  - 

^ 

^^^^H 

^^H 

Wk 

MATERIALS.         ' 

^^^ 

m 

^tXB, 

WEIGHT,  LEXGTH,  AND    STRKNOTH  OF  ^| 

m 

WKBE. 

m 

1 

Treuloii  Iron  Co.) 

M 

■ 

Tf  nvile  Strc-ne^H 

Sr>.  by 

DIani. 

AffCL  of 

^laii'iflririi  in 

Feet  to 

Weight  of 

proximatt-)  of  CwH 
Iron  Wire  in  HooDiH 

Wire 

mala  of 

Oue 
Inch. 

Dwim.alsof 

the 
Found. 

ODf  Mile 
in  [lounds. 

^jMige. 

OiiH  Inch. 

Bright. 

AnnMii 

00000 

.450 

.ISOttl 

1.9&1 

3833.318 

13598 

«4» 

0000 

.400 

.13.^0 

2..V)8 

•A3S.B78 

9955 

Tiik 

000 

.300 

.lOlTil 

2.011 

1SI8.574 

sm 

g^H 

00 

.s.%y 

.ItSlM 

s.ifa 

153^.801 

6880 

!^^H 

0 

.305 

.071300 

4.057 

1301.678 

6036 

^^H 

^^L  1 

.ass 

.00379 

4.(U5 

11.1(5. 878 

BSSfi 

9^H 

^Bte 

.285 

.05.^15 

B.374 

983  &X 

4570 

^^H 

^^n 

.845 

.oiru 

0.38(1 

a3«  948 

SMS 

^^H 

^^h 

.235 

.03970 

7  404 

708.3(15 

8374 

^^H 

^^hD 

.905 

.avwi 

8.970 

5(<(<.189 

8889 

i^^l 

^Hfl 

.lao 

.oasHr, 

10  45H 

UH.OM 

»;« 

3^^l 

^■7 

ATS 

.(»i(ij 

li.Si-1 

43H.4T8 

3130 

^^H 

Hb 

.180 

.o-»ii 

11.73e 

35s. 3006 

1813 

^^H 

V9 

.ll-l 

.01G51 

17.9.')0 

394.148S 

1507 

^^H 

10 

.130 

,013-i7 

H  *« 

330.4381 

1333 

^^H 

11 

.1175 

.01084 

37.310 

193.1434 

1010 

^^H 

Ji 

.105 

.00rt6fi 

34.319 

1?>4.2810 

610 

^^H 

■2,8 

.oaas 

.0087a 

44  003 

110.7801 

631 

^^^H 

Wk 

.OS) 

.(10508 

ftS.OlU 

89.0(110 

474 

«*  1 

m» 

.ori) 

,00.195 

TiJ.'J^i 

68.5873 

573 

«» 

~8 

.081 

.00298 

101.488 

53.0(1*0 

293 

HO 

K 

.05J5 

.IWJItt 

137  174 

88.4913 

iH3 

la 

18 

.015 

.0015W 

1S0.»S5 

88  3178 

109 

itf 

19 

MO 

.ooi»eo 

3M.084 

iS.S973 

137 

10* 

aa 

.03.'j 

.floDoe-ji 

303.(179 

17.1388 

lOi 

so 

31 

an 

.031 
.038 

.mr;t.i7 

.lX)Ot!157 

W-2  773 
481. 3»t 

ia.44-.'9 
10.8718 

-  5.0  '  t 

t  mA 

u» 

.035 

.OlOlDOO 

(i03.*33 

fi,743: 

^'fl 

34 

.o^a 

.00<X337« 

715  710 

7.0Wtl5 

=  .^ 

35 

.OiO 

..OaO:J14-2 

91.1. 39G 

5.5988 

^^-  ^^et'^H 

36 

.018 

.OOO.'.'ilS 

1104.  (W» 

4.SSS4 

j'^li"!" 

3  ]^H 

ar 

.017 

.oiH)*;to 

1*15  0:0 

4.0489 

'•fisH 

^■M 

.016 

.Oi«).'i)|I 

1171;.  HOB 

3.a8i» 

'  c^H 

^^B 

.015 

.n0017C7 

107G  989 

3.1485 

-^^H 

^Hq 

on 

.O0OIM9 

llhiS  3'.'1 

a. 7434 

-  '^^^1 

^^Btt 

.utn 

.00013J7 

•J.'SJ.S.W 

3.3610 

If-^HJ 

iBii^^^l 

^^C 

.013 

.0001131 

•z&.v.mr 

3.01 18 

H^^^H 

^^E 

.011 

.OLlOOU.V) 

3110  093 

1 .11038 

^^^^1 

^^H| 

.011) 

.oooarmi 

:i7~^.[>Si 

1.801)3 

^e|I1 

^^^^^^1 

^^n 

.0005 

.000OTO8S 

1IM.508 

I.36S4 

^^^^^1 

^^E 

.00» 

.0000646-i 

4657  73)i 

1.13M 

^^^^1 

^^■f 

.OOW 

.00005875 

52-.>3.0.» 

l.Olll 

^^^^^^1 

^Bp 

.<m 

.00005037 

.N89C.147 

.89549 

^^^^^1 

^HP 

.vm 

.0001X118 

07S4.a«l 

.78673 

^^^^^1 

^^ 

.on 

.oooossts 

7099. 3.53 

.68587 

^j^H 

i 

k 

J^ 

J 

] 

TKSTS   OF   TELEliUAPII    WIRE, 


217 


LVANIZED  ate«»\  WIRE  FOR  TELBGRAPH  AMD 
Teii£PHO:VG  LINKS. 

(Tmiion  Iron  On.) 

IGHT  PER  Mile-Ohm. — This  Uim  i-  tn  Im-  uiiderxlnod  an  illxtlnguishiDg 

itCnnce  of  iiintrridl  only,  nnd  ni>-Biis  tlie  we iplit  of  kucIi  inatt-rial  r»- 

pt-r  mllf  to  Kive  the  resislanoe  of  one  ohm.    To  asi-ertalii  ihi,'  Jiiilpn);e 

ice  «^f  any  wii^,  divide  the  "  weisrht  per  inile-olwii  ^'  by  tlvt*  wt* icln  ''f 

ire  \t*ir  mile.     Thus  in  a.  ^rade  of  Kjttra  Bust  best,  of  which  thi-  «i'li:hl 

_jiIe-olim  Irt  5000,  the  mlleaBt-  reslsUinoe  of  Nn.  fl  iweiiflit  per  iiillo  tmu 

Svould  l)e  about  BJ^  ohiii-s;  autl  Ko,  14  steel  win-.  flfiOO  His.  weight  |ier 

bin  (95  lbs.  weiRht  pf  r  mile),  would  show  ahont  69  ohms. 
)es  of  'VFIre  iia«d  In  Teleeraph  and  Telephone  Llni**, 
4.   Has  not  been  innch  used  until  recently;  is  novr  usetl  on  Impoitatit 
vliere  the  iiiiililplox  systfuis  are  applied. 
.  5.  1-ittle  used  In  the  United  Slates. 
a.  Used  for  important  circuils  between  cities. 
8.  M«-tliimi  pizo  for  circnits  of  400  miles  or  less. 

I  9.  Kor  similar  Ir.paliotiB  to  No,  8.  hut  on  noinewhat  shorter  eirutdlsi ; 
lately  was  the  size  most  largely  used  in  this  country. 

10.  11.   Kor  shorter  circuitu,  railway  tele^aphs,  private  lines,  (lolice 
Ire-alarm  lines,  etc. 

ri.  For  leli-plioue  lines,  jiolloe  aud  flre-alnrm  lines,  etc, 
P.  13.  14.  For  telephone  lines  aod  abort  private  lines:  steel  wire  Is  iised 

renerally  in  these  siies. 
_  (•'■atinfi  of  telepraph  wire  with  zinc  as  a  protection  afcainst  oxidation 
W  fte'i'Tallj'  adndtled  to  li<-  tlie  most  •-fflcnrinofi  mi'tliod. 

•  irrai1'-6  of  line  wire  ai-e  senerally  known  to  llie  trade  a.s  "Extra  llesl 

•  tE.  B.  B.),  •■  Be-it  Best  "  (B.  B.),  nnd  "Steel," 

Extra  Best  Best '"  is  made  of  tlie  verj-  be,«t  lion,  as  nearly  pure  as  any 

Inprclal   iron,  soft,  loush,  uniform,  and  of  very  high  conductivity,  Its 

Hit  per  niile-ohin  being  aljour  iiCdXIlba. 

le  "  Best  Best"  is  of  iron,  xhowinK'  In  tneohuidcal  teats  alinoi<t  as  (»ix)il 

Its  an  the  K.  B  J).,  but  not  ijuile  as  soft,  and  Iwhig  somewhat  lower  in 

Inciivity ;  weiijlil  per  miJe.ohm  about  5700  lbs. 

t»  Treniou  "  .'<teel  "  wire  is  well  suiteJ  for  telephone  or  short  telegraph 

t  anil  the  weiphi  per  luile-ohni  Is  about  WVOO  lbs. 

ke  follo«in(t  aie  lapjipoxlmntelj  )■  the  welKhis  tier  mile  of  various  sizen  of 

anized  teletfravih  wu'e,  drawn  by  Trenton  Iron  Co.'n  Range: 

Ko.         4.        S. B.        7.        tl,        a, 10.       II.      1-'.       13.       14. 

Lbs.     TlM,     GIO,     W5,     450,    375,     310,     SW,     SOO,     160,     135,     D5. 

TESTS  OF  TELEGRAPH  WIRE. 

he  following  datik  are  taken  from  a  table  ^Iven  by  Mr.  Prencott  relulIiiK 
Bsts  of  E.  B.  B.  Kalvanizcd  wire  furnished  the  Western  Union  TeleRrapli 


re. 


n 

8 
7 
8 
« 
10 
U 
II 
14 


Plain. 

Weight. 

ParUi  of 

One 
Inch. 

Grains. 

Founds 

per  foot. 

perndle. 

.9» 

1013.2 

88)]. C 

.£» 

Ml. 3 

873.0 

.803 

7.'>8.9 

57-J.a 

.180 

5B6.7 

440.0 

.I«5 

B01.4 

378.1 

.148 

403.4 

.so4.a 

.1S4 

3.W.7 

249,4 

.ISO 

965.3 

aoo.o 

.100 

SIS. 8 

165.0 

.088 

126.9 

05.7 

T.,..„tk  Resistance. 

F"et     i  1'^'"P  "•**  ''*'"'- 
per 
pound. 


Feet         Ohms 
per  ohm.   per  mile. 


0  00 
7.f» 
9.S0 
11.70 
14  (» 
17.4 
21  3 
SO. 4 
8-J.O 
55.2 


958 

TO7 
618 
579 
409 
828 
369 
SIS 
170 
104 


ltd  t  to  of 

Break  iiiK 

Weight  I.. 

WetKhl 

per  n<ile. 


8.B1 

7,S6 

8,64 

3  05 

10. bO 

8  411 

13.93 

8.07 

16.10 

3.88 

19.60 

a  87 

24.42 

S.9T 

20.80 

r(.43 

51.00 

8.06 

i 


JorJiTB  in  Tklroraph  Wires.— The  fewer  the  jolntH  in  a  line  the  'jej'f"': 
11  jiiiulK  should  be  carel'ullv  made  and  well  soldered  over,  for  a  l>a(  Joint 
Al' cauie  oa  much  resisfcao'ce  to  tfie  electric  current  as  Mvevai  inura  ol 
irt 


218 


MATERIALS. 


81 


lis 


eM9)»i«4e4ep-teaa 


::SSSSS^S:»sl3SSSXt;3tl 


Q 

e 

P 

MS 


iC 

M 
OS 

is 


fiisiSSiiliiipiiiisiSi^eiSeS'-ggSSsasi 

i§iii§§ilisssl§iS8c£s?§§l§ii 


°  I  -^a   ;:„SS;3SSSSa4SS^P«S££|gi§§ll^lli^lS 


|l||§||||||||giP"g|l8SS3asss«ssss 


iillligsliliiiiiiiligiiiisssississ^ 


1  nstn-«^kattMe  ma  ace 


e 

PB 

< 


t 


iilliiliiiiliilli 
^^" i 


i)  S  M  Sr- 3  C  t^  ?  N  s  S  « 


sgiisssi 


=ilii|iiPiill|S|i|iii?iiHi3ISi5S; 


I 


i§Sff„§iSsi£§!S2§ligi§||ig§ii§§||§i; 


f 


;0>'S,  WEIGHT,  KESISTAKCE  UK  COPPER  WIKF,  219 


'^'!^Sii||i|&|pi§iS|lgi|ig§i|i>i|iigiiig§s 
lilliiiiliiiiiiiiililliliiliiiliililiii 


1 1  iiiiiiiiilissiilliiiiiiiiiu ......  i if  liil 


&Nsii§iiiiiiiiiigiiiii||||i|||i||||||y 


iWpssiiiiiPPii^iiiliiiipii^Siiii^ 


M5l3SSSH§!|SiSI2^iM§ipSlgliSiSS^iBSiSi3 


ap«2sssiig5i|||||g|||||||g|g|||||||y 


n 


^ 


M 


8SS|ssSBE§S9i33igKgSS§8§§gSI=S§:IS.I§3lSi 


U   'sSi§SS§§§||SS§§§i§S^§iSSI|||§§§§g§|§g|i| 

;|  s*sl3illllliililiiss2ii!-si|i|i|||||||||| 


I 


r 


§  fmio^i 


'ar9#w#«a*»«»es3sssss8Ras8Ea5|g5|j||^^^|\ 


218 


UATBBIALS. 


sea-^oiK'Vie 


:;:3S3SS£:£3Ssa0l 


£      233 


SSs-SSS^-fi^ 


g  I  ililiiiiilliliiliiiiilllliiilsl 


& 

e 
u 

b 

e 

» 
w 

I! 

«u 
Hs 

MS 

■a 
ar 


liiiii§§iiliiisiiiilsi2§i§sMd 


;ES3s:.s8Sig«g«l§iiliiiiliiiill§ii 


AKD-DRAWN   COPPER    WIRK;    IlfSVI.ATED   WIRE.    221, 

lABD'DItA'WN  COPPER  TICLSORAPH  WIRE. 

(J.  A.  Roebllng'g  Sons  Co.) 
liihed  In  Isalf-mile  coils,  either  bare  or  Insulated, 


Resistanoe  in 

Ohms 

per  Mile. 


4.30 
5.40 
B.M 
8.70 
10.90 
IS. TO 
1T.40 
S3. 10 


Breaking 
Strengtb. 


WelKht 
per  Mile. 


4ao 

880 

218 
ITO 
180 


soo 
leo 

181 
104 
63 
08 

t,3 
41 


A|>pmxiiiiate 
8iMof  E  B.  B.J 

Iron  Wlr«< 

(•qua!  to 

Oopper. 


6     i 

10    (g 


i 


jBdliiic  Uila  wire  tbe  eTMCeBt  care  ilioiiJd  be  obaerred  to  avoid  kliikg, 
■eratclieg,  or  cuts.    JqIdis  should  be  made  only  with  Mdntire  Con- 

ccouiit  of  ita  condiioHvity  Iwing  ubout  Ave  times  that  nt  Ex.  H  B,' 
'li-e,  nnd  its  bifukitiK  strtugtli  over  three  tliiieH  its  weight  jK-r  iiiili*i 
nukylje  iis»?iJ  of  wlii'Mi  the  section  in  siiiAlIrT  and  the  wi'iirht  lehhilinn, 
Ivale'.t  iron  wire,  allowing  a  grpaler  number  of  wln-s  to  !«•  KiriinK  on 
lea. 

)m  this  advantage,  the  reduelloh  of  Rectioa  materially  deerease«  the. 
•taticcapacltj.  while  itiinoii-niaeiietio  oharBcler  lehsrn8  llie  Krlf-in 
J  nt  the  Iliie.lMith  of  which   ffOliireH  tend  lo  inereiiBe  the  poKHlble 
)f  «*Knallinp  in  lelei?rn|)liinff.  and  to  t^ive  >;reatei'  ohameH-S  "f  ••niinoi- 

Pteleph'ine  liiieri,  esjievially  Ihoxe  of  K'en-t  length. 
INSUIiATED    COPPER    WIRES. 
Welsbt  per  lOOO  feet. 


Weath 

er-  Under- 

Weather- 

Under- 

Wwithi-r- 

Under- 

proo 

f      writers" 

00  8, 

proof 

writers' 

tog 

proof 

writers" 

Un< 

<         Line 

IJiie 

IJiie 

*<!2 

Line 

Line 

Win 

!.       Wire. 

Wire. 

Wire. 

P5C3 

Wire. 

Wli». 

ATI 

701. 

6 

lis. 

ISl. 

13 

S8, 

!M.S 

1     5" 

565. 

e 

98. 

00. 

14 

S06 

aa. 

L^ 

417. 

i 

tt  1 

(W. 

IS 

17. 

so 

■ga 

364. 

a 

(M. 

67. 

Ifl 

11, 

15. 

m^* 

i94. 

9 

SS. 

54. 

17 

13. 

1«. 

^fel 

241. 

10 

44. 

45. 

18 

10.75 

11 

170 

185. 

11 

37. 

37. 

10 

8. 

10. 

141 

147. 

14 

so. 

31, 

30 

T.5 

fi. 

D-ENCAJHED  AN'TI-IKDI.TC  TION  TELEPHONE  AND 
XKLEGRAFH  <^\U^F8.      (HoeblinK"ii.) 


:s  CABt.E«,  Ljsad 

Ekoasko. 


(        size  Wire 
I.   B-  &  B.  Onuee. 


f 


18 
18 

18 
18 
18 


Foa  MetAIXIC  ClRCl'IT, 


No.  of 
Pairs. 

! 
15 
S5 
61) 

75 


.SiiMS  Wire 
B.  4  S.  OttuRe. 

18 
IS 

18 
18 
18 


Fob  Tui.KoriiipB  C.'m- 

CI'ITR. 


Xo.  of         gize  Wire 
Wii-eii.    B.  &  H.  QaiiBe. 


a 

4 

7 

10 

SO 

50 

100 


14 

14 

14 

14 

U 
14 
\< 


r 


322 


MATERIALS. 
VI.BX1BI.S  CABLBS. 


Ar«& 
tare. 

Mils. 


Cismw.s 
896M.9 
88116.9 


Aocg 

No.  of 

Size 

Wire 

^^% 

Arc* 
CIrc. 

Mils. 

Ko.  of 

fiize 
Wire 

Wires. 

B.,tS. 
Gauge. 

im 

Wires. 

B.&S. 
UaUge. 

40 

fS 

8B.  AS. 

S71M10.S 

133 

17 

49 

S3 

fl 

mtMA 

339 

15 

49 

•ii 

4 

e887<T.8 

\XI 

19 

49 

19 

8 

868n6.7 

133 

IS 

I(».ili5.S 

193 

11 

810964.0 

108 

17 

4'.iOI;!T.S 

las 

IS 

6S76S».8 

187 

13 

83S8i7.S 

las 

13 

1068108.S 

1S9 

11 

UrBATHBRPBOOP  AERIAL  CABLBS. 


No.  of  Con- 
ductom. 


Weight  per 

Conductor 

per  lOOO 

feel. 


10.75  lbs. 
18.00 
IS.OU 
10. 7S 
10.00 

9.50 

9.25 


No.  of  Con. 
ductom. 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


Weight  p*r 

Conductor 

pi^r  lOOO 

feet. 


No.  of  Con- 
ductors. 


9.25  lbs. 

9.25  " 

9.es  " 

9.25  " 

9  ?5  " 

9.  SB  " 

9.25  " 


IS 

]« 
17 
IS 
19 
SO 


Wd 


per) 

if«r 


t.ss 

9.2S 
9. 28 

9.« 
9.SS 


Ii£Alf-BNCAiiEJ»  BLBCTBIC-MGHT  CABLES. 

Single  WlreM, 

(.1,  A.  ItiiebdGg'x  iaOlis  Co.) 


Size, 
B.ftS. 


30 
IB 
IS 
17 

le 

IS 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 
9 
g 


Diameter 

of  Solid  0<>p. 

p«r  Wire, 

Htla. 


31,96 

40.30 
4S.«5 

50.8i 
87.07 
B4.08 
71.96 

so.m 

90.74 
101.89 
114.33 
138.49 
144.iS 


Area, 

Circular 

Mils. 


102t. 
1253. 
16'J4. 
2018. 

8257. 
4107. 
5178. 
a630, 

10381. 
13094, 

lo&oe, 
a»ifl. 


Nearest  Ap- 
pmjciinate 
Birrni"g- 
hfttn  Wire- 
gauge  No. 


Approii- 

mule 

Wcitriit 

per  Foot 

of  Cable, 

Oz. 


1.63 
1.70 

1.75 
1.84 

a.oo 

8.30 

3.38 
•AM 
B.OO 
5.23 

5.68 

a.86 
6.as 

6.W5 


AP? 
Dil 


lis' 

iw 
i« 

wi 
sw 
as 
aes 
sio 

390 
8» 

m 

3»; 


,    Am  tested  by  the  BelJ  Telephone  Co.  ot  PhiVaAeVp^Va,  \.\w  'ma.«ik'e\aa1 
lie  statf^  at  2000  nj^ohniB  per  mile,  Y,Hll  an  e\«sc*.t<MS»^\i  ci-^atw?' 
pi/erofara<t. 


CILTATIIZKD  STEEL-WIBE   STRAND. 

Por  Smokestack  tiui»,  Siimal  Strand,  etc. 

(J.  A.  Roebling's  Sods.  Co.) 
Ittrud  In  composed  of  T  wires,  twisted  together  into  a  sincle  atnuiU. 


STEEL   WIRE   CABLES. 


223 


u 

1 

s 

a 

fe- 

in. 

ItN. 

^ 

OS 

IWi 

4! 

7-16 

36 

Il« 

SO 

»-32 

i< 

17-M 

IS 

1 

If! 


Ibe. 

8,!M0 

e,7W 

5,720 
4.MU 
8,300 
8,560 
],(B0 


Broil  s 

i 


» 

^ 

!i 

c 

d 

f 

»• 

1 

in. 

Iba. 

No,  IB 

1-^ 

10 

16 

8 

17 

8-16 

6 

IS 

n-04 

4  U-IO 

IS 

0-04 

a  3-10 

81 

t* 

a  4-to 
« 

1?5 
III 


lbs. 

1.600 

1,280 

BdO 

tttm 

5-JS 
884 
8-JO 


1  piirpofies  these  strands  can  be  made  of  50  to  100  per  cent 
lie  MreiiRth.  When  used  to  run  over  ghenven  or  pulleys  the  use 
stoek  b  advisahltt. 


IBLE  STEEL'WIBK  CABLES  FOR  VESSELS. 

(TreutoD  Iron  Co.,  1886.) 


tmimerous  disadrantage*,  the  gystem  ot  workJiiK  ships'  ancliors  with 

ables  is  RtUI  in  rog^ue.    A  bearr  chaia  cable  contributes  In  chK  hold- 

■or  of  the  anchor,  and  the  facility  of  increasliiK  'bat  re.ilstaiice  hy 

out  iho  cable  is  prized  as  ati  advaatage.     The  reqiiidlte  hnldini- 

i«  r.btnined,  however,  by  the  combined  action  of  a  comparatively 

nchor  and  a  oorrespoudinprly  great  mass  of  chain  of  little  service  In 

tion  to  ItB  welKht  or  to  ilie  weight  of  the  anchor,     If  the  weiRlit  and 

thf"  anchor  were  IncreaHed  so  us  to  (?ive  the  Krealent  holding-power 

•H.  mill  it  were  attaclied  by  Ineaus  of  a  Ilgbl  wire  cable,  the  combined 

lile  and  anclior  would  I)?  much  less  than  tiie  total  weight  of 

lior.  ami  tlic  facility  (if  liaTiillmg  would  be  much  (treater. 

lers  have  taicen  the  inlLlalive  In  thi.t  direction,  and  many  of 

rgi-.t  uuil  most  serviceable  vessels  aBoat  are  titled  with  steel-wire 

They  have  given  complete  satisfaction. 
Trenton  Iron  Co.'s  cables  are  made  of  crucible  casc-steel  wire,  sml 
ii>iMt  to  fuini  Lloyd's  requirements.    Tliey  are  composed  of  T-l  wins 
id»d  Into  811  strands  of  twelve  wires  each.     In  order  to  obtain  great 

» hempen  centres  are  Introduced  in  the  strands  as  ▼ell  as  in  the 
cable. 
■FLEXIBLE  STEEL-WIBE  HAWSERS. 

e  hawsers  are  extensively  tued.    They  are  ina<ile  with  six  atraitds  <>r 
vrlres  each,  hemp  centres  beine  Inserted  in  the  individual  strands  hk 
1  in  ilie  conipleteo  rope-.    Th«  nmterlal  employed  is  crucible  cast  steel, 
i«ed,  and  guaranteed  to  ftilHl  l-jBoyfl's  reqtiireiiieiits.     They  are  only 
Irtl  the  weight  of  liempen  hawsers;  and  are  sutflcientlv  pliable  to  wnrk 
•ny  bitts  to  which  hempen  rope  of  pqtiivalent  sirengtli  can  be  applied 
h  tarred  RuR<ian  hemp  hawser  wei>,'lis  n)>out  8i>  lh.«.  per  fathom, 
.■h  white  maniia  liaavfr  iiW^/i^  nhoiit  'M  /bs,  per  fathom. 
>rh  titud  rhain  wftfrlls  AiHiUt  fih  Ihs,  pf?r  fathom, 
in/r<jjiis:rri  stfel  Antriu-r  )FriQ/iK  nlimtt  Vitbn   iter  falham 
•^auMbore  named  bos  aboul  the  same  tensi'ie  Btrengtb. 


^24 


MATBurALR. 


SPECIFIC ATIOMi  FOR  C.VI^VAlVtZED  IBO» 

Irniued  b)  the  Brltlah  Poatal  Telciflrrapb  Aalholi 


Weight  per  Mile. 

Diameter. 

Tetila  luv  8treii|(lli  and 
ruiceillir. 

^ 

Standard. 

t 

c 

?. 

.2 

a 

i  z' 

1 

1 

Allowed. 

Allowed. 

Si," 

i'" 

if  1 

Sj  c 

iS5 

3~ 

^5 

c  a 

fl 

f 

•a 

K 

.li 

K 

^5 

ic 

■ 

9 

3 

i 

s 

s 

E 

s 

5 

?■■ 

E 

^H 

£ 
^ 

H 

"a 

3 

I 

3 
1 

3 

3 

1 

0 

'c 

I 

3 

E 

a 

n 
1 

n 

■ 

h 

a 

9^ 

S 

% 

S 

a 

lil 

S 

a 

9^ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

mils. 

mil*. 

mils. 

lbs. 

ll>s. 

olfl 

Koo 

;6r 

(tt) 

342 

aar 

2J7  im 

15 

3530 

14 

SC-Ai 

IS 

•■ 

^flOO 

.WI 

629 

aoi) 

aoi 

UI4  \\ms 

i: 

1910 

IC 

I960 

16 

i^H 

4S0 

424 

477 

ISl 

ITS 

\m    1390 

19 

148& 

18 

1460 

17 

i^H 

<00 

isrr 

424 

n 

166 

178 

1240 

SI 

ISTO 

ao 

laoo 

1» 

^^^1 

^;m 

100 

313 

i-ii 

lis 

Hi 

6201  30 

1 

618 

at) 

S59 

M 

3 

STRENGTH  OF  PIANO-VVIRB. 

Tlie  aT(>ra£c  atrc-n;(ih  of  EngliBh  piuto-wire  ia^vfln  asfoUoattgrl 
lt«r,  Hoi-Mfak  &  I.,?aii : 


Nuiiibera 
Ju  Miuic- 
I    nlre 
I  Qauge. 


13 

18 
14 
15 

la 


EqiiiviilBnts 
iu  Fractlnus 
of  IiiL'lieH  lit 
DIaiiielers. 


.029 
.051 
.033 
.035 
.W? 
.038 


UltininLe 

Tensile 

Sti-engtbi  La 

Pounds, 


•3SS> 

K50 

at» 

305 
S40 

ado 


Nuiiibcr* 
in  Mttsic- 

wiro 
Gaiijfe. 


18 
10 
20 
21 


EquivaU-nU' 
iu  Fractiotn; 
of  laches  la 
Diam«iere. 


Tlit-!ie  Kti-FiiKlliH  nuigr  frani  300,000  to  340.000  llM.  per  SO.  in. 
,rili»ii  of  tills  wii-f-  is  a«  follows:  Carbon,  0.570;  ailicon,  O.wO;  M 
phospliunis,  0.018;  niauKnncse,  0.135. 

"plovgii"-.'$teeIj  wire. 

Thr  term  "ploiiarli.''  viven  in  EnRlaiid  to  steel  wire  of  hl^h  qu 
leikfil  frtmi  the  faot  tliut  sui.'h  wiru  is  uneU  for  the  cmistnictiuftj 
«»^  for  plouBliliiB  p\irpo«*is.     It  M  to  be  hoped  that  the  t»nn  i 
sell  III  iIiIh  country,  as  it  tends  to  coiifusioa  of  terms.    PlOU 
liiioM'ii  liore  in  snine  steel-n-orliK  as  the  quality  of  plate  Meel  i 
iioiild-boanla  nf  p1oui;bs,  for  wliich  n  vei?  ordinary  grttde  Is  |Coa44 
Kxiieriinents  by  Dr.  Percy  on  the  EiibUhIi  plouirli-ateel  (ao^colleiiK 
foll.iwlnir  reKultx:  SpeciHe'gTaviiy,  7.814  ;  carbon.  0.888  p*r  COT" 
V»<".  0.5W  per  com;  sili<x>n.  0.143  per  cent;  sulphur,  0.009  perl 
riiorus.  ml:  copper,  0.030  per  cent.    No  traces  of  cbromluiD,  tl 
ngaten  wei-e  found.    The  breaklnR  slralns  of  the  wire  wtn  M I 

DUtueter,  Inch 093  1S2  .1M 

"ncli sw.MO     asT.doo     aM,ooo 

'  (rom  0,75  \a\.\  p«(  ceuu 


ATIONS  FOR  HARn-DRAWN  COPPER  WIRE.    25 


OF  DIPFBKBKT  ntKTAI^S  AND  ALLOYS. 

(J.  Buckiiall  Sdiitli's  Tn^Hiibii  on  Wire. i 
Wtre  l8  comtnonlr  com|>oi<ed  o{  uii  nllny  of  I  8/4  to  8  parta  of 
1  part  of  zini;.  The  tiusilij  Btipntitli  rBiigca  from  at)  to  10  long  per 
;h,  iocreasipipr  with  td^  iierL'tMitaKt?  '  f  ilnc  in  tbe  Hlloy. 
la  or  Nickel  Sliver,  an  alloy  or  .■ppfr.  sine,  and  nickel,  is 
f  brass  wluieu<?d  by  tbe  additlou  of  nickel.  It  has  been  drawn  into 
W«B.O(IQ"diacn. 

MMt  wire  may  be  drawn  into  tbe  fln.st  idiws.  On  account  of  it4< 
lilsaie  Is  practicnlly  conftiied  <u  jx^ia,  8ci*-nlinelnstrnnieiit8  ami 
KPpUances  In  wliUii  lesimaneot!  to  lil^h  temperature,  oitypen,  ond 
Niential.  It  ex|>uii<li>  Ichs  tliiiii  otlier  metals  wlirn  lieat'i'd,  wfaicu 
IMmito  it"  Iwiua  ^^■al^•d  iu  glo-ss  wiiboiic  fear  oi'  cinvkiuK-  It  U 
l)m!^  in  lucuinlejscf-iit  f  letaric  lamps. 

)Itor>I>ronze  Wire  eontainn  from  2  to  6  per  cent  of  tin  and 
loIiSf>er  cent  nf  [  liosplionis.  The  presence  of  phosplmnis  la 
al  tn  »'l(-<-trlc  condiiotivitv. 

a-m«tal  "  wire  i*  made  from  an  alloy  of  oopper,  Iron,  and  zinc. 
Ih  ™rk''^'i  fr>>m  l.'i  to  62  tons  per  square  inch.  It  Is  nsed  fnr  some 
nre  rope,  also  for  wire  K^tiEe.  It  is  not  subject  to  deposits  of  ver- 
has  great  toughness,  even  when  Its  teni^lle  BtroDgtb  is  over  00 
qusre Inch. 

mmmt  'Wire.  — Specific  grovity  .SWS.  TVhbIIb  Htrength  only 
oa»  per  M)iiai-e  Inch.  It  has  been  drawn  a»  fine  as  1 1,400  yards  to 
.  or  .Ol^Kraiiu  per  yard. 

(■■■I  Broiixe)  so  copper,  10  aluminum,  ban  '  igb  strength  and 
is  inoxidiisable,  sonorous.  Its  electric  conductivity  is  IS. 6  percent 
pure  copper. 

■  9r»»*»t  patented  In  18BS  by  L.  Wefler  »f  Paris,  is  made  as 
rtuoiUicat^  of  poiaxli,  pounded  glass,  cliloiid  V  of  ijodiimi  and  eal- 
booateof  sods  and  lime,  are  heated  In  a  pli^mbapo  orueible.  and 
reaction  takoB plitee  the  contentH  are  tlirown  into  Ihe  molten 
be  treated.  SiUcon-hionui  wire  has  a  conductivity  of  from  <0  to 
It  of  that  of  copi»"r  w  ire  and  four  limes  more  tliou  tlin<,  of  Iron, 
tensile  strenptii  is  nearly  tliat  or  steel,  or  C8  to  55  tons  per  squara 
ecli'.ri  Tilt?  I'.ndiirliviiy  decreases  as  the  tensile  strmBtTi  !n- 
jfin  nHuetivity  equals  I  ■  per  pent  of  tliat  of  pure  copper 

■•ii  r  -JM  tons  per  jquare  inch  hut  when  its  oondiictivity 

S!i  I'per,  iLs  strength  is  60  tons  per  square  inch.    It  is 

y  used  fur  telegraph  wires.  I'  li:  s  eient  i-esiKiance  to  oxidation. 
wy  SiawB  Bad  Annealed  Copper  Wire  luis  a  strength 
ilotO  tons  per  sqiuu-e  inch. 

CIFIC ATIONS  FOR  HAHD^DBAWIV  COPPGR 
B  WIRG. 

^BPost  OfBce  authorities  reipiire  that  hanlKJrann  copper  wire 
■■ein  Rhall  be  of  tlie  lenizths:,  sizes,  weights,  strengths,  and  con- 
latsei  forth  In  the  annexed  table. 


MrBtMute 

iStL 


ApproKimate  Eqidm' 
lent  Diameter. 


3      To       5  y  © 

Is  is  I  si=^ 


I 


I 


WIEE  E0PE3. 

Tnuiamltiiilon  and  Standlne  Bope. 

Wilh  6  strands  of  7  wires  each. 
IRON. 


St,   • 


3.3T 
S.7T 
S.S8 
1  SJ 
1.50 
).12 
0.88 
0.70 
0.57 
0.41 
0.:il 
OiS 
O.IU 
O.IO 
0.1^ 


36 

ao 
a'. 


10 

1-2.3 

8.8 

7.6 

B.S 

4.1 

S.H.3 

S.13 

l.M 

1.S8 

l.Oi) 


c  = 
S2 

P  c  «■ 
U-.0 

IT-* 


0 

8H 


1^ 


O.IET  STBBL. 


-  S  = 

—  fe  all 


It 


fe 

'^ 

3.37 

62 

13 

13 

«H 

T? 

S.T7 

5« 

10 

12 

8 

ti. 

^H 

a.-.'fi 

41 

B 

II 

rw 

IH 

a4 

i.sa 

36 

'W 

m 

«td 

I 

Q 

I..V) 

30 

6 

0 

.19-4 

1 

39^ 

1.18 

•« 

4.H 

H 

s 

QlVfa 

0.N8 

17 

SV!. 

( 

4« 

11-16 

2^ 

O.TO 

14 

a 

n 

4 

♦t,. 

1^9 

0.57 

11 

•i'i 

.',U 

8H 

*7^ 

0,^1 

H 

1*4 

m 

3 

il 

0.31 

6 

>% 

4 

«l^ 

^-10 

0  -Si 

4H 

m 

3i| 

i^4 

O.IS 

4 

J 

a 

ib-te 

O.IO 

3 

'i 

234 

i»i 

■»-«: 

« 

0.]:i 

S 

•J^i 

ns 

I 


Plougti*Steel  Hope. 

iif  TtT.v  blftli  it-iisHe  streuelli,  uhi<'h  are  nnllnnrlly  rnlU'il 
bl  R<>|*^. "  •"'«  i'">df  I'f  n  hlRli  gr.iile  of  fincilile  st-el,  wliich. 
I  ihi-  form  of  wire,  will  bear  a  siniiii  of  from  100  to  150  (oiig  per  . 

I  iit>o>B"ary  »«  H"©  vHrv  loiip  or  very  hi'nvy  roppn,  a  rpduction  of  J 

,f  r..!..'.^  ti.-.v ,i!i.-i.  I.  itiiiiter  of  lioiii'iiK  cniiKirlrraiicin. 

a.  iiili>iitii/m,  niid  to  ii**-  wnnewhttt 
■  for  an  onllruir.v  cnieililft  l 
,:...,■  huh     Before  iisicK  PV 
s  t<fjM'a s>Jn-v  Ml  the  auOjecl  of  adaptiLbilll}'. 


838 


MATERIALS. 

Plong-h^Steel  Bop«. 

With  (i  slrttndij  of  19  wires  each 


Trade 
Kumber. 


Diameter  (D 
Inches. 


Wciifht  per 
foot  in 
pounds. 


Brealiini; 

SinUii  In 
tons  of 
8000  lb*. 


8.00 
6.90 

s.as 

4.10 
3.C5 
3.00 
S.£0 
2.00 

i.sa 
rao 

0.88 
0.60 
0.4-1 
0.S5 


2*0 

ise 

1B7 

no 

90 
75 
«0 
47 
S7 
87 
18 
18 
10 


With  7  Wires  lo  Ihe  Straud. 


H 


-IB 


1.50 

45 

l.)« 

3S 

0.S8 

m 

0  TO 

21 

0.87 

1« 

0.41 

1« 

0.31 

» 

0.28 

s 

0.19 

4 

I 


Galvanized  Iron  Wire  Bope. 

For  Sliips'  Rigging  and  Ouya  for  D^rrtcks. 
CHARCOAL  ROPE. 


li.C 
Striiin 
III  ions 
of  -Mm 
|i<iun 


Cireum- 
ffrciiee 
in  iuclies 


W«^>?ht    Clr^»f 


P__C^r*al 


WIHE   ROPER.  2S9 


I 


I  Clr.   of 
liriiB-   '''''"■''''        np"' 
"tiM»  I'^'fuih-   Manilla 
llili(f .    '-""  ill      Rof  >e  of 
VvimiiK,      equal 
Strenglh. 


1$ 
11 
■III 


Ureak- 

iiiB 
glrain 
ill  1oiiS 
of  l!OW 
lioiinds 


06 
43 
82 
87 
SB 
IB 


Welfflit 
CImiin-  I     |x>r 
fen.'in:e  i  Fmhom 
in  iijcli«« 

pOunilK. 


Clr.  of 

new 

MHnllla 

Kopf  of 

equal 

SIrenKlh. 


Bivak- 

8iniiii 
in  lOiiR  ! 
ufSOUO  , 

pOUlHlB 


Sleel  Havrsers. 

For  Moorini;.  Sea,  unrl  I^ke  Trtvrinir. 

tMfer. 

BiMUnK 
ainngth. 

Toiu, 

m 

IS 
22 

Sizf^  of 
ManlMa  Haw- 
ser I'f  equo] 
SUenRih. 

di^juinrer- 

ecioe. 

BreaktnR 

Btri>iigl.h. 

Size  of 

Manilla  n«w- 

tter  of  equal 

Slreiigtli. 

Incheg. 

iDcbra. 

an 

Tung. 

85 

torbea. 
9 
10 

Sleel  Flat  Rop«i>. 

,  (J.  A.  KOf  blitig  s  Suns  L'O  ) 

S*Wn»l  H<>p«»B  ore  c(m>p(if;e<l  of  a  iiiimlKT  of  strnnrin.  nItemBtely 
Ploilio  rit,|n  ft„i^  left,  laid  Hlont'sidi-  of  each  other,  »ii<l  i-mwhi1  io;feilier 
•  •"'limn  wires,  These  ropes  are  nseil  at  tirm-s  In  place  of  rnuml  lopeit 
~"!»ris  »f  iniiien.  They  wind  upon  themselves  on  a  riBiruw  wiiidinc- 
^- "liii'h  lakes  up  less  room  limn  one  necra-ttry  for  a  pound  rone.  The 
•"""wwlng-wires  wear  out  sooner  than  the  steel  Btiaiids,  anil  Iben  it 


i'  '"1 

Height  per 
fool  ill 
pounds. 

Strength  in 
pounds. 

85,7(10 

Width  and 
Thickness 
In  inches. 

Weight  per 
foot   til 
pounds. 

BtreoKth  la 
I>ouuds, 

1.19 

Ux3 

g.38 

71.400 

:»* 

1.80 

WHOO 

2xa» 

s.vr 

8B.O00 

H 

S.OO 

(lo.ooo 

2x4 

«.80 

00,000 

'Hi 

%.M> 

JB.OOO 

'|x4H 

4.00 

ISO.OOO 

M 

iM 

8S.H00 

loi 

4.W 

128,001) 

*% 

8.13 

98.000 

i'^ 

4.83 

144,600 

H 

8.40 

100.000         ' 

|«0^ 

9.10 

3B8,oao 

«*« 

8.90 

110,000 

U"' 

s.go 

177,0(10 

'Hte  KurkliiK  load  allow  from  one  Hfth  to  one  seventh  of  the  breaklog 

"I>ans  I^ay"  Roims. 

Jl**  rope,  as  ordinarily  made,  the  eompouent  sti-ands  ore  laid  up  into 
■  aillrection  opposite  to  that  in  whifh  thr  wires  nie  laiil  into  strands; 
».  Iflhe  wires  In  the  si  rands  are  luid  fnuii  riu-httu  left,  the  Birands  are 
'loriipe  from  left  to  right.  In  the  "  hnne  Lay,"  wjtiiellinen  kiwwua* 
'ereai  Lay."  ihf  n)rvs  arc  laid  inlet  strnmlN  and  iliestreoduiKtotoptt 
'lumd/irviiim;  that  I",  If  itie  Kiif  In  laitl  ill  ihe  Ktrniul^  [rotn  v\KViW> 
mnutif;  are  also  laid  into  mpf  from  riffht  u>  left     Its  use  Aias  bee:U 

"»ea  lor  reraeaj  Jwiats  lo  wmcs,  etc.     Its  oavautagea  are  Vkv* 


OOnPASATIVE  STBBNCiTHS  OF  FI^EXIBI 
TANIZKD  STEEL-WIBE  HAWSERS, 

"WUtk  CllAln    Cable,  Tarred    Bunitlan    Hemp, 
Hanlla  Kopesa    (Trenton  Iron  L'o j 


Patent  Flexible 

Bteel-w  i  I'B    Haw sers 

and  Cables. 


MAONESIA   BRtcKS.  235 

niAONESIA    BBICKS. 

For*i(fn  Ai>»tra«.'tB  "  of  thf  InstUtitiorj  i.t  Clul  En(ciiii'fn>,  l^'(>3.  tcivc*  • 
.w  by  C.  Hischof  III!  tLe  prod  net  ion  uf  iiiu»;iii'Siii  biioko.  Tlie  ■itnti'risl 
■Oil  fD  faror  at  prtseni  is  the  inudPifs'itf  nf  Si.vrin  whlcli.  hIIIioukIi  li*f« 
pwi' cuusiilercJ  as  u  source  of  iiiaKOr-iiiii  llimi  llir  (Jre-'k.  lias  (In?  proptfrty 
OTfritliDK  ut  n  high  tciiipei'atijre  wIiIkhic  iiielrini;  TIih  roinpoMJOoit  of  ilm 
I*osutbtanc«s,  iu  Die  iiaiiiral  utm  burnt  kIuic^  iseis  follows: 

Magneslle.  Svriaii.  Greek. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia  DO.H  to  B«.(«  OHVi% 

'•    lime  .  .  (l.Sto   -.Ml  ■1.41) 

"    iron 8.01O    HO  FeO  0  08 

Silica 1.0  O.-ti 

Xauganous oxide  0.5  Wat.Tii.M 

Burnt  Magneaite. 

Haenesia Tt.t  »i.W-9^m 

Lime 78  OM-IOW 

Alumina  and  ferric  oxide Ifl.O  O.-W— S.M 

Silica 1.8  o.n-r.se 

t  a  red  lieAt  ni«Kne«iiim  carlxinate  is  decomposed  Intooarhtmio  add  and 
mlc  innKnestia,  which  reseiiibltM  lime  in  bec-<miiiK  Ii3'ilrut«-d  and  rernr. 
tiat<.-<l  wliKii  t?xpow*(l  to  tlip  air,  and  possesses  a  errlAin  ploHlicity.  so  ibui 
can  be  nioul'ied  when  subjecteil  to  a  lieavy  pivusure.  By  lontc  CdntiuiitvJ 
Kirontct^r  heaijrifr  Ihc  uiai«nal  becompsdHailbunit.  K'*ini:  a  form  of  msf;' 
tia  of  liip:l»  deiiMty.  sp.  Rr.  3.K,  as  L'ompai-fd  ivilli  3.0  in  the  plastic  form 
icb  is  unalterable  iu  tiie  air  but  devuiii  <>r  [ilaKliviiy.  A  mixture  of  two 
[nines  of  dead-burnt  with  one  nf  plasilo  Mmtrne^ia  uan  be  iiiouldeil  into 
■kH  which  contract  but  little  in  flHu^.  (Itber  binding  niaierialKt  bat  huvt* 
II  useil  are:  clay  up  to  ID  or  15  per  ot'iii;  KON-t^r.  perfectly  freed  from 
;er,  »oda,  silica,  vinecar  aa  a  soluUnu  of  uiaKnenitini  Hcelale  nhich  hi 
iljly  decomposed  by  heat,  and  carholateB  of  alKalies  or  lime.  AmniiR 
^.giietiiuin  coiiipoumis  a  weak  solution  of  niatrnei^iuiu  ohilMvide  may  also  he 
rd.  For  settiiiB 'be  bricks  lightly  hnrnt,  caustic  maifneiiin,  with  ajinirill 
^portion   «>f  silica  to  render  it.  ie«»  refrnciory.  in   rec<inimenile<l.    The 

En^lli  of  the  Inickfi  may  be  iOcreaaiKl  by  adillni;  inm.  either  a^  oxide  or 
ate.     If  a  porMus  product  is  required,  sawilust  orsianMi  may  he  added 
the  •iiisture.     Wiien  dead-buiiic  iiiaKaesiii  is  ufied  ulune,  wxla  In  baid  to  l>e 
best  ^>illdlug  material. 

•e  al«o  (>a|>ert  liv  A.  E.  Hunt,  Trans  A.  I  M.  E  ,n'i,  T-'O,  and  >iy  T   Eglea- 
.  Traii'<.  A.  I.  M.'E..  xi».  450. 
A.«1>e«tOS.— J.  T.  Donald,  £ii0.  nnit  .V.  Jmu:,  June  ^T,  I8SI. 


Amalysis. 


t'^iiiidfnn. 
Itjillnn.    Brimahlon.  Teniplpton. 


Silica.     .     - 4<tmii 

Magnesia .<8.il? 

Ferrous  oxide UT 

Alumina. «.97 

Water 13.7i 


4oy.% 

4a.:iS% 

4160 

4-J.(« 

8.«l 

l.W 

.«( 

2  10 

IS.  85 

13.46 

100.M  D«.3:i  100.10 


I 


Chetnlcal  analysis  throws  light  upon  an  important  point  in  connection 
Jth  asbestos,  i  e..  the  cause  of  tlie  harslme.ss  oT  lb-'  flijre  of  some  varieties, 
* beAtos  is  piincipallv  a  hydrous  silicnle  or  mriKn«»;ia.  i.e..  sIliCBlf  of  niag- 
»ia  combined  with  water.  VVben  haiKh  fibre  is  aiialytetl  it  is  found  to 
.main  less  water  than  the  soft  fibre  la  fll>re  of  veivfliif  nunlity  fmni 
lack  r.ake  analysis  sbr.we.)  U.SI^ftn  imiri:  w/jile  a  harsh  ftlneil  samv'*^ 
jre  nn)i-  ll.rOf.    Jf  si>fr  Hhri!  I;,  i,'Hii-tl  i;  a  fejuperatiire  tliiu  will  Ame  oil 

fjorlloD  r>f  the  combined  nnter,  Itit-ri^  n-flullK  fl  .subsrailCe  ■in  brittle  l\iat  W 
tr  /"e  i-iirnfiM/  f>f'nif^a  ibtiiiih  and  fl/iL-er.  There  iH  evidently  Rom«  COO? 
^t^j«e.-a,b^ooustet^ncyofib^nb,eand  the  amount  of  water  iu  Ul 


238  STRENGTH   OF   MATEBULS 


STRENGTH  OF  MATEBIALS. 

Stroaa  and  Strain.— There  is  mucb  coiifu«iou  anio  :k  writrn 
Btri^ngih  of  iiiaieiJiilH hh  to  tliu  deniiition  of  Ihnan  leriiis.  An  exlf msl  foi 
Applied  to  a  body,  i^o  »ii  ui  iiull  it  Hpaii,  is  reKisted  by  a>i  iiilental  foitsBi 
i-p8i!ilnDC<>,  mid  llie  aetioii  of  lliose  foix-es  caim«-s  a  disi.laceiiient  of  Ihe  in< 
fules,  or  deformatiiiti.  By  some  writer*  thf  external  force  is  callrti  a  sU 
and  the  lineriml  foici'  a  titraiii;  oilif  rs  call  tlii-  external  force  a  siruin,  i 
the  intenml  forue  a  Ktress:  Lliis  coiifusloii  of  tcmis  Is  nul  of  importance, 
the  words  stress  and  strBlii  areqiilLe  coiiinioiilv  used  syiioinnioiitsly.  but 
use  of  the  word  strain  Id  mrnii  ninlecular  displaceTn^tit,  deformation,  or  ( 
torCioD,  aa  is  the  ousloiii  of  some.  Is  a  forruiili'n  of  tbe  iBiiirnat'e.  Sevi 
iimeering  ?i'eir»,  June  '-iS,  lEiDS.  lietluitioiis  liy  leading  authorities  are  gi' 
below. 

Siren. — A  stress  la  a  force  vvhicli  acts  in  the  interior  of  a  bo<ly,  and 
ilgtB  the  external  forces  which  tend  to  chantie  its  Hliape.  A  deformalk 
the  amount,  of  cliaitf:e  of  !<tia[jti  of  a  body  canted  by  the  elrem.  The  « 
Rtrain  is  often  used  as  synonymous  nith  tstress  and  sometinieit  It  U  aluoi 
to  deslgiiate"  the  defonnalloii.     Olerrlniaii  ) 

TIk!  force  liy  wliicti  ihc  iiiolecules  of  a  body  renlBt  a  strain  at  anjr  poin 
called  tbe  sirens  at  tlvat  point. 

Tiie  suDiniatioii  of  the  dixplaoenientis  of  the  molecule*  of  a  btxiyj 
given  point.  Is  called  the  distortion  or  strain  at  (he  point  considered. 

Btreases  are  the  forces  ivliicli  are  apiiiied  to  bodies  to  bi  ijig  int 
tbuir eliutic  and  cohesive  properties.    These  forces  canse  alleratloin 
forms  nf  tlie  batlles  UfKot  whieii  they  act,     ,'^traiii  is  a  name  |?lv9Vl 
kind  of  alteration  iH  oil  need  b>  tlic  utrcHses.    The  distinciion  between  | 
and  strain  is  not  aiwnys  ol>»erved,  one  Im-1ii«  used  for  the  other.     iW< 

Stresses  nro  of  different  kinds,  vijs.  :  teiifilr,  compretutive,  trinu-Vfrtt, 
gi>'nal,  and  sifuriny  btresses. 

A  tmtit<-  stress,  or  pull.  Is  a  forc<<  tending  to  elongate  a  pi«oe.     A  i 
prrxsive  ylresa,  or  push,  is  a  force  leiuiiiiK  to  shurteii  it.     A  haiiKv»rai  i 
tetids  10  bend  it.    A  tunuintil  KttvHx  teiid«  10  twist  It.    A  aheai-titg 
tends  to  force  one  part  of  it  to  slide  over  the  ndjneent  rart. 

Tensile,  conipreKsive,  and   shenrinK  stresses  are  called  simple  8Q 
Transvei-se  stress  is  cuitipoiiiided  uf  tensile  and  compressive  ■  1  rrOTim.  I 
torsional  of  tensile  and  BhearinerstTesseR. 

To  these  five  Tarielies  of  »iies«es  iiiitrht  be  aiided  tearini}  atrecit, 
either  tensile  or  shearing.  Imt  in  which  the  rtMslance  of  dlfTerent  j 
of  Ihe  material  are  brought  iiitr;  play  in  detail,  or  one  after  Ibei 
Ktead  of  atmuhnneoiisly,  as  in  Ihe  simple  stresses. 

EOectR  of  StreaseH.— The  roilnwing  general  laws  for  caa 
tension  or  coiiipi es^ion  hnvM  been  estaiitished  by  experiment.     (Me_ 

1.  When  a  small  stress  Is  ap]dled  t^i  a  body,  a  small  (teformal  ioi?1 
iluced,  and  on  the  removal  of  the  slress  the  body  springs  i>nck  to  iisorigi'i 
form,    for  small  slreasea,  then,  iiiateiials  may  be  regaided  aa  perfei 
elastic. 

•.  Under  small  Btresges  the  defominiluns  are  apprnxiinately  proportiol 
to  the  forces  or  stresses  wldch  jirodiice  iheiu,  ami  also  afiproximaiely  p« 
portionaj  lo  tlie  length  of  the  Ijar  or  Itody. 

3.  When  the  stress  i»  great  enougli  a  derurmatlon  la  produced  which 
partly  permanent,    that  is,  the  body  does  not  spring  back   entirely  I" 
original  form  on  removal  of  the  stress.    This  permanent  part  l*  termed 
set.    In  such  cases  the  defomiatlonB  are  not  proportiinal  lo  the  slrejas. 
,  *.  When  the  stress  is  greater  still  the  defurtinitlim  rnpidiv  increaaes  1 

f       the  iHMjy  flnuUy  ruptures. 

I  fi.  A  8udd«-n  stress,  or  shock,  Is  more  Injurious  than  a  steady  atraaa  or  Ik 

.        "  ™'''"*  '-''Hdimlly  fti.plied. 

Elaatle  llmi|._The  elastic  limit  Ie  deflaed  as  that  point  at  which  1 
I  derorijiatlons  cease  m  l)e  proportional  to  the  eiresses.  or.  the  point  at  will 
j  !~'^  '"I?'"  of  stret<!h  (or  other  iletnrmaHoiil  begins  to  Increase  Ii  in  al 
lv'?",„^  tfie  point  at  whlcii  the  fKni  pevmanent  ^-A  V»Km«es,  %Uible.  T 
'  .„„,  '■"""'on  is  not  considered  as  good  as  ^'he  Rrsv . »%  \v  \'f.\v,\TO<\  \V*\i 
■  witf.Z^"'''''^^  ■  set  occurs  with  »iu-  \ottii.  no  n\RV\>.t  Vww  v-mviW.  ttw\ 
Wmi.  Jn^"^  *  «*■'  whioh  niiitJtt  be  caV\et\  petTO»w^«l-«ttaVkW«VsVv\« 
r™*^  and  as  it  is  ImpousibU-  to  gel  tbe  poinv  ol  arbX-wcV^WYkoMlLW 


SIZES  OF   FIRE-BRICK. 


SIZES  OF  FIRE*BBICK. 

, .  Unch  stralglit Vx4Ux«U  inches. 

\        8oi»p g>cXUx£U       " 

'    ;ub     \      Checker txa    x3         ■• 

I  \     8-iiicli  0x4U>t-.'  " 

*>tK.9U    /      Split    fl«1««1.«        " 

"  /       Jamb  »«4}|''-'i*       " 

No.  1  key 9x3t|ihtckx4J4to4lncha« 

wide. 
r,         \  IlSbricks  tocirclo  12  foet  (nsiilp  (liam. 

"[____^     No.  a  key  9  »  21^  thick  x  4^  to  a^ 

rXTTuZiH'  Inulies  wIdR.  ^^ 

»<w r  53  iiricks  to  circle  6  ft.  iuside  diam.  .^H 

Ko.  3key &  «  SX^    tliick  «   ^^   ^H 

Si)  bricks  to  circle  3  rt.  iuside  diam. 

Vf4n    \   Jlo-'lkfy S^a^  thic-U   X  4H  lo  SM 

^         locbes  wide. 
/•<4W  TiirriT-?  '^■''  l""ick«  to  circle  IJ^  ft.  Insid<»  diam. 

C  ■Jin'Hijy  j(o^  I  we.l(re'or  hulUifail).  Ox  it*,  wide  x  Xtj  to  tf  iJi. 
tliick,  tapei-iiiK  If-nuthwlse. 

88  brtcks  to  ciex-le  5  ft  inside  dinni. 

iMh       \    Mo.  S  wedge... 9x  4!*>-4^  lo  ll^  in  thick. 

60  brickn  to  cltcle  -J)^  fi.  in<>ide  diam. 

"•XMSKix/    No.  1  arch 9x4Hk3Vs  to  3  in.  tliiek, 

laperin);  breadthwise. 

7a  brfckR  to  circle  4  ft.  inside  diam. 

No.Sarch 9  x  4^JKB>.i  in  lU. 

43  bricks  to  circle  a  ft.  inRide  diam.  i 

\SalSkcw\       No.  t  skew fli<i  7x4^10  214. 

Bevel  on  one  end. 

,      No.  Sskew  ...   9x:;Ux4Utrt-JJi. 

y'lH'iH'  Kqiial  bevel  on  Ivnii  ediies. 

No.  3  skew lixSJ^xi^to  1^. 

Taper  on  f  ne  ed^e. 

-  ,„      .       S4  inch  circle SU  to SV^x 4^x2^4. 

»".>  sktw  \  ICdEes  curted,  9  brlck.s  line  a  24-iiu-h  circle. 

ae-luch  circle  (%  t(>8Ux4!.«x8H|. 

/'•Uitiik-twV  13  bricks  hne  II  aft-incli  cirile.  1 

'     "^^"'tl      48J„chclrcle 1%  tn  7^x41^  xi>}^.         ^H 

17  bricks  line  a  4H-in>'h  circle.  ^H 

l.lU-inch  straitrht. IH4^x'j^x6  ^H 

ISXi-inch  key  No.  1  18^  «  4H  »  6  to  5  Inch. 

i  X»  J  Sk«» — ^  W  l)rlcks  turn  a  l--*-fi.  circle. 

i3).j-incli  key  No,  i 13^  x  lii,^  x  11  to  4*4  iacll. 

.tu.eiutuif  '  .VJ  bricks  turn  a  li-ft.  circle. 

JJLlHiry       Brldee  wall,  No.  1 ia«BHx6. 

BrldKe  wall.  No  » )3x«.iHx3, 

*  f.  a<-el.  MiUUle 18,!».or2-lx6x3.  , 

Jv V        atf.ek-hoIe  HlM 18.  SO,  or  ai  x  9  x  4. ' 

\        IH-lnch  block 18x9x6. 

•K       \      FlHtback  OxttxiJ^. 

— • 4      Flat  back  arch 9x8x3WtoaV^. 

/  lea-inoh  radiiiH,  Sfl  bricks  to  circle. 

Locomotive  tile   82x10x8. 

S4xiOx3. 

;«=«»^^  ^:  rA. 

40x10x3. 
Tiles,  Blabs,  and  blocks,  various  sizes  13  to  30  lnche« 
long,  H  to  SO  Inches  wide.  3  to  8  inches  thick. 
I  brtck,  4  and  6  indies  high,  4  and  8  Inches  radial  width,  to  lineslielw 
I  illameier.  j 

raixht  Ijdck  woiplis  T  lbs.  and  contains  lllO  cubic  IncllM^  (=l»j 
5  fool.    8i>eclllc  gravity  1.113.; 

fool  0/  wull  rr<iiilrtni  17'Xlncli  brlcka,  one  CUbiCJ 
ifSi,  Krei/Ktv,  and  other  "  sljapes  "  are  used,  1 
t  outabM-  rtquJred. 


i 


I 


238  STBBNGtH   01?   MATERIALS. 

streaaes,  the  ooefScient  or  elasticity  U  oonBtaot,  but  beyond  I 

it  tlecreasf B  rapidly.  " 

111  cast  iioii  tljei »  i\f  gwnerally  no  njjiiarent  limit  of  elosiielty, ibi^ (tefr 
tiunif  iiicreuMiii^'  at  afui>ti!i'  lait?  llian  tlii^  strfiwes.  him}  a  (wniifiupiii  «<*t  i 
Urmlucftl  by  Kiiiiill  IouUb.    The  fwrtlicienl  of  elawliciiy  Ihrt.  ! 
Slant  (iuritiK  ony  portion  of  u  teM,  but  crows  riimlli^ras  il  ' 
Tlie  HuiiiH  is  true  m  the  cose  uf  tiiiilKT     In  wrouglit  iron  au'i 
thiere  is  a  well-defined  elastic  limit,  iiiid  the  coefficient  of  •-la-ticiij  ■ 
tliot  limit  is  nearly  0"nsttinti. 

RcHlltence,  or  Work  ofReslatanee  of  a  iriBrerlal.-^ 
the  tiiiuiiiv  limit,  tliv  resistance  tucrti<i»iiig  nnifoi-nily  from  : 
Btress  at  the  elaf-lic  limit,  tlie  work  done  by  a  load  applied  t;; 
to  one  half  the  ptcdiict  of  tlie  final  .-tre.'-s  by  the  eitrnBioii  •- 
tion.     Bt-yohd  <hr  \  la-tlc  limii,  the  exiensinna  iticreai^ine  nioi'-  liiplll! 
tile  loads,  ai>d  ilie  Ktraiii  diaKi'aui  iippi'OiUinatixg  a  piirabolic  form  tlip 
Isi  Hppn)ximuiely  e^iudj  to  two  tliirus  the  product  of  the  maxiinuiuiire 
Ilie  eXtcnsiOD. 

The  lUiiouQi.  of  work  required  to  break  a  bar,  measured  asiullrlt 
pounds,  i.s  culled  Its  resiliencti;  the  work  required  to  strain  it  to  ue  <l 
iimli  is  culled  its  el«>iic  i-esUience. 

Under  a  load  agiplied  HudJenly  the  momentary  elastic  distortioabi 
to  twice  tliQt  i:auBi-d  yy  tlio  same  load  applied  (.-radnal'y 

When  a  solid  uiiiieiial  Is  exposed  to  percussive  hirers,  as  when  •« 
fallf  upon  a  b&am  nuuijverKely.  the  work  of  resistance  is  iiieasumi  V 
pr'  duct  of  the  wi-ii.'lit  into  tlip  t<ital  full 

Blevation  of  UUlmale  Resistance  and  Elastic  Llmll 
wart  Ui'st  obseiTed  iiy  i'li.r.  H,  H.  Tnm-htou,  and  Conimai.drr  L.  A.  B< 
lee.  U.  S.  N.,  Indepeudontly,  lu  1873,  that  if  wrouKht  iioo  !••  sii(ijHrii«( 
stress  beyond  Its  elastic  limit,  but  not  beyond  its  ulliniat<- 
thru  allo»irJ  to  "rest  "for  a  deflnile  Inlcrval  of  liinr,  » 
ci'easti  of  eiaslic  limit  and  ultimate  resistance  may  be  exi>-n' 
words,  the  applicmion  of  stress  and  suUhequent  "  rest  "  lnor<Ni«"i  me  i 
anee  of  wrought  iron. 

This  "•  re>t"  ipay  iie  an  entire  release  from  stress  or  a  sltuplo  hoWli 
test-piece  at  a  irlvpii  intensity  of  stress 

Commander  Beardslee  prepared  twelve  specinu'Ds  and  onlJecSeJ  tb 
an  iDtensity  <<f  i<tiei«  equal  tu  the  tilliiiiate  rehislaiice  oC  the  Miot"dal 
out  hivaking  the  speiiim-ni.    The-.e  «eie  then  alknve<l  tJ>  [■ 
from  slivs^,  from  lit  In  30  hour.s.  after  widi-li  period  they  »>^ 
until  iM'olten.    The  Kuin  in  uiliniaie  resistance  by  the  rest  v.. > 
from  4.'!  to  l7  per  cent. 

This  elevation  of  elastic  and  ultimate  resistance  appears  to  be  penl 
lion  nnd  steel:  it  lins  not  been  found  in  other  metals. 

Relation  of  the  Elastic  Llnilt  to  Kndnranc''  :i-.*~~ 
peated  Stresses  (condensed  from  Enyhii-rnifi,  A 
Wnen  eiKlneei's  first  be^an  t<>  te>;t  muturialii.  it  wiu  s<ion 
If  a  specimen  was  loadetj  lieyontl  a  certain  ptdut  it  did  not 
nal  diniennioiis  on  lemuving  the  load.  Iiiit  tixik  a  (lerinnDrr 
was  called  the  elastic  limit  i^ince  lulnw  tlii«pointabarii|'i 
C'linpleiely  its  onginal  f'-mi  and  dimeusiims  un  removli  t' 

f>eai'edol>Viiiu8  that  it  had  not  lieen  iiijiii<-d  by  the  lond,  aim 
11^  luud  might  be  deduced  from  the  elastic  hiniC  by  u.sIiik  u        . 
saf.ty. 

i'^iperlence  showed,  however,  that  In  many  cases  a  bui  wculd  rot 
safely  a  stress  miywhere  near  the  elB.s»ic  limit  of  the  maiei  lal  ««  iL-ipr 
by  these  experimeiitn.  and  ilie  wiiule  Iheoiy  <»f  an.v '■'  '  ,  ■    - 

elastic  limit  or  a  bur  ami  its  woi  l<im{  Itraa  became 
eiigineeis employed  the  ultimate »:tr«>iiKili  only  lu  de  i 
load  10  wlicb  tlifir  St ru'- lures  mi^lit  besulijec'ied.     Sim.  u.i  i-.\|«-ii'  m" 
tnulated  it  \\as  observed  tliaiahiglier  factor  of  safely  was  required  1(M 
load  tliaii  for  a  riea<l  one, 

111  1S7I  WOliler  jintdi-hed  the  results  of  a  number  of     ■  '  '   ' 

of  Iron  Slid  "leel  sul>Jecle<l  l>i  live  loads     In  these  e> 
were  put  on  and   rem. iVrtt  from  llie  siieciiiirus  »itl  . 

■  .:■—'-■ '   '  ''■-■   "  .-  lirealtii.»r  >-iress  of  th>'  :■ 

I ''rf.'fltiius  ii>ad.    Thus 
IIS  per  square  inch  bfti. 


STRESS    AND   STRAIN.  23^J 

Irent  brands  of  ii-on  and  gt«el,  and  the  results  were  conco^^^ 
itliai  u  bar  would   lireuk  with  an  nltrrnatiiiK  Kiress  ..f  oiilyl       I 
k-sratii'al  brrnkinsNtrfiigtliof  ibe  iiiait-rtal.  if  therepeiiilunfi 
fufflcifiiily  nuiUfiou.H.     At  the  sainei  tinir.  Imwfver,  it  ap- 
}  general  trend  of  Ihf  exfit-rim«-iiLs  that  a  bar  would  xiaud  an 
fer  of  AJternaliuiis  of  stress,  procidcd  tbe  stress  was  kept 

[neer  deflnes  tlie  ela^Hu  Hnilt  as  tlie  nnint  at  wl.icli  stresa 
tiblj-  pixipoi'tiorial  (o  stiaiu,  the  latter  beiiiK  nicasured  with 

|it«s  reading  to  ^jj^'b  of  a  iiillllmelre,  or   about  In. 

'Bya  below  tiie  yielti-point,  and  may  on  oircasion  be  zero.  On 
^iva  the  yielil-point,  tliia  iK>iiit  liM-s  Willi  I  he  strew!,  and  the 
or  weeks,  inonibs,  nml  possilily  fi'r  years  if  tlie  bar  Is  left  at 
M,  On  ihe  oiliHr  hiiu'l.  when  °ii  liar  Ik  loaded  Iteyond  iia  true 
it  below  its  nekl.|«iiiii.  this  limit  rl^es,  bui  reaclii  » a  mazi- 
M-polnt.  l8  approaehed.  -ind  then  falls  rapi<l]y,  reHclilup  even 
•vim;  the  iNir  nt  ret>t  under  a  Klresn  exceeding  that  uf  its 
liiie-dowii  point,  the  elastic  limit  Iweing  i.\  rise  flfirain,  niid 
iiifflcient  time,  nse  lu  a  point  mneh  exceedinjjf  its  previous 

of  the  el:istic  limit  of  ehantiinB  with  the  hiKtorjr  of  a  bar  ha« 
'  'I'ln  ariyihintr  eke.  tieveithelfS-  it  row  spf-ni-*  as  if 
■rty,  were  once  more  ti>  take  its  former  place  in 
I  ■    '■<.  and  this  lime  wiili  flxiiy  of  tenure,     it  had  long 

.1  \\.^  limit  of  elasticity  miplit  be  rnised.  as  «e  have  sanl,  to 
)t  villiin  ihe  hreakinc  lo<id  of  a  bar.  Thus,  in  some  expei'i- 
wor  fityffe,  the  eiuRiic  Hmii  of  a  fiiiddle(l-<iti'el  barwas  ral'^ed 
|bj«cting  the  bar  to  a  load  exceeding  its  priinittve  elastic 

ilimitsof  elasticity,  one  for  tension  and  one  for  compression. 

•ded  a  number  of  tjars  in  tensinn  iiiiiil  siresK  ceased  t"  he 

Uonal  to  strain.     The  Inad  was  then  reinoveil  and    the  bar 

■esslon  iinMI  the  eln.-tie  limit  in  till';  direction  bad  been  ex 

>nx!(sas  raises  the  elastic  limit  iu  compression,  as  would  be 

g  the  bar  in  ciiin|ire>>8init  a  second  time.    In  place  "f  ibis, 

I  now  again  tested  in  leosiun,  when  it  was  fouix.  lliat  the 

[of  the  limit  in  coiniTeviinii  hml  lowered  that  in  tetmlnci  be- 

» value.    By  rep«-atinK  tlie  procis.s  of  altemalciv  teating  in 

ii|iiv~.i.,ii.  :he  two  limits  took  up  p'litit.u  at  equal  distances 

li  .ih  ill  tensiioii  and  compression.     These   limits 

>  labile  limits  i.f  ilie  liar,  whlcii  for  wrought  iron 

1. 'Ut  Hl^  toil!*  per  square  inch,  biii  tliiBiKpraciieiiily 

.1.  iMir  of  tiie  same  material  can  lie  xli-atneil  nlier- 

.|ire«>iioii,  withom  brenidnd  when  the  leading  is 

I  .    i   as  deEerinined  by  Wtihiei-'s  iiieihod 

Vl-.ii  ihr-  rolls  the  ela-stic  limi't  of  the  bar  in  tension  Is  above 

Ilie  Unlit  of  the  barasdeflai'd  bv  BiuischinKer,  having  lieen 

M  hi  ill.-  ilefoi  iiiiitlons  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  in  the 

.  ■.'.  wlien   siilijecleil  to  nlrei|iBtlir_'  sli-i-NSeg, 

i.-ly  lowt-reil.  Hliile  that  In  compieswion  is 

II. 1  to  equal  luads.     Hence,  In  Wohler's  ex- 

tliieli  III"  i<iir*  broke  at  lnads  nonilually  below  the  elastic 

lalerlal,  ihere  is  every  reason  for  conoliiding  that  Ihe  loads 

«f.  r  ilmii  (rue  elastic  limits  of  the  material.     This  is  cml- 

.miectiiig  iod.s  of  engluBS,  wliich  of  course  worlc 

if  equal  intensity,     Careful  experiments  on  old 

limit  in  compiession  is  Ihe  saine  as  that  in  len- 

1  111  lit-  !ar  beliiw  the  tension  ela.slic  limit  of  the  material  as 

lie  rolls,  ^  „     ,.,,,..  1   J  

opinion  thatFtruinlDB  a  metal  beyond  it«  ela-tlc  I  mit  injures 

I  untrue      It  Is  not  the  mere  straining  of  a  metal  Ivy.md  one 

It  Injures  it.  but  the  straining,  many  tlines  ret.ealed.  l-ev-md 

Imlts     SI.  Heiitamln  linker  lias  ^hn.vii  that  m  hen,lii.g  a  shell 

.      ,1  u  of  nece«.^iiv  sliain-d  heyndit-elaatic  limit, 

1,  a*  7  t.iiis  to  1ft  inns  per  square  uu-h  niav  ..binln 

■It.  r'-ll"   "ixl  i"''''ss  il>f  I'll'**  "*  annenlc^.  VVw»6 

f,-x'Ki  ■inT  U  hiis  tifen  biiHt  (iii.«  the  lioiler.    in,--— ■-  - 

^tfioiftJ  to  ihc  aJititivaul  stiess  due  to  the 


I 


I 


240  STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 

ftlie  boiler,  tho  overstrained  portions  of  the  plate  wilt  relieve  I 

F«[i'etohiiiK  >iii<l  laliinK  h  peniiunetic  sei, ko  thut  iiiobahly  arter  a  ya 
I  iii^  v^ry  Ulilf  (llifeience  coultJ  be  deteL'te<I  in  ihe  6tr¥j*»Mj4  in  a  plal 
Vto  the  ijojlt-r  as  it  ennie  fruin  the  beuding  Jollji,  and  in  uiio  whlcT 
BDDealed,  bvCore  rivpting  into  plact>,  and  tlie  flr^t,  in  spite  of  Us  1 
•trained  bej^ond  its  elastic  liiiiit»,  and  nut  BubKcqueiitly  anne&Iml,  •« 
^  ait  i«trong  as  cbe  otli^r. 

Be«latance  ol  netala  to  Repeated  Shorka. 

More  tliaii  twelve  years  were  spt-nt  by  \Viilii«ir  at  lb«  inslmtcf  nf  tkel 
eian  Govemrneiil  ill  fxperiiiifnting  upon  The  resistance  of  i; 
repeated  St  I  ess<'S.    The  results  of  liis  experiments  are  ex)>v 
Jtnouii  U8  WiililL-r'8  luw.  which  is  given  in  tbe  following  v.' 
translation  of  Weyrauch: 

"  Rupture  may  l>e  caiiwd  not  only  l>y  a  tit«a(iy  load  which  ezcMfl 
carrying  slreu(;lli,  but  also  by  repeated  applii-ailonH  of  Ktnrtti^  nM 
which  are  equal  to  lb«  carryint;  Ktreiiiflh.    The  dilTDifiioes  •  f  '         "^ 
are  nirasiire<)  of  the  liisiurUtim'  of  cuulinuiiy.  in  wi  far  as  i 
the  fuininuini  ^^tresii  wibich  is  Htill  neeea^isary  for  rupture  din.- 
A  practical  illiiBtrallriU  of  Liie  uieaiiinjir  of  the  tirst  poriinii  m  mis  urn 
•  I  e  (jiveii  thus:  If  SO.OUO  ponniLs  onoe  applied  will  just  break  a  bar  of  W) 
I  Bte'l,  a  Ktiess  very  luuob  less  than  &0,00o  pminds  wiU  break  it  If  nfi 
>ufflciently  often. 

Tliia  is  fully  conllrnied  by  the  experiments  of  Falrbairn  and  Bpanpal 
aa  well  as  tho^e  of  WUhler;  and.  as  is  remarlced  by  Weyrauch,  it  BM 
eoimiderMl  as  along-known  result  of  common  expeiieuce  Ii  parlill] 
C'ounLH  for  what  Mr.  Holley  baa  called  the  "  intriasicaliy  ridiculous  fid 
siifety  of  six." 

Another  "  long-known  result  of  experience  "  is  the  fact  that  ruptuM 
\m  caused  by  a  Huccession  of  nhoiks  or  imuitcle,  none  of  which  b1i>o»  * 
be  BuiUuieut  to  cause  it.  Iron  axles,  tlie  piMtuu-rodii  of  Bleam  hainniwt 
other  pieces  of  metal  subject  to  continuously  repeated  khoclui.  intail 
break  after  a  certain  lengtti  of  service.  They  have  a  "  life  "  wbicli  it 
ited. 

Reveral  years  ago  Fairbalni  wrote;  "We  knowthai  1  .-^-...-. 

Iron  sulijeeleil  to  cuiitinuous  vibinllon  asgutnt'X  a  cry. 
that  thucohesivi'  powersare  much  deteriorate<i,  but  v. 
causes  of  this  change,"   We  are  still  iguorant,  not  only  .<i  1 1 
uhauge,  but  of  the  cotidtiloua  under  which  it  takes  pint  < 
whether  wrouiflit  iron  .sulijt*rteii  to  very  .sli^lit  conliiuious  \ 
dure  foi^ever?  or  wlielher  (oiniiure  liiial  rupiureeuchof  I  In'  ■ 
shocks  must  amount  iit  lea'^t  lo  a  certain  peieeuluge  of  ^iL> 
<bulh  nii'uaured  in  foot  poiindsi.  which  would  cause  i-uptur*- ' 
lion  »    Wiihler  found  in  testing  iron  by  repeated  stros 
iu  one  case  -lOt^OOO  upplicatioii.^  of  a  htreKs  nf  SlK)  eeii:  i 
caused  rupture,  wliile  asiniilnr  bar  remained  aoiind  i>: 
tiona of  a  stress  o!  :i(X)  Cf  iituers  to  the  square  inch  (I  c-mi n. 
Who  knuwt'  whether  or  not  a  similar  law  holda  true  In  r>-. 
shocks  J    Suppose  that  a  bar  of  iron  would  break  luidcr  n  ^ 
lOOO  fiKit-pounds.  how  many  tbnes  would  it  be  likely  t-   ' 
of  lOi)  foot  ponmls,  or  would  it  be  safe  to  allow  it  lo 
subjected  to  a  continual  succession  of  blows  of  even  l 

Sir.  WiUiam  Melculf  published  in  the  Metatliirgivnl  nn-,- 
results  of  some  tests  of  the  life  of  steel  of  different  jM'rc»'n 
under  Impact.  Some  small  steel  pitiiians  were  made,  tin*  -i 
vblcb  required  that  the  unl08de<l  machine  should  run  m  In 
of  1200  levohttions  per  minute  before  breaking. 

The  steel  wus  all  uf  uuiforni  quality,  except  aato  carlMju. 
resaltei    The 

.30  C.  ran  I  h.  it  ni.   Heated  and  bent  before  bl«*kii 

"    Ih.  39ui.,       ■'        

"    4  h.  ^7  m.    Broke  without  heating. 

"  3  h.  SO  n>.    Broke  at  weld  where  linperreot. 

"  0  h.  -lO  m. 

"  18  h. 

Broke  In  weld  near  the  end, 

""n  4.55  m.,  and  the  ntachiue  broke  down. 

*  bx  Jlr.  MoKiair  connTmcA  YkVk 


STRESS  ANH  STKAIX. 


241 


istflpl  waiibeitera<la|)le<l  to  resist  repeate<i  gliooks  and  vl. 
■n  steel, 
1 .  would  wareely  Iw  siillieifiit  lo  lii'liict*  any  eu- 
-leei  in  a  car-axle  or  a  brlilxv-rod.    Kurihtr  eixpvrl- 
iiiii  oi' oivrllimw  tbuin. 

■  posod  nf.iaratus  for  jucb  an  Invesllgatlon  In  the 
-.A.  I.  M.  K.,  vol.  Till ,  p.  iB,  tioiii  which  llie  above 


I  Produced  by  Suddenly  A|iplled  Forc«ii  aud 
SIiockH. 

aiiJiOeld  Mfrriiimn,  li.  Ji.  it  Eiig.  Jour.,  Dec.  188!).) 

wpicht  which  l«  Jroppt'd  from  a  hpicbt  ft  upon  the  end  of  a 
b«  ihtj  maximum  i;loa((ation  which  is  produced.    The  work 
;  tlM  falling  w«irhl,  tbea,  is 

t  equal  the  internal  work  of  the  resisting  molecular  stresses. 
the  Ijar,  wlilrh  Is  at  first  0,  increases  up  to  a  ceilaiu  limit  Q, 
r  tbaii  P;  iiiii)  if  the  elastic  liitiit  lie  uot  exceeded  the  elonfra- 
utiiformly  with  lhi<  stress,  .so  that  the  internal  work  is  equal 
■rebs  l/'!i<i  oiullipiied  by  the  toml  elongation  tf>  or 
»r  =  1/.'9.v. 
lUiig  the  work  that  may  be  dissipated  in  heat, 
^/SQu  =  Ph  +  Py. 
■oaptUofi  due  to  tiie  static  load  P,  wltbln  the  elMtio  limit 


0=f(n-|/l+8^').    . (t) 

lie  uiomentary  maxiumni  utressi.    Substituting  this  value  of  Q, 

»=e(t+j/l+2^j (iJ) 

^^■tOf  the  momentary  maximum  elous^aUou. 
Hinrhen  the  force  P,  before  its  action  dti  th«  bar,  la  moving 
B«*  ic  ii.B  ,.»j;e  when  a  weiBht  /'falls  from  a  height  h.    Tlie 
H'  It  this  belKbt  h  iiiiiy  be  small  if  e  ifi  a  siiiail  quan- 

1  i    sU'eBses  and  deformations  be  pro<luee<l.     For  in- 

l_  .  .  o  ..  V  =  iP  and  y  =  if:  bIso  let  h  =  IJe,  then  (J  =  OP 
|Of  take  ii  wrouRht'ii'on  bar  1  in.  square  and  5  fl.  long-:  under  a 
f  SiXK)  Ills,  this  will  be  compreKseU  about  0.0013  in..  Mipi»isiue 
i  flexure  occui-s;  but  if  a  weieht  of  5000  lbs.  drops  upon  ils  end 
111  height  of  0.0048  in.  there  AVlll  be  produced  the  stress  of  ^0,000 

applied  force  Is  one  which  acts  with  the  unifurm  intensity  P 
or  the  bar,  but  which  has  no  velocity  before  nciiiig  upon  it, 
Bdi  to  the  case  of  ft  =  0  in  the  nbovo  formulas,  and  jfives  Q  = 
for  the  maximum  stress  and  maximum  deformation  Prob- 
of  a  rapidly-moving  train  upon  a  briitpe  produces  stresses 
fr. 

Ibe  Tensile  Strengtii  of  Iron  Bars  by  TwUt- 
rneat  L.  Ransomeof  Sail  Kraneisco  lian  niilain^daD  Knglisb 
■■Jl  of  1888,  for  an  "  improveiuem  in  mreUKtheuing  and  testinu 
and  Hte«»l  roils  or  bars,  consisting;  in  l\vis*iiuj;  the  same  in  a 
.    Any  defect  in  the  laniiiiatiuii  of  the  metal  u  hich  woiilil 
Conciiialul  Is  revealed  by  twisting;,  nml  iniperfe'ction.*  nie  shown 
treatment  may  be  applied  lo  bi.its,  susiiension-rodH  or  bars 
isUe  strentrth  of  any  description." 

'is  of  this  process  were  reporteil  by  Lieutensnt  P.  P.  rJllinofl 
paper  read  tiefore  the  T>-Lhnicnl  Society  of  the  Poclflo  Ooal 
the  TraneactionK  of  the  .Society  for  Ibe  nninth  of  Decembe'i 

>  auute  lo  Ji»9  in  llw  Uuivifrsity  of  Callfomia.    T^ie  «| 
tittah  mllb  tMriy-ula«  twin,  (weoty-iilne  of  wUV  "    — 


f 


STBENGTH  OF   MATER1AX8. 


^busly  twbted,  from  three-eiKlitbs  nFone  turn  to  six  turns  per  fi 
test-pirct^s  were c»t  fooiii  <mn  au<l  Llm  same  bar,  and  RC'iiuriitcly  l__ 
and  uuiiibeii"cl.     From  each  lol  twopieui-K  willioiit  iwiht  weiele»t«l| 
aU«  streiiKlh  and  .iuutilit.v.    One  trroiip  of  ciieli  sel  was  i«i»t«l 

Roes  broke,  ax  a  guide  fgr  the  amount  of  twist  lo  be  given  Ibi 
teil  for  tensilf  strain, 
'lie  r<illowiiig  is  lli«5  result  of  one  set  of  Lieiit^  Gilniore's  tesli, 
bars  6  in.  long,  .TlO  in.  diameter. 


No.  of 
Bars. 


CoDdilion&. 


Not  twiated. 
Twisted  cold. 


Twists 

In 
Tiirna. 


0 

3 
2« 


Twists 

P?r  ft. 


Tensile 

Strengtii. 


0 

P 

3M 


w.ooo 

!»,tXJO 

30,300 
flS,400 


Tenoae 
per  sq.  In. 


54.180 

63,300 
64,T.'fl 
05.000 


Ir  TKXSII.£  STKGNGTU. 

The  following  (lata  aru  iisiiiiU.^  oulaineil  in  i<-stiuK  by  tenaloa  tall 
niRcbiiio  a  sample  of  a  maleilui  uf  consiruetioii: 
The  loaJ  iiiiili  tlie  ain-ium  o(  fxten-'ion  at  the  elastic  limit. 
^_  Tile  nia.xiniiiiii  luad  upiilit-d  before  nipiure. 
^KThe  eluufraiiun  of  the  piece,    niea»ured   between  |^u(;e-marln  ] 
^Hated  iliKUmce  apart  before  the  teat;  and  the  reduction  of  an 
^^Diiit  of  fracture. 

The  loaii  at  the  ela-uiic  limit  and  the  maxinium  load  are  recorded  io  l 
per  Mjuare  ineii  of  tlie  original  area.    The  e)<in^atlon  is  recorded  as  il 
eutage  of  the  utated  li-n^ih  between  the  gauge-marks,  anil  ibr  I'diiOl 
efl  OJi  a  perecutage  of  the orljtiual  area.    The  eoefflcient  of  .  ' 
Uated  from  (be  ratio  the  extension  wllliiii  the  elastic  liui 
UBtli  bears  to  the  load  p^-r  square  iuch  proiijiciiig  that  exiti 
['On  account  cif  thedifllculty  4jf  nialcing  uccuritteiiieasiireniei 
pred  area  of  a  le-.i.|iii-if.  niid  of  Ihe  fact  Ihnt  t-li>ii|;ation  I.h  i 
m  reduction  of  area  as  a  iiieuKiire  of  ductility  iind  of  rir~ 
resisinnce  before  rupture,  njoderii  experiiiieniers 
Stom  of  reportlntf  reduction  of  area.    Tne  "sireiiKII' 
ctured  secllon  "  formerly  frequently  used  iu  rejiortinj; 
|tirely  abandoned.    The  data  now  caleuhiied  friiin  ihe  lenu^: 
■t  for  coniMierciul  purposes  are:  I.  'lensile  strengib  in  p  ui 
bIi  of  oritfiual  area.    i.  Elongation  per  cent  of  a  staled  !•    , 
UKe-inarks,  n»iially  8  inches.    3.  Elastic  luiiit  in  |>ouud8  per  •,! 
^oripinalarea. 

'  Tile  short  or  ifnx.Tetl  test  specimen  (^ives  with   most   meials,     . 
with  wrought  iron  and  »teel,   an  appa>ent  teimile  strength    auieh 
than  the  real  strength,     Tl:is  form  of  test-piece  is  now  almost  ectJi 
^Qued. 

jTlie  following  resiilta  of  the  tests  of  aix  apeclmeiis  from  the 
ilhi»trate  the  apparent  elevation  of  elastic  llnilt  and  : 
Htber  properties  due  lo  change  in  lenglh  of  stems  whtcli  wer< 
In  encli  specimen  to  .TOtS"  diameter.    (Jas.  £.  Howard,  Eng. 
Section  Q.) 


' '  fit 
IrelylBI 


DeaoripttoD  of  Sl«rn, 


Kla>>iie  Limit, 
Lbs.  per  Sq.  In. 


Tensile  St renffOi, 
Lbs.  p«r  Sq.  In. 


1.00"  long IIJ.MO 

68,000 


uiiicircular  {groove, 

.4"  radiuH  .    . . 

nicirculnr  groove, 

'^"  failin;4 

f-tJjmpeU  groove ...,, 


75,000 

m.OUO,  about 
80,000,  about 


tt.HOO 

V7.H00 
I0«,4«l 

116.380 

IS4,6fl0 

wxm 


TENSILE  STRE-VOTfi. 


•»43 


ie  by  the  author  in  ilf?S  of  striiiRbt  and  kiuovmI  (e«t-pi<>c«» 
el  cut  (roiii  Uie  suiiie  f^are  liia  fulluwiDg  ruxultfl : 
rht  pieces,  56.r.<tt  to  W.OVi  lUs.  T.  S,     Aver.  ST.riia  Hit. 

red     '•       tH.3ii  umr.4<» fl5.4!ta;  •' 

le  9btn*t  I'ir  grooved  speoinien,  2]  per  cent,  or  J:i,114  lbs. 

snt  of  EIonK*tlOtt* — I"  order  to  be  able  to  compan* 

^dtioii,  ills  ueL-etfciury  not  only  to  luive  a  uniform  li-nRln  of 
an  gaugre-markii  (*ay  8  iuubeai.  but  to  aclojit  n  imiroriu  meibod 

Lbe  elongation  t<j  coDllieiusiite  for  the  diffen-noM  hetwcen  (he 
iKatlnn  when  tbe  piece  breaks  netir  one  of  Hie  tauge-iiiarks. 
ireaks  njiilway  between  Iheni.  The  following  nieCliod  Ik  rec- 
rans.  A.  S.  M."E.,  vol.  xi  ,  p.  BJSl: 

i  specimen  diviwioDK  of  1/i  loch  each.  After  fracture  measure 
Jt  of  fractui-e  Lbe  length  of  8  of  the  marked  spaces  on  eacii 
tion  (or  7  +  on  one  side  and  H  +  On  the  iither  if  the  fraciure  i« 
the  marks).  Tbe  sum  of  these  measuieuienl!*,  ie.-vs  H  luehns,  in 
n  of  8  Indies  of   the  oripiial  leDtrCh.    If  the  fracture  is  tin 

of  the  specimen  that  T-J-.xpiioea  are  not  left  on  the  Klioiti-r 
take  the  iiien.siirement  of  as  many  spaces  (with  the  friielional 
the  fracture)  a:<  are  left,  and  for  the  spaces  lackiiie  add  lbe 

of  as  many  ecirres^iondinK  spaces  of  the  longer  porliuti  a»  are 
iiake  the  '  -f  spaces. 

•f  Speclmena  for  Tensile  Test*.— Tlie  shapes  shown 
e  recojiiueuded  by  the  auinor  m  iSS'i  when  he  was  cotinected 


No.  1.     Square  or  flat  bar,  ai< 
rolled. 


Mo.  2.    Round  bar.  as  rolled. 


No.  3.  Sitaiulaii)  nhnpe  for 
flats  or  »iquares.  Fillet*  ^ 
Inch  radius. 


No.  4.     Standard   ohape   for 
rounds.   Fillets  ^  in.  radius. 

No.  8.  Qovemiiiedt  shape  for 
tiiarine  boiler-plttles  of  iron. 
Not  reromiiiendi'd  foroiher 
lewts,  as  results  are  generally 
in  error. 
Fio.  75. 
_burKh  Testlne  LnhorBtnry.  They  are  now  In  most  eeneral 
ler  forms,  witli  B  Inches  or  less  In  lengtli  lielween  shoulders. 
«nrirelv  aban<lnne(l. 

lona  Keqnfrod  In  maklne  Tensile  Tests.— Ihe 
line  itself  should  be  tested,  to  dect- rinine  whi'llier  il*  ".-iiriiinc 
aeen rate,  and  whether  it  is  so  maile  anil  ndjusled  that  in  Ilie 
perly  made  specimen  the  line  of  strain  of  the  tesliiiK-ma<!liin<' 
in  line  with  the  nxis of  the  specimen. 
Mil  should  be  so  shaped  that  it  will  not  give  an  Incorrect  record 


Eti 


if  uniform  mlnlmnm  section  fornotless  than  five  inches  of 

„..  be  bad  to  tha  time  oocupieid  in  making  tests  of  certain  mat*- 
cht  iron  and  soft  steel  cnn  l»  made  to  show  a  hipber  than  ibelr 
■ent  sti'engtli  by  keepiD,g^/be«i  uniler  strain  for  a  great  VenRWi 

nft  allora.  copfHT.  tin.  zli>i\  anil  the  Jike.  which  flow  under  coti- 
*e/r  highest  ajifmrval  Mri^iigUt  is  i>l>taiiie<i   hy   leatine  t\Ae»n 
«2i1^*'*       '""^  "tater/ais  the  length  of  lime  occupied  \u 


244 


SIRENGTU  OF   MATERIALS. 


I 


I 
I 


For  very  aoonrate  meastirements  of  etungutinn,  corifspoiid 
menu  of  liHtd  liuriug  tl>«  lests,  ih«  eleutria  euiiiacl  n 
in  Trans.  A.  S  M.  E.,  vul.  vi.,i).  4TO,  will  lie  ruiiiul  v 
ingK  of  elongutiuii  uie  then  taken  iliiriiig  tlic  Ifst.  a  ■  i 
plotti'd  fnmi  Uu-  loailing,  wlikli  isusrftil  in  couijiarlMt;  iU<-  nu 
fei'fnt  iipt-i'linens.  Kiifli  sirnin  cliu^ranis  arc  made  aiiiKinaticallJ 
OI»fn  ttfstmg-iiiachlnt".  di^siTUn-il  in  -hiui .  P>-(iuk,  lust.  IS1>I. 

Tlie  coefRiiifnt  of  eluslic-ily  slmuld  he  dt>diioed  from  iirensU 
served  between  fixed  incrpmenls  of  load  per  unit  Rertimi.  snj  I 
and  l'i,U(X)  iiDUuUi^  per  square  Inch  or  between  1000  uu<J  1 1.OWI  J 
of  between  0  and  10,000  pounds. 

COiaPHlBSSITK  8TKENSTH. 

What  Is  meant  by  (lie  term  *'c'uuipres»ive  Btren)(ili  "  lias 
eeC-Ued  by  the  authorities,  and  there  exists  more  confctsinn  in 
term  tlian  in  leijurd  to  any  oilier  used  Ijy  wiiters  oi 
Tlie  reason  of  lliis  may  l)e  easily  txplained.    Tlie  .' 
stress  n[H>ii  a  malerlal  vitriea  wiili  l|je  nature  of  tbv 
Ebai>e  wnd  size  of  ihe  sjiecinieii  tested.    While  the  elT' 
to  prodnce  rupture  or  sepaiuiion  of  |>ariiele!t  In  the   i 
Btrain,  the  effect  of  B  conipresisivestres?  on  apiece '/I  . 
to«mi?e  it  lo  fly  into  spliniers,  iti  lieparate  into  two  m  nmi  e  w 
pleeeHaud  fly  apart,  to  Inline,  buckle,  or  Ix-nd,  or  toHatten  out 
sijt  rupture  or  separaiiiin  of  parllcleji.     A  pieoe  of  ■ijn-ridiim 
eouipi-es-«ive  stress  will  exhibit  no  chanireof  a|  i 
plave.  and  Ibea  it  will  lly  to  piece!)  as  KUtlden 

ponder.     A  piece  of  ea«t  iron  or  of  stone  H  i..  Ifl 

shaped  fruKuients.  A  pleee of  wroufchl  iron  win  i.u. 
wood  or  zinc  may  bulBe.  but  its  aciion  will  depeml  i 
A  piece  of  lead  will  flatten  out  and  renist  cuniprevs 
that  is,  the  more  it  is  compi-essed  the  greater  I  ■ 

Air  unil  (ithrr  g'ttjtef»uN  bodies  are  e«.mipre^s 
Ihey  retain  the  uaseoiiK  condition.     Water  ni'i 
pressed  by  lt«  own  wuiKlii  to  the  tbioknehii  of  a  ni'i 
niied  ill  a  vestiel  it  is  alinoMt  inconipretssthle. 


IvM 

■<Al 

■rm. 
0(1 

iiiTii,  M  niic  wiM 

It  is  probable,  althoni^li  it  has  not  been  deterndned  eT('eriitt«'nt*H 
solid  bodies  wlien  coiiliiitd  lUe  at  least  a.^  iui' '  '  ' 

they  are  not  eonflned,  the  efr;'ct  of  a  coiiip: 
Rllorlen  Ibeni,  but  dIkii  to  increase  their  latet :. 
Lateral  slrain.s  are  tberefoie  induceil  iiy  couipri«>n"  si  ■  v.i-.. 

The  weight  jw^r  square  inch  of  orif^iiial  set'tluii  f>M|iured  In  prodM 
(riveu  amount  or  percentage  of  shoHeniiiK  of  any  inHteriat  (-  n"i  •  c 
(lunutity,  but  varies  with  both  the  lentih  and  the  s     • 
shape  of  this  "^-ci local  are.'i,  and  with  the  relation  i>i 
The  "coinpreshive  stiength"  of  a  nmterifti,  if  Ibin  ir: 
Ihe  Weight  In  pounds  per  ttqiiare  inch  iiece.iisai-}-  to  c. 
with  every  size  and  shape  of  specimen  eiperinientel 
cult  wi.iild  it  lie  lu  Slate  wliiu  i.<  the  "eoinpies^^lve  -^ 
which  does  not  rupture  at  nil,  but  flattens  out.    Sin 
cyliuiler  of  a  soft  luetul  like  leail,  two  inches  in  leiiK'  > 
etei',  n  certain  weiKbl  w  ill  sboiten  it  one  per  cent, : 
cent,  another  tlfij'  per  cent,  but  no  weij^ht  that  we  ■ 
ru^itui'e  if,  for  it  \>ill  llntien  out  to  a  thin  !<ht^t.    Wli. 
«ilve  strength  t    Aicaiti.  a  similar  ejiuider  of  soft  »i 
ably  cromprcits  a  few  per  cent,  bulirinfr  evenly  all  ar^! 
menoe  to  betn1,  bin  at  first  the  bend  would  be  ifiiiier 
too  small  to  be  iiiea>iiirMl.     Soon  ihlii  U-nd  Would   i 

noticed,  sn<l  finn"'   »'•-■  ■'■■ ■    iii  lie  beiil  nearly  •■ 

totted.    What  I  ■•  8ir.-iigth  "' of  ih 

the  weiifbl  per  '  Min|i|e'vs^s  the  pi' 

per  ••'-•■'    '**■"    ■  •   '-Tidinp  (impoKjfii 

or  '1 

A  .-  the  deflnllloiw   of 

"'"  iiHerenC  authorittwoDi 


iM 


BeoHuneter, iKWB  net toit  nraoa,  promen  nte  jengin or  wm 

bt  Umu  one   and  does  not  eicred  four  or  five  (liariiett^rs,  »iiil 

pit  w iii'-h  will  jusi  crush  n  ghoii,  pris>jii  wbosu  liiu.e  t-quals  oats 

&\    '  )ieii;lLt  {k  V"^  lt'M.s  llitui  1  f fi  IW  tiiiij  (lue«  not  ex<?eetl 

t-  1  tlir  criisliinj:  sln-i>Rl.li  of  tlie  material.     It  noiilil 

|j.  ^  u'ciulil  all  ngrti^  iipDii  M>inn  Htieli  dotiiiilioii  of  llie 

in;;  >ir<-ht.'t>i."  and  iiiiiist  iLat  all  experiiueiils  wliicli  Hre  niada 

use  of  tostinR  Uit?  relative  vultiea  of  dilterent  inalerlals  in  (.-oiii- 

iiiAtle  on  sp^cimeDfr  of  exactly  the  same  slia])*;  and  flize.     An 

B  aii<l  sliapi*  :4h(iiil(l  1j«  aM«itiint*(l   and  a^rred  ii|)Oii  f'.ir  Ihls  fxir* 

■g  tneiilloueil  bv  Stoiiey  is  iletinlieHK  it'(rar(j6  area  of  neutiuii, 

re  inch.  I)ut  Is  Imletlnite  a»  repurdr^  Irnctli.  vl/..,  front  one  to 

L     111  m>nie  Miel-als  a  specimen  hve  Lliaiileter8  loii^  vroukl  l>enil, 

Bb  lowerapitfirenl  .strrn^itli  t linn  a  Hjieriinen  havinf^  a  len^tli  of 

Tlie  woixlK  ■■  will  just  cruKli '"  are  al-o  iiidellntle  ftir  dnullle 

rhich  llio  n'-sitftiinee  lueresKeR  wltlmnL  limit  if  ilie  I'leve  Wbled 

,    In  such  ease&  the  weight  nhieh  caiisei*  a  certain  percentaue 

n,  BS  Ave,  ten,  or  Bfty  jxt  cent,  xliuuld  be  assumed  as  Ilie 

Igth. 

speriments  on  crutihiiit;  t-tren^li  tbre«  tliingH  ar«  d«sii-abl«<  : 

tary  tUiudard  iti>ap«  ajid  aine  i.>f  ii?at  itpreiitiuii  for  comparison 

Uk.     Secondly,  a  slandard   limit  of  cotnprpKSlon    for  dtieltle 

eU  shall  be  considered  eqiiiviilent  lo  fracture  in  brittlB  iiiale- 

;  an  accurate   knowledife  of    llie  relaiion  of  this  crusliliiK 

%I>»ciineii  of  btaii'lnrd  iiliapennd  size  to  the  eriisliint;  gtren^th 

I   of    all    other    Mhape.s  and   iiiiE»!i.    The    lalter   »-an    only  lie 

very  extensive  and  accurate  aeries  of  experiments  upon  nil 

ertafe,  and  on  speclmeus  of  a  ^reat  number  of  dllTerent  slinpes 

■  proposes,  aa  a  slaiiilard  bliape  and  *ize,  for  a  compreKsive  (edi 

»aU  nietok.  a  cylinder  one  inch  in  length,  and  one  half  Mpiaie 

ftl  area,  or  O^B.s  Inch  diameter;  and  for  i  lin  limit  uf  comnres- 

^J  to  fracttire,  ten  per  cent  of  the  oi  ixiiml  lendth      The  term 

|8treQKth,"  or  "couipri'ssive  iitrenKlh  of  &t.aii<lard  specimen," 

m  tlie  welKht.  jier  ttquare  inch  requii-e<l  to  f iaclui-«  by  ooni- 

a  cvlioder  one  inch  lone  and  0.;il»  inch  dianieler,   or  to 

I  to'i.9  i!i''h  if  fraetiire  does  not  lake  phice  hefore  Uiat  reduu- 


,240 


STRENGTH   OF  MATBBIAL8. 


F   Tlie  Committee  on  Standard  Testa  of  the  American  Society  of  I 

Englutf«rs  8»y  (vol.  xi.,  p.  tWJ) : 

■■  AltlioiiKli  einnprrssiori  testa  have  heretofore  been  made  onj 
Banipiti  pieces,  it  is  liiKhlj'  ilt^siroble  Ibat  leHis  be  also  niude  uu 
froru  10  to  'JO  diameters  in  leugtli,  corrt»(poud)Df(  nitire  nearly  v 

Eractice,  in  order  tliat  elnslic  Htralii  and  cliaiige  of  slinpe  may  (xyi 
y  using  propi-r  meiisdrinK  ftppuratus. 

The  einstic  liriiii,  modulus  ur  coeDk-ient  of  elai^tioity,  maximua 
mate  resistonces.  E-liouki  be  JeterniineO,  as  well  an  the  increase  ofi 
Tarioiis  (.HjiiitK,  viz.,  at  beartii^^  Rii r'f aces  and  ateripplint;  |>«>lnt, 

Tlie  use  of  Iomr  cimipression-tesl  iiifces  is  i-pconiiijeiiilKd.  liec 
vt*stigution  of  short  cubes  or  cj'linuerH  has  leil  lo  m>  diri'ct  iiiip 
the  eonst^knts  obtained  by  ijieir  us^e  in  computation  nf  aoluiii  f 
which  have  alnu)  a  been  and  are  nuw  designeti  accordiug  lo  en 
mnlee  obtaiued  from  a.  few  tests  of  Ion)?  colnnins." 

roL,t;in?is,  pii^lars,  or  strfts. 

■lodgblniion**  Formnla  for  Columus. 

F  =.  cnishlUK  wri^it  in  pounds;  i/  =  exterior  diameter  iu  liicha 
erior  diameter  in  Inches;  L  =  leugth  io  feel. 


Kind  of  Column. 

Bolld    cylindrical    col-  [ 

umns  of  cast  iiou ) 

Hollow  cylltidrical  col-  1 

utiinsof  (;ast  iron ) 

Solid    cylindrical    col-  ) 

uuiusof  wrought  iron,  j 
Solid  square  pillar  of  I 

Danizic  nak  (dry) f 

kSolid  stijunro  pillar  of  {_ 
Ired  deal  (dry) ( 


Both  ends  r^ounded .  the 
lentri'hof  the  column 
exc"'e<lin(;  15  times 
iU)  diameter. 


Bi.lli     en.1«' 


P  -  S9.1S0 


d>.«  -  d,«7« 


!,'•» 


P  =  95,850 


I? 


p  =  w.«aah 


,<«•<! 


p=»,asi 

P=iM,i 

d*' 
P  =  8^.540^ 


P  =  1T,51I 


.■l»j 


The  above  forumlu?  apply  only  In  cases  In  which  the  length  is  wn% 
the  column  breaks  by  lieiidiu);  and  not  by  simple  cruahiiiK.     If  Uie  I 
be  shorter  iliau  Ihat  Rtfen  in  the  table,  and  more  than  four  or  At 
diAiueier,  the  strength  is  found  by  the  following  foruiuLa  : 


PJr^VlC 


I  in  which  P=  the  value  Rlveu  by  the  preceding  fonniilir- 
iecliuu  of  the  oidunin  in  square  inches.  C  =  the  ultiin.. 
lance  of  the  material,  and  ll'  =  the  cnishini;  atreu^lli 
HodjrkinHoi.B  exi«TiMients  were  nmde  upon  com p«>;>i 
the  (fi-eatesl  leu(,'tli  of  caal-iron  coluimis  being  60)<$  inches,  of  wi{ 
KAi  Incbis. 
The  follow  Ine  are  some  r>r  bis  conclusionsi 
1.  In  all  \"ag  iiiilars  of  llie  same  diuieiislonit,  when  the  force  W 
the  direction  of  tlienil^  thp  f^tienitih  "f  o>ie  which  ha«  flat  ei>^ 

i three  times  aK  irreat  oj*  one  witli  rouii  led  riidfl. 
S.  The  Ktr'f>]ieth  of  a  pdlar  M'itli  'in»  '■nd  ronndetl  and  tike  oiImi 
ftrlihmi-tioal  mean  t>etween  the  two  i^ven  in  the  preceding  cane  ( 
r:: 


bavins!  Initli  rnds  firmly  fixed  is 

'  ll  Mfids  rfifindeil. 

iM  uul  kuciek«etl  tnor«  ih&a  a««  aev 


ERTIA  AND  RADID8  OF  GYRATION.  24? 


miifae  .IwJuced  from  Hodftkinaon's  experimenta  are  mora 
n  HoiJgkiiiMon's  own.    Thity  are:  ~ 

li  both  ends  fixed  or  flat.  P  =  — ^^,; 

h.  one  end  flat,  Cheotbereod  round.  P  = • 

«• 

1  +  1.8o-i 

h  both  ends  round,  or  hinged,  P  =  — *       «; 

1  +  4o'^. 
"  'Imii  lo  inches; 


or  (!oliiniii,  in  pniindft 
it  tUe  material  In  lbs 

iu*  of  ^'I'Ation,  in  inches, r'  = 


poi 
uf  tlie  inateriai  In  lbs.  per  square  lach; 
Moment  of  inertia 


area  of  section    ' 

ci'Ih Inn  in  inches*; 

iilKin  ilifi  nmterinl: 

tftnts;  tlifv  are  really  empirical  varfables, 

'111  cliai-aoler  of  ihe  coluiiiD  as  urell  ail  upon 

t-iron  coluniDS,  values  oomraoDly  taken  are:  /  =  36,<XX)  to 

'  M.OOO' 

>n  eolumna./  =  80,000,  u  =  ^t^tz. 

d4UU 

Iron  columns,  flzt^l  endii,  p  =        °v.vw      ^  _  |^,|g,,|  jj|,,| 
1  +  ^ 

e  same  unit,  mid  p  =  dtrenfcth  in  lbs.  per  aqiiare  inuli. 
ker  gives, 

mild  steel,     /  =  67,000  lbs.,  a  =  ^r^- 

itronK  Rteel.  /  =  111,000  Ibfl.,  a  =  , .  ,.„. 
l'l,4tK> 

rs  these  ouljr  loose  approximations  for  th6  Ultimate  resto-.^ 

EankiueKlVfsy  =  7800  lbs.,  a  =.  \flOO0. 

INEBTIA  AND  RADIVS  OF  GTBATION. 

t  of  inertia  of  n  section  \»  tlie  sum  of  ihe  productn  of 
Tva  of  iliti  Kfctlou  into  tiie  square  of  its  Jistance  from  an 
itntioii,  lis  the  Dculriil  axis. 

r  gyration  uf  the  seciinn  wiuals  llie  square  root  of  the 
3tiieut«f  inertia  divided  by  tlw  area  of  liie  section.  If 
/s  moment  of  inertia  and  .4  =  area. 


»VJ    i 


=  ff». 


_  Ja  of  varioiiH  secli<in.s  are  a.s  follows 

^idc  (liHineter:  d,  =  inside  diameter;  h=  breadth; 

•  breadth  and  diainfter; 
8»6*»;  Hollow  reclj>n?le  /  =  I/l*,'<Wi«  -  h,hi*); 

Hollow  si|iian-       /  =  l/IUi/.*  -  b,<); 
»d<;  Hollr.wolii.der    /=  l/lJi<i<./<  -  .<,<). 

nertia  and  Radian  of  Gyration  for  Various 
ttoclr  Ilae  In  tlic  Formulas  for   Sironetb  of 

^olumnM^  —  'I'lie  »tieii^lti  of  sfOtion>4   to  resist   stiainK, 
'  a«  ('i>iiiiiiii».  dr-priKlH  not  only  on  ihf  nren  l>ut  also  on  the 
III,  awfJ  tlieprvijertyufibeavclhsa  wliicli  foriiw  Ibf  V>&hM 
Mfti  I'l  the  r->nmilas  tor  strfngtli  "f  cinlfrs  nnd  i" 
I  of  tjieform.li  li»  moment  of  ioerliu  abou*' 
'4UU  Qt  reaiatBoae  ot  any  sectioo  to  tnuia* 


I 
1 


248 


STKEXOTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


ix  Us  inoinedt  of  inertia  divided  by  lli»  illslAiicn  from  tlif  nrutn 
the  fibres  rartlirst  removed  fmro  that  BxiH-,  or 


Moment  of  resistniice  — 


MoiiieDtof  inertia 


I)isi»nfi-  of  exlifnie  fibrt-  fruni  bxI*" 

nomcnt  of  Inertia  of  Compound  Shapes.  (Pen 
1\  !<ikrt  )  Tlie  tiiiiini-iii  <ir  iiii-rriuof  aii\  sicoiion  iil>i>ui  uiiy  axis  Ikc 
/  uliout  a  (larmllel  axis  piissiiii;  llir<iiii;li  ils  oeulii'  uf  jjiitvity  -4-ltl 
tlie  section  X'  tlie  ^iqiiari'  ut  llu'  distance  l>(.*lwet*n  ihe  ajcfs). 

B)'  thi8  rule,  ibe  iiiomeuts  iif  iuerlin  or  rtiiJii  of  ^'viHtion  of  aDy< 
tlimt  Iwiiig  known.  oonvsponiliMR  valniM  may  be  obtained  for  my  I 
lion  nf  iliese  sectioriH. 

KadliiK  ot  Gyration  of  Compound  Shapes.— In  I 
pnir  of  any  slmfie  witliniit  a  wel.i  tiie  valuta  of  i^  cuu  Hlivay«  ) 
out  considering  tlie  moment  of  inerlia. 

Tile  radius  of  ftyratioii  for  any  Heel  ion  around  an  axis  paf-^ 
BJtls  rmBSlne  111  rough  ilsTOiitre  (if  uravity  Ik  found  a>  follows: 

Let  r  =  railluK  of  icyraiicii  arnnod  axis  tlimnKh  centr>"  of  gr»5 
rmlins  of  cyratiiiii  Hionud  aiiorliei  axi«  |iarallel  to  aliove:  ii=.i" 
iweeii  axes: 

\Vlien  )'  in  MUnll.  R  niav  l>p  (alieii  nn  egUHl  (o  r/  ultlionr  ma 

Crapbl^al  method  for  Finding;  Radius  of  Gri 

F.   Ln  Kill'.  E'lir.  .\Vi«v,  Feli.  -J.   \HWi,  gi\fs   n   t-hori    frrupiiio 
UnilinK'  llie  radius  of  ^yraiion  of  iiollou,  eyliiidri<-al,  and 
uiiiiiK.  as  followK: 

For  cylindrical  coUmins: 

Lar  olT  to  a  scale  of  4  (or40i  a  ripht-anRled  trianisl?,  In 
e()nfili4  the  outer  diameter,  and  ihe  altitude  equals  the  inner  < 
column,  or  vicf  vfrmi.    The  tiypotlienusp.  niwiNure«l  to  •  i 
10).  will  bf  the  radine  of  eyrafion  soneht. 

This  depends  upon  ibe  fontmla 


°^  ^   AFeT 4 • 

la  which  A  =  area  and  D  =  illameter  of  outer  circle,  a  =  i 
ntett-r  of  inner  eircle,  and  (J  =  radius  of  (gyration,  f  U"  +  if*!*!, 
nion  for  llii>  li.vi>oUiennseof  a  riglil-angled  Iriiini^le,  In  which  DtBdl 
bnKeaiid  iiliifuda 

Th>-  sectional  area  of  a  hollow  round  column  Is  .7S(V4(/>'  —  d'l 
Hirnciiog  a  riijiitantrled  triatiKleiii  which  {>  equals  the  hyiHiit 
equals  tlie  all :liide,  the  base  will  equnl    i  IP  —  il'.    Calling  I 
exjireswion  for  llie  bnse  H.  tlie  aivn  will  equal  .TSMB*. 

Value  of  (V  for  fquare  coluums: 

[..ny  off  iiK  before,  but  URinK  a  hciiIi-  of  10,  a  rlaht-niiKl^  Irl4 
the  Iwise  equulx  l>  or  ihe  side  of  the  outer  si|nnre,  and  ihe  uttltil^ 
the  >iile  of  the  inner  $>quiire.  Willi  a  scitie  of  it  measure  the  h)| 
Whicii  wdl  Iw,  approxliiiHlelv,  the  radius  of  Kyrnlion. 

This  proceKS  for  square  colnmoK  (jIves  iin  eicwisi  of  kli^' 
By  ileductinc  W  from  the  residt.  a  close  iipproximutlon 

A  vei-y  close  rfsiilt  Js  also  obtained  l>y  measuriiiK  the 
the  M-Viie  scale  by  which  the  base  and  iililtude  were  laid  off.'i 
by  the  ilecimiU  0.29;  more  exactly,  Ihe  decimal  in  0.'J88t!7. 

The  formula  is 


■  ^ 


oni.  of  Inartia 


Area 


TT^  •'^+'^- 


This  may  also  be  applied  to  any  rectanpnlar  column  Hyx. 
diametera  of  an  unsuiii>orted  colnriiii.  and  the  ereatrr  diauir 
unin  is  itupporteil  in  ilie  direction  of  ii;:  leiisl  lilnxM-ion'.. 

KLBniKNTS  OF  rsr.4L  SECTIONS. 

Moments  refer  to  boTJicoii lid  tt\ is  ill :• 
4ut<«nded  (or  convenient  Appliculiun  w  i  > 

iMOt.  Some  of  the  terina  ar*  only  apjii.  .(< 

f/urmJ/osof  ^ryration  In  rtnntea  ofuuw  avyi^  vo  5,\« 

'  odIj-.    a  =  area  of  wet  Ion  •.  h  =  breadxYt'.  n  =  <\»v*;  T)  "1 


^Kkts  of  usual  SECnOKS. 

249 

w 

Ion. 

t 

Moment 
Of  Inerlla. 

Moment 

of 

ResisUiDce. 

equare  of 

Leiut 
RatltUB  of 
Oyrstion. 

Least 
Radius  of 
(i;  ration. 

h — 

ect- 

1, 

12 

6A»» 
6 

(Least  alde)>* 

Lcajtside* 

8.46                 1 

13 

BeeU 

1^ 

6. 

12" 

h  4-  hi        ^H 

Jirclo. 

16 

AD*     \        D>* 
8                    16 

•  Circle. 
«a  of 
laection: 

MOf 

laectioo. 
ManRle. 

r 

Atf-ad* 
10 

8i) 

1« 

D  +  d       ^1 

6A» 

6A» 

The  le«tsc  of 
of  the  two: 

Tiieleaatof         1 
the  two:           m 

^    or    ''     ^M 

4M 
10.8 

7.8 

6> 

is 

5           ^^ 

j£m^»- 

Ah* 
9.6 

Ah 
6.5 

13(h»+6«J 

^1 

2.6<h  +  6)    ^^ 

iB.5 

AW 
11.1 

.1/1 

6' 
«S.5 

^1 

Ah* 

c.as 

3.3 

6* 
81 

4.68                1 

P 

7.M 

Xh 
8.07 

19.B 

Ah 

4 

6' 

S6.5 

6                  1 

6                    1 

Hffil  oeatre  of  gravitj,  solid  triangle,  -;  even  angle,  ^^;  ^^H 

I«. 


i.m 

«-» 

4-17 
7  S 

I7.« 


i« 

tJH 
tJOk 
5« 

Tt-a 


IL 


1-a 
\.-n 

<.>o 
•-« 


3.: : 

2i:.i 

JiS.3 

izi.r 

■»*  0  1  2U.2 

m.s 

149,1 

tft4.< 

317.7 

«S.l 

IT9,8 

263  5 

CT.7 

S77.8 

S18.8 

EM.4 

447.6 

SdS.6 

XK.7 

T»7.» 

ws.o 

1|«.4 

sgs.e 

89S.1 

913.6 

449.8 

845.T 

lice 

187.8 
IM.T 
I8B4. 


] 


Tlio  oorn>ctlon  for  short  colunma  should  be  applied  where 
laM  than  8U  iltii>net?r». 

StieBRlh  ia  Ions  of  sliort  ctilUMiiis  =  ^^, 

9  boliicr  Ihi"  utrenRtli  fm-  Ihdk  columns  frireii  in  the  above  tabh 
llificx  till-  Ki.cfl"nnl  »re/i  nt  llie  inetiil  in  iiieliPi. 
Ilolloiv  rolumna.  -The  8in-n(;th  nearly  equals  Ibe  tliffeiv 

twi'cii  lli'tl  of  Iwo  milM  columns  the  (liivrneters  nf  wliicli  are 
extol  iinl  liiid  Itimriinl  iliaiiietere  of  Hie  hdluw  one. 

ti|llm«l4«  NtrtMiKtli  or  Hollow,  Cylindrical  ITroi 
ClastMrou  folumna,  when  Uxed  at  the    ~ 

(rotUvlllu  lion  anil  Steel  Co.) 


CoiiivuIckI  li]r  Oordou'i  foniitila,  p  = 


1  +  C 


u 


m  m  Ultim*Ui  (itr«neth  In  lbs.  per  sqiiaiv  inch; 

,  I  lO.OtO  ll»  for  ivr<iiii:ht  iron :  ( 
J"  1  M.iKO  liM  for  ciuit-iron:  ( 
C  H  l/'iMUU  fur  wvutiKbl  Iron,  and  1.,'aiW  for « 


H252                        STRENGTU  UF  MATKUIaLS.       ^^H 

^P                                                             WBODORT-IBOM  OOLDMNS.                                 ^f 

■ 

Ultimate  Btreogtb  in  lbs. 

1 
Safe  StreoKlb  in  lla. 

1 

per  squait)  inrb. 

r 

square  inch— Faclcr 

Square 
Ends. 

Pill  und 

Stiimre 

End. 

Pin 
Ends. 

Sgimre 
EiidK. 

I- 

^^B 

la 

^B 

:^    W 

^r    to 

39»44 

39866 

39800 

10 

7089 

■ 

3977U 

anrih; 

3a.'»4 

18 

79Xi 

:''iii 

V        80 

8H04 

aB47a 

aiii!H 

i» 

7921 

'.-■M 

^         25 

30384 

SHIK) 

.38788 

26 

7877             TMti 

ao 

SftnK 

38884 

38378 

30 

78SI 

7797 

as 

38810 

88430 

HTfiSO 

3S 

7792 

:mi 

■.      4" 

."18460 

.IVV/H 

.r(i:« 

40 

76tW 

:  ■  '!• 

■ 

8807J8 

874T0 

ataaa 

4fi            7(11 1 

;  r>l 

■         80 

8Te4< 

36998 

855-a 

SO 

75«)i 

,';*'l'' 

™          68 

3TIS6 

littSHe 

at  744 

M 

7487 

'.Mi 

flO 

80697 

.18714 

.■iS898 

60 

7389 

7ia 

&5 

SGI83 

84478 

.S.1I1S4 

65 

vjaa 

B8M 

^        70 

8t><j34 

H4381 

:»128 

70 

7I«7 

6877 

H        " 

snore 

33UHe 

3:ilS 

» 

^ 

6;j«i 

■        80 

8t482 

srane 

30-a« 

sn 

W93     „ 

^        85 

SiMO 

8;«8C 

aDa«4 

8S 

6777 

etjl^l 

80 

S3J64 

Sl4Be 

S8470 

90 

(«58 

(•^MH 

«5 

frnw 

30T50           -jnoG-i 

95            OMT 

61^H 

^      lai 

s-xm 

noono        ;»fi6a 

100            0400 

!^H 

■       10S 

SISST 

liimio        aw85 

KIB            6ST1 

^ 

Maximum   Permissible   8ti«a»e»  In  i-oliiroiu  ua«<)  In  M 

(nilll<lilW  Unliiiaiii'Ks  or  t  Ity  uf  Cliii.'Hiro,  ISV-I)                                         fj 

^m        MhxIdiuiu  pi^riuigsilrle  toiidii :                                                             ^mm 

^m      For  cast-iron  roiitxl  ooliimns  :                                                        ^^B 

^1                „          lOOOOa                 r  =  iHiifctli  of  e  >liiinn  ill  IncbM;     ^^ 

^H              '—           p     •            d  =  diamvttr  uf  coliunn  In  liii-lie*;        * 

^V                      '  "^"SSSi             "  ~  "'**  °'  '^"'"""'  '"  ■'«1"<"<^  iiu'lh>!i. 

For  cast-iron  rectangular  coliinins: 

„          lOOOOo                   <iujdn«ii  before;                                       i 

^L                               11     °            d  =  least  liorizoDt'al  dlmen»ion  of  ^^B 

■                                                                                                       ■ 

^K      For  riveted  or  nihHr  rnrms  of  wrought  Iron  columns:                ^H 

^1                 „            laOflOit               { =  aud  a  ms  Itffore;                        ^^| 

^1               ^—              ri       '        r  =  least  radius  of  jcyralloo  In  Iw^^H 

1     1 

'  ^    !«K<00r« 

^^H 

^M      Tur  riv<.-tp<l  or  oilier  iil««l  eoliinmH,  if  more  than  60i'  In  leiigtli^^l 

^1                8  ==17,000-—.    ( and  r  OS  before.                                    ^H 

^H       U  It^-i  lliaii  OOr  III  ifn»;tli::                                                                 ^^M 

^M               S  =  I3,MI0(T.    a  a«  before.                                                     ^H 

^H      Far  wooden  pools:                                                                          ^^M 

^^L                          nr                   a  =  area  Af  iMMt  in  square  inobe>:^H 

^^^^^^  as          ^  '  •           d  =  l<"- '     r  rrcinuinilariKmt^H 

^^^^^^^^      1  -\-  „j>                                           '                          ^^1 

^^^^^B^^        "wi^'                                           'x-ii' Norway  pll^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M                                                      ■                                                                                       ^^H 

^^^^^^^^^k                                (  BW tor  \nuK\«&t  ';«\\b%  \f»^H 

OW   CYLINDRICAL   OAST   IRON   COLUMNS.     ?J53 


«P  HOIiIiOW  CYI.INDBICAI.  OABT-IHON 

COIjfMNS.    (New  Jwbsy  Steel  li-ou  Co.) 

(Out!  fifth  tliebreaklDK  vviglil.) 

Iktwtue  tables  fiive  (be  safe  load  ill  tons  o(  3,000  lbs.,  for  uoliimtis 

;, ..t^  *..i^  >-"4He!t  ncatf^itfiy  tuvnefl  ti»  a  true  plarte,  an^l  liaviitf^  a 

•\  Mirxv  Miirfiieeii.     In  tlio  caSH  of  4.-oUimMH  linviiift 

)v  witti  ihe  (It^Ki'Ff  of  care  usual  in  ordinary  buiUliiii;, 

i<'l>  Kiioiild  be  tnlioii;  nnil  for  I'oluiiiim  noi  UiriKil  at 

ii  !-   .HIP  third  of  Uie.<B  siiiioiiniK  should  hv  tiikfn  for 

h".viii^  oi»e  enil  aroiirHtt'ljr  tuinHd  to  a  true  plane, 

„i  .„,..._..„,  uin:,  be  Tended  to  two  lUlrda  the  aiiioiiiit  givcu  in  the 


C 


lA  Ton*  of  3000  Iba.   for  Cast-iron  Coluann* 
wlUi  Tnraed  capltala  and  Baaea. 


I  In 


!  n  14.0 

).:  n.4 

>.V    9.6 


i.e 


8  1 
7  0 

a  I 

6.4 

4.» 


\M  4.9 


I      Outiiide 
-     Diarneiiir, 
C      3  iiielies. 


^  Tblcktiesa  in 
tJ      inches, 


•-'I     2.1 

«!     I.* 


•-'  5 
8.3 
K.l 
K.O 

l.&l 


3.9 

.■IS 
■1.-,' 
■J. 9 
2.7 

a.s 

li.S 

v.  I 

'.'.0 


Olltslile 
Diaiiieter, 
4  Inches. 


Thickness 
Inches. 


in 


9  31 

(I  m 

10,17 
II  u 


f4       I    I  >!4 


BSS. 
4  3:i. 

H2M, 
Oi4. 

TJSI. 

i|is. 

4114. 

,11 12. 
.S'll, 


3  41 

i\ 


OulsidH 
Dlaniet4-r, 

4  illCllM. 


Tbicknesg   In 
iiiehoa. 


« 


H 


I  IlV4 


I  10.7 

1  9.7 

8  8.8 

al  8.1 

01  T.S 

Al  6.9 

o|  e.4 

6  S.4 

•i,  5.6 


ld«  DUmeter, 

Outslile  Diiiineter, 

Outside  Dill  meter. 

A  laches. 

B  Itielies. 

7  inches. 

^^  ill  Inches. 

Thlckntfra  hi  Inches. 

Thickness  In  Ini'hec, 

i.s'  es.o 

T3.S 

M 

I 

>H 

lis  1 

M 

1 

150.7 

iM 

77.8 

m.i 

no.3 

102. 1    12H.7 

160.4 

:.e  ar  a    ci.4  1 

89.7 

«5.7 

tW.7 

lOH  S 

08  t;    117.0 

136.11 

153  5 

«.!i    so. 7 

iW.S 

«9.H 

77.1 

f«,5 

97  8 

8.1.0  1 106.7 

12). 6139.3 

:  ?  «  1 

50  4 

M.P 

BB.O 

7fl« 

87  4 

7S.4   1  97.5 

113  .Mi-jn.s 

V!>i  40  3 

44.4 

51. B 

M.O 

71.9 

7S.7 

71  S  1  89,8 

103,61115.3 

9.3    M.'i 

40.  U 

4K  0 

.^7i 

tv-..a 

71.2 

t»,0 

SI. 7 

94.811(15,3 

;.«    t2.1i 

35. i 

42.0 

S'J.l 

50  3 

84,(1 

(50,7 

75.1 

87  0;  116..1 

1.9!  iB.S 

r»1.0 

89.3 

47.6 

.\4.l 

.W.9 

r,6  0 

B9.2 

80.01  tig. a 

i.Ci  as. 9 

27-. 6 

36.6 

4:i.g 

49.0 

32  6 

51  .S 

5.1. a 

73. S'  81.9 

t.4i  9s.a 

*j  : 

at.o 

39.4 

41.0 

47.2 

4(i.l 

59.3 

6«,2|  75. « 

:  »  'JO. 4 

aa.3 

'J9.H 

*••,(• 

311.7 

42.5 

44.0  1  M.9 

AS. 2,  60  8 

VP    18  S 

•JO.'.' 

37.0 

.lU.D 

.TC.O 

USA 

42,0  I  50.8 

57,8;  63  0 

1  a  iB.o 

18.4 

34.8 

■Jil.4 

.TJ.8 

33.2 

88,3 

4S.4 

ftj  7    57  4 

HA'   >&  4 

10  9 

2-J.ti 

a«.9 

30  1 

82.8 

3.^.1 

42  6 

48.8    52.6 

CO    14-3 

l.-i  S 

'JO. 8 

24.8 

27  7 

S».7 

32.8 

sa  1 

44.5;  46  * 

'  •.  ( 

IV  8 

S2.» 

liS.S 

27.4 

2M.8 

36. 'J 

41  1    44  7 

17.8 

21. a 

28.7 

M.l 

27.7 

:«.5 

38.1    41  S 

JO.e  ,  W.T  1  i*-.'.;  /  23.7 
H  4  '/*.*  1  S0.6  1  a>.]    1 

257 

31  8 

85.4  ».« 

_.....       ..  -    / 

34.0  1  29.1  \  Sa. 

L'»J 

I 

I 

I 


254 


STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


Safe  I.oad,  In  Tonn  of  3000  lbs.  for  Casi-lroi 
witb  Turned  Capltala  and  Il«»ea. 


Outaiiie  rJiameler, 
H  iucbes. 


Thickness  in  incbea. 


H 


TI'JS.S 
S  IIB.? 
911011.8 
Id  101. A 
HMO 
87  0 


?5.0 
6r..O 

00.; 

Mi.H 
53.2 
.M.I 
47.0 
43.5 
40.3 
•'17.5 
95.0 


1      IM     1!4 


loa.uiM 

15U.I 177 
i:is.5ll8:3 
I?:  s|i5o 

10{l,0il-'8 

ini.i  UK 

S«.8]0!» 
87.1  101 
81.1  U4 
75.7  R8 
70.7  82 
CI!. 
0-2 
57 

M.; 


CI 

4i(  -i;  86. 
411  01  bi. 
42.01  49 


0,219 
,7|i.'01 

BIIHS 
,7170 
0'j5fl 
9,  U4 

8  i« 
M  114 
,7106 
:i    98 

il  se 

ll  7H 
4'  73 

s:  6' 

8,  62. 

»  58, 
3]  54 


Outside  Diameter. 
II  Inches. 


Thickness  in  inches. 


M 


154.8 
144.7 
IJto.O 
liS.O 

iir.5 

103.6 

loa  4 

95.7 
8SJ.5 
83  9 
78.7 
T3.9 
09.0 
65.5 
B1.8 
68.4 
55.9 
53.0 
48.5 


1 


197.7 
164.5 
171.8 
160.0 
U<i.« 

las.a 

1-J0.4 

iao8 

112.9 
1<>5.7 
90.0 
98.9 
87.4 
82.3 
75.6 
73.8 
69.3 
64.4 
60.1 


m    m 


i36.« 

-jao  -i 

VO-I  7 
190. .1 
177  0 
164  5 
].«  a 
I4'J.8 
lis. 3 
124.0 
116. 7 
100.4 
103  7 
96.7 
91  0 
8S.8 
80.4 
74.8 
69.8 


•-•71.4 
•X&.fS 
233  9 
•-•17.0 
•JOl  .4 
187.0 
173.9 
161. 9 
I50.B 
[40.9 
131.8 
1'J3.5 
ll-'i.fl 
108.9 

lo.'.e 

96  7 
(■9.5 
83.3 
77.7 


Outside 

10  inclK 


Thtcknes  IB 


» 


1   !  I 


181.0 

ir>.t    ^       -w 

171.1 

160  9 

161.2 

1  '.  w     i        ... 

142  0 

IBI  4    «l 

133  4 

170.1    :* 

126.8 

159.6   U 

117.8 

149  8   K 

110.8 

140.7    II 

104.8 

132.4    II 

Wt.S 

I-.>4.6    11 

(«.7 

1174   11 

87.  R 

1  u>  K    1  y 

H2.7 

78  8 

74.8 

.-^  .... 

70.4 

M.9   id 

66.9 

64.4    1 

64.9 

81  .OU 

Oubiide  Diameter, 
11  inches. 


17  I5J.1,1> 

18  iiH  »  it; 
IK  lan  ilii-j 

an  i-ii,!  i.-p.t »  ;i-,.ii 

211lv>''..l  14.-I.0  tfiO  7 

ifciilin  ;;  rW  i  rA  i 

Slllii  '1  I 

•H  \y-  ■■  7 

asiHi'  '>  7 


-  •  0 

■,':0.0 

I'.tO.S 
IW.7 

171. t; 

I6.).l 


Outside  Diameter, 
12  inches. 


Thickness  in  laches. 


1        IM      IW 


:<r0.R    431.7 


:tS2  8 
83.1. 0 

.117.7 

mi.o 


410  2 
.389.1 

308  « 
8IK  R 


2S5.1   ,3.10  0 
270  0  :i|12  'J 


liW.6 
•J4J  1 

■Jill.  4 
2'7,5 

,-.'06.3 
■.'.W.S 
I  sil ,  0 

i;ii  '.I 

IIM.H 
160. ,1 
152.8 

145.8 


an:..  3 
a7i»  4 

204  5 
2.V).0 
2:i7.n 

2-J5.:i 
■.'I.H.fl 

■iK\.-i 
IlVt.3 
184.0 
175.3 
167.1 


518.8 
485.0 

4.58.8 
».f2.9 
40H.6 
;W.5.T 
•164.1 
1*43,9 
:IS8.0 
.W7.4 
J90.9 
27."i.6 
«l.3 
i4r  9 
23.'j.5 
224.0 
il-I.S 
>203.1 


Outside 

I.M  incbr 


BCCEKTRIC    LOADING   OF  COLUMNS.  25 

■ie  I<oa4  of*  C»ttV4roa  Catamnm—iCuHtiuued), 


1 


Diameter, 
Dcbrs. 

m  In  iiicbes.  { 


OutJfiile  Diaiiiptrr, 
15  inches. 

Thickness  in  iocbes. 


m     IH 


ll.V»-nT,84-6 
>-  •.  I  -   ( 1  115.1   SI 


■13-0 
■  .'.»  4 
,  lO.M 


.91 


413.7 
399  3 
3Ht  4 

:«!»." 

:i5.T .  1 

Mn;.6 

313.0 

-•S7  ■-' 
•275 . 1 
l-i'>:j.O 
|i52..5 
i!  0 
■2M2.0 
•-'■J^  6 
I-JI3.4 
|2i)4  9 
19«,7 


506  I 

504.0  1 

;S6.7 

4Kr.9 

571.'.  8  1 

7k'7.7 

<«6&.o 

5;K).l   1 

fi9S.4 

M51.0 

.ViH  0 

wa  a 

4.33.0 

f>0B.3 

(>40.» 

115.0 

4K').0 

GISi.H 

:viT.e 

464. S 

■8S.9 

•IHO.T 

44t   1 

W)8.7 

;i(U..^ 

4i5.a 

534.9 

.n><.» 

400,7 

510.9 

:j.u  1) 

i'-O.l 

4HM.1 

aiii.T 

atd.i 

406..^ 

wo  B 

H.'«  a 

44r).B 

J9:l  3 

;mi  0 

42U  a 

•Jf*!,0 

826  5 

407,  H 

•Ji)9.3 

iri  8 

^90.3 

•i-.8.3 

299.  N 

3:3.7 

S47.8 

887.5 

858. 1 

J87.8 

ars.n 

114a. » 

Outside  Diameter, 
10  iiiclitrB. 


Tttiuknt^ss  fn  inches. 


1 

m 

>» 

449.  H 

551.1 

6(8.0 

43&.!) 

5M.K 

eao  3 

4-.'0  r, 

S14  4 

6(M.l 

4Li5  6 

41>C.  0 

fiSl.H 

.H»i.(l 

i"  4 

.'i.V.l.h 

370.11 

150  3 

.5HS.0 

m\x 

44)  .-i 

,51117 

347.11 

li's.e 

ijO."!  9 

33:!,  9 

4l'll.Q 

475  n 

3£(l  '. 

soil  u 

t5«.f. 

SOS.O 

•174.0 

43!*,  0 

^'SiE.H 

35».U 

4.0.1 

i!M  1 

HIS. 4 

40rt  (1 

i7i!.il 

:«!.(! 

;.3HC  8 

•M-i  \ 

mi*. 4 

',37 1,  i 

-■51.9 

;m'i.!) 

,3541.4 

24-J.-' 

iiM  0 

34-J.3 

-.fil-J.g 

las-a  5 

jaas  8 

aiJ4.0 

l«1.0 

Isio.i 

TW.B 

:70.4 

:40.| 

Til. 7 

(W3.' 
i-"6.1 

mil. 
■)T6. 


BCCENXBIC  L.O.I.OING  OF  COL.17inN8. 

iiiniiltti  ciMs-i  seclioii.  Biieh  as  n  innBoiiry  joiut  under  vifss-i 
II   Ije  di.stiilmled  uuifoniil}'  ov«r  llie  secli'li  oillv  when  tli«| 
T  hrougli  Ihe  centre  of  tln^  sfptlfin;  any  df  vinilmi  from  mifj 
•!  will  IjiHDg  n  iiiaxiiiiiim  unit  prpxsiiri'  to  oni-  t-d);e>iiid 
iilii^r;  wiien  the  dlKlmiCt- of  the  rej»iiltatit  floin  one  edge  I 
iitire  width  of  Ilio  jijiut.  the  pressure  at  iho  iieaier  edge  1 
-lire,  »hil<?  that  nt  the  fjirther edge  is  zt^io.  and  ihot' 
I'Viiaches  still  nearer  lo  the  ed^e  the  pressure  at  the 
r   less   than   zem;   in   fact,  liecomes  a  teiisinu   if  the 
iMnif.riai .  <mi-  .  there  isc.ipniile  of  re.^lsting:  teiisinn.    Or.  if,  as  iiKual 
r  Jointw.  the  imiteriid  Ih  practiunlly  iiu'iiimbli!  of  reaisilng  tension, 
re  .It  the  nearer  edee,  »"heii  the  rexiiltanl  ai'proaclies  it  nearer 
Itlii    '  uiiith.  increases  very  rapidly  and  (inneerously,  becom- 

.f<f  when  the  ri'siiltaiit  readies  the  ed^re. 
...  f.f  the  resultiiDl  relatively  to  one  edge  of  the  johit  or 
^A  »iuiiiar  re(ii;<lril>tJtion  of  the  presj^ures  rhroiiphotit  the  Kectiou  rnH.vj 
'niKfat  BtHHit  by  simply  ndding  to. or  dimiiilRhiiiK  the  width  of  thf 
m. 

I  i^=  the  total  pressure  on  any  gection  of  a  bar  of  unifoi'ni  tbii'ltnes".- 
Ellni  nuliih  of  that  section  =  th«  area  of  the  gection,  when  thlckiit-e 


•  ~  =  the  m«an  unit  pressure  on  the  section, 

^  the  moximuni  unit  pressure  on  the  section. 

=  lli»  mlnlfnuni  unit  pressure  on  the  Kectlon. 

Btlie  eccentricity  of  the  reBUiiant  =  ita  diataoce  from  the  centre 

ClStJcrll. 


:V  =  p(,+^)an<,«=p(l-^). 


I  =  ^  IP  Uien  M  =  2p  sod  m  =  O. 

nifr^lrr  tbaa  l/Sw.  the  rfniilraiit  Id  Hint  cose  licliiR  Ve^s  \.W 
'  tie  *rjdtb  from  otif  edee.  f  becomes  Deicntlve.  (J  C  "'"^ 
"H"t*nriff  ~yen!»,  Nov.  sa,  169a.) 


r 


STRENGTH    OF   M/kTERIALS. 
BVIIiT  COLCniNS. 


From  expei'iiiients  by  T.  U.  I>ov«ll.  discuHsed  by  Bun ,  lli«5  val 
't  ill  several  oases  aif.  >ic-ti;i'iiiiiie(t,  kIv'dk  ein)iirifal  forms  of  Ooitli 
tiiiila  (18  r^illows:  p  :=  puuiiU.s  tinmlimg  sii  vdki  U  per  >quiiiv  inch  of 
iiinn  m  iricliea,  r  =  radius  or  gyration  io  iiicbes. 


/  =  l«ii|flh  of  column 


Ket/ttene 


Kevatone 
Coll  I  in  QB. 


14- 


1    ^2. 

1 8.300  r» 


ss.oou 


n+ 


_J 

18,300  r* 


,t2) 


M.000 


1  + 


_JI 

1S,000  a* 


(3) 


th  irrent  varlai.lonn  of  Btre««  »  factor  of  unMv  of  uihlKb  ■«•<■ 
leil.  f>r  it  mnjr  he  (Ui  \oit  a.i  3  or  4.  if  t)ie  coTRlillon  of  fttn-M  h  un 
r«v«eiillallr  so. 

I^iirr  Efiviw  the  following  g^entfral  prihcip!?l^  wbich  govern  tlli*  rpnti 
biiill  riMuiiknH  ; 

The  ni)itt>i'jal  stltoiiM  be  illspose<l  as  far  as  possible  from  thr  nmitt 
ot  rlie  criisR-sfction,  tliTwhy  Increaslnit  >•; 

Kh('ri«  sliimlii  1««  no  iiililsl  iDteninl  iitrw*; 
he  inrtivliliial  pnrtiona  nt  tlin  eoliiinn  xhnoM  be  iniitiimllv  8U,  ^ 
fte  hiilivliluftl  port  ions  of  Ihi-  coliiMin  shoulij  beiio  flrmlv  n^ni'r 
er  timt  no  rp|ativt>  motion  oaii  take  pltiot*.  In  opjpr  thnt  the 
fall  Bs  B  whole,  thus  maiiiwilninif  the  orleinal  valop  of  r. 

Stoiipv  H«ys:  "  Wlii-n  ilie  lenclli  of  n  rpctniicular  wronfflil  ' 
eoliiinii  d<ies  not  exo'ml  30  timi^  Its  leant  brendtli.  It  fails  liy  ih"  f"ii 
biickliiitr  of  a  short  portion  of  thi>  plat«s.  not  bv  the  flt-xHrw  of  ibr  5  ' 

'-Vi/f.  ■■ 

fTna».  /i,  S,  C.  K.,  Oct.  IRSn.  are  K\ven  V\\b  liA\<)N«\n«  fixmol* 


BUILT  OOL0MKa 


Flat  Ends 


0«> 


V& 


tP 


Phwniit 

Colli  HID. 

4g.W0 


Co.  Column. 


(15) 


One  Vln  Knd. 


(19) 


iw; 


40,  aw 


(]«) 


1  + 


£250  (f> 


T-Mro  Pin  Ends, 


36.fi00 


1  + 


_1 

I&OO  d* 


(17) 


S8.5tX) 


'2450  <P 


m.uxi 


^1760  a* 


S6.A00 
"l«M  rf« 


^B«n  "  column  coDHiatit  of  Iwo  c)iBUiiel8,  opposite,  with  fliinges 

Wk  A  plare  on  one  side  and  a  lattice  on  llie  older. 

^b  for  '•  square  "  columns  may  be  iinecl  williout  ranch  error  for 

^Miord  stxiloQ  oomposr-d  of  two  chniinel-lmrH  and  plates,  wllh 

^mt  piu  pfliSHlni;  tbrough  tlip  centre  of  gravity  of  >ht<  orom- 

Pin*). 

dOn  m^mlx-rs  composed  of  two  cljaatifis  ouniifcti-d  by  ziKzae 

ty  be  ireaied  hy  fonniil»  4  and  &,  iiRinp  /  =  %.CKXI  iiiatend  nf 

I  on  fiill-sizi'd  Phoenix  columns,  in  ISIS  slio«<>d  a  clnse  agi-ee- 
psiillji  wllh  form ul)B  0-8.  Eipi-iinii<i4ls  on  full-tiizcd  I'hasntz 
e  WalHrlonn  tftsliu^ftnachfiio  lu  1881  tthuwi-d  (.-onsiderubie  dlil- 
len  tile  value  of  I  h-  c  liccainc  cuitiparatively  stnali.  Tho  fol- 
rd  form  of  Oordon's  formida  KH^vh  tuk'rable  results  through 
[e  of  experiments : 


40.000 


aos,  flat  eod,  p  -. 


0+^t) 


1  P 

1  +  50.000    ,-> 


<«fl 


llta  of  three  series  of  flxp«rinienls  od  Plioenlx  columns,  a 
>miula  ihan  OordoD'ii  is  reauhed  as  foiloTrs  : 

IM,  flat  ends,  p  =  39,040  —  46-,  when  I  -t-  r  is  from  30  to  140; 


./ 


p  =  94,700  -  4800  V  -  when  I -f-r  Is  leas  than  80. 


■HmeualouB  or  Phoenix  Columns. 

(FbcBDiz  Iron  Co.) 

on  are  lUbJecC  to  slight  Tarlationc,  which  ar«  unavoidable  In 

of  columns   k'*""  are  those  of  tho  4,  8.  or  8  seginenfB  of 

"I      The  nvrl-hrudi  add  frnni  I'loSper  ceill  to  the 

ire  Rpaced   8,  4.  or  0   Inches  apurC  from  centre  to 

■iii-rv  cinsfly  tti  the  ends  thim  towards  tlio  centre  of 

an  h»»H  9  BPf^nentu,  £  columns  0  seicmeiits,  0,  B*,  £>,  and  Alun* 
■     Leatt  I atf I'lta  of  gi/ration  =  Dx  .S6S&, 


t 


I 


lUIULJ^   FOB   IKOX    AND   STKEL  STRUTS, 


Segroeot. 

IT 


feo- 


SI 
60 
71 
76 
86 
96 
100 
110 


DUuiietera  iu  inches. 


a 


03 


o 


SO 


|21 


One  ColuniD. 

1^ 

%l5 

5l» 

P.3 

'^a 

l=-2 

48.8 

168. e 

5.W 

52.8 

170. 

E.77 

58.8 

lSfl.3 

5  82 

60.8 

!03.6 

B  87 

68.8 

229.3 

.=i.05 

7ti.8 

856. 

U.0( 

84.8 

282.6 

6.14 

9i!.8 

309.3 

6.33 

irklim  Forinulte  for  WroaeIit>lrou  and  Steel  Strata 
ftfluuft  Form*.  — liuir  gives  ihn  fuUcmiug  pr«cti(;ul  fcirimilie,  which 
UiMt  to  poiU«i«  advaiilaBtsg  over  Gordon's: 


Kind  of  Strut. 


p  =  Ultimate 

StrenRth, 

lbs.  per  .sq.  In. 

of  Section. 


lad  |Ue<l  end  Iron  angles  oiid  tees  44000  - 140  - 


lA«tid  Itdu  angles  and  tees. 


.46000- 


-175  — 


aa  Imn  cbannels  and  I  beaiUB.... 40000-1 10 - 


■d  mi]d-8t«el  anglea 5-.»X)0-180  — 

I 
mA  hi|fhst<>ei  angles 78000-290  - 


(1) 

(3) 
(5) 

m 


j),  =  Working 

Strpngih  = 

1/3  Ultimate, 

lijs.  pernq. 

in.  of  Section. 

8800-88—    (2) 
r 

9a)0-85-i-    (4) 

8000-82  -L  ,  (S) 
( 


« 


10400-30  - 


10800-68- 


(8) 
(10) 


Id  lolld  wrougbt  iron  columns.. .  .SjOOO-  80  ■ 


83O0O-2T7 


(11) 


0400-16 -I 
6400-SS-' 


laatlOlM  (1 )  to  (4)  are  to  be  used  only  between  —  =  40  and  —  :=  aOO 


(5)  ADd  (6)  " 
(7) to llO)  " 
(XI)  and  (IS)  " 


=  ao 

=  40 
=  J0 


=  200  H 

=  i.'Oo       ^ 

=  800 


I  and  —  = 

a 


66 


i(  enlunin«,  proyieriy  made,  of  Hteel  ranirlue  in  Bpeoimena  from  68,000  to 

'  " ■■• ■''  ilioiild  give  a  re8l»lniice  ih  to  3H  percent  In  ei- 

i»>luinn8  with  ihe  aaine  value  of  i  -•-  r,  provided 

111. 

f  a  plate  in  a  coniprrHaion  tnember  should  not 

iiBVfTRe  dixtnnce  between  centre  lines  of  rivWi 
.  ni.f-^  <j|-  chuniieln,  eff  .  sliaiilil  not  exceeil  V>  {\n\e%  lih| 
If  tbia  tridUi  la  exceeded,  iougitudiiiul   buckUitg  ot 


2G0 


8TBEX0TH   OF  MATERIALS. 


plnt«  takes  place,  and  Ihe  column  ceases  lo  fall  as  a  whola 
ilt'tuil. 

TIk"  »anip  lest!)  bIiow  Ihat.  Ihe  tliiekness  of  the  I<»k  of  nn 
laltieiii^  is  livfttMl  should  not  be  lf!«  tlian  1/9  of  Ihe  lt;iigtlt( 
side  If  t)ie  t'olmnti  is  piirelj-  atnl  wholly  a  coaipresKiun  iiiKmber.^ 
liiuii  uin>'  W  pasfw-'il  somewhat  io  stiff  lies  and  compregKioli  l 
Hi^n^d  t<»  eariy  tmiiKVfrm*  loads. 

Tlie  uauel  pojntK  of  latiiciiiK  should  not  te isepaialrd  hy  a  crvab 
ihan  CO  liiiieH  the  thickiicHK  of  the  an^le  lee  to  nhioh  the  IntilciDg 
if  thf  (.Mjumn  i*  «liolly  a  coiuprei^ion  irember. 

Tin?  ri>et  plteli  should  never  exceed  IC  lime*  the  tlilokness  of  ti 
ijietal  [lierced  liy  Ihe  rivet,  and  if  Ihe  plates  are  very  lliick  II  *ht 
nearly  injiinl  that  ralue. 

Blerrlnian's   Rational   Vormnla    Tor  Colunii 
«uly  1>,  ISM). 


1- 


■,  +  JLC  JL-    •  •  • 

B  =  unit-load  on  the  column  =  total  load  P+  una  of  cp_. 
C  =  maxiniuin  compiessive  unil-ylress  on  the  eoDoafe  side  of  I 
(  =  length  of  the  coliimn;  c  =  least  radius  of  gyration  of  the  en) 
E=  coefflcietit  of  eln.-^ticity  of  the  inaterinl;  n  =  I  for  both  en 
n  =  4/9  for  one  eud  round  and  one  fixed:  n  =  J^  for  both  ends  fl 
formula  in  for  use  with  sirainsi  wilhiii  Ihe  elojitic  limit  only;  ! 
hold  Rood  w  hen  tlie  Ktralii  C  excet-<Jii  the  elastic  lliuil. 

Prof.  MeiHiiiaii  lultei!  Ihe  mean  value  of  £for  tinilier 
iron  =  l.MWO.OOO.  for  wroiiBht-iron  =  SS.OOO.OOO.  and   f.  ■ 
and  «»  =  10  as  a  ulose  enough  iipjiroxiniaiinn.      With  tin 
putes  (be  following  talilH«  from  forutula  (1): 


STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


computing  C  by  formula  (1).  If  tlie  agreeoieul  between  Uie  1 
computed  values  In  uot  sufflcieutly  close,  new  tUmeiisions  tn( 
And  Ibe  cnmpucation  be  repeated.  1}>-  Ihe  use  of  the  above  ta 
frill  be  shorteDed. 

The  forraula  (Ii  may  be  put  tn  anotlitr  form  wblcb  in  I'orael 
breviate  lli«  uunierical  work.  For  L!  substitute  its  value  Pa 
Ar*  write  /,  the  least  moment  of  inertia  of  the  cross-sectluii ; 

,     P  ,       iiPP 

^-  C*"'  =  ISB 

in  which  /  and  i»«re  to  be  determined. 

For  Hiaruple.  let  it  be  required  to  find  the  siJieof  a  sqtiare  Oftt 
with  filed  enda  when  loaded  with  S4.000  lbs.  and  16  fi 
inaximiiin  compressive  stress  C  sliall  be  1000  lbs.  per  ~ 
1  =  34,000,  C  =  1000,  »i  =  V),  «»  =  10,  E  =  l.SOO,000,  J  =  ii.        .  -,  =^. 
cornea 

/  -  24r«  =  14.75. 

Now  let  X  be  the  side  of  the  square;  then 

X*  X* 

-     and    r«  =  jj. 

go  that  the  equation  reduces  to  i<  -  S!4j;>  =  177,  from  wlklcbi 
89.98  «j.  in.,  and  the  side  x  =  5.47  in.  Thus  the  unit-load  . 
lbs.  per  square  inch. 

WORKING  STRAINS  ALLOHrED  IH 
BIEinBKBS. 

Theodore  Cooper  (cives  the  follou  ju^  in  liis  Bridge  Specific 
Compression  members  shall  be  so  proportioued  that  the 

shall  ill  no  case  cause  a  greater  strain  than  tliat  deteniilned  bjr  I 

(ng  formula : 

8000 
P= t: —  for  square-end  compt«saloD  members  ; 


/  = 


40,l)00i« 
80iX> 


for  compression  members  with  one  pin  audi 


for  compr««slon  members  with  pln-l 
ao.oooi^ 

(Theai'  values  mtvy  be  Increasetl  in  bridges  over  140  ft.  spMl.1 
Specltlcntions.i  j 

i»  =  ilie  uUuwed  conipresulon  per  square  Ineli  of  ctviss-Mielia 
t  =  tin-  leDKlh  of  coinjiresHioh  mriiiln'r.  in  Incht-K; 
r  =  Ihe  leavt  radius  of  (ryiailoii  of  the  fcHcilnu  iu  luolies. 

No  compression  membei-,  however,  fhftll  have  a  length  ei 
its  leaxt  wiiJib. 

The  Plia'uix  Bridge  Company  pive  the  followlnir  : 

The  Kiraiest  workint'  stresnes  in  wroutlit-irixi  rompreisalo 
spans  150  feet  in  length  and  under  slinll  be  ilie  fotlowing: 


Pbceniz  coluiuo Ps 


Flat  EikIs. 
8400 


»  + 


ijUtioed  or  common  column Pa- 


M).OUOr< 
8000 


1  + 


4O,«0O?« 
I 


p  -  wna  -  » 


p  = 


r  =  : 


tm\ 


B  STKAINS  AIXOWED  IS  BRIDGE  MEMBERS.  263 

Wt  tthall  be  proportione<1  by  the  flat  end  formula. 
eTwe«ii  (lat-«nd  aud  iiin-uDd  resulis  sluUI  Iw  used  for  one  pin  end 
»-nd. 

id  transverse  stmts  Hlmil  be  designed  by  t^kinj^  working  stresses 
e  mad  foiir  teulhs  riioiw  pven  hy  the  precwllng  fonnuUe. 

ftress«s  alloMred  In  Bridge  TensloD  members. 
(Theodore  Cooper's  SpeciUcadong.) 
Ibe  structure  eball  be  so  propanioned  that  the  maxEnmm 
In  no  cas«  cause  a  greater  tension  ttiati  tlie  followiug  (except  in 
tOing  ISO  feet) : 

Pounds  per 
sq.  in. 

r«I  bracing ]5,0OO 

I  rolled  beamii,  used  as  cros.^  floor-beams  and  strtn^rs.    V.OOO 

lom  irbords  aud  main  dlURoiiuls  (forced  eye-barsj 10,000 

.Olii  cbordn  aud  main  diagonals  (plateM  or  sha[Mes),  net 

tjoii 8,000 

ater  rods  iUi<:  lontt  verticabt  (forged  eye-bar») 8,000 

nter  and  lone  verticals  (plates  or  shapesl,  net  section..    i.fHIO 

•■om  flange  of  riveted  cross-eirders.  net  Bectioii   8,000 

:<iiii  flaa^e  of  riveted  loogitudinal  plate  girders  over 

t.  lone,  net  section 8,000 

torn  tlatigre  of  riveted  loogitudinol  plate  g^irders  under 

I  Khik,  net  section  7,000 

r  beam  haiiK«rs,  and  other  similar  members  liable  to 

iden  loading  (bar  iron  vrilh  forgeul  ends) 6,000 

r  beam  tkaugers,  and  otljer  similar  members  liable  to 

Idea  loadiiit;  ( plates  or  e  hapes),  net  i^ec  1 1  on 6,000 

i  subject  to  alternate  strains  of  tension  and  compression  shall  l*>e 
ed  tn  rejdrt  each  kind  of  strain.  Both  of  llie  strains  shall,  how- 
usidered  ax  increased  by  au  amount  equal  to  8/10  of  the  l<»jst  of 
rains,  for  delemiininR  the  sectional  area  by  tlie  above  Bllowed 

tnlz  Hridfce  Company  specify  :  The  greatest  working  stresses  in 
it-iroD  tensile  members  of  railway  spans  150  feet  in  ieugtii  aud 
U  be  as  follows: 

Pounds  per 
aq.  in. 

Iter  web  metnben 8,000 

iTenicala  8,UCX) 

n-web  ajid  lower-chord  members  (eye-bars) 10,000 

tensipn  Ipops  , ,,,..    7,000 

tension  plates  (net  section) T.OilO 

lioD  members  of  lateral  and  transverse  bracing 16,000 

Iter  rods  oDd  long  verticals  of  lattice  gilders  (net  sec- 

7.000 

and  main  tension  members  o  '  lattice  girders 

8.(I0() 

„-t:  of  plate  girders  (net  section)...... 8.000 

#.iu  lUiiKe  of  rolled  beams    ... K.OOO 

le-iroci  lateral  ties  (net  section) 12,000 

OTcr  IfiO  feet  in  lenj^th.  the  greatest  worVing  tensile  stresses  per 

II  of  wrought  Iron,  lower-cliurd  an<I  end  maiu-web  eye-tiars,  shall 

!■  V  mar.  total  stress/ 

Alls  qtiantlty  exceeds  10,000, 

Worklne  Strease*  for  Steel. 

tt^mt  allowed  working  srreKses  for  steel  leosioa  meinbera,  toi 
"'* — "^ieagtb  ajuiJt^  aliall  be  as  tollowB : 


1 


r 

ft 


264  STREirOTH   OF  MATERIALS. 


In  rnuntf-r  web  members ..,.., )fl 

Id  long  vei'licBls .    14 

Im  nil  iiiniii-wt?b  and  lower-chord  eye-burs It 

In  pliile  lianjctM-R  (net  »**ctiun) t 

III  ttMMi-iii  uirinbei^  of  laieral  ami  tranHvefae  bracing It 

In  sleelniik'le  lutf  ml  ties  (net  Bfction) iii 

For  si>an»  over  VNX)  fcut  In  leiigtii  ilie  ffieaiest  allowed  worklHKj 
per  square  inch,  Id  lower-chord  and  end  mat  u- web  eye-bare,  stiall  I 


.r,  -w,/./^,  .  ni'"'  total  Btrees  \ 

10,0001  1 H — i ) 

V.       max.  total  stress  >' 


I 

I 


max.  total  stress'' 

whenever  lliia  quanllt.v  oxci'eds  13,200. 

The  pri'iitt^Ht  ullowalile  stress  hi  the  main-web  eye-bars  Br«f 
or  8iiL-h  >paiis  shall  \^e  taken  at  IS.-JOO  poand.4  per  r-quare  liich  H 
f'>r  the  liiii-niiediate  eye-bars  tboU  be  founil  by  direct  luterpolalloD  ) 
the  iiret'ftlinK  values. 

The  k'reateiit  allowable  working  slre^ges  in  steel  plate  and  latl 
and  rolled  beams  shall  bo  taken  as  follows : 


Upper  flange  of  plate  girders  (^ross  section) ,., 

Lower  fliuiKP  of  rilote  girdi'i-K  (net  Keel  ion) , 

In  L'OHiiiierAaiKl  Iuhk  veiilcals  of  latiicr  Kirdem  (net  sectloii>J 
III  liwer  i-liiirda  and  main  diagonals  of  lattice  girders  (nfl 

8«<;li"n) , 

In  bciltiiMi  Hnnges  of  rolled  beams 

In  top  flnn^ci  iif  r<dled  beams 

RESISTANCE  OF  HOI.I^CW  CYLITWKBfl 
rOtiLAPSK!. 

Fairbaim's  empirical  formala  (P/tiX  Traiu.  1888)  Is 

fl.X 

p  =  9,075.000^^ 

where  p  =  presrare  In  Iba.  per  i:<)uare  inch,  I  =  tbickncM  of  i 
diameter,  and  I  =  lenglli,  all  in  incites  ;  or. 


p  =  806,600  ^,  If  i  ta  la  feat. 


Be  reoonunendB  the  simpler  formula 

D  =  B,675,(HW  !^ 

Id 

as  siilHcientlv  accurate  for  practical  piirpnses,  for  tubes  of 
diameter  ann  leni^lh. 

The  iliinnetei-n  of  i^airbalrn's  experimenfa'  lubes  were  4".  9".  ft".  tO 
^Ti".  and  their  leDKihs,  between  (lie  coat-Iron  ends,  rung«5d  bir'twtva ) 
,ii>l  l».l  inches. 
Him  furraiiln  (3)  has  l>een  generally  accepted  OS  ITie  basia 
laKi-ertaiiiiii);  the  slrenvlh  of  lioller  flues      In  M>iiie  cases,  buwpr 
[llxed  to  it.i  application  by  a  supiileiiienlary  rorniula. 
I     l.l<>\'d°K  ReKi-iier  contains  the  following  formula  for  the  Mren| 
Ibuller-fliieti,  viz., 

„     89.000<> 

'^^-Id- 

The  EiiEllph  Board  "f  Ttide  prescribes  the  followlns  formula] 
IHneH,  when  il>e  longitudinal  Joints  are  tt  elded,  or  mode  witll  i 
traps,  viz., 

no.ww 

^""i/.-f  i)<i 

i|or  Inferior  woTVmiu\rt\\pth»  TouneriMl  I 


E  OF  HOLLOW  CyLINDERS  TO  COLLAPSE.  ^265 


yd'B  R«;gris«;r.  as  w«U  as  thoee  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  pr«>- 
iD  no  c«.«e  tbe  value  ot  P  inuKt  exceed  ibe  amouat  t;lven 
equation,  viz., 

P=^ (6. 

(5>.  (6)  P  Is  the  hl^best  working  pressure  la  pouriilD  p«T 
id  d  are  tlie  thickness  and  dimueter  In  tnclies,  L  is  llie 
t  111  feet  nuMisiireJ  tjetween  tlie  Htrt-nKtlif  i)ilig  rings,  in  ett»e 
ucli.  Fui-mula  i4)  is  llif.  same  an  furiiiiila  i3).  wlOi  a  facitir 
]  roriiiiila  i5i  I  he  length  L  in  iiicr»a:jril  b}'  I  ;  tlie  iiifiueniM 
U>a  has  on  the  value  of  P  is,  of  course,  greater  for  short 
nir  otif  ft. 

Hlucerl  froiii  Kalrbairo's  experiments  the  following  fortiiula 
[  slreugtb  ef  tliies  : 

"-m "> 

have  the  same  ineaiilng  as  in  formula  ( I),  L  is  tlie  l>>ii(;ih  l-i 
)  tensile  strrnictli  oT  the  metal  in  )ioiinils  \xv  hqiiar<^  inrli. 
I  T  the  value  54),Oix),  aiid  express  the  leni;lli  of  the  Uue  in 
(.7)  assiimeB  the  folluwiog  form,  viz., 

p  =  eM,aoo  -^. f8) 

ira  a  factor  of  safety  of  4  Bufflcieiil  is  applyioe  hla  formula. 
Ballse  on  Steam  EiiKlneeiiriB,"  by  J.  W .  Nystrom.  p.  U»;,i 
[4),  and  (8;  have  thf  ooiuuion  defect  that  tJiey  make  ibe 
lire  dourease  iodetlniti'ly  witli  inoieaxe  of  Ifiigth.  iinil  virf 
ha.4  deduced  fruiii  Fuirliaira's  experiniuiiiK  an  eqiiutJoii  of 
wbi«h,  reduced  to  Knglisb  meaKures,  is  as  follown,  vu.. 


.5,858,180  ^  +  41,900  3+  5823^, 

(d  d  a 


(9) 


ttUon  is  the  same  ax  in  formula  (1>. 

C  In  his  "  ManijuJ  of  Rules,"  eti-,,  p  696,  giv**  the  dimeneioDs  ot 
rd  from  the  reports  of  the  Maiichest-er  Sleiiiii-lifwrs  Assncia- 
Ihii'h  L-uilapsfJ  Willie  in  acliiiil   use  in    boilers.     TlieM>  Hues 
.  tlO  inches  ill  (iiauieter.  aud  from  :i-16  to^  incliiii  ihli;kiie'<«. 
lof  rln^  of  pliiti->s  riveied  tosfeiher,  with  niit>  or  two  loiii;itud- 
|ah  of  them  iinforliBed  by  Intermediate  flanges  or  strenKth- 
;  tliecullapsInK  pressures  the  flues  I'xperiiiiceil  compressions 
\,tS  to  iAl  touK,  or  a  mean  compression  oT  IS.!  tons  per  »]uai'e 
From  thedfl  data  CUrk  deiiuced  the  (oliovilDg  formula 
redatlnK  force  of  common  boilei  -flues,"  viz., 


p=.("f?--). 


.00) 


V  pressure  In  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  if  and  ( 
luess  ejijirossed  in  inclii's. 

.•itiyiind'i  Mai/iitim;  March.  1881.  discussing  I'  e 

wiii,..  ,.  ,  allows  that  expeiimenlal  divia  ai"  "s  yet  insofll- 

fae  value  of  any  of  the  formiilee     He  sa.vs  that  Nyslmm's 

ICloser  a^rruement  of  the  culculaled  with  tlie  actual  eol- 

I  ezperiiuents  on  Ques  ot  every  desoiiption  than  ooy  o( 


IK  Preoaure  of  Plain  Iron  Tabea  or  Flnea. 

(Clark,  S.  E.,  vol.  i.  p.  M3.) 
■•■"■••••<»•  of  pUinriveti'd  flues  Is  directly  as  i  lie  njiiare  of 
ind  inver.»*ely  as  the  square  of  the  diameter.     Tbe 
the  flue  does  not  piaclic/il/y  extend  over  n  leiitcttv 
..,.  ;.. (C/i  or  three  liiaen  the  diameter.    The  Cnllapn) 
oav  is  therefore  pructlcaltf  iudepeuileill  ot  tUe  leiiB 


266  8TBEN0TU   OF  MATERIALS. 


1 

HDcb  pivl 


italyd| 


> 


Instances  of  collflpiied  flues  of  Cornish  and  LancoEbire  boiler*  i 
Clark,  sboweil  that  tht>  miMuuct*  to  c^lUiiise  ot  /lu**s  «t  >H|-ti>cb  p 
AH  tevl  \ung.  liiul  ^  to  5U  Iiil-Iik*  diammer,  varied  as  (lie  i  75  powvl 
diameter.    Thiu, 

fordianiiftors  of SO    35  40  45  50  Incbes, 

Ulecollap^i>l|;  |ire8»urea  were T6   68  4i  87  30  lUaper^ 

(or    7-lU-iii<  b    plales    the    collapaiog 

preMureK  wctv 60  4U  42  *•     " 

For  collapsing  pressures  of  plain  iron  flue-tubes  of  Corn] 
shire  steam- boUeni,  Clarli  gives: 

_  aM.0OO<« 

P  =  collapsing  pressure.  Id  pounds  per  square  inch; 
(  =  tliickoejts  of  the  platrs  of  the  fuinace  lube,  tii  lochea. 
d  =  luit-rual  diameter  of  t-he  furnace  (ulje,  in  iiiobed. 

For  fhort  |piigi.h9  llie  longitudinal  tensile  reslsinnce  may  be  elT«< 
auKnietiiing  the  resistance  to  O'lllnpse  Flues  eflk'ieiitly  fortified  bj" 
joints  or  lioopK  nt  intervBls  of  8  feet  mnj  be  enabled  to  re«ist  ft** 
to  tJO  lbs.  or  7u  lb».  pressiite  per  squnre  inch  mure  iliBii  plain  (ubilkl 
lug  10  the  lUiclineKS  of  llie  iiiules  1 

Strength    of  Small  Tubes.— The  collapEin^  resl-iiuice  ol 
drawn  tunes  of  small  d  Kiiieter,  auu  from  .134  imh  lo  .If" 
Dub  been  lested  experimeiitally  liy  Messrs  J.  Ku.'^sell  4  " 
lor  wroKR^ht-lron  tubes  varied  from  14.38  to  SW.OT  Iodh  j.-.       ,; 
lion  of  the  meiiiL  averaKinie  18.30  tons,  as  against  IT.&T  to  ^i.xa  u>w,  < 
iuK^^i.'ia  tons,  for  the  biirslinif  pre*.'«ure. 

(For  strenKth  of  Seiruiemol  (.'i  ow  ri»  of  Furnaces  and  Cj linden  M 
a  E.,  vol.  I.  p[i  (H9-I151  iiml  pp.  (W7.  6-JH  I 

Fomiala  for  Corrugated  Pnmaces  (Eng'g.  July  H  1 

tOjii.— As  tlie  lesiili  uf  a  MTie»  of  experiments  on  the  retislaocrUa 
of  Fox's  corrugated  furnaces,  the  Board  of  Tra<le  and  Uoyd'l  B 
altered  their  fnruiulte  for  these  furnaces  in  ItiSI  as  (oUows: 
Board  of  Trade  formula,  is  altered  from 

I8.aooxr^^^^ii,owxr_^ 

T=  thiclniess  In  inches; 

D  =  mean  diameter  of  furnace; 

WP  =  worlcine  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  latib. 

Lloyd's  formula  is  altered  from 

iooox(r.)^„.^^ii!34>^(r.)  ^  ^ 

T  =  thickness  in  sixteenths  of  an  inch; 

/)=  greatest  '.liaiueter  of  furnace: 

WP  =  worlting  pressure  in  ponntlH  per  square  inch. 

TBANSVBHSE   STRENGTH. 

In  transverse  tests  the  NtreoKth  of  bars  nf  rectangular  i 
vary  directly  as  the  breadth  of  the  specimen  tested,  as  the  I 
depth,  and  inversely  as  its  Irnelh.  The  deflection  under  any  t 
the  ciil>>>  of  tile  It'ii^-tb.  and  inversely  as  the  breadth  and  as  tk 
depth.  Kepreseiiie<l  iii^'braicallv,  if  .S'  =  the  Strength  and  Di 
I  tiie  length,  b  the  breadth,  and  d  the  depth, 

B  varies  as  -j-  and  D  vanes  aa  t-=- 

**>«  purpose  of  rednclni;  the  strength  Of  pteoM  of  ' 
V  sfAOdnrd.  Ihe  term  niudulut  u/  \-upturt  (rep    ~ 


r 

■HKlbe  enc 
Wfbe  foUow) 


TRANSVEB6E   STHBXGTH. 


367^ 


ends  and  loaded  lo  tbe  middle  and  BubBtltuting  aumeriual 
foUowiag  formula : 


D  f>  =  the  breaking  load  in  pounds,  2  =  the  length  in  laches,  b  the 
1,  and  d  tbe  depth. 
icn1u<iui  of  I'liji/urr  i»  som(>.tiiii<>R  di'flned  as  the  strain  at  thf  lustaut 
iTr  Upon  a  iiuii  of  the  ^eL'lio^  which  is  in»st  remote  (rom  the  neutral 
the  side  wlilfh  first  ruptures.  This  definition,  however.  Is  baaud 
iU.?«ry  wlileh  is  vet  in  dispute  ajnonu  authorities,  and  it  is  l>etter  to 
II  as  a  numerical  value,  or  esperiuiental  constant,  found  liy  the  ap- 
.n  of  the  frirraulft  al)OTe  givun. 

,  th<-  aHnve  formula,  nialiini;  t  12  inches,  and  ft  and  d  eacli  1  inch, 
" '     -  -^   ■-  rnodulus  of  rupture  is  18  times  the  toad  required  to  breulc 
.  ire,  supported  at  two  points  one  fool  apart,  the  load  being 
..iJdle. 

span  in  feet  X  load  at  middle  in  lbs. 
leieut  of  traiwrerw  strength  =  breadth  hi  inches  X  (depth  in  lnch.>s>>.' 

=— th  of  the  modulus  of  rupture. 

13 

ndameiiUil  Formalae  for  Flexure  of  Beams  (Merriman); 

■  iT  =  vertical  sltear; 
ni-nt  =  tieiidinK' tnoment; 
■  »tre8.«es  =  sum  of  cunipresslTe  strettses; 
t<iii'K  oli'.-ar  =  al(;ebr«ic  .Hum  of  all  the  vertlcjil  components  of  the  In- 
DtfeMes  at  any  section  of  the  l>eam. 

f  tbe  area  of  the  >ectlon  and  .s',  the  shearing  unit  stress,  then  resist- 
r=  AKa;  and  if  the  vertical  tiliear  =  f,  then  V  =  ASt. 

•  I  nltfur  18  tlie  ali;ebriiiu  sum  of  all  the  external  vertical  forces 
I  of  the  section  qon^idei  ed.  It  is  equal  to  the  reaction  of  one  aup- 
.  ere«l  «»a  force  acting  upwaiil.  iniinis  iIip  sum  (if  all  the  vertical 
iforeejiaelini;  Ijetween  the  siipiHirl  pcd  the  jectiot).  .' 

'ttiug  moment  =  alKt'bniic  Hum  of  all  the  iiumienis  of  the  inter; 
ptal  stresses  at  any  section  with  refeience  to  a  point  In  that 

,  in  which  .S  =  the  horizontal  unit  stress,  tensile  or  coinpressivitf; 

'i[ton  the  Iltire  mo^t  reinnte  from  the  neutral  axis,  c 
hor*'  from  that  (Ihre  to  said  axis,  and  /  =  the  moment 

|Bo(  .-I'tlim  iviih  reference  til  that  axis. 

^htntii.m  iiuiment  M  is  the  alKBliiaic  sum  of  the  moment  of  the  ex- 
lHb<*e»  on  one  side  of  the  section  with  reference  to  a  point  in  thai  sec- 
■  ■toment  of  the  reaction  of  one  support  minus  sum  of  moments  of 
tetweeo  tbe  auppori  and  the  section  considered. 


I 


■°         II 


i,=«/. 


anoB 
the 

t)i|H 
ti-ar^ 


»  bending  moment  i»  a  oompouod  qiiautlty  =  prtxliict  of  a  force  by  1 
nee  of  He  point  of  application  from  the  section  consiilered,  thedlstaiic 
t  measured  on  a  line  drawn  from  the  section  perpendicular  to  the 
tioo  of  the  Bctlnn  of  the  force. 

ivc»niiuif  the  above  furinula.  Prof  Merriman,  Eiiff.  A>"'»,  July  21.  18ft 
■  Tile  foruuda  just  quoted  Is  true  when  the  unit-stress  S  on  the  pun  ■ 
Ipam  fartliest  from  the  neutral  axis  Is  within  the  elaoUc  limit  of  th 
It  is  not  true  ivheu  Diis  limit  is  exceeded,  lieoausp  then  tlieneutri 
i  not  pass  throUL'h  the  centre  of  Rravity  of  the  cross-sect lun,  and 
"  II  tl>e  different  longiludinal  stresses  are  nnt  prnportlonnl  to  their 
Tmi  that  axis,  these  two  requirements  being  itivoU'ed  In  the  da 
tbe  formula.  But  in  all  eases  of  ilesli;n  the  perinLsslble  nnlf 
mid  iif.i  oxoe"'!  the  elastic  limit,  and  lience  the  formula  app" 
'Lu  the  ultimate  sirenelh  of  the  innterlal  or  i 
lins  rupture.  Indeed  fo  Rreat  rellnnee  js 
|ir«ciice  of  lestiiiR  beams  by  rupture 
oii'-il,  and  tbe  a)liiKable  unit-stresses  are  P 
teniniki  d/'t/  oo/BprestIre  tests, 


368 


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JE 
» 
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STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


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tlHATE  SAFE  LOADS  IN  LBS.  ON  STKEf,  BKAMS.    269 

nlff>  f"r'  Trmnrnwerme  »tT*ngttk  or  Bekma.—Rararrlug  to 

•I  •  ■ 

id 

laX  :■;... ii>ut«d  aDlformly; 

uirth.  I)  =  urw»(i«li.  (I  =  depth,  In  Indies; 

otiulus  of  c'litMticity; 

odulus  of  niptdre,  or  itresi  per  sqiisn;  inch  of  i^lr<<in<>  nbrnj 

onivnt  of  liuM'tln ; 

■taoce  between  iieatra]  azix  and  extreme  flhrv, 

"  -id  of  cirtMtlar  stxMlcm,  rpjilaop  W  liy  0.."(V/'. 
•lit  Ir.Mi  th-  vnliif  of  K  i»  choiit  "o.niKi,  f.,r  stcfl  ftJwiut  1»,000, 
.'  carfKiii  apparciiily  having  no  influtuou.    (Tliuistoii,  Iron 

<li  IrOD  thp  TRliiPof  R  vnririt  Rwally  necordlng  In  qnallry.    Tbiir!;(on 

.7-11'  iviid  67.980  in  No.  »  and  No.  4  ctin  Iron,  respt'ciircly. 

«m«  nxfvt  Al  hfitli  ends  itnd  loadwJ  In  th«''riitd<Ilc,  UriIow.  Ity  •  xpcri- 

und  ihw  iiinxiiniiiii  <iii>meiit  of  stress:^  l/SPl  lnsli>ail  nf  %(t.  Ilin 

Tfii  bv  thfory.     Prctf.  W(xifl  (Resist.  Slatis,  |*   I.Voshj-*  nf  iij*.cm*.*»: 

irn  (if  tcio  complex  a  clinrtti.'ier  to  admit  of  a  itiornnifli  nml 

M  il  it  i<  urububly  i-ater  (u  accept  ibe  results  of  Mr.  UiiHuw 

■  ■  depeuil  upon  ini'oretlcal  resuUs. 

tOXUn.i'TK  f;HKATi:ST   SAPB  LOADS  IN  L.BS.  ON 
HTKI^L  BE.tn«t.    (IVneoyd  Iron  Woikhj 

no  flbre  Bi ruins  nf  ifl.fiOO  lli«.  for  slefll.  (For  iron  tbc  I'Wilu  silmuld  be 
h  lew.  oorrt?»n'>Ddln^»  to  a  flbre  strain  Of  11.000  Ihs.  )ier  Kijiinie  lindi). 
»iiph  In  fi*("t  m-lweefi  .•"ttpjiOrtH;  a  =  inl<-ilor  area  In  square 

ectioiijil  area  of  beam  lu  square  liiflien: 

lui-'iif*;  if  =  inierlxr  deplli  In  Inches, 

lepth  nf  beam  In  inches  w  :^  working  loml  In  net.  tuns. 


Of 

Greatest  Safe  Load  In  Pounds 

l>eflecllon 

In  InchMi. 

IxMkdin 
MMdIe 

LMd 

Di.itriboted. 

Load  In 

Middle. 

Load 
Diotrlbiiled. 

Dtrl- 

9WAl> 
L 

■    L 

Had* 

lecl- 

VfHAV-nd\ 
L 

L 

Tl-L" 

wt* 

•AHArf-aAf>\ 

ra{AU*-ait*) 

'Un 

'iffsAh 

L 

HWAD 
L 

uh» 

ti-L* 

SiA  If 

3XAir' 

TtiiAP-itih 

\WKAD~wh 

vU 

i/.L» 

ler. 

>l4(AD*~n<n) 

»(^D*-ad») 

Sited 
or 

WO  AD 
L 

I8W/1B 
L  ' 

tiAO> 

wL' 

lor 

m 

I600JD 
L 

3-.'llOJZ1 

L 

58 /lO' 

1 

1».VI.4D 
L 

^mOAD 

MA  !'■> 

1 

I'fOAO 
L 

1    -r- 

^AO' 

•j8<4  0« 

v* 
k 
/ 

"            J 

;//       / 

IV 

V 

270 


BTBEXOTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


in  canVi 


The  above  fonnula!  for  the  streDgth  and  MiSaen  of  rolled 
rious  sections  are   intended  for   coDTenient  appiicatloii 
strict  aocumc}'  is  not  rrqnired. 

The  rules  for  rectau^fulor  and  circular  aectiaiia  are  correct,  irhUe  ttn 
the  SnDgpd  sections  are  approximate,  and  limited  in  thrlr  appiicailoaj 
Rtantlard  fhupes  as  ^veii  in  the  Pencoyd  tabled.  Wbeii  the  section  I 
beam  is  increased  attove  the  standard  minimum  dimeneioos,  Oieflamj 
mainingr  unaltered,  and  the  web  alone  being  tliii.keued,  the  tendeAcj  i 
for  the  load  as  found  by  the  rules  to  be  in  excess  of  the  actual :  mt  i 
the  limits  thnt  it  is  possible  to  vary  any  section  in  th«  roUing,  ikd 
wilt  apply  u  itliuut  any  seriouB  inaccuracy.  J 

The  calculated  safe  loads  will  be  approximately  one  half  of  kafl 
would  injure  the  elasticity  of  the  materials.  J 

The  rules  for  deflection  apply  to  any  load  below  the  elastic  Bni)t,d 
than  double  the  greatest  sate  load  by  the  rules.  | 

If  the  beams  are  long  without  lateral  support,  reduce  the  loads  f' 
ratios  of  width  to  span  as  fuUows : 


I 


Length  of  Ream. 

SO  times  Oange  width. 

80 

40     •'  " 

80      •*  "  " 

60      "  "  " 

70      " 

These  rules  apply  to  beams  supported  at  each  end.  For  beai 
otherwise,  alter  the  coefficients  of  the  table  as  described  below, 
the  respective  columns  indlcatwl  by  uunilwr. 

Gbangea  of  CoeflBcienta  for  SpeelaJ  Form*  ofl 


Proportion  of  r^catated  1 
forming  Qrealaa  Safejj 

Whole  calculated  14 
9-10 
8-10 
•    7-10 

6-10  " 

5-10 


Kind  of  Beam, 


Fixed  at  one  end,  loaded 
at  the  other. 


Fixed  at  ouo  end,  load 
Bvenly  distributed. 


Both  ends  Hitidly  fixed, 
or  a  conliinioui'  beam, 
with  o  load  in  middle. 


ft 


Both  ends  rieidlr  Axed, 
or  a  conilniious  )>«am, 
with  loiul  evenly  dis- 
tributed. 


Coefficient  for  Safe 
Load. 


One  fourth  of  the  coeffl- 
clent,  col.  U. 


One  sixteenth  of  Ik 
efflcieni  of  coLIi 


One  fourth  of  the  coeflB- 
cienl  of  col.  III. 


Twice  the  coefBcient  of 
cul.  U. 


One  and  one-half  times 
the  coeCBcient  of  ool. 
lU. 


Coefficient  f0r  I 
liOii. 


Fire  forty-eijrhthi^ 
cuefhcient  of  efL 


Four  times    the  i 
cient  of  coL  1 


FiTe  times  I 
of  col,  V. 


GI.A8TIC  BESILIBNCE. 

In  a  rectanirular  beam  tested  by  ti-atisverse  atreai,  sup 
and  loaded  In  the  middle, 

A-'        ^     - 

"  ~  4  KMf  ' 

fai  which.  If  F  Is  the  toad  In  ponndc  at  the  elastic  limit.  R  a  I 
tnin*ver««  aireiifctti.  •  r  •'       •  ■'■:•  i-xtn-nie  flhre.  at  the  i 

/:=  m»litliiaof  elaali  /.  ^.  Ai'd  rf  r=  leneth.  I 

dayth  In  iiKkn>   Bnb^  ^  it.*  value  in  U;.  wal 


NtPOBM  STREKOTH  THROUGHOUT  LENGTH.  271 


llrnc«  =  balf  the  product  o(  the  load  and  deflection  =  ^P^, 
fesUience  per  cubic  iiicb 

-  '  f^ 
~itbci' 

he  values  of  P  and  A,  this  reduces  to  elastic  resilience  per 

I  R* 

-  -j;,  which  is  inrteptsDdent  of  the  dlinenslons;  and  Ihrrcfora 

lience  per  cubic  inch  for  troiisv«rse  Rtrain  may  be  used  as  a 

38iD^  one  valuable  qu&liiy  of  a  material. 

leuBion: 

lile  stress  In  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  elastic  limit; 
Oration  per  unit  of  l^-riElh  at  the  elusiic  limit : 
Julus  of  elasticity  =  P  -t-  e;  whence  *  =  P  +  E. 

I  P' 
^resilience  per  cubic  inch  =  J^/V  =  -  —  . 

DP  VNIFOBin  STRENGTH  THROTJGHOFT 
THEIB  LKKCTU. 

Is  Silipjioseii  iu  all  rnses  in  be  rectangular  ibrou^buut.  The 
iu  plan  aie  of  uiiifurni  ilt-pth  thr<>uKli"tit.  Those  shown  in 
>f  iiniforiii  breaiilli  ilironKlmut. 

B  =  breadth  of  biuni.    D  =  depth  of  beam. 

-  Ftxvd  at  one  end.  londi'd  at  the  other: 

currr  pnratiitln,  vertex  at  loaded  end;  BD" 
profmrtionHl  fo  diKlance  frtiiii  loaded  end. 
Thr  be.sui  may  lie  reversed,  so  that  Die  up- 
per fd  ffn  is  parabolic,  or  both  edges  may  be 
parubolic. 

Fixed  at  one  end,  loaded  at  the  other; 
triangle,  apex  at  loaded  end;  Biy*  propor- 
tinniil  to  the  distance  from  the  loaded  end. 

Fixed  at  one  end;  load  distributed;  tri- 
angle. a|iex  at  unsupported  end;  BTf  pro- 
portional to  square  of  distauce  from  unsup- 
ported end. 

Fixed  at  one  end;  Uiad  distributed;  currea 
two  parabolas,  vertices  Couching  each  other 
at  unsuppiried  end;  HD*  proportional  to 
distance  from  unKit;i[>orled  end. 

Supported  at  both  ends:  load  at  any  one 
point;  two  (larubolus,  vertices  at  the  points 
ot  8Up|>ort,  bases  at  point  loaded;  bV  pro- 
{tortioual  ti>  distance  from  nearest,  point  of 
support.  The  upper  e<lBe  or  both  edf^>B 
may  also  be  parabolic. 

Rupi)otted  at  Ijoth  ends;  load  at  any  one 
poini ;  two  triangles,  apices  at  polnlji  of  sup- 
port, l>a.ses  at  point  loaded;  BVf  propor- 
tional to  distance  from  the  nearest  point  of 
support. 

Supported  at  both  ends;  load  distributed; 
curves  twopariii)Olfls,  Venires  at  tile  middle 
of  the  beam;  bases  centre  line  of  beam;  HI)*  I 
proportional  to  product  of  distances  from  | 
points  of  support. 


Sui>porlfi«l  at  both  ends;  load  distributed 
curve  semi-ellipse;  fi/)'  proportlona' 
proihicr  ot  (be  ijistanceis  from  tb 
eupport. 


STRKNOTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


1 


PaOPIiRXIlJS  OK   UOLIiEO  NTnCCTrBAL 

Explauatloii  of  Tabl«N  <>r  the  Prop^rtU-a  «r 
I  JBeaniN,  CbaanrlH,  auti  Z  Bara. 

The  Ijiljles  uf  I  biMuns  lire  (.•aloiilnt.cd  fur  clip  inininiuni  wei^rht 
I'airh  pnitcrn  ran  Iwrolli-d.  Tlie  Jahles  nt  I'liuniiels  nre  (-alcuLili 
iiiiiilinuni  and  iruixinuiin  weli;hf,-<  nf  the  viirlotis  RlinppH.  «l)IIfl  tlie  p 
of  Z  bars  aif  ^hfu  for  Ihiclintsm-s  ilifforiup  liy  1/1*1  int-li. 

Cnlii'iins  II  and  13,  tii  llie  liiLlt's  fMi-1  IjeniiiRaiiil  cliaiinelit,  Rivec 
by  ibR  help  nt  which  t)ie  saFt<  iitiifornilytlistrlhiitnil  Inarl  mny  iviiil 
termlufd.  Tti  do  this,  dividoihe  L'Oe(Boi«>nc  «riveti  by  the  ftjinii  (if 
between  sujijc'i'lK  In  feet.  If  tbe  weiBbt  of  the  sevlli'ii  In  iiiteiiiK 
tw«eu  ibe  miiiiinuui  mid  maximum  wuighu:  Kit'eii.  add  to  the  c 
for  the  riitniiiiuiii  welj^ht  the  value  given  in  ciijiiinn»  Vi  vr  14|forn 
iiK-reose  of  welghtt,  miiltl|ilJeU  by  the  number  of  pounds  llm  i 
heAvier  than  tbuniiniiimrn. 

If  a  section  ia  in  be  s^leuteil  (aa  will  iieuiUly  be  the  <?iise)  Inl 
cjirry  a  certfliii  load,  for  a  ieiiRtb  of  spun  already  delerniimxl  on, 
the  coefHeieiit.  which  lliis  Uuid  hiuI  span  will  require,  ami  I'eferj 
for  a  siction  liuviiijr  R  cnefflcieiir  of  tiilf  value,    The  cn-fficjenf 
by   ]niilli|>l3hiK  thu  luad,  hi   pouudti  unifunnly  iliHtrlbulcd,  f 
Jelij^tll  in  feel . 

In  case  the  load  Is  not  (inlformly  dlalrlhuted,  but  U  concontiM 
middle  of  the  upan.  muUipIv  the  load  by  8  and  tlieti  coiiKldAr  | 
formly  distributed.  The  deiWctiim  will  be  S/10  of  the  duflt^tf  "^ 
latter  load. 

For  niher  oaBesof  loading  obtain  th«  beikdin^inomeDt  in  roo£| 
multiplied  by  8  will  (five  the  coefflcleiit  required. 

If  the  loads  ai«  quieseent,  tlie  coefdclenln  for  a  fibre  Rtraio  of 
per  square  ineli  fur  steel  and  13,000  Ihs.  for  iron  iiiny  lie  una 
tnovlng  loadg  are  to  lie  provided  for.  the  oielBclent.x  for  r2,.V)0  a 
lbs.,  respectively,  should  bo  taken.  InasniUL'b  as  the  effects  of  iin 
be  very  consbjerahle  (the  HtrniiiH  piTxInceil  in  au  unyiel<liQ|r< 
innt«rlal  by  a  load  gudileuly  applied  being  double  ihose  produ(?t 
Name  load  in  a  quiescent  Mate),  it  will  sometiiiieji  be  ndviMibk)  H 
niimller  fibre  strains  ihan  thoiie  given  in  Ibe  tAbiea.  In  such  cM 
e(Ileii-ntJ< cau  readily  be  det^-rmiued  by  pioportion.  Thus,  fori  ~ 
of  8(1<W  llw.  per  nuiiaie  Inch  llie  cn<'illrleni  will  equal  the  i  " 
10>X>  lbs.  nine  strain,  from  the  table,  iniiltipliod  by  8/10. 

The  moiut'iitM  of  resistance  piven  in  Coliiiiin  9  are  Uscul  to  il^ 
lilire  Hlrniii  |>er  square  Incli  in  n  beam,  or  other  shape,  subjecti 
or  iroiMverse  Btraiiis,   by  dividing  the  «ame   into  the  oendl 
exmevEiei]  in  ineli-poundii. 

For  Carnegie  Z  bars,  complete  lableH  of  nionie-nl»  of  lnerila,jj 
resl8t«nee.  r.idil  of  iryraiiou,  and  va.iiets  of  llie  iv>efllcienl»  iC)  r 
thieUli'-.s-efl  varyinif  by  l/lH  inch.     Tlio-H'  corlfli-lent.s   may  lie' 
explained  almve.  for  cases  where  (be  Zbms  are  siil>jectiil  to  li 
luadiui;,  as,  for  exaiitple.  in  the  case  of  rotif-purlins. 

l-^r  more  complete  and  detailed  infoi-mntiouconcemlni.'  >ii  iiotun 
consult  I  be  pocket-boolcs  and  ciruulan>  la^ued  by  U>e  iiuuitr 

I A  more  correct  term  for  what  is  called  "  moment  of  i' 
utiil  also  in  the  tallies  on  pages '.'74-£i7,  is  "  moment  of  n»l-" 
Johnboii,  Kni;'r;  .Veto,  Feb. «,  1880.    Beuleaux  calls  it  "sc 
or  section  (actor.] 


I  on, 
erJA 

I 

itisd 

CtJM 


JPEKTIES  OF   UOLJ-ED   BTKUC'XURAL  SHAffiB,    81 


■sn-gow.rt     W'Tt-*-;«^     s»?«*«ic     ^'."•^ 
l-I'^occuo     ic-'rococw      cJci-^«^»^     •-i.i^P^ 


"s     I S  —  S  s 


5JI 


it-naoaas      c«|'7'-<OC-t      (COica«-itD      tacco^ 
^*  9=  S  <^  ^     e  OD  t^  tt  *o     *»  W  c9  OQ  »     ei  ci  Of 

t-oi-*^  X  ^     w^  axil*  to     le^vn  so     eioi?* 


£  a 


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1 1 !  I^i^!  8  Mod 


.    II 


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274 


STRENGTH   OP   MATEIIIALS 


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276 


4 


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STRENGTH   OF   IIATERIALS. 


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8|)tv  iTf.midti  I 


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91 K  le  7»  ^  V  ■«  lo  ID  9t  M  ■»!  K  n  ce  n « 


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•J*J    A"l|AW.10    JO       I 


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AT 


'Xi»pai  uon»»S 


PROPERTIES   OF   CABNEGIE    Z    BARS, 


aitiiiOftjAj  sjxv  'qnut 


8J  jnao  IB  t\3A\  «>1  -"Jin 
-3iptiriijj^>^sixv  'i|:iut 

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•|«U<i3ii!(i  sfxv 


A)|Aii.io  JO  ejiu<>3 


5  ^  (- a  s  I  -  c>  «  £  ^  £  =T  ^  7.  3i 


t-  'X3  ic  re  e  sc  «  « eo  !a  vi  ^.  It*  ic  ki  K 
o"  o  d  b  b  c  C)  o  c  o  r:;  o  b  d  c  o 


ssssasssfesss'-sss 


01  jwinoiparHlJaj 

X]|ABJ|)  JU  rt.HllrtJ 


II 


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q3(ioj<|i  Hixv  Itujuaji 


•9•\^v 

<n  jniiinipnoiljvtci 


iq|A»40  JO  itJiu^O 


01  jvinaipri 

X\liVJO  JO  9J]llil(5 


QU  ^  ij  ^  *Q  i.'i  »C  ^  ^  T  T»  21  ^^  —  ^-  ^^ 


•-  73  03  ^  ^  aC  CB  X)  V  t-  1-^  C(  T<  7f  n  M 


wj  7*  cs  ^  «a  "  t-  ^  (fl  ot  Be  :=  oL  «c  4.-;  9S 


*IIOIpog  JO  V9JV 


«o  o*  e^  40  ^  W  <a  ic  «  <k  *^  iH  ei  «0  09 1 


T«^g '100J  JOd  mSj^Ai    S 


r^  «->  1-1  — t  r»  r-<  W  «  1--^.-* 


-uoji  ';oo2  jdd  }^:^|^M.   £ 


b-ccC'9»eciot«Iaobn<occc«*-cicD 


'IV10H  io  ssdu^aiux   £ 


■aSuviJ  JO  HJPtM,     c: 


■q»Ai  J"  Mldaa    ri 


X  "35  -X  -:«  " 


CTtOOTCOg5CP_: 


'x^ptiX  aofjmtS 


■  aoattRmokaoc 


378 


STRENGTU  OF   MATKRtAtS. 


TBEKTON  IRON  BEAAfS  AND  CHANNl 

(New  Jeney  Stoel  and  Iron  Oo.) 


^^ 

...  -J 
0  = 

ll 

-a^ 

5  s 

as 

u_ 

^^ 

> 

^ 

e  eS  •- 

«  c  et 


^        ffe 


|£, 


£ag 


k   . 

a> 

CO 

u 

^  3 

.c  = 

*F 

^■^ 

i-i 

tfS 

05 

?-2 

S_c 

i5 

» 

82 


I  Beams. 


ClianneU. 


I6W 
15  3.18 


l.)»),000 
MO.O0O 
748,000 
&51,0OI> 
460.000 
511.000 
377,000 
875.000 
81)8.000 
8M,000 
i85.000 
280.000 
taB,O0O 
IBB.OOO 
167.000 

les.ooo 

135.000 
101. 0(« 
17;;.(«»i 
]3-J,000 
76,S00 
6:2.600 

49,iin 

88.700 

36.H00I 

ao,ioo 

IH.IKIO 


190 

«i 

ISO 

4^ 

140 

4 

70 

a 

80 

•z^ 

48 

2- 

TO 

«1 

80 

45 

•^  4 

88 

^1 

aa 

8H 

"^ 

! 

m 

3ij 

"^ 

}« 

"^ 

1I-I8 

.as 

H 

5>t< 

--I8 

.» 

.as 
.so 

i 


Deck  BeanuL 


J^      2^.8 


Trenton  Beams  and  Cbatiaela. 

To  flrirl  wbicli  bfani.  Hiipporteil  at  both  ends,  will  be  lYqutrvd  tl 
with  saMy  11  pivcfi  Mnifonnly  iJiptriiiiitt^l  l(>a<1; 

Mullt|>ly'  iliel'  '    '     "'!    ■-■■■-^■■i  In  fe«^«jnl  t«ketbeba 

"  (.\w(fit-l>-nl  fi'i  iind  pice^^ls  the  iiumlier  1 

Tbi"  welsjlit  c<f  tl,-  ii'.'Ui'l"'!  in  ilif  lond 

Til'      '    ■'       *      ■     III  iiii.-U'-s,  I    >r  SIM.- -II    '      ■      I  '      ■  J     ,■    "   •  ,     - 

iiit'  '  f  UiB  span  iHl<t>n  in  feet 

liik.      .  [or  iron  beamH.  and  by  ' 

KXAMi'i.K  —  >^  iiicli  bt'Ain  will   l)e  requ.  •.  i  11  iiiiir.Tiiu' 

Uli-rt  Inad  of  1*  »oii»  (  =  '.'LfHW  Ib.e.l  on  &  >■■  ■  I  ! 

SI.OOO  X  15  =  m\i'<on.  ivbich  is  less  tlui  -at  of  the  JV^ 

lb.  Iron  bvoiii  The  w^jirlii  oF  (be  bi?aiii  ii.>.-ii  wuniij  Iw8esib«.,  « 
ilrii  lo  the  loud  and  iiiuUiplied  by  the  span,  would  BtUi  gire  a  priN 
tlinn  llieroetncieiil;  ibuH, 

84,825  X  15  =  3«»,8ra. 

Tbe  ileflecUaa  wUI  b« 


15X  IS 
JP0X14J4 


=  0.S6  inch. 


V  earh  lientn  ckti  he  foond  hf  AlwlAlag 


i 


280 


STItKNGTjr    OF   MATERIALS. 


THKNTOI^  TKB  BARS. 


Dosicrnatlon  of 
B«r. 


TnMe.       Lej-. 

3"     K  8" 

i"     « B  ' 

1"     xl" 
B"     xSU" 
8"     x«" 
«U"x3" 

a"    »iu" 

IH'xI" 


ApprojdiiiHte  W'elpht.  In  pounds    per^ 
I     yard,  for  eaeb  thfokDeBS  iu  ladies. 


■  18"  28  7  Hw. 
>§"SI.I  •• 
18"  H.7  •• 
13  OB  •• 
B.4  " 
6.8S  " 
4.87  " 
3.80  " 


5 

.%-16' 

5-83" 


S-16" 


b.i 
S.8 

."iS.O 
17.8 


nZK  OF  BEAns,   AND  THI^IR   DISTANCE  APABTi 

Suitable  lor  Floor*  havliiis:  lioadw  per  square 
Ibot  from  100  iba.  to  300  Iba. 

(Nt'W  Jeiwy  Slt»el  unci  liou  Cu.) 


r 


TORSIONAL  STUEifGTH.  28 

VliOOKING  KIATEBIAl,. 


re-proot  flooring,  the  Hpaoe  betwerii  the  Booi-bcain.i  nia.r  be  icpanned 
1  fc  arclies,  or  wllli  bolfow-  brick  iiiiidn  eiipeclallj'  for  tliopui  po!.*',  ihe 
■  ■li  liK'i'er  iJiiiii  iirdliiurv  brick. 
-  Jfcii  of  K"lld   brick  wetKb  about  TO  1I)S.  per  square  fool 
ucrcie  If  v>-llltij<  inalcrial,  niicl  siibRiaiiMal   Hnorn  are  lliu 
r  Kpiin  of  fti'ch,  or  luiicli  grfUU^f  span  if  ihe  ski«w  bucks  at 
ilpe  oroh  are  iiia.le  (l«-ept'i-,  ihf  iis«f  I't  thciircli  btinupi-fifer- 
1111  l/IO  of  Ihe  spati.     Hcilluiv  liricic  for  Hocirx  are  usually  iu 
>ijti[  i^  of  tlie  span,  Hna  are  iiKed  up  to,  and  even  ^'Xceedin^,  spans 
ft.    Tlie  weight  of  the  latter  uiateritil  will  vary  frniii  VO  lbs.  pei 
.  lOt  fur  ij-foot  ^pniib  up  lo  80  lbs.  per  square  fool  for  spailsi  of  10  feet, 
^  <tf  this  ct'Dfttniction  are  eiven  by  tlie  nianiifarttirers.     Foi' 
:  Uoors  the  beams  should  be  »ecurcl;  tied  with  ruda  to  realKt 
- 11  ne. 

loiMwiiitr  cases  the  loadti,  in  oddltion  to  the  weight  of   Ihe  floor 
^y  be  assumed  as: 

Ctrvet  bridges  fur  Kcueral  public  traffic 80  lbs.  persq.  ft, 

BiM'r-i  of  diviilliDgS  , —     40  lbs.        "     " 

-iiurcbee,  ibiiairev,  and  ball-rooms HOIba.       "     " 

liay-lr.rt»     601bs.        "     " 

•tomjfe  of  grain 100  I  Iw,        "     " 

Mrai-ehoiiseii  and  Kt-'ueral  merchandise ^"SO  lbs.       "    " 

raiiorie.s   aOO  10  400  lbs.        "     " 

lurty  inches  deep ]6  lbs.        "     " 

I u  pressure  of  wind SO  1  lis.       "     " 

I.:  I  .      ::ll3    Il;!lb8  percu.  (t. 

jury  ttolld llfl-lUlbs.        "     " 

[iwiue  thirty  potmds  per  square  toot  for  wind  and  snow; 
iigated  iron  laiil  directly  on  the  purlins. . .     37  lbs.  per  eq.  ft. 

»i(?»led  Iron  laid  on  boards 40lb8.        "     " 

nailed  to  luilui  43  lbs.       "     " 

I  nailed  L'n  boards 40  lbs,       "     " 

j>i)  \ffUiw  the  raftem,  the  weight  will  be  about  ten  pounds  per 
laiiditioiml. 

tons  FOR   BKAinS  SUPPORTING  BRICK 
ABCHKN. 

ffsonlal  thrust  of  brick  arches  is  as  follows: 

— —  =  pressure  in  pounds,  per  lineal  foot  of  arch: 

tir=  load  til  puuiids.  per  square  foot; 
M  =  span  of  arch  in  feet; 
R  =  rise  In  Indies. 
|le-roi1a  IU  low  tbrouKb  the  webs  of  the  beams  as  powible  and 
at  tilts  pressure  of  arches  an  obtained  above  will  not  prodncB  fl 
Htliaii  I.S.illii*  lbs.  per  square  iiicb  ot  the  least  section  of  the  bolt, 
TOnsiON.lL  STRENGTH. 
Izonia!  tthaff  nf  diameter  =  rl  be  llx'd  at  one  end,  and  at  the 
e  end.  at  n  ilistnnce  =  I  from  the  flxcd  end.  let  there  Im>  nxe<l  a 
M  lever  ami  with  n  weiicht  =  >* acting  at  a  distance  =  u  from  liie 
be  xbaft  s<j  as  to  twist  it ;  then  fn  =  moment  of  the  applied  force. 

ing  moment  =  twisting  moment  =  — -,  in  which  S=  unit  shearini 

J  =  jiolai*  moment  of  Inertia  of  the  section  with  rcKpeCt  to 
s  distance  of  I ht!   mo.st  remote  fibre  from  the  axis,  in  a  or< 
•  circle  witii  diameter  d, 


4 

>d 

f4 


I 


883  STRENGTH   OF  MATBBIALS. 

For  boUow  sUaf  ts  of  external  dUnieter  d  and  interoal  diameter  di, 


Pa  =  .1968       ^    '  S;         d  = 
a 


For  A  square  whose  side  =  d. 

For  a  rectangle  whose  sides  are  b  and  </, 

l«  18  =0  V  b'  4-  d" 

The  abijvK  Formuto  are  bftHed  on  the  Ruppogitlou  that  tlie  (shearing  i 
aiice  at  any  point  of  the cioss-soction  is  proportional  to  itsdi».tance  frooLi 
iixis;  but  this  la  true  only  wiihin  \\w  elastic  limit.    In  matt-rials  capaMtlj 
(low,  while  iUk  pnrtiL'k's  near  the  axis  are  strnined  within  tho  elagtie  f' ' 
tbo»«:*  HI.  rionie  liistanof  witiiiu  tlge  circiiiiirHrenct^  may  t>e  strained  ne 
tlie  ultiiiitite  r<"si!itance.  so  that  ttie  liilnl  ri?si6t«uct'  is  sonn"thini?  l 
than  ihat  i-akMiIatfl  by  lln-  rorintilo;    (See  TImrsti.n.  "  MatU  of  Kng.J 
II.  p.  liiT.J    SaiTil  Vciiaiil  flnris  for  Hjiiart-  shnfts  fu  =  o.a«Id>.S  (1 
"JIaeh.  and  Mlllwork,"  ji.   WJi.    For  nnrkinK  stieug^Lh,  honever, 
iiiuIh!  may  lie  used,  witli  .S  t«kt*n  at  the  safe  working  iniit  resistance. 

TliH  iiltimalp  toi'siniini  slipnriug  iissintance  S  is  ftlKiiiT  Ihf-  same  a.s  thed 
rect  Rhcarlii^  reslstam*.  and  may  b«  taken  at  SO.OOtI  to  •i'i.iMXi  lbs.  per  squat 
iDL'h  for  (.-a-st  iron,  -tS.OWHIis.  for  wrought  iron,  and  Stl.OOO  to  ISO.OOO  Ibs.fo 
Kteel,  acuoidiiiK  lo  ii.s  carbim  and  temper.  Laif;e  factors  of  »affly  shcnil 
1>H  taken,  especially  \rhen  the  clii'ectloii  i>f  alre^  is  reversetl,  as  in  reverrii^ 
enRine-s.  and  h  lien  the  torsional  stri'ss  i.s  comhiiied  with  other  stresaes, 
lisnnl  in  shafting.     (See  "StjaftiuK.") 

Elastic  BeDliilaiice  to  TorKlan.— I>et  I  -  length  of  bar  belli 
twititeii,  <t  =  diameter,  f—  force  apjilieil  at  the  extremity  of  a  lever  an 
of  length  =  (I,  Pa  =  tw'i.>rtinj;  moment,.  O  =■  tor»ioual  modulus  of  ela-sticitl 
B  =  angle  through  wlitch  the  free  end  of  the  shaft  is  twisted,  measured  ( 
arc  of  radius  -  1. 

Kor  a  cylindrical  shaft 


.      88Ptri  „      «P*il  88       .„.„ 

s=— 5777;         g=  .   ■■  ;  —  =  10.186. 

If  a  =  angle  of  torsion  in  deKrees, 

.       or  ISM  180x8afW       683  6 Pal 


180'  T  ir'rf'G  rf*0      " 

Tlie  value  of  G  is  given  by  different  authorities  OS  from  %  to  S/5  of  S, 
iijodulua  of  elasticity  for  tension. 

COmBINED  STHESSES. 

(From  Merriiuan'B  "  SlreUKth  of  Materiala.") 
Combined  Veniilon  aud   Flexure.— Let  A  =  the  area  of  a  I 

subjei-led  to  both  tension  and  tleiure,  P=  [ensile  stress  applied  at  tbeendt. 
P-t-A=  unit  tensile  strtJSB,  8  =  unit  stress  at  tln-flbre  on  the  tensile  side  tnoa 
retiiote  from  the  neutral  axis,  due  to  flexure  alune,  then  maximum  tentil* 
unit  stre(iJ<=  (f-*- J)+  .■?.  A  l)eam  to  resist  cuinliined  lenHluu  and  fleiui* 
.sliduld  bo  desired  so  that  {P-t-  A)  +  S  shall  not  exceed  the  proper  alio*- 
able  wtirkln?  unit  stress. 

Combined  Comitresaloii  and  Flexure.— If  P-i-.,l=:unlt  ttrat 
dtie  to  compE'esslon  afi-^ne,  and  .^^  =  ^init  coiiipresitive  stress  at  fibre  ntosi 
remote  from  neutral  axis,  due  to  flexure  alone,  then  tuazimum  compreoiN 
unit  stress 

CoMUblii«d  Tension  (or  Comprea.alon'V  khA.  mk«ias.-\l< 


8TRKNOTH  OF  FLAT  PLATES. 


2» 


1 4or  eonipr«w9lon)  unit  atreiw  -  ;>,  applied  shearing  unit  atreaa 
I  from  tlie  coinbiut^d  action  of  tb«  two  fori^ea  ^^1 

Max.  3  =  ±  S  v^  +  Hp'i      MaxliiiUMi  sbearint;  unit  Btresa;  ^H 

K^>  ^  ^  r'  4-  }riif»',  Slaxiiiuini  Itjiislle  (or  compressire)  unit  stress. 
Bed  Plexnre  and  Torsion.— U  S^ereatest  unit  stress 
Rr-xure  alooe,  and  ^'«  =  ereate!<i  toi-sional  sbearinK  unit  stress  due  to 
alone,  tlie^i  for  the  comhiuvd  stresses 

[ax-  tension  or  compression  unit  stress  (  =  US  +  \  St'  +  ^4ti'';         ^H 

Mar.  shear  «  =  ±  i  S.'  +  US'.  ^| 

Mia  for  dJaiiii:>t«r  of  a  round  shaft  subjected  to  transverse  load  while 
iBlDg  m.  Kiveii  liortv-powrr  (iH<e  also  Shafts  uf  Engines): 

^K  „       ]6if   ,    18      /  SP     ,    •102.500,000//'  ^H 

■       '^  =  Tr  +  Tj/-;^  +  — ;ii — •  ■ 

If  :=^  luazliuum  bending  nioiueut  o(  the  transverse  forces  in  pound- 

H  -^  hors^-power  tran>iniitt«d,  n  =  No.  of  revs,  per  minute,  and  t  = 

"  Mp  ttiiisilc  ori-ompre.ssive  working  strenirtb  of  the  u'uteriul. 

'   Compreamlon   and  Torsion.— For  a  veiticai  round 

.     .         .>  load  and  ali>u  iraiitjinitiiug  a.  giveu  Uorse-poMrer,  tbe  resuU- 

Suiu  vuinpreiMive  unit  aiTe.Mu  ^h 

I  /'  is  •,  I \f  load.    From  this  the  diameter  d  may  be  found  when  t  and 

•  re  uiVHIl. 

to  Temperature.— Let  I  =  length  of  a  bar,  .<l  =  its  Fee- 

tM>enii.leMt  .if  linear  eipansicin  for  oni»  degree,  t  =  rise  or 
,emi*»ature  in  decrees.  A' =  modulus  of  elo.stlolfy,  A  the  change  of 
lue  to  the  rise  or  fall  (;  if  the  bar  is  free  to  expand  or  conn-act.  A  ■= 

Itmj  is  held  so  as  to  prevent  Its  eipanalon  or  contraction  Oie  stress 
mI  bv  the  change  of  tem|>erftture  =  S  =  ActE.    The  follmTing  nro 
lavs  of  the  roellieieiits  of  linear expauKiou  for  a  chauge  in  temper- ^^ 
I  degree  Kahrenhelt:  ^H 

For  briclc  and  stone. ...a  =  n.nflOOOGO.  ^H 

Forca»tiroQ    a  =  0  (HliiO(IH2,  ^^^H 

For  wrouehc  iron a  =  0  iiOtiuonT,  ^^^^H 

Forsteel  a  =  O.UOOOO&'i,  ^R^H 

J  due  to  t<"rnperature should  be  addeii  to  or  subtracted  from  the 
C<l  by  other  external  forces  according  as  it  acts  to  increase  or  to 
SXia'liig  strps-^. 

;  will  Ik;  caused  In  a  steel  bar  I  inch  sqnnre  in  area  l)y  a  cliuiige 
ture    of   !*>"   F  f     S  =  A'tE  =  I  X  .OtXXIOlB  y  100  X  ai.iKKI.OtHi  = 

ilu]<|»>-'>e  tlie  liar  is  under  rensirin  i>f  19.51*1  ll)s.  between  ii>rid  aliut- 

)(fore  Lilt-  oliunge  in  teuiperatiire  takes  place,  a  cooling  of  100"  F^ 
ible  the  teiiKion,  and  a  beailug  of  100°  will  reduce  llie  teiisTon  to  xerc 

k       STRENGTH   OF    FLAT  PL.4TE8. 
%r  plate  supported  at  the  edge,  uniformly  loaded,  according  I 
f=6-pP'       «  =  -/-#=         P  =  Tii- 
•  plate  (bced  at  the  edge,  uniformly  loaded, 
aaolni  tha  working  ntrvas;  r,  the  radius  in  Inched'   ' 
c-  sn'l/',  ihe  pressure  In  pounds  per  square  Incb, 


mts4 


8TREK0TH   OF  MATERIALS. 


For  raatbomatlcAl  diacusslon,  see  I^nza,  "  Applied  Mecbftolo*. 

Lanza  gives  tlie  foUowinR  tAble.  usiiii;  a  factoi-  of  tatety  of  8. 

8tr«uglb  uf  cast  iron  sWiiXW.  of  wrought  iron  40,000,  and  of  jt^^l  90, 

I  Supported.  FUced. 

Castlrod f  =  .OJS'SrOr  V'p  f=  .01«.«00r 


Supported. 

Cast  Iron t  =  .OJS'STOr  \'p 

Wrought  Iron t=  OIlTSiOr  t^ 

Steel I  =  .«.«iaS7r  yj, 


t=   OlOMIOr^ 
t  =  .008ia4»r  tj 


For  a  circular  plate  supp»rt<'d  at  the  edge,  and  loa'led  with  (, 
trated  load  P  applied  at  a  cireuinf«r«?u(»  the  radius  of  w  liich  l8  r,: 


b 


/=(iloB^  +  l 


\   P  P 

11^  =  "TJ* 


tot  —=10 


e  = 
t  = 


ao         30        40        BO; 
4.07     5.00      5.53     5.g-J      0.2i; 


cP , 


P  = 


Th«  above  formulie  art>  deducrd  from  theorelical  oot»1di>rath>tit.  tnA  \ 
Iclciiesites  much  prenier  llian  are  Kcnerally  used  In  st- 
lads.  (See  empirical  furiiiiilGe  under  DiiiicusionA  of  r,; 
retlcal  formula?  seem  u.'  be  based  on  iiieorreot  cr 
.„,  but  the vVrr  in  the  direction  of  sofetr. 

The  Strength  of  Unntared  Fiat  SnrDieea.— Roi^rt  Wf 
7iiy"4i,  Sept.  ",'4.  1877)  draws  aiit-uiiuii  10  the  appareiii  discr«|t6i>cy  bdtl 
je  i't-.siilts  of  thpoi¥ticnl  iiivt«.;tlt;a:iniix  and  of  ac'tiuil  experlffleoto M 
:ivut;ib  of  unstayed  Hal  ^urfaoer*  of  boilerplate,  !<iich  as  the  at>i(>|«| 
"owns  of  domes  and  of  vertical  iKiUera.  ~ 

Raiikine's  "Civil  EiiEirieeriDB"  civs  th.   ' 

nf  a  circular  plate  nujti'oiteil  all  round  tl; 

that  "  the  forniula  is  founded  on  a  theory  ■ 

hut  which  nevertheless  may  be  considered  lo  lavoi*.:- 

importance:" 

n-5       /%• 


■penwiir  wnen  mvxea  qy  ma  ■onoa  or  loe  oommvB  ■ena  m  tbv 

[eteam,  ivilj  in  time  rediifp  tlip  thickness  of  tlie  )ilnl<>.  anr]  hi-iiig 
■  ilest  met  ion  of  an  unaiayi-d  eurfaee  nt  n  Tcry  low  pr*«siiif. 
B  flat  platen  coiiinience  to  deHect  at  verj  low  preBsurfB.  tlicy  ahoul'l 
SjseJ  without  slays: but  It  is  Iwttter  to  d(8h  the  plates  when  ihfy  arc 
d  by  flues,  tiilws,  elc. 

B8t  the  conii<\oii(y  aceeptw!  opinion  that  the  limit  of  elasslk-itv 
tv>?r  be  reached  in  testluK  a  l)OiIer  or  other  xtruoture,  tlieyu  »'X|itMi- 
$w  that  flu  oxception  should  be  mtult*  in  th«  cAs^  of  an  uni^tnyed 
Hate  of  a  l«iiler.  which  Bill  be  safer  whpn  it  has  ossumiM  a  peirim- 
that  will  prevent  its  bec.iinin^;  proofed  by  the  continuiil  vfiriaiioii 
Jre  in  working,  Tho  hyflranho  pr«KKtirH  iu  thlw  cflse  sitiiply  dnf^ 
Rid  have  b**en  d'»r)*?  bofort*  the  pinto  was  Hxed,  thur  iH,  di<i)M<fl  It. 
)  exm^rinietits  nliiH-ar  to  show  that  the  mode  of  al(a4^hiiit<  b^' tin  nice 
liiskle  or  outBlde  angle-iron  exerts  an  ifn|)oitant  intluence  on  liie 
i  which  the  plate  is  Ktraiiie<l  by  the  prnnsure. 

le  plate  iasecuieil  to  an  angle  Iron,  the  stretcliinjf  under  pressure  is, 

In  extent.  conceiilrat<^1  at  the  line  of  livet-holes.  and  the  plate  jiar- 

Irr  of  a  l>eirn  xuppoi  teri  than  tixeil  roiiiul  the  edKe.    Itntteml  of  the 

iieri-'ai-inie  ai?  tlie  .'upiurH  of  the  thiirkness.  when  tin'  |ilale  i^aItuehe<l 

lie  iron,  it  is  probable  that  the  stiengih  does  ii"i   inorea.'-e  i-vi-n 

W-  the  thickness,  since  ilie  plute  i^ves  way  sliiipl>'  dy  Ktreli-hlni^  at 

-holes,  and  the  thicker  the  plate,  the  ler^s  unifoiinfy  is  the  slrain 

i"  the  different  layers  of  which  the  plate  may  be  considered  to  be 

I    When  iJie  plate  isfl-^nRed,  the  (taiiije  becoiiies  compressed  by  the 

■sxiiist  Ibe  biidy  "f  the  plate,  and  near  the  rim,  as  shown  by  the 

Exiire,  the  inside  of  tlie  jilate  is  strelchwi  inme  than  the  outside, 

By  be  by  a  kind  of  BhearinR  action  that  the  plate  RiTea  way  along 

rhere  the  crushing  and  streicidiiB  meet. 

p  tests  appear  to  show  thnt  the  rules  deduced  from  the  theoretical 
lion'<  or  Lnni^,  Rankicie,  and  (irasliof  are  not.  conflrnieij  by  experi- 
I  are  theivforc  n^ii  tin>tsvorthy. 

lc«d  Wrousht-Iron  Heads  of  Botlera,  etc.  (T/ie  Loeo- 
bb.  !»Utb.— Few  expel  iiiieiits  have  been  made  on  tlie  strength  of 
I,  and  our  knowle*l^e  of  lliein  conies  lar^-el.v  from  tlieory.  Kxperi- 
re  been  made  on  small  pinles  l-ltJ  of  an  inch  tliick,  yet  I  he  data  so 
tatinot  be  considered  aaiisractc.rj"  wheti  we  consider  the  far  thiclser 
Kare  ui«e<l  In  practice.  aUliongh  th»  results  agreed  well  with  Ran- 
riiiula.  Mr.  Nichols  has  made  experiments  on  larger  heads,  and 
m  he  has  deduired  the  following  rtile:  "  To  find  the  proper  thick- 
[flat  unstayed  head,  multiply  the  area  of  the  head  by  the  pressure 


I   286  STKSNOTB   OF   UATERIALS.  H 

W       3.  Head  86)^  inches  in  diaoieler,  and  9s  ioch  thick.    The  •!«•■ 
r     ioci.es.    Thpu,   Jj  X  4I,«00  X  10=  IBB.OUO.  aud   188,<X)0 -i- Wl  =  »H 
This  head  burst  nt  370  pounds, 
4.  Uenil   'JH^   inolies   in   diameter  aud   1^  li>ch  (hicl(.    The  *rf 

tBijuare    iiicJies;    ihen,    ?»  K  44,M0O  X  10  =  168,000.    and    li«,U»*6t 
pounds.    The  actual  Imrsling-  prenMure  was  900  poiindo. 
In  the  third  experiuieut,  tiie  auioimt  the  plate  bul^'d  under  <l 
premures  was  as  follows : 

At  pouudspersq.  iu....  10        aO         40         80         IJO  140        171 

1       Plate  bulged 1/33     1/16      «        M         M  H         H 

■  The  pressure  wao  now  reduced  to  zero,  "  and  the  end  sprone  kl 

■  irieh.  Ieariuf(  it  wiili  a  peruiaoeut  Ket  ofO'ie  inch.     T)i«  prtsssureol 
H    was  SKaiii  appllxd  on  36  separate  oocasiunii  during  an  interral  of  fit 


I 


the  ImlKing  aud  periiianetit  set  being  noted  on  each  occasion,  but 
any  appreciable  •ii(f>:rpnce  Trom  tlial  noted  above. 

The  exi)erimei]ts  described  were  couflued  to  plates  not  widely  diff 
tlii'ir  iJiraenHJi.utt,  si>  Iliat  Mr.  Nichols's  rule  cannot  be  relied  ufiunfu 
thai  depart  niu*'h  from  the  proportion^  i^iveii  in  the  exaiiiplea 

Thick nem  of  Flat  CaHl-lrou  Platen  to  renlaC  Bai 
PrcHHUreN.  riipi.  J>ilm  Erics.son  i(:iiurch°&  Lite  of  LPicvMiDic 
(oHoivmik  iiili-s:  'Hie  proiK'r  Ihiekniws  of  a  square  cy«sl-lron  plaic  «ll 
taiued  by  ilie  follou  iiiR:  Multiply  tlie  »ide  in  feet  (or  decuuabi  of  a  I 
y^  of  the  pressure  in  pounds  «ncf  divide  by  KiO  times  the  side  iu  tod 
quotient  is  the  !<quiire  of  Ibe  thickness  in  inches. 

Fur  a  circular  pluie,  multiply  ll  -14  of  the  diameter  in  feel  hj  Jd 
preKKure  on  rlie  plate  in  pouftdn.  Divide  by  850  times  1 1  14  of  the  a 
in  invhea.     [Extract  the  square  root.] 

Prof.  Win.  HarlcDeas.  Ktu/g  yew.  Sept.fi,  ISea,  shows  that  theoen 
be  put  tn  a  more  convenient  form,  ibus: 

For  square  plates    T=  0.0040SS  Vp, 
and 

For  circular  plates  T  =  O.OOtNO  i'p. 

«  here  T  —  thickoesK  of  plate,  .9  =  aide  of  the  uniiare,  D  =  diamete 
cin^Ie,  end  p  =  pnwBiire  iu  lbs.  per  tsq.  in.  Prop-ssor  Harknes.  Ii 
douht:^  the  value  of  the  rules,  and  says  that  no  satisfactory  theorBtl« 
tion  luw  yet  been  obtained. 

StrenKtb  of  8t*7«4l  Surlkcei.— A  flat  plate  of  thlckneas  I 
port e.  I  nrtifonnly  liy  stays  whose  distance  from  centre  to  centre  Uo>* 
load  p  Ibx.  |ier  nq'uare  inch.  Each  stay  supporui  pa*  lb*.  Th«  i 
aireaa  on  the  plat«  is 

8  a> 
f~g  ^,p.  lUDwin). 

IfPHEBICAL.  SHELLS  AND  DOITIED  BOILEB-BJ 

To  flud  the  Thlckneoa  of  a  Spherlc«l  Sliell  to  r 
glTen  Preasare.— I^t  '/  =  diameter  in  inches,  aod  p  the  intern 
ure  jTier  .s(|uare  inch.  Tlie  total  nressuie  witicb  tend:^  to  prt^luoa 
arnuitil  the  icreat  circle  will  l>e  yindfp.  I^et  .S  =  safe  tenule  stl 
square  inch,  and  ( the  thiokoe'i-.of  nietHi  in  lache»;  then  Uiemi«laai 
pressure  will  be  wdCS-    Since  the  reoiKlauce  must  be  equal  tu  the  pr 

>.4rfl»n  =  tidtS.    MTbeoce  t  =  ^. 

The  same  rule  is  iiseil  f^r  flndlni;  the  thicknesa  of  a  bemisptieHi 
to  a  cvllnder,  as  of  a  cvllinlrical  iHiiler, 
TttlrknoBit  of  a  Domed  Head  of  a  boiler.—"  «  -  9sf 

stre  '  inch,  iJ  -  diameter  of  the  uiiell  in  i:  '  -  II 

of  r  :<4-t-  .'v  ;  hut  the  thickness  of  a  h-'  'iSI 

"Ii!  ~-  ■  ..il  r=  ptl  •*•  is     Hence  if  vet*  make  i '  *•« 

'■J  hend  e<:2iial  to  the  iliaine'er  of  the  boiler,  n  ■ 

I  of  siinh  a  domed  head  wUl  be  (-.{> 


THICK  CVLINDBRS   DXDER  TKN8IUX. 


387 


in  Sleel  Platlne  dae  to  Walrr-iiroftMro,  u  In 

fvemelxaiiU  Imlklit-mlF  iK>iiiinefriii<i,  Mny '.'■.',  1'  ■ 

.  Yales  lias  inuilu  culcululmiis  of  iLt?  slr«».s*s  !•  plateii 

I  by  external  water- pre«a)ire,  and  arHve«  at  tiic  i...ij\»  ,u^  coii- 

*uiii«!io  Itiehefl  lo  be  the  distance  between  the  frames  or  other  rigid 
JlJorts.  (Uid  let  d  reprwM-nt  the  depth  tii  feet,  l>«low  the  siirfiice  of  the 
ki-r,  of  tliH  plale  ifiider  consideration,  (  =  thiokneaa  of  plate  In  Inches, 
kedcdectiiin  from  a  sii  aight  line  under  pressure  in  inches,  and  P=  utreu 

tquare  bich  of  tsectiou. 

Lr  outer  bottom  and  ballast  tank  plating,  a  =  4.^0  -,  D  should  not  be 

L  2(1  P 

mr  llian  .06  —.  and  —  not  greater  than  3  to  S  tons  ;  w  hU«  for  bulkheads, 

\  t  in  P 

,  n  =  3S.'i3  -    D  should  not  be  greater  than  .1—,  and  —  not  greater  than 

In.   Tu  illustrate  the  application  of  these  formuliQ  the  follow  ln(^  caws 
}f  beou  taken : 


For  Outer  Bottom,  etc- 


kk. 

Depth 

1  of 

helow 

tti«. 

Water. 

k 

ft. 

80 

10 

1 

18 

1 

9 

1 

10 

1 

5 

Tor  Bulkheads,  eUS 


Spacine  of         Thick- 
Frames  should      ness  of 
not  exceed         Plating 


la. 

About  n 

■•  42 

••  18 

"  8B 

"  «0 

"  40 


Depth  of 
Water. 


ft. 
80 
20 
10 
80 
10 
10 


Maxi Ilium  Snac' 

ioR-  iif  Rifild 
Stiffenem. 


io. 
10 

4 

8 
10 

S 
10 


would  appear  that  the  course  which  !<hr>uld  be  followed  In  stjIIeniQg 
heads  la  to  flt  substantially  ri^id  stiiTening  frames  at  comparatively 
liDIervalp.  and  only  wt>rk  »i]cli  light  tingles  between  as  are  necessary 
.  fair  job  of  tlie  biilUhi-ail. 


Mfega 


HOLLOW  CTLINDERS  CNDER  TENSION. 

"  Klasiicity  and  Reaistanoe  of  Materials,"  p.  3C,  giv«s 
t  =  thicknesa;  r  =  interior  rodiua  ; 

(h  ■:-  p\i  1       h  =  maximum  allowable  hoop  tension  at  the 

I  _    )    ~  •  f  ■  interior  of  the  cylinder; 

'      p  =  intensity  of  interior  pressure. 


I  Vh 


UTitnan  gives 


unit  stress  at  inner  edee  of  the  aanulus; 
(  =  thicknesa  ; 


■  =  interior  radiua 
i  =  length. 


r* 


ie  total  stress  over  the  area  2<I  =  2il  ^^^ 

le  total  interior  presstiro  which  tends  to  rupture  the  cylinder  Is  3rl  X  p- 
be  the  unit  pressure,  then  p  =  ——,  from  which  one  of  the  quantltlea 
I  r,  or  f  can  be  found  when  the  other  three  are  given. 


r28S  STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS.  ^ 

In  eq.  (t),  if  <  be  neKleuti^d  >J>  coinpariaoii  wit)i  r.  it  roduoea  UvMj 

DOaS 
ihMH 


.    the  saiue  as  Uie  foriniila  for  thin  cylinders.    If  (  =  r.  It 
onlv  halt  the  resistance  of  the  thin  cjllnder. 

The  fomiulie  eiveii  by  Burr  uud  by  Merrimaii  are  qiiile  ilifl 
be  seen  by  the  folloiviiig  example  :   L'-l  limxliiiiim  unit  xtrt«al 
edge  of  the  aiiiiuliis  =:  8ilO(J  lbs.  pert^quareiiK-b,  i-niliusof  cylinda' 
interior  pressure  =  lUOti  lbs.  per  gquurt-  ineh,    Required  itia  III' 


>-8llO0  -  4000/ 

By  Merriman.  I  =  ^^^  =  i  i»chea. 


JLlmlt  to  rraemi  'rlilc1<nes«  of  Hollow  Oylte4 

Jan.  4.  1WH4».— FnifKS!«)r  Barlow  Inys  down  the  law  ot  the 

of  thick  ovliiiders  n!i  fsllowK  :  T 

"  In  a  homogeneuiis  cyliudi^r,  if  tht!  metal  is  IncompraMlbl*.  UN 
on  every  <:oncenti-ic  layer,  caused  by  lui  iuteroal  pressure,  yuimti 
as  the  Kquare  of  its  distuncu  froni  the  centre.'" 

Suppose  a  iweJre-liich  gun  to  liare  walls  IS  Inches  thicic. 


Pressure  oii  exterior  _  6*   _  ,  .  ,og. 
Pressure  on  interior  ~  *1»  ~ 


nc^i 


I 


So  that  if  the  stress  on  the  iiiteiior  is  13^  tons  per  square  iocj 
on  tlie  HXterior  is  only  I  Ion. 

Let  s  =  the  Klress  :)n  the  inner  layer,  and  *,  Ihuf  at  a  distance «  £ 
axis;  r  =  internal  radius,  R  -  external  radius. 

.      .  ••• 

a,  :  »  :  :  r'  :  a;',    or    !•  =  »  —^. 

The  whole  stress  on  a  section  1  ineh  lon^,  extending  frotn  I 
the  exterior  surfiice,  is  S=  »i-  x  — = — . 
III  a  18-inch  gun,  let  *  =  40  tons,  r  =  B  in.,  i;  =  il  hi. 

S=  40  X  0  X  ^^'  =  ITS  tODB. 

8uppoB«  now  we  go  on  addinK  metal  to  the  run  outside:  then  ff 
eome  so  large  compared  with  r,  that  R  —  r  will  approach  thti  Tilt 

H  —  r 
that  the  fraction  — ^-    lieconies  nearly  unity. 

Hence  for  an  inflnitely  thli'k  cylinder  the  usefal  strength  coul 
excee<l  Sy  (in  this  case  S40  lonsi. 
Barlow's  funnijla  agrees  with  the  one  kItph  hy  Merrlman. 
Another  Ktateiuenl  of  the  gun  problem  la  as  follows :  Using  the 

•  =  40toiis,  «=15iB.,  r  =  6in.,p  =  ^5-^^  =  38#  tons  per  aq.  Ii 

railius  —  ]TS  tons,  the  pressure  to  be  redsted  bv  a  section  1  Inrb  In 
thickness  of  the  kuii  on  iiii«»  side.  Suppose  ttiicicneKii  were  di>ui>led, 

•10  X  50 
f  =  30  in.:  p  =  — — —  =  :]!i%  tons,  or  au  increase  of  only  Ifl  per«a 

For  Rhorl  cnsi'ii-on  cylinders,  Kuch  B«  arc  used  in  liydraullc  pre 

douliifnl  if  till'  nl"iv.'  fniTinilw  liold  true,  slno-  ibi-  sfientih  "(  ihr 
c*l  i>   the  end.     In  th   ■ 

wii  calcuUteii   by   i 

pr-  -   1"  iiml.-.'  11,.-  ll 

Cio  I'd  Nqiiuie  muU.    Xi 

pc  hiver  nf  10,35l>lh».  | 

liici^  ..niii  tieue««ltate  i 


^G-POWER  OF  KAILS,  .Sl'fKES,  AND  SCREWS. 

im  CTLINDEBS  t'NDIiR  TENSION, 

IvorkinK  pressure  hi  lbs.  per  sq.  in.; 
liter  ill  inches; 

ren^  of  the  materiAl,  lbs.  per  iq.  in.; 
tin  iiicbes; 

iwkfety; 

\  at  gtrengtb  of  riveted  joint  to  strength  of  solid  plftt«. 


/  =  6,  «ud  c  =  0.7;  then 


STfe 


t  = 


fpd 
■iTc 


_  HOOOt.      _    dp 

^  ~      d      '  I-IOOO 

>resentii  the  streiiKth  resistioK  rupture  alon^  a  longfludinal 
^stance  to  rupture  in  a  circumfereotial  seAin,  due  to  pressure 

cylinder,  we  have  =  — ~ — ; 

■»  / 

wJieDce  p  =  -TT-. 

of 

I  to  resist  rupture  around  a  circumference  is  twice  as  ^reat 
1  rupture  lont^itudiiially ;  iierce  boilers  are  conimonly  sin^le- 
'  Bumferential  seams  anil  double-riveted  in  tlie  loiiKituUlual 


SOLI^OW  COPPER  BA.LI.8. 

per  ball*  are  used  as  floats  in  boilers  or  tanks,  to  control  feed 
B  valves,  and  reKiilats  tli«  water-level. 

mo  up  ill  halves  from  dheet  copper,  and  a  rib  is  formed  on  one 
lit  rib  the  other  half  Hts,  and  iho  two  are  then  soldered  or 
ier.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  brazing,  a  hole  is  left  on  one  Kide 
fallow  air  to  pa«s  freely  in  or  out;  anri  this  hole  is  made  use  of 

0  secure  the  tloat  to  its  stem.    The  oridlnal  thickness  of  the 

1  anylhInK  up  to  atraut  1-10  of  an  inch,  if  the  splnnlng^  is  done 
he,  thniigh  thicker  inetnl  may  be  used  when  Kpecial  machinery 
ll*  forritini;  it.  In  tlie  proces.**  of  spinning^,  Ihi.*  nit'tal  is  thinned 
jbbvstret*;hine:but  the  thiimest  place  is  neither  at  ilie  equator 
LaloDK  the  rib)  nor  at  the  poles.    The  thinnent  points  li»'alon(; 

!  around  the  ball  parallel  to  the  rib,  one  nn  eacli  side  of  It, 

atf  of  the  way  to  the  potest.     Alonp  these  line-:  llie  thick- 

,1Sl  or  Ji)  per  cent  less  than  elsewhere,  the  reduction  depend 

Ion  the  nlflll  of  the  workman. 

tive  for  October,  1891.  (fives  two  empirical  rnles  for  determin 
■ess  of  a  copper  hall  which  is  to  work  under  an  extoroal 
Hows: 

diameter  In  Inchea  x  pressure  in  pounda  per  sq.  in. 
16.000 


,  _    diameter  X    j^pressure 
1240 

^Te  the  same  refiult  for  a  pressure  of  lOQ  lbs.  only.    Exatnple: 
llckness  of  a  Slnch  copper  ball  to  sustain 

50      100      ISO      1C6      5M0      250  lbs.  per  sq.  In, 

:rule...   .0150  .0312  .0469  .0519  .0625  .O'hl  inch. 
ondrule  .0885  .Wtf!  .OtiH  ,0518  .tt^TO  .0087      " 


In- 
lal 

4 


IG-POWER   OP    NAIIiS,   SPIKES, 
SCREWS. 


AND 


.  W.  Wright,  Western  Society  of  Engineers,  1881.) 
pikes  drlTen  Into  dry  cedar  (cut  18  months): 


Dce  to  drawing.  A  fV(w.  lbs, 
._   .  J  Max.   •' 


B  X  W  In.  gq.  6  X  H  6  X  W  B  Xj 
iii  in.  B  In,      5  In.    Mf 

857  881         IflOl      W 

11.^9  KS        ai39      VIS 

7oa         fee      uao     wi 


390 


STREKGTH   0?  MATERIALS. 


,  M.  WeUiDgton  found  the  force  reqnired  to  draw  spikes  9/1 
'"'i  Incbes  into  seasooed  oak,  to  be  4381  lbs. ;  soine  apika 
ak,  OSSSIbs. 

W.  R.  Jolinson    found  that   a   plain    spike 
r^lrfven  8R^  inclit'S  int,o  seasoned  Jersey  yellow  pint  or  una 
I  re<)ulreil  about  2000  llis.  force  to  extract  it;  from  $«a80ned  ^ 
•4tK)0  aiitl  from  well-seasoned  looust  0000  lbs." 

Experiments  in  Geniinny,  liy  Funl;,  give  frori  0-165  to  3940  Ih 
many  exppriments  alKitit  3«X)0  lbs.)  as  (fie  foice  necessar)'  to  eX 
.  ij-iiich  square  iron  «|iilcr  0  inches    long.  wedKe-poiiil'-.i    f" 
driven  4^  inelies  into  wliito  or  yellow  pine.    When.ir 
retjuired  was  al)out  1/10  parr  greater.    Similar  spiki 
incDes  loDir,  driven  6  iuclies  deep,  required  frnniS'i"' 
them  from  pine;  the  mean  of  tliu  results  being  JSTS  ltj.s.     I/i  aUt 
twioe  as  mucli  force  was  required  to  exiriu^t  them  from  nak. 
werp  all  driven  across  the  grain  of  tlie  wood.    When  driven  wtl 
spikes  or  uallB  do  not  liold  with  more  than  l)olf  as  inucli  force. 

Boards  of  oak  or  pine  nailed  together  by  from  4  to  10  lenpenny  < 
nails  and  then  pulled  apart  in  a  diredion  lengtliwise  uf   ilie  I 
ncrOBS  the  nailH,  tendjag  to  break  tlie  latter  in  two  by  a  shenrtsri 
averaged  about  300  to  400  lbs.  per  nail  to  geparate  tKem,  as  i " 
many  trials. 

Bieaiatance  of  Drlft-1>olta  in  Tliub«r.— Tests  made 
CooUdge,  iu  1878. 

1st  Test.  1  in.  square  iron  drove  30  i 


Sd 
8d 
4tb 
Stb 

etb 

Tth 

8th 


1  in.  round 
1  in.  square 
1  in.  round 
1  in.  round 
1  in.  square 
I  in.  square 
1  in.  round 


»4  " 

13/llHn.    ■■   . 

18  " 

'       IS/lO-lB.    •'   . 

SM  " 

"       ••        "      n/lO-ln.    •'  . 

34  " 

"Norw'y  plne,18/i6-ln.    '•  . 

80  " 

"        "        •'      l.Vie-in.    "  . 

IB  " 

"      J5/I8-ln.    " 

aa  " 

"      IS/lfl-ln.    -  , 

^ 


Kon.— In  test  No.  6  drift-holts  were  not  driven  properly.  holf«B«*l 
in  line,  and  a  piece  of  timber  split  out  in  driving.  ; 

Force  required  to  draw  Screvrs  out  of  Jtor'wm.f  tMm 
U"  diam.  drive  screw  4  in.  in  wood.  Power  required,  •ver«sal 

"       "      4  threads  per  in.  fi  in.  in  wood.       "  "  " 

"  D'blethr'd,3perin.,4in.  in  "  " 
"  "  Lag-screw,  7  per  in.,  IW  ••  "  " 
"       •'           '^       "      6   "    •'  2^  •'    "            •'  "  *■ 

J<  ipcli  RR.  spike 5 

Force  reqnired  to  draiv  Wood  Srrewa  out  of  DrjrWi 

—Tests  made  tiy  Mr.  Bevan.     The  serexvs  ivere  al'oui  two  imb'-*  <n  k" 
.22  diameter  at  the  exterior  of  the  tlireads,    15  dian>eler  n'  ' '  ■■  ''  "  " 
depth  of  the  worm  or  thread  being  .Oyi  Alid  the  nunil*ei 
Ineli  equal  12     They  were  passed  thronirh  pieces  of  woi  ■( 
thickness   ami  drawn  out  by  the  weiglns  stated:   Bi'ech.  . 
Iljs.:  Oftli.  TtVi  lbs.- niihopany,  770  lbs. ;  elm,  (Ttl  llis.;  sycaniii.-    -.i    > 
Tents  of  Lair-screira  In  Tartons  IFooda  were  n.Mif '? 
Cox,  Unlveruity  of  Iowa,  1891: 


Eind  of  Wood. 
Seasoned  white  oitk 


length 
In  Tie. 


Vellow-pins  stick 
White  cedar,  unseasoned 

In  figuring  area  r>r  lag-screws,  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  whiw*"! 
equal  to  that  of  the  screw  wa*  tskeii     The  length  of  the  scivw  | 

aa4im-h"«.-&'n<iii'<-<  '  '  ••■^.'1.  • 

twrnM  Wire  Natl^.  mis  were  made  at  llie  WM 

IWSOPLJI^^  con.;  .el    tensile  adhr»Jon. 

(•'-^■■^  noils.     1  ne  reKultv.  are  Matvd 


DDra-IOWSB  OP  WAOS,  SFIXIB,  AHO  SOBXWB.  291 


■•■HHMorteati,tmpalna(iMfli(aaiitaiMlkwlrauUinMMdi) 
t  amUag  m  total  ot  1180  wdh  drawn.  The  tcato  were  made  Si 
«i  bt  matt  iiiaUncee.  bat  aome  extra  onea  were  made  in  white 
"basnalla."  Ttie nails  were «tf  all  slaea,varTliu(  from  lUiodiea to 
I  Moctb.  In  every  caae  the  cot  naila  showed  the  superior  boIdloK 
TSMi^jpercentaae.  In  spmee,  in  nine  diflereat  slaea  of  naila, 
lihl  and  light  weiKht,  the  ratio  of  tenaci^  of  oat  to  wire  nail 
t tot,  or,  aa  he  terms  it,  " a  superiority  of  47.4Si(  of  the  former.'* 
"-•'^  • — *  nails  the  ratio  was  roog^jr  8.5  to  8;  superloritr  TSX. 


aiUs  (1 J4  to  4  indiee  long)  the  ratio  was  roughly  S  to  d;  superiority 
Mio  superiority  in  spruce  wood  was  H%.  In  white  pine,  out  naUa, 
b  taper  along  the  gnUn,  showed  a  superiority  ot  lOQjf,  and  with 
NthegraiBof  laiw.  Also  when  the  nails  were  driven  in  the  end 
t,  Le.,  along  the  grain,  the  suporiiHlty  of  cut  nails  was  100!(,  or  the 
ittowlrewaaStol.  The  total  of  the  results  showed  the  ratio  of 
be  about  M  to  S  for  the  harder  wood,  and  about  S  to  1  for  the 
for  the  whole  taken  together  the  ratio  was  8.B  to  8,  We  are 
lode  that  under  these  circumstances  the  cut  nail  is  superior  to 
il  in  direct  tensile  holding-power  by  n.M%. 

Rall^oldlBc  Poorer  of  Tarievs  W«o4«. 

(Watertown  Bxi>erimeat8.) 

HokUng.power  per  square  Inch  ot 
>fWood.  SiaeofKan.   Surface  in^  Wood,  lbs. 


8d 

9" 

»" 

60" 

80" 

8" 
10" 
60" 
60" 

8" 
90" 
60" 
60" 
60" 

9" 
SO" 


Wire  NaiL 


107 


818 


MO 


651 


Cut  Nail. 
4S0 
466 

471 
847 
888 

840 

686 

755 

596 

604 
1340 
189-J 
1018 

664 

708 
11T9 
la-.'l 


Mean. 


40S 


668 


1816 


683 


1800 


Nall-lftoldlnc  Povrer  of  Varloas  Wooda. 

F.  W.  Clay's  Ezperimeiits.    Bng^g  News,  Jan.  II,  IH94.) 


Wood. 


Tenacity  ot  6.1   iialls- 


Meaii. 
Ill 
190 
14.3 
360 
820 


le  at  the  University  of  Illinotsfrave  the  resistance  of  a  1-in.  round 
.6-tnch  hole  perpendicular  to  the  grain,  as  600<l  lbs.  jr>er  lin.  ft.  In 
,600  lbs.  in  oak.  Experiments  made  at  the  East  River  Bridge 
nces  of  18,000  and  15,000  lbs.  per  lin.  ft.  for  a  1-iii.  round  rod  In 
n.  and  t4/16-in.  diameter,  respectively,  in  Oeori;ia  pine. 
Holdlmcpow^er  of  Bolts  In  White  Pine. 
(fiip'gr  New*,  September  86, 1891.) 

Round.  Square. 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

aU  pUin  1-ln.  bolts 8884  8200 

allplalnbolta.Ktol)iin 7806  8110 

allbolu .; 8383  8898 

n-bolta  abottld  be  drtvea  In  holes  18/10  of  their  diameter.  9xA 
ialtr tana/at  whose  diameter  Is  14/16  of  the  side  of  the  8q.u«iTe. 


292 


STREXGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


STRENCTH  OF  WBOCGHT  IRON  BOI<' 

i.CoiuputeU  by  A.  F.  Nagle.) 


Olifll 


-.J 

"Co 

?-  ^  = 

3      _• 

Stress  upon  Bolt  upon  BiuU  ot 

■S8 

a   .  )j 

u 

^4 

1^ 

h 

L: 

1^ 

Sc    sg 

Ji 

.  0 

.  0 

il 

i« 

2rra 

if 

if 

pg- 

1? 

lbs. 

IbB. 

lbs. 

ll>B. 

IIml 

4 

IS 

.38 

.12 

351) 

400 

580 

810 

ll«i 

9-18  12 

.44 

.15 

450 

6O0 

750 

lOSO 

IM» 

%  11 

.411 

.19 

580 

750 

930 

1310 

IKO 

94  10 

.m 

.28 

T.V) 

1130 

1410 

ItWO 

S8W 

.71 

.311 

IISO 

1B70 

1970 

2700 

3M0 

8 

,81 

.M 

1550 

2070 

2600 

fWKIO 

5in 

^V£ 

7 

.m 

.ta 

1D50 

8600 

8S50 

4.Vj0 

ffilO 

iC 

1 

1.04 

.84 

KVO 

!tt«0 

4900 

,5W<> 

8414 

It 

e 

i.ia 

1.00 

.'WW 

4000 

.^KiO 

7000 

loom 

1^ 

6 

J. SB 

1.83 

3tiH0 

4910 

6I4U 

8<S00 

lun 

If 

m 

1.85 

1.44 

4:rl00 

57J0 

7IS0 

KWOO 

14W 

If 

5 

1.4S 

1.05 

4a.i0 

flOOO 

8360 

IISOO 

i«i« 

li: 

5 

1.57 

l.W 

.SSW 

T8OO 

9800 

IWIO 

19M« 

a 

*% 

iM 

2.18 

6r,IO 

8720 

10900 

i.'ueo 

gieoD 

SM 

41^ 

1.9i 

a.88 

st;.v) 

11530 

14400 

aoi90 

3m 

•t 

a.  13 

3.5,5 

lOOlO 

14-^00 

irrao 

94830 

«»2 

4 

a. 37 

4.4.S 

I.VJOO 

IVT-a) 

«150 

81000 

^ 

s* 

s^ 

2.ri7 

5.30 

I5n!« 

20770 

2(J000 

siKwn 

s» 

854 

3.CH 

7.!» 

217110 

'-■WW 

.•KiOO 

50700 

'32 

4 

a 

3.50 

9.Q3 

•iStttiO 

ati5uo 

481U0 

67%0 

««MI 

When  it  is  known  what  load  Is  to  be  put  upon  a  bolt,  and  the  Jiid( 
the  f  neine^^r  has  [leterniinefl  what  streas  is  safe  to  put  ujK»n  the  v 
down  in  tlie  proper  coltiniii  nf  said  strrss  until  the  rpf|iiired  loid  ' 
Thf  area  at  thi-  bottom  of  the  thread  will  give  the  eqiilTaJeot  »r««  ( 
bar  to  that  of  thelxilt. 

Effect  of  Initial  Strain  lu  BoUh.-  Suppose  that  bolt! I 
to  cuiiufct  two  puns  of  a  uiaoliiiit'  and  tiiut  tliey  are  boivvtinI  up  Ul 
fore  tlie  effective  load  comes  on  llie  cnrniecled'  partx.  Lei  f,  =  ti 
tension  on  a  bolt  duo  10  screwing  up.  and  I\  ^  ilie  load  aftemrH 
The  greatest  load  may  vary  but  little  from  I',  or  P,,ncconllll| 
former  or  the  latter  is  greater,  or  it  niav  approach  the  value /"i-t 
pending  upon  Ihe  relative  ri;;idiiy  of  the  holts  and  of  the  parU  roi 
iVliere  rinid  llnnues  are  liolled  totretlier,  nieuil  to  metal,  it  i:«  prohi 
the  e.Ylen8lou  of  the  Injlts  wiih  uiij- nddiiioiial  tension  relieve*  Hi 
teuslon,  and  (hat  the  total  tension  is  Pj  or  Z',,  but  inca>i^«M| 
pnoltinir,  as  indla  rubber,  is  inteii)08e<1,  the  extension  of  the  holSH 
little  alTect  the  iniiiul  teuslon,  and  the  total  Ktiaiii  may  be  nearlf  1 
Since  the  latter  assumption  la  more  unfavoralile  to  ifie  rvHUtaM 
holt.lhis  continjjency  sfhould  usually  be  provided  for.  (See  Unwl 
meuts  of  Machine  Design  "  for  demonstraiioii.i 

STAND-PIPES  AND  THEIR  DEHIGK. 

(Freeman  C,  CofHu,  New  F.nglaiid  Water  W.i  .Vf* 

10.  189.1.)    SeeolsopaiHTs  by  A.  H.  Ho«land.  •  1* 

Steiilicci.H,    AiiH-r.  Wafer  W,.i!;s    A'j-oi-,    F.fi  "I 

Ki-' 

181<l 

'1 


"^STAND-PIPES  AKD  THEIR  DESIGN. 


m 


r ..  1. .),  |y  ^^^^  amount  of  lUf  cuusumiKion  iliii  liir 

iIh- Htoiniiiie  niitl  staninp  of  the  piiiii[is.  I 

ijhI.iw  u  point  tliut  will  givf  a  giHxl  tliv  i 

"I   >.iil  fuitlier  ilniiighl  f>ir  liivj!,     Thr  i*ei;niiil  i uii.ii  mi 

uiiiMiin  iiiiiiilw'i'  of  fire  Hiitiaiiis  itiiil  tlieir  niiD  nliicli  It  li*  uoiiutileredl 
e<«iv>"l""^'J<^ '■"'•  ■^I'l  "■**  'iiaxiuiuin  ltm);tli  of  time  «  liifli  llipjarel 
bro  hive  to  run  lirfore  tlie  puiup^  can  lie  reli«ni  iipou  to  rt'lnfori'*  I 

Met  nvinou  for  making  the  diameter  large  is  to  pixfvidu  fur  stability  j 

""  '■  '■  '  ■  *-"ssnr«  when  empty.  I 

ruble  pives  tile  hfig^lit  of  sland-pipea  beyoud  which  they  )tr«' 
wind  pr>"isiireK  of  AO  and  50  llm.  per  squai-p  font.    Tile  urra  J 
.  ■  ..n- 11  is  tilt!  Iieit'lit  niiiltiplit'd  liy  one  lialf  tu^  diaiiK-trr. 

rttht*  of  $»tan<l-plpe  that  will  Kemlmt  Wliid-pressiiro 

rbf  119  Weislit  alone,  vt'licn  Empty. 
iineter,                           Wind.  40  ll>s.      Wind.  !W  lbs. 
feet.                                  per  bo.  ft.  per  no.  ft, 

» 45  85 

» 70  65 

aO IfiO  80 

sis wo 

ire  tli«  above  defrree  of  gtalillity  Iht;  stoJid-piiieii  iniiat  be  designed 

*  outside  anKle-lriin  al  ll>t-  bottom  comirrtlou. 

form  of  miclioraKe  that  drptmds  upiin  foniifclloiiH  wlili  the  sidi 

•ear  tlie  Ijoctoiu  ia  uu^safe.    liy  suitable  cuys  (lit*  wind  ihi^hhiii'u  is  re- 

br  teiiaiuD  in   the  guys,  ami   llie  staiiJ-pip«-   (k  rclli-vi-d   from  wrlnd 

lliitlteiid  to  overthrow  it.    The  K^y^  should  be  nlln(_-lii>d  to  n  band 

»or other  Bliapeil  iron  that  completely  >-neirt'le»  the  (iink,  and  r<»iil9 

woe  iort  of  bracket  or  projwtlon,  and  not  lif  riveted  to  tli"  tank. 

wutd  lj«  anchored  at  a  dlslanoe  from  the  base  equal  to  the  heiiflit  of 

It  at  which  they  are  attached,  If  posHiljlf. 

■t  plan  >»  to  build  the  sltuidpipe  of  Kuch  dluuietf  r  lliat  it  will  i 

H*  it*  own  stability. 

I  Thleknera  of  the  Side  Plates. 

tanmre  on  the  skites  Is  uiitttrard,  and  due  alone  lo  llip  weif^ht  of  the 
»r  pressure  |ier  square  inch,  and  Increases  in  diriM:!  ratio  to  tlie 
lod  aldo  to  the  diuuieler.  The  strain  upon  a  section  1  inch  In  liei»;ht 
wiat  Is  the  total  strain  at  that  point  divided  by  I  vro— for  each  side  is 
d  to  bear  tlie  Htraln  equally.  The  total  preiuture  at  any  point  is 
[the  diameter  in  inches,  multiplietl  by  the  pressure  ner  square  inch, 
^■^  light  al  that  point.    It  may  Imi  ekpresised  as  follows: 

H  =  height  in  feet,  ami  /  =  factor  of  Hafety : 

d  =  diameter  ill  inches; 

p  =  pressure  in  itei.  per  s^piai'e  inch; 
.45M  =  p  for  1  ft.  in  heiRht: 

B  =  tensile  strenitth  of  nialerittl  iier  square  inch; 

T  =  thickneRS  of  pluie. 

|total  strain  on  eacli  side  per  vertical  inch 

.■mff'f  _  pd.  .ti4mf      pdf 

'       2   ~  ~   i  '  21        ~    W 

J  takes/  =  5.  not  counldig  redueiiou  of  streneHi  of  joint.  equW- 
Factaal  factor  of  safety  of  S  if  the  strength  of  the  riveted  joint  la 
Iper  cent  of  that  of  the  phite. 

nouiit  of  tile  wind  Htraiii  ]>er  square  inch  of  metnl  at  any  joint  can 

I  by  the  following  formulii.  in  whicli 

H  =  lieifrht  of  stand-pipe  in  feet  aliove  joint; 

7"=  tJiickness  of  plate  in  inclieR: 
I  «  =  wiiidpi'essnre  per  square  f<Mit: 
|iTr=  wind  preasiire  [M-r  foot  in  beieht  above  joint; 
IW  =  Di>  where  I)  is  the  diameter  in  feet ; 
IjH  =  uveriu'c  )t'rvruitf  or  iwwfiiifnl  iilMiur  ncillral  m\b 
or CHtitnii pofnts  in  fiie  WfL'iniifHrence;  Of, 

I  s  aiaeotiO',  or  .107  times  (ftp  radius  in  f«jot, 


294 


STUKNGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


Theu  the  strain  per  squart!  Inch  of  plate 


oire.  in  ft.  x  wiT 

Mr,  ColTin  gives  a  niiijiber  of  iliaKraniB  UBefui  In  tlie  Jesign  i 
touftln-'i' wilii  li  DuiiilKi-  of  liistaiicfK  of  failures,  with  discussloii 
prcibatile  uuiiKPK. 

Mr.  Kk'r!it<-dN  pniier  twnlaiiis  tlie  foltowi'ng  :  Among  tlie  most  pn 
xcniliiM  a  sliuiii  pipt!  Iiatt  lo  l>e«r  ivie:  lliuC  due  to  itiu  static  pressun 
unEer.  thHt  riiie  to  the  «>%*«^i"turuif3|j  fffect  of  the  wind  on  an  emptj 
pilH'.  and  Ihttt  due  tu  the  LMllup«ing  effect,  on  the  upper  riiigK,oC 
niiid  storms. 

For  thtf  ihlcliiiRiis  ot  m«tal  to  witliscand  safety  the  static  pra 

Wttler,  let  ^1 

(  —  tlticicness  of  i)ie  plate  iron  lu  Inches;  ^H 

U  =  iiei|;hl  of  Ml  and  pipe  in  feet;  ^H 

D  —  diameter  of  stand  pipe  in  feet.  ^H 

Tiien,  asxiiniine  a  tenxiie  atren);fli  of  .18,000  ll>R.  [)er  nquare  Inch,  I 
of  safely  of  -Ji  and  elTleieney  uf  diiiii)le-riveted  iap-joiot  equalitiif  Ad 
Birunpli  of  tlie  Hoild  plate. 


t  =  .000807/  X  D; 


H  = 


10.000t 
A.6D    ' 


which  will  give  safe  heiRlitx  for  thlckneiuies  up  tu  ^  to  ^i  of  an  tnd 
miiiie  fonnuia  nifty  ai.so  applj'  for  greater  iieights  and  ililcl(i>es«s 
praollcal  liiniis,  if  tlie  joint  efficiency  be  increased  by  triple  ri'eliii; 


The  iHimlilinh.s  foi 
stand  pipe  iseinply. 
ForuiiUu  for  nind-pre.'istire  of  SO  pouitdti  per  square  foot,  ubea^^^ 

d  =  difiineler  of  stiitid-pipe  in  tnehen;  ^H| 

X  =  any  unittiown  heigfd  of  sland-pip»;  ^M 

X  =  ♦«!>«</(  -    15.85  \ill. 

Tfie  following  tiiltte  Is  calenluted  by  these  formulie.    The  il«Dd-P 
Intended  to  be  .•»elf-HiiHlalnin^:  that  i<,  without  guys  or  stiffened. 

Helghtii  ol'Staiid-plpea  for  Varloua  DlamelcrtM 
Thick  uesiir»  ol  Plate*. 


TldckneXii  of 

Diumel 

ens  in  Feet.            ^| 

Mate  in  Frac- 
tions uf  an  Inch. 

ft 

as 

00 
TO 
75 
80 
85 

s 
aa 

« 

74 
80 
90 
S5 

• 

60 
TO 

tin 

90 
99 

100 

8 
65 

T5 

85 
95 
lOO 
ilO 
115 

9 

55 
65 
T3 

IK) 
100 
110 

115 
li'. 

130 

10 

so 
m 

TO 

85 
10U 
115 
ISO 
l.» 
135 
iV, 
150 

I<     14 

»5~~ 
SO     40 
65      SO 

TO     00 

85      75 
100      85 
115'  100 
130    110 
145  i  IW 
155    11' 

15  \  ]« 

40  ,... 

1 

S-IB.     

7-88 

4-10 

4»  «"  "n 

TO     «S    »)  J 
80     TS     (»    I 
90     «     n    J 
lOU      »     «!    • 

11'.    u\;    K-    ' 

fi-ltt 

0-l« 

7-18 

8-ie 

»-w 

lO-H. 

11-18 

I«-W 

18-16 

14-1» 

)5-l6 

•'• 

.... 

>•> 

1C5 

16(J 

ic<i 

lft-I» 

... 



.. 

... 



... 

.'-.Jl 

Height!  10  neanmt  5  feet,    nings  are  to  build  5  feet  TertiMtlr. 

T't^Tirrs    -f  "tr^.Tid-plpea  have  been  nunieroi;    '  ; 
III  tAiiiui-s  iiitdiie  of  nine  veni  - 
.  .,     Vcir«    April  ',  13.  IB  (lild  A. 


)UGHT-rBOIir   AXD  STEKL  WATER-PIPES. 


295 


B,  En|rine«rs  Club  of  PlilladelphfB,  itm,  giver  tJ>e  followtng 
tcnvfss  of  plat«!»  for  stand  pipes. 

froii^lit  irim  plfitf  T.  S.  J.M.OiKI  p<iund8  In  (llrcclion  of  fibre,  and 
"  .  aor.irst.-,  tin-  (ibiv.     StreUKlh  of  sinnle  rivetnl  J<ilnt  A  that 
if  dout>li^  riVRiwi  joint.  .7  iliac  of  tbp plate  ;  wind  pressure 
}uare  foot  ;  safety  factor  =  3. 

BRht  ill  feet ;  r  =  outer  radius  In  feet  ;  r'  =  inner  radius) 
!>ure  per  square  Inch  ;  i  =  tliickness  in  IneheD  ;  d  =  ouler 

lied  And  longitudinal  seams  double  lireted 


(  = 


pr  X  n 


hd  _ 
4801' 


48.000  X  -T  X  ^ 
smpty  and  lateral  seams,  iting'le  riveted,  we  have  by  equtiLlng 

';V  =  m  X  0000  ()•«  -  t-")  ■—,  whence  >■*  ~  r'*  =  ^' '' 
kowi-lng  reqalrcd  Thlckneas  of  Bottom  Plate. 


Diuineter. 

Sfeet. 

10  feet. 

I&  feet. 

SO  feet. 

25  feet. 

30  feet. 

If 

t* 

ft 

f. 

/* 

ft 

t  T-W* 

a; 

31-M* 

IS-t5l 

IMM 

23-84 

tlI-64» 

7-S8 

8-3S 

S»-8t 

S7-M 

t  7-at 

ll-04« 

0-la 

sr-64 

1.5-13 

Sl-44 

tl»-»M 

3-11! 

% 

iv:« 

9-16 

*«&4 

7-3!! 
tlWM 

5-ie 

2T-8J 
IS- 32 

]7-a'J 

ar-iM 

H 
45-«4 

t!KMJ4 

7-18 

87-« 

47-IH 

1    3^4 

t3»-64 

n-si 

45-84 

% 

tll-16 

89-«4 

13-16 

1     1-33 

1    7-«3 

«»-lK 

46-V4 

15-10 

1  n-61 

I25-W 

'  nilnlmum  thickness  should  =  3-10", 

-Dimensions  niurlced  +  Uetermincil  by  wind-pressure. 

Fower  at  YonherM,  N.  T.— Thi.s  lower,  wllli  a  n!pe  128  feet 

fi^t  ilinnieier.  is  (li-tii;ril)ed  in  Euainerriui]  Neivf,  Ainy  18,  1892. 

.vu  ../  ii...  iinver  riu^H  is  ll-lti  of  an   incli,  bused  una  t«nsile 

I  square  inch  of  metal,  aliowiifK  d'S  for  the  streugtb 

u  factor  of  safety  uf  »i^  and  addiiit;  a  constant  of 

:  laiiiisli  in  thieltiiess  by  I-IS  Inch  to  the  lost  four 

are  ^4  inch  thirk. 

■i  re<)iiires  nn  ela'*tic  limit  of  at  Ifasi  ."U.OfiO  lbs.  per 

,.....ite  tensile  slreiiKth  of  from  .W.OOO  tn.Ml.tWO  lbs.  per 

an  eloiiKdtlnn  in  H  inches  of  at  least  •A)f,  and  a  reduction  of 
II  Vi%    'I'iiu  inspection  uf  tlic  work  wttfl  made  iiy  the  Pilt.8burR;li 

> 'line  lo  their  report   the  uetiinl  condttitins  de- 

:istic   limit   from   31,0!i0  to  afl.^tf) ;  the  tensile 

the  eloTi(£atinn  in  8  inithes  from  'JS^^  to  .Htt  ; 

...  „.  ..  ;o  TLSas  ;  Ir  plates  out  of  Nl  wern  rejected  iu 


UCBT-TRON   AND  STEEL  W.^TER-PIPES. 

I  Htecl  "Watcr-plpca  iKnuiueninii  Xfim,  Out.  II.  1K9I).  and 
y-"l'liu  n^e  of  riveted  u'ron^ht-irnn   pi|»e  lias  Iteeti   (.•ouiinon  In 
for  many  years,  tlie  larKevt  liein|r  a  'It-incb  conduit  in 
'  works  of  the  Spring  Valley  Wmer  C'o..  i  '  '  ' 
he  uae  of  wroiifcbt  iron  and  steel  pipe 
I  owing  lo  Dje  extremely  high  pressures  I 
taf  UumipartBUon.     Aa  no  ejtajuple  :  Ini 


296 


feTEENGTH   OF   MATEKULfc. 


tho  water  supply  of  Vir^iow  City  and  Gold  Hill,  Vet.,  there  (ri 
1873  an  1  Ij^iiicb  riveted  wrougbt-iron  pipe,  a  purl  of  whicb  to  imdi 
of  ItaOfeet. 

In  lliM  East,  (he  nnwt  important  exaniplf  I'f  fli"  nm'  ..f  rivti'iHt' 
pipe  is  that  of  thf  East  Jersiey  Water  Co..  w  Ih' 
The  cniitract  pmviffecl  for  n  niniiniiiiii  higli  ~ 
lonH  dally.    In  tbiii cuiie  Jl  inUeKOf -IK-lia-li  |>i|i> 
feet  bend.     The  plates  fronj  uiiicli  ilir  pip*-  ir.  ina.!.-  mi  ■- 
by  7  feet  wliie.  opeii-bwirtb  sleel.     Kour  plale^i  are  ii^eii  '■ 
of  pipe  alKiut  'i7  feet  lung.     The  pii*  is  rireled  luutiiiuijiii 
row,  and  at  the  end  j"inls  «itb  a  wiugle  ran  of  livem  <f 
corresponding  to  tl>e  lliiefciiest*  of  the  steel  plaie».     Befi. 
the  tren(!h.  two  of  the  •27-feei  lengllm  are  riveted  tupelle  ' 
Still  further  the  number  of  jointR  to  lie  niaile  in  lie  In  i 
eioatatlon  topive  room  for  joiniiu^.    All  cbap(res<  in  il'-   - 
line  are  mode  by  I(i°  curves  atid  all  ebnnaes  in   line  in 
curven.    T"  lay  on  eiii'ved  lines*  a  »taiidari]  Ijevel  wa»  iiseil.  nfi'l  I'tr 
curves  are  secured    by  varying  the  nuitilier  of  beveleil  joltiU  in 
oeitniii  lenirih  of  pipe. 

The  ihickneji.x  of  the  plates  varies  Willi  the  pres-M" 
nesses  niv  used,  W,  .Vlti,  and  ft^  iiicbeti,  llie  pipe  ii 
havinjf  a  «eij:ld.  at  100,  IW.  uml  2-J5  lbs  per  fo..t.  r.  -\ 
all  the  pipe  was  le^tetl  t"  pressure  lUi  times  Ibat  !•■  "  Ii'  li  n  i"  l' 
Jeeled  wlien  in  ]ibiee. 

nannenniann  Tubem  Tor  BUgh  Premtarea. -.M  Ihe 
inanti  Works  at  Koniotau.  Hiiii^^rt.  mure  ilinn  tjlHi  lutiH  «<r  tA  niilo 
and  4-iiich  liil>e!<  averaKini!  ^i  incli  in  lliicknexs  Imve  lieeii  mk 
tested  to  a  pressure  of  JdOO  llw.  per  sqjiflre  inch.  The.—--  Mib  =  ven 
for  a  bi»!h-pre«<ure  water  mnin  In  a  CbiUaii  nilrMU- 

ThlsBrent  teimile  slreiiKlli  is  pn-l>alily  due  to  il  •  M 

btilD);  iiiiieli  tiiore  niirkeil    Iban  must    metal,  ibe  :  '    K 

BpiraKy,  as  has  been  proved  i'V  mitrfw.ipic  examin  ,ii  in.  "h'l* 
lulies  will  hardly  staml  m.^re  than  'JiXJ  lbs  jierfquiire  iiioli.Bndi<el| 
are  tint  safe  nUive  KXiO  ll».  per  square  iiiih,  the  Maune.^mnnn  t« 
wiilimands  'JOCK)  lbs.  per  t^tjiiare  inch  The  lenKlb  up  I-  whiell 
1m-  readily  made  is  «ho«ru  t>y  Ihe  fact  that  >  coil  of  S-mcb  lube  -0 
w«B  mBdi'  recently. 

For  ileMoription  of  the  process  of  mnkiiiK  Moiines'inaiin  tubv*  • 
A.  1.  M-  K  ,  vol    xix.,  :js<. 

STBENKTH  OF  V.^RIOIS  ITIATFRIALS.     lOCTII 
FRO.H  KIRKALDY  S  TliKTH. 

The  recent  publi<'aii..ii.  in  ii  b.>..k  bv  W.  fJ.  Kiik...l  '•      '    ' ""• 

thotir-and  te»t5  made  tilirinK  a 'piacleiMit  n  eei?liir\ 
kaldy.  ba.s  made  ari  important  eoidrlbiiliun  to  utr 
Ihe  range  of  variatioD  in  gtrenKtli  of  numerous   n.,... 
abstraft  of  these  results  was  piiblMied  in  Ihe  .4iiirric»M, 
and  18.  IfV),  from  whicli  the  fulluuinK  s'ib  fUither  con>i 
taken: 

The  fliinres  for  tensile  end  cijniprefKive  streoctli,  or 
Ihein,  pulllni;  aiel  thrusliuK  sire»<,  are  Kiven  in  poundi*    ' 
ortplnal  sectro#»,  and   for  bending  stren^lh    in  jmiiiv'-  • 
IHUitiilr^  per  my<^<irn<ilh  "-'  founre  ufdeplhr  fur  l.i 
sii|it>Mri<,     The  eoniraeti'iii  i-r  ni>';i  is  eiveu  as  a  i" 
••niage  ill  a  leii;;ib 
i.  .IIS  T.  .'*..  E 
•  nf  tensile  strelii:' 
iiml  I'loiicallon.  H-- 
in.— 4t  tests:  T.  .s.  li.Jfltl  t.i  »-.7tO  poiiiiiis,  i;  vC  Umm 
•UeiiKlb  ranKiiiK  froiu  1S.4C8  to  21,  ST  iKiunda.     Attn 


en  wliii-h  WHS  die  liixhest  In  thrusting  stress  was  aUo  lh>*)ifBb- 
f,  and  sbon-ed  tlie  greatest  deflection,  but  its  t^uaile  mtieiigib 

I'vliiifn  with  the  highest  tensile  Ktrength  had  a  tbnieting  elress  of 

w\  a  t»-iM|(njf  srr.-iif.'-th.  per  Hfy.  of  979  [Duiids  with  0.(1  defleotiixi. 

■       ■"   ■     'va4  also  lowf^t  io  thriistinc^  and  bending,  but 

leii  which  Rave  .31  detlPcUoii  had  T.  S.,  19,188: 

■   .Vll. 

*  ii»iin^  ■  -;   teiinile  Btrengtli,  10,41(1  to  81,1552;  tlinwllnir 

'liliiviif  i  ,  )i.  53.5(K  to  i;i3.0.'JI. 

id^I  Ir-'i  f   IS  pieces  tut  from  chanoi*!   Irons.    T.  9. 

"p    -<iiiurH  tncli;  conir.  of  area  from  3.8  t«  .13.5  <. 

-.'.5  %.    The  fractures  ranged  uU  the  way  from  100  Jf 

lie.    The  hieh'-sl  T.  S..  5iJ.Hl.  with  S.I  J  contr.  and 

t  illliie;  lh«  iowwt  T.  S..  -lO.tWi  with  3.8  cniilr,  and 

illine.    All   the    llbrous  irons,  showed  fruiii  li'.a  to 

.ntr.  aud  T.  S.  from  «,l«i  to  49.lilS.     Thf  llbrous 

'i nil  leii>ilo  strenirih  niid   hiRh  diiotihl.v.     The 

•  T.  8.,  IiirUiwi  to  lone.st.  and  low  diic'ldity. 

.         .     Three  roliel  bura  iVii  inches  diauieier;  ten- 

■  ...-'xl;  iiitlrnale,  ,V)>;ri  i..  .'d,9(K;  contraetion,  44.1 

'  iJ  -1.     Three  liamiiiei-ni  bars,  JW  inches  diameter, 

'dtim.ite,  Wi.HUI  tn  Jfl.'&q:  foiitraol ion. 'JO.?  to  48.5; 

'.  ."  ■ .-.      -.     Fraclures  of  all.  inO  per  cent  fllirous.    lu  Uie  bam- 

imiiiB  l.>i\i-<i  r  !^.  «-«s  accompanied  by  lonest  ductility. 

Ba.ni,  VarluUMi  -Of  a  Im  of  W)  bars  "of  various  siz«>.  some  rolled 

■ -led  itliealiDve  I.oft-moor  liars  included)  the  lowest  T.  S. 

■■^  poiui  U  jier  square  inch,  wan  shown   by  the  Swedinh 

i    inch-s  diameier,    rolled.     It.i  eliu;iic   limit   wu«   10,150 

in  <W.T  J  and    extension    ti'.7f  in   10  inches.     ItwaKaliio 

''  all  ihe  barx  lexied.  and  uas  100 :(  fibrous.    Tlie  hieheigt 

.  with   ela.<lic  liiiiit,  a»,40i>:  contr.,  30.0;  aud  ext..  S4.3)l, 

[•"urn ley  "  ?-inch  bar.  rolled.     It  wa.s  alsfi  100  S  llbrnus. 

V  2.<i  <   contr.,  aud   4.1  f  ext.,  whs  shown   bv  a  3!14-iuch 

tii.>ut  brand      II  ob«i  bad  the  l.iwesL  T.  S..  40. 'iTH  pounds, 

.^tic  liiidt.  aa.TO")  poiuid.s.    Its  fracture  was  ai  S  ciyslal- 

ivo  bars  showiutc  the  lowest  T.  S..  one  wa«  the  most  duc- 

;he  least  dnetlle  in  the  whole  series  of  HO  bai's, 

■"'■'y  is  accouii>anleii  by  low  tensile  strenjtth,  as  iu  th« 

nh-y  b^rri  siiowed  a  coiiibliiaiion  of  hi^h  dnclilitjr 

.«..i.   )  ..i;;las'i«,  Iron.    17teMU:aTer»ge,E.L.,  30,430;  T. 8., 

tr  .  ;tit  ,'):  eir.  it.  in  in.-ht*s.  ■,':'.  R. 

B  Anchor  Voriging*,  Iron.— 4  teals:  arerage,  E.L.,  33,895; 

1.0;  exi.  Ill  HI  ii.chi-s,  a.>i. 

'  iieHe  two  irims  in  contrast  to  show  thedilTcreuce  between 
i.      The  broken  anchor  ninturlal,  he  Mtys,  is  of  a  most 

- I. -NT   mid  a  disif  r.ice  to  any  inannfaclurer. 

*lat«   Clrder, -Tensile  tests  n^  pieces  cut  from  a  riveted  Iron 

r  iweiiiv  ve  UN'  w<rvice  ill  a  railway  brIrtKe.    Top  jilate,  aversBB 

I.     I       .,■.,.,11:   T.  S,  40.H06:  contr    nil;  ext.  in    10  inches,  TjJ. 

I    I  l.'Sts,  E.  L  .  .<ll,aO0:  T  S..  44.W8;  Ciillr  ,  13.3;  oxt. 

liit«,  nveraee  of  3  test;*,  K.  L.,  '-•H.OOO;  T.  S  .  45.009; 

,     .ii-hcs,  Kit.     KractureH  all  tlbniii.s.    The  results  of  30 

liil.'i.'i.t  piirts  of  the  t;irder  prove  that  the  iron  hag  undergone 
i..i-iii^'  iwenty  years  of  use. 

I  -Si.x  plates  1(W  Indies  Iihir,  "J  inches  wide,  thlcknef<.s  varl- 
ch      T.  S  ,  r.:.,485  to  BO.SOB;  E.  I.  ,  89,000  lu  M.-.tlO;  tjontr..  5J.9 

,.  iio  lfl^r. 

Ik«  liink".  -40  links  from  Hamni«-rsiiiitli  Bridge,  1888, 


I 

I 


c 


STREXGTH   OF   IdATERIALS. 


I- 


ATerage  of  all 

Lowest  T.  8 

HiKliest  T.  S.  aud  E.  L. 

Lowest  E.  L 

Ureat««t  Contraction  . 

IreatMit  i:xtensloii... 
raft  Coalr.  and  Ext.. 


67.284 
tO.TH 
7S.Me 
64,044 

68.745 

6e,seo 

69,980 


S8.S94 
M.030 
44.166 
33.441 
88.118 
86.TttS 
S9,01T 


ao.i 
31  .< 

34. T 

sa.8 

40.8 
6.0 


8 

i 


14.11^ 

IS.M 

1«.42 

n.a 

IS.M 
1T.78 
6.63 


;The  ratio  of  elastic  to  ultimate  strcnKtb  rangpd  frotn  ao.6  to  flK.t] 

terage.  &6.9  per  cent. 

Extcuftion  in  lengths  of  100  inches.  At  10.000  lbs.  per  rq.  in..  .0 
mran,  in.'O  inch;  ai  ^.000  \b*  per  »q.  in.  .040  to  .OKI;  mean.  .0^ 
.'W.OOd  lbs.  per  sq  in..  .003  lo.irO;  mean,  .000;  Ret  at  30.000  pountlt  | 
0  to  .0(U;  nieau.  0. 

TJie  lurau  extension  between  10,000  to  80,000  lb«.  per  so  lu  tncr 

larly  at  the  rattf  of  .007  inch  for  each  3000  IIm.  per  so.  In.  incmneiit  <i 
niR  corresponilB  to  a  niudiiliiH  of  elastieiiy  of  2!^,.%.  1,4.'0    T)ip  l>-a«t  I 

[  estcnaioa  for  an  increase  of  loatl  of  '.i>,0Wi  lb«,  per  mj.  In,,   08S  la 

indR  to  a  modulus  of  cla»licit}-  of  SK>,T0!>,'231,  and  the  KfeatesL,  .Q 

n  niiMliihikof  .-ifl.SlS.TSO, 

Steel  Balls.-  Bending  tests.  5  ft^t  between  nipporta.  II  It 

11k  T'.'  |ioiind»  )ier  yard,  i.tii  iiiches  bigh. 

ElaKtic  stress.   Ultimate  Bti-ess.  DefiecllOD  at  60,000 


rounds.  Pounds. 

34,S!oo  fio.seo 

88.000  56.740 

32,783  AO.SOS 

'AH  uncracked  at  8  Inches  deflection. 
Pulling  tests  of  piecex  cut  from  same  rails. 

Ultimate 

Pounds. 

tier  so.  la. 

83.110 

40,900  77,890 


of  rails 

tun  of  rails. 


Elwttic 

Stress. 

per^^in. 


Pounds. 
3.«4lna. 
3.76    " 
3.53    " 

Mean  results. 

Comraction  of 

area  of  frac- 

tur*. 

I9.9!( 

80.9^ 


eel  Tires.— Tensile  tests  of  specimens  cut  from  steel  i 


KkDPp  SntSL.— aae  Testa. 


B.L. 

41,700 


T.  8. 
110,079 
104,112 

90..ia3 


Oontr. 
3I.B 
tt.S 
4iA 


Vicuna,  Sons  &  Co.— TO  Testa. 


T.  8. 

iao.78g 

101,984 
87,697 


CoDtr. 

n.a 

17.6 
«4.7 


oorrMpoDdence  between  Krupp's  aud  Vlckora'  ■ 
*'  and  elastic  limit,  and  thflr  irn-at  dllTeroticv  in  < 
The  fVactures  of  the  Knivv  steel  averaeevl  9t  ^  _ 
uiar;  of  the  Vlclcer  ii««\,  *  v«  ««^^  WW3  .111 vw  < 


EXTRACTS   PROM    KIKKALDY  8  TESTS. 


[XlM.-TenalIe  lests  of  specimHiis  cut  from  8te«l  axles 
rinuT  Shaft  akd  Axlb  Tree  Co.— 1ST  Tests. 
Ext.   Ill 
E.  L.  T.  S.  Contr, 

49,t«0  !«,IIU»  £11 

3U,!!«7  r-J.OW  38.0 

31,800  SI.SW  84.8 

VicKERs,  8o»»  1*  Co.  -l*i  Tests. 


99 


6  ioches. 
ISP 
■.a.6 
8S.8 


E.  L. 

M.SOO 
ST.ttlS 

ao.eso 


T.  s. 

M3.7UI 
70,K2 


Conlr. 
1B.D 
41. « 
4B.0 


Ext    In 

6  iljches. 

13  » 

ar.a 


mmgf  fracture  of  Pnlunt  Shaft  and  Axle  Tree  Co.  steel  was  S-S  jH-r 

Uj,  117  per  cent  ^ranulur. 

Mtfage  fracture  of  Vicken*'  steel  wok  88  per  cvat  «ilky,  K  per  cent 


9  of  specimens  cut  fi-om  locoiiintive  crank  axles. 
VicEKSS'.— 88  Twin,  18;». 

E.  L.                   T.  8.  Cootr. 

26,700                    68,0S7  ^.3 

84,146                    S7,S£2  32.9 

81,T00                  80,195  58.7 

VicwEiia'.-T8  Tests,  1884. 

E.  L.                   T.  S.  Coutr. 

27.000                    64,87:)  27.0 

!83,57S                    69,«>7  S2.7 

17,600                    4>,UI»  3S.0 

FaiBD.  KBfPP,-43  Teatu.  181*8. 


Kxl.    in 
9  iMclieti. 

18.4 

■it.O 

30.2 

Ext.   ill 
5  inchi:«. 

20,8 

■.!5.e 

JJ7.3 


Ext.    iu 
5  Inches. 

.'U3 
3d.6 


I 

■  E.  L.  T.  S.  Contr. 

■  ....  31,050  mi,8e8  48  6 
m-   ...          S9.4M                     61,774  47  7 

^     ...       ai.a.io  M.ira  sc.a 

'1  Propeller  Sliafta.— 'rcOK'li^  teiits  of  pieces  cut  from  two  shafts, 
I'f  (..111  t«.«ls  uauii.  U.aiow  !.liuft,  Whitworth.  T,  8,,  ttl.vtiO;  E.  L„ 
lotlr.,  W.S;  ejct.  In  10  inches,  -JH  6.  Solid  Shaft,  Vii-kers',  T.  8., 
K  U,  aM2.T;  conti- ,  il.4;  ext.  in  10  inches,  30.7. 

lUiiig  tents,  Whitworth.  ultiiiiutu,  56,201;  eluslic,  39.300;  set  at  30,000 
Wpwcenl;  set  at  40,000  lire.,  3.W  per  cent;  set  m  5«,0tiO  lbs.,  3.8V  iwr 

WlnittBsts,  VIcker.V.  iiltimnlc.  4t.lM«;  elastic,  2a,'j!i0;  set  at  30,000  IhS., 
f  wj't;  s.'t  at  lO.OX)  lbs..  4.69  [wr  cent. 

"'"gsuvnxlh  uf  tliB  Wliit«i.itli  tlinft,  mean  of  fmir  ti-sls.  wnn  40,054 
'■"V"""!  iiicii,  or  fi6  3  |ier  ceiii  of  llie  piilline  Htress.     SpeclHc  gravity 

"iiilir.irUi  steel.  7.H«7-.  of  the  Vickeis'.  7.B."itl. 

"•IS  StecL— Unlonipert'M.  fi  lests.  overak'e.  E.  I,.,  07.016:  T.  8., 
.  "u.ii.r .  S7.t;  ext.  iu  10  im  hep.  10.6.  Sprlnir  steel  iiaieiii|iereil.  15 
"«■«««',  E.  L  ,  :».783;  T.  S..  OH.IIH);  conlr..  IS.l ;  ext.  in  U>  liicliea.  '-"O  8, 
t»o  luti  were  shipped  for  the  some  iiuipoBe,  vl».,  railway  earrlaRW 
inn. 
■'  Cagtlnmi.^4  tests,  E.  I.,.,  31.816  lo  S.'i.SflT;  T.  S..  M.OeHtr.  B3,(M0; 

'''Tin  ,.=..M;  ext.,  1.45  to  l.Vl  Kole  the  grent  vnriatioii  in  ductility. 
«lof  111-  hiijli...;!  strength  wns  also  the  iiKwt  thictlle 

'"led  Joint*.  PuilliiK  Tcatn  of  Rlvetcil  Stoci  Platea, 
Trtple  Riveted  Lap  Joiiitf,  iTlaclilHC  Btveted, 
Holea  Drilled. 


»ldth  and  thifltn  .t*.  Itu/ic.s  : 

'■■>"<  .aa      is.ao X  -oi       ji.Ts  x  .Ti 

"sw  .lei-rioaaJ  nn-n  square  inches  : 

iST5  e.ea  o.ies 

auda  : 

833,040  4S3,taO 


12.35  X  1 .01 
12.378 
688,000 


14.00  X  .T 


I 


I 


I 


I 


SOO  STRKXUTB    0)<   MATEIUALS. 

Btress  peir  8«i(iAre  liich  of  gross  area,  joint : 

59.038  M.Vi  46, 178  U,6X 

Stress  per  !>(|iiai'e  iiirli  of  plut<;s,  .soliil  : 

70,703  «5,:juy  ei,(eo  6i,a« 

BnUo  of  sltieugth  of  joint  Ui  tsolUI  plate  : 

8S.-I6  7«.83  78.09  SS.Sd 

Ratio  net  area  of  plate  to  ^oss : 

73.4  tiS.o  6i.7  51.T 

Where  frac lured  : 

plat«  at,  plate  at  plate  at  plate  at 

holes.  holes.  boles.  holes, 

Rlveis,  dijlin«ter,  area  and  nuiiiljer : 

.45,  .159,  'H         M,  .Ss:],  Ul        .9fi,  .708, 18        1.06,  .»16, 12      .Mj 
Rifets,  total  area  : 

3.8ie  C.T4I  8.496  :O.09S 

Strength  of  IVolds.  —Tensile  tests  to  determiDe  ratio  of  atn 

weld  Co  solid  bar. 

Iron  Tn  Babs,— S8  Tests. 

Strength  of  solid  bars  varied  from 43,901  to  SI 

Streiith  of  welded  hars  varied  from  17,616  to4< 

Katiu  of  weld  to  iiolltl  varied  fi'oiu 87.0 

[RON  PiJtTKs.— 7  Tests. 

strength  of  solid  pinle  from 44,861  (of 

Strength  of  welded  iilnte  from  86,44tto9 

Kiilio  of  weld  to  solid 67.T 

CBAtv  Links.— 816  Testa. 

Strength  of  solid  bar  from 40,lStoS 

Btrengaiof  wcldetl  liar  from... 38,575  to  I 

Halio  of  weld  to  solid 7S.I 

iRo.s  Bars.— Hand  and  l!3ectric  Mochloe  Weldeti. 

S3  tests,  solid  iron,  averaffe  6i,*ii 

17     "     cleetri-  weldetl,  tiverage 4(i,H3iS  n 

19      "     band  "  "        4a,tiW 

SrUL  BjtRB  JiJUD  PlJtTKS.— 14  Tcst*. 

strength  of  solid  M.t)l 

Strength  of  n  eld  ffi,aSl 

Ratio  weld  to  solid ,-, Oi.1 

The  ratio  of  weld  to  solid  in  all  the  tests  ranging  from  87.0  to  9&.4 
i/f  the  great  variation  of  workiniinship  in  weldltig. 

Cast  Copper.— 4  tests,  averaj^e,  K.  L.,  fiUOil;  T.  8.,  S4.78t;  ixt 
ex t..,  21.8. 

Copper  Plates.-.Va  rolled.  t!2  texts,  .26  lo.7o  In.  thick:  E.  I. 
IS.eaoi  T.  8,.  ;W.l)iH  Ui  Sl.aSl ;  contr.,  Jil  1  to  57.(1;  pxt..  .Itt.W  to  ^Z 
riation  in  ela^jtic  limit  is  due  to  difTerenee  In  the  heal  ai  which  t 
were  tlnished.  Annealing  reduces  the  T  S.  only  aboni  UK*)  puuiittt 
K.  L.  from  3000  to  7000  pounds. 

Another  sorieii,  .38  to  .M  thick:  US  tests,  T.  S.,  29,0M  to  Sl.UiM;  «( 
to  56.7;  ext.  iu  10  iU(.-Ues,  Sy.l  to  4I.S.  Kote  the  uniformity  t 
»tr>'njttii. 

Draivn  Copper.— 74  tests  (0.S8  to  1.118  inch  dlameler);  T.  Sw, 
^0,"h^T;  contr.,  3;  5t<iei,l:  ext   in  UI  iiuihes.  .i.S  to  4W.V. 

BroMze  from  a  Propeller  Blade.— Means  <if  two  t«ita« 
eentrc  and  rdfie.  Central  portion  i«j),  gr,  H.SJO).  E  1^,  75,^;  T.  • 
contr..  -.Vi  4:  ext.  in  10  inches,  $1.8.  Edge  pon ion  (sp.  gr.  XMi).  X. 
T.  S..  .'Ki.lMIO;  eoiil  r..  37  8;  eJCt.  In  10  inches.  47.». 

Caat  German  81lver.-ia  tests:  E.  U.  la.ioo  to  S9,100: 
40,5)0;  <!ODlr.,3.a  to  31.5;  ext   in  ]0  inch  j,  0.«  to  10.2. 

Thin  Sbeet  Bletal.— Tensile  Strenglli. 


Mvpr,  a  lots 
:"is 


I 


,«lot« _ 

».  leuglhway 4C'U1 

,  oroMsway a0.taB 

4»jm 

'M»¥/»f .....i    mn ^ W>jMi 


r 


EXTRACTS   FBO>I   KlUKALUY  S  TESTS. 


Wire.— Tensile  Streogtb. 
llril»er.5lotg 81.735  (oM,! 

,iiot re.om 

||4nwn,41ot8 ai.intooa.i 

b  driiwn.  »  lut8 Srr.Wr  tn  4(I,4IH 

■giealrd,  3  iQis , :^l,tnu  to  46,210 

■Bother  lot),  4  lots  3S,(KW  to  64,180 

lextftisiOD  36.4  to  0.6f). 

ou 68,S46  to  97,B0e 

lenaioD  15.1  to  O.TK). 

W«    108,374  to  818,8«8 

eeIofSIS,823T.  S.  was  .047  inch  diam.,  and  bad  an  extension  of  only 
eol:  tiiat  of  103.272  T.  8,  was  .107  inch  dlani.  ttiid  had  an  extension 
r  cent.    Oou  lot  uf  .044  iuvti  diam.  bud  3U;,114  T.  S.,  and  S.v!  p«rceu( 

fl'tre  Bopes. 

Selected  Testa  Showiu^  Ran^ti  of  Variation. 


ilMd. 

3:. 

Ml.... 

i 


9d.. 

lUed. 

iiz«d, 

Bd... 

ed-... 


1.1 


p-g 


7.70 

7. a) 

6.3H 
7.10 

O.I* 
II.  1» 

4.9e 
K.3t; 

4.8i 
8.0-% 
3.N1 
a.f: 
4.11 
3.31 
8.02 
S,«K 
2.87 
8.4« 
1.75 
S.iM 
1.78 


M.OO 
.'.3.10 

42.. -X) 

40.40 

10.  as 

•jo.Me 

1H.01 

n.no 

I'. 21 
11.12 
7.27 

5.4a 

s.so 
a.72 

1.65 


StntDcliii. 

=1 

"o£ 

C  es 

or" 

32 

Z:: 

Z^ 

3;:t 

Xi 

a;j 

6 

10 

.1.W3 

7 

I!) 

.1405 

7 

I!t 

.l.'J47 

« 

3(1 

.KOt 

7 

)0 

.vm 

I!) 

.I'jiii 

U 

ao 

.07^8 

fl 

]•.■ 

.not 

0 

7 

.;iili:j 

6 

111 

.n:.vi 

7 

1 

.i2i 

6 

7 

.l*S 

6 

r.' 

.0«l 

C 

12 

.Otis 

« 

7 

.10.1 

6 

U 

mKVi 

« 

I J 

.O.i(iO 

<t 

lU 

-0472 

6 

.(Wl!) 

0 

Ikl 

.(W7>i 

6 

1-J 

ii;iOo 

Hemp  Core. 


Main 
Main  and  Strands 

Wire  Cure 

Moid  niid.Sirauds 

Wire  Core 

Wirw  Core 

Main  liud  Scranili) 

Sluiu  Hiid  Strands 

Muin 

Main 

Wire  Cure 

MulM 

Mnin  und  ^st^ft^^ls 

Main  and  Kirauds 

Mil  In 
Muln  nn'1  Sironils 
Mum  nrid  Strands 
Main  anil  ^trujids 

Main 

Miiin  and  Strands 

Miiin 


30i_ 

08,B78T 


I 


2  M   • 

III 


830,780 

314,880 

205.920 

272,750 

268,470 

221.820 

190.890 

l*>,5fi0 

12fl,7I0 

110,180 

101, 440 

98,870 

73,110 

».0D5 

49,SSS 

41.a06 

3^,SS5 

2«,075 

•i\.5sa 

90,416 
14,tiS4 


>p«ii,  Untarred.— IS  teMn  of  ropm  from  1.E3  tii  0.90  iuoliea 
>,  weifccliin*;  0.42  to  7.77  ijouiids  |ier  fallioiu,  sliowed  an  uUim- 
I  of  frini  1070  to  ;W.W«  ponnd.s,  tlie  stronglb  per  falboni  wi^JKbt 
Bi  a«72  to  r>.'>31  pnnnilK. 

topea,  Tarred, -IS  lesl.«  of  ropes  from  1.44  to  7.12  inchea 
ce.  Wfiiihing  from  0.38  to  10.38  pounds  jwr  fiitbom,  Hhowed  an 
.  enjftli  of  from  UIIO  10  3I..VI!!  jM.iin.is,  the  strength  per  fathom 
^Injy  from  1767  lo  51411  pounds. 

DBopen.— 5  riipes.  2.48  to  CM  inolie.'»eircninffrencis,  1,09  to  8,17 
}  rallioiii.    StreiiKtb  S0H9  to  a3,2,TS  pounds,  or  2474  to  3340  iiounds 

WelKllt. 

ItopcB.^Js  tents;  1. 10  10  8.90  ini-lies  ciivumfereiice,  0.20  to 
(XT  fuilioni.     Strength  ViiO  to  Oa.a.'iO  pouudD,  or  3003  to  7.WI 
jin  weight. 


I 

I 

1 
I 


303 


STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


t 


I 


I 


Belting, 

No.  of 
lots. 

11  Leather,  single,  ordinary  tanned 

4  Leather,  single,  Helvc-tia .,. 

7  Leather,  rtoiihle.  nrJinary  tanned ■ 

8  Ltfathi^r,  duublo  Helvetia 

6  Cott<in,  soUd  woven .,.». 

14  Cotton,  foldeJ,  stitch«d   ...4 

I  Flax,  aollJ,  woven .. 

1  Flax,  folile<).  stitched 

6  Hair,  solid,  woven  ...   

U  Rubber,  solidi  woven     

Oanvaa.— 3.b  lots:  Strength,  lengthwise,  113  to  406  pounils  pr 
orosBways.  191  to  46S  voiinds  per  Inch. 

The  grade.i  are  niiiiiiifi-eil  1  to  0.  liut  the  welglita  are  not  gives, 
Btrcnsftlis  viiry  eonstilprubly.  pven  in  the  liame  uuniher. 

fflCarblen.— tYiishiiie  sttri'iiECh  of  varioiw  marhli.'s.  88  te«tl^  ( I 
SiW'Ciuien-^  were  C-iiich  eubey,  or  eoluiuu^  4  to  0  inclivH  dlauieter,  ull 

12  Inches  hi^h.     Range  T54v!  10  ViJM  ponnds  per  square  inch. 
GraQlte.-  Crnsiiiuii;  strength,  1"  h-sis;  square  oohinins  4X1  »aH 

4   to  'ii  inolii-s  hlt;)i,  3  kinds.    Crushing  Hlrengtb   ran|;es  10,081)  U  I 
poiiudR  per  sqniire  inL'h.    (Very  uniform.) 

Stones.— <  I'roUably  samUtone,  loeal  names  only  given  )  II  UM 
tests.  6x6,  coUimnfl  Vi,  18  and  'J4  iiii-he.s  high.  Cru,-<hlng  .strenirtb  B 
from  2105  to  I8,rJ2.  The  strenKth  of  the  coliitiin  84  inches  long  it  t*" 
from  10  to  MO  [wr  cent  less  lliun  that  of  the  6-iuch  cube. 

8lone».— (ITobably  suiidstoiiei  tested  for  London  lE  Nurihivrstrin 
way      18  lots,  3  to  6  learn  in  a  lot.     Mean  results  of  each 
87S5  to  11.1)58  poiuiiis     The  variutioii  is  chiefly  due  to  the  s'. 
different  lot.n.    Tlie  dlffereni  Kpeclmeus  in  each  lot  gave  ri  - 
erally  agreed  within  ;J0  per  cent. 

BrlctcH. -Crn.xhing  Ktrength,  8  lots;  6  tests  in  each  lot:  ni«a  V 
ranged  from  18;i5  to  9209  pounds  per  square  inch.    The  maxlmnffll 
in  the  specimens  of  one  luc  was  over  lUO  per  cent  of  tiie  lowecL 
nnlforni  lot  the  vaiiallou  was  let^a  than  20  per  cent. 

Wood.— Transverse  and  Thrusting  Tests. 


Pitch  pine... 
Dantdo  fir... 
EugliAh  oak. . 


American  white 
oak    


Sizes  abt.  in 
sqiinre. 


11HI0  12H 

IS    tola 
4>4x  la 


Span, 
Inches. 


144 
144 
I'JO 
ISO 


DItimBte 
Stress. 


Demerara  greeiiheart,  D  tests  Ithtustinj;) 'l^S 

Oregon  pine,  3  teHl<s M^^ 

Houiluras  mahogany,  t  tetst ...,.,,. —    "* 

T'<baN(;o  maliogiiny,  1  test --^ 

S'oi'Way  spruce. 'J  irstd MB^j 

Iraerlcan  yellow  pine,  8  teste SC^B 

Cnglistb  a.<ih,  1  teat  ' 

.-rr^i-nl, -(Austrian.)    Cr08S-«Mt,tCkns  of  spedMf^ 
■/i/.v ;  cubea,  3x8  iitches  tot  VbtvoMikCX   " 


IBCBLtAXEOUS  TESTS  OP  MATEBIALS. 


303 


er  impc'riAl  bushel :  residue,  0.7  per  cent  with  steve  3M0  iHMha 
ijch;  38  8  per  cent,  by  VQlumt!  of  water  required  for  miztng;  Hint, 
dity^;  10  t«fsts  to  each  lot.    The  iiieao  results  Id  lbs.  per  Kq.  In., 

1  C«>tnent,        1  Omeni, 

3  Sand,  4  8aod, 

Thrusting.       Tbniatloe,] 

407  «8 

4W  2?5 

.^94  S8S 

Id  0«ment.  —Various  gamplee  pulliag  tests,  3  X  2^  lucbes 

n,  all  a^^d  10  days,  160  t«ats;  ranges 87  to  64ii  pounds  per  square 


Oment 

Cement 

1  Cement, 

alone. 

alone. 

2  Sand, 

PuIUqk. 

TliniRliiig. 

Tlirustlng. 

376 

IIOIO 

893 

4>» 

3343 

1023 

451 

•■J734 

lira 

TENSILE  STBENGTK  OF   WIRE. 

(EYoiu  J.  Buckiiall  Siuitli'!)  Trealiiie  uii  Wire  ) 

TouH  per  sq. 

.In,  isectioiial 


area. 

aled  iron  wire —         i5 

Irirawn S5 

Heelwire. 40 

KH-Mariin  steel  wire 60 

iditio  (or '■  intiproved  ") 80 

l-steel  "improved  "  wire 100 

'cast-steel  "plouith" ISO 

.oalltiesof  tempered  and  improved  casc- 
*1  wirrmay  attain l-V)  to  ITO     330.000  to  3S0,900 

:LL,«NE017S    tests    op    in.\TERl.\IiS. 

I  of  Work  of  (he  Waterlown  TeNlliig-inachlne  tit 
1883* 

i  OF  RIVETED  JOIST.S,   IRON  AND  STEEL  PLATKS, 


Pouuds  per 

*q.  ill.  see- 

tluonl  area. 

6<i,0<W 

7H.lrtl 

89.«lK) 

l94,(Hil.i 

17«.«I0 

£24,000 

888.600 


% 

ll 

-i 

6 

J^S^S  ?-  5 

if"5ii^ 

£§■2 

w 

i 

^T¥ 

^ 

"iojT 

« 

m 

3fl,.'IOO 

47,lfiO 

47.0  t 

mi 

6 

4I.O0O 

47,1H0 

49  Oi 

■,P 

13-18 

10 

h 

s 

8.'..6M 

44,615 

45.6  1 

18-16 

10 

^ 

8 

S5,1.W 

44.fil5 

44.0  t 

■  iHo 

U 

10 

.1 

8 

4«,:Min 

47,180 

5tl.O  8 

■  i;" 

10 

6 

3 

48  875 

47.1  HO 

no. 5  ( 

"i 

1^18 

10 

5 

S 

40,41)0 

44,«15 

50.4  i 

13-18 

10 

5 

8 

46,140 

44,615 

09.3  S 

1  1-16 

s 

4 

■^ 

44,300 

44,(a5 

57.3  i 

1  1-16 

4 

3^ 

43,a'i0 

44.M5 

M  0  i 

I  3-16 

i 

*)  0 

4S.:tlO 

4l)..'i»0 

52.1  i 

1  3-10 

ii.g 

4 

%.^ 

41, 090 

4^i,.^90 

51.7  t 

18-18 

lOU 
101,1 

g 

m 

01,270 

53.330 

59.5  t 

59  1  i 
40.2  i 

13-10 

0 

m. 

60.«30 

53,330 

1 

10 

6 

2  ' 

47..'>.S0 

57,315 

1 

10 

5 

% 

49.810 

57.316 

43  8  ; 

^ 

10 

fi 

3 

ua,':7rt 

5.3,3-10 

71.7  t 

10 

8 

2 

ei.aio 

Wl.»:til 

6(1. B  1 

^^B^'IO 

1 

10 

B 

U 

6!*,«S0 

.'.7.3 1 5 

IS7  1  ^ 

^E'^ift 

I 

10 

5 

S 

6«.7l0    ,  h-.'nh 

Bft.O  f 

^B 

13-16 

»H 

4 

-^ 

62.  ISO       W.44S 

68.4  1 

K^ 

1  1-16 

B^ 

4 

<j!l2 

«a..'.90       53.415 

03  8  i 

1  8-16 

10 

4 

^^ 

.M.ftW        51, BIS 

]  S-»« 

10 

4 

ais 

.M.SlX)       f.l,&«k 

yftii 

I 

I 


i 


faced. 


i  iMp-joiat, 


I  Buit-I 


^04 


STBENGTH   O?   MATERIALS. 


Ttie  eCacleuoj'  of  the  joints  l8  touni  by  Jlvlilittg  tlie  maxliL, 
rtiAs  on  tlie  gross  sectlODOl  area  of  plate  by  the  tensile  itnutM 
aterlal. 

COMPRESSION  TESTS  OF  8  X  3  INCH  WROCGHT-IRON 


1 


tiOliKth,  inches. 


au  .. 
80... 

MO.. 

150... 

180... 


Tested  with  Two  Pin  Ends,  Pins 
I^  inch  in  Diameter. 


Ultimate  Com- 
pressive StrenKth 
poiiuds  pf<r  sqimri' 
ineb. 


■(  31 .9iKI 
I  2U,3I0 
1  2t;,6« 
I  •.;4.0:JO 

■|  a>,aiH) 

( )0,.ViO 
■(  !7,S40 
(  13,010 
1  I5,T(» 


Tested  with  Two 

Flat  Ends,  Ulri- 

mnte  CoinprffW-jvp 

Strength,  pounds 

per  ftt'jiiarw  inoli. 


iao.T8o 

"I  2,'^.580 
J  23.010 
|£i,46U 


Te»t»^  wB¥b 

Flar    ■  ■  " 


St  I 
per 


■fii:;iri.  t"^ 

r  square  UH 
^ 


tJlt.  Coinp.fi 
per  gq.  la.,  u 


Tested  n-lth  two  pin- 
ends.  L«netliof  oars 
120  Inches. 


TENSILE  TEST  OF  BIX  STEEL  ETE-BARS. 

COIIPAREO  WITB  SMAIX  TE8T  INOOT8. 

The  steel  was  made  by  thf  Cainbria  Iitjn  Company,  and  the  ere  , 
Bade  by  Keystone  llridge  LViinpaiiy  by  upseltioK  mid  hnmiiierinff.^ 
aiis  were  niadu  from  one  lni;ot.    Two  Kwi  pii'i-es,  *^-lneli  round,  ro' 
I  test-iui;cit ,  gave  (.'loKi ic  ilinit  4t),(M0  and  4J,'J10  ixiiiiids:  l«nHile 
1,150  and  69,470  pounds,  iind  elnnputlon  in  8  incUes.  v*.'  4  ..  i..i  v.  « 
Bspectively.    The  ingot  from  which  the  eye-bars  Wt-r. 
juare,  rolled  to  billet,  7x8  inches.   The  eye-bars  weri- 
Jnemical  tests  gave  carbon  .07  to  .30;  mauKanese,  .61  ;.    ..., 
.Vii  to  .09«. 


Oauged 
Length, 
Inchea. 

160 

180 

too 

iMO 

8U0 

aoo 

seoo 


Elastic 

limit,  Ibti. 

per  sq.  In. 

3T,4i« 

38,650 

«T',fl66 

a's.Bio 

33,-J30 
37,tH0 


Tensile 
Strength  per 
aq.  ill.,  Ib«. 
67,800 
61,000 
71,560 
08,780 
65,890 
64,410 
68,890 


(TT»e  average  tensile  strength  of  Ibejl^-inch  test  pieces  «asTI,ai6j 
lli»>  eye-ltaro  BT  WM)  Uh  ,  a  deereane  of  5.7si.    The  arcnure  em* 

'■'•'!     '"  ".'Mbs,  ihjit  of  the  eye-lwrs 36,108  fts.,  »< 

r  the  test  pieces  was  <ii.i%  of  llto  tUtll 
-of  ib«  uliimate  strengUi. 


MlSCELtANKOrS   TESTS  OP   MATKKULS. 


aON  OF   WROUOHT-IRON  COLUMNS.   LATTICKU  BOX 
AXD  SOLID  WKb. 


ALt.  TBSTCD  WITH  PIN  EK08. 


I 


Ojluiiins  made  of 


kdiaoDel,  solid  web. 


k 


BeU,  with  &-I6-in.  coiillniious 


ir+i  cotilinuous  jilatrtt  and  biirIos. 
-s,  la  in.,  I  ID.  anil  7.3.1  iii- 
.(•>ns  plates  »ud  augles. 

.-.  ,Je 

ilmuiiHis  Imticed 


HiHfk,  lattiued.sweiltid  sides. 


iciwnnels,  lalticed,  swelled  sides. 

«*  ■*  u  It 

lb€ih*Boel8.  latticed  one  side;  con- 

HM  plBle  one  ftide 

:b  cTiatiOpI^,  latticed  one  side;  uon- 
>!»  filatg  ooe  »lde 


10.0 
15  0 
20.0 
•30.0 

ac,8 

SC.H 

26.8 

13. a 

20  0 

a«.8 
la  4 

•XI  0 

■x.s 
168 
25.0 
16.7 
86.0 

25.0 

SS.O 


c  a 
P 


^   - 
—  --  aD 

fe  =  o 

1^' 


n.881 

t».9rr 
».7(e 
i6.sai 

1«.H1 

]9.in 

I6.1C8 
20  054 
TtHI 

7,oe4 

T.517 
7.702 
11.941 
19  17.^ 
l-4..V,fl 

ii.tni! 
\'Mi 
17.W1 


4»! 

»M 

753 

l.SOO 

1,840 
1,765 

2,iM8 
67B 
934 

l.SOO 
684 

rat 

I.S80 

1.470 
1.IK0 
1,.MD 
1,90S 

Lsar 


,  ?.a 


2e,ifit) 


'  t;nivlty  of  uliaunel  bars  atid  coiilluuous  plate,  I.< 

'^^  of  chHDiiel  bArs. 
iiUt*  of  gravity  of  cUaiine]  bars. 

EKFECrr  OF   C0I,1>-DR.\WIXG  ON   STEEL. 

silu  bars  nnd  two  compresHioii  bars,  out  from  Itit*  same  bar 
bI,  from  the  Norway  Steel  nod  Iron  Cooipauy: 


TeDRlle 
RtrL'HKlh  per 
s<|.  lu.,  lbs. 
i  orijTlnal  hot-rolled  bar.  lengtli 
.  dlaiiivler  3.03  inches.    UaiiRed 

llnches 65.400 

.1  IK  ...iiiifirfuvin^ilipsfone 

t  li  ail  incbea.       70.4i)0 
>n  clit'Rtone 

_  ..  .-..^iUiOiucUes.       Sl.SdO 

C<MTiprp«8.     Amount 
8tr«-»8.  lbs.    of  Coiii- 
per  Hq.  iu.  pr»iis..  In. 
\  test  of  cold-drawD  bar  (game 
Irf-UKth  4  lochesi,  iliaiiii'tiT 

, 7B.nOO  .0508 

tft»No.  4...,...,  .^...  ;5,000  .OiTB 


Elougo- 

tion. 
p*r  cent 


ihc'th  had  iUiimetei^  k 
>  1.813  tnvbeK 


■ifiiavil  la  (lie  Middle  to 


306 


8TRKKGTU   OF   MATEBIALa 


TESTS  OF  A3IEIUCAN  WOODS.    (Bee  also  pa 

In  all  cases  a  Inr^  iiuntbvr  nf  t«st3  w«re  made  of  each  ' 

and  maximum  results  only  are  (tiveii.     All  of  ill*  test  speci 

tlooal  area  of  1.57a  X  l.STA  inclic"^.    The  irtitisvt^rse  test  Kpe< 

inches  between  supportx.  iiiici  the  coinprePKire  teRt  npec 

incites  long'.    Modulus  of  njpture  caicitlated  from  formul 
load  III  pounds  at  tbe  middle,  I  =  lengtli  in  inches,  b  =  bre 


Name  of  Wood. 


Trfttisve  rse  Tests.!] 
Modulus  of 
Rupture. 


Mtn. 


Oiieumbftrtre«(ilf<ion(ilra  acuininata)..\ 
Yellow  poplar  wlilta   wood  {L,irioden-\ 

ilfiiK  lulipi/eray  I 

Wliit»    wood,    Bassuood   {Tilla  Ameri- 

v(ina) I 

SuKai'-niaple,    Kock-maple   (Acer  me- 

viini'iiiHi}^ -.j 

R<»  I  maple  (/Icernttriini)  

IjiCust  (i?i)iini«  psrtidti/rdcia) ] 

Wild  cherry  (/Vikiiui  iwrotina) , 

Swuet  Kum  (Liquidainbnr »tl/raciflua) . .] 

Ikigivood  iCornti3jlorida) 

Souricuni.  Peuperidf;e  {yi/fsa  ipltxtllcai., 
IVrsimmoii  {uioipyroa  Virginiana).  ...\ 

White  ash  < Fraxunii  Americana) 

Sasiuf ras {Sassafras  offlciniile) 

Slippery  elm  (t'/miui/uiua) 

White  elm  ([7/»ii(ji  Americatia)..  

Hyuamoru;  liutlouwood  (.Plat anus oeet' 

tteiitiiUa).,.. 

Butteruut;    white  walnut    (Juglafi*  ci- 

ueieai 

Blai:k  wAlniiUJuqlatis  nigra) 

Bliellbark  hickory  ^Carya  alba) 

Pleiuit  (C(iiv/i(  ijinrina) 

While  <>al(  {Qiifrciu  ulhn) 

Hed  oak  (yHtrciis  itibivi) 

Bliick  oak  {Querru-i  tinelorin) 

ClfSLiiut  (CViJi(riii«ii  vutgiiiit) 

\i»xb(}>iign» /rrrHijinf  ii) 

Ciiiiou-bircli,  paper-birch  iBetula papff- 

I'aetti] ... 

C'ottoiiwo<Kl  ( Piiimlnn  mnniUfern). . . 
White  eedar  ( T/i iy"<i  oceiitenlalis).   . . 
Ited  cedar  iJunifyrrns  Virginiatui}. 
Cvprens  iHnxttitiuiti  DM i chum),,.... , 

White  piiiH  O'iiiHH  strubuji) 

Spruce  pine  ( Pinuti  yliibra)., 

li'iiitr-lenved  pine,  Southern  pine  (i^iiua 

ttttlnairU)     

White  sprupe  iPicen  alba' 

Hemlock  {Ttnya  CnnadentU) 

Red  flr,  yellow  fir  (Paeudotmga  Doitg- 

Uuii) 

Tamarack  (Larix  Americana')  


7,i« 
6,500 
6,780 

e.<ao 

8,610 
12,«» 
8,3IU 
7.4T0 
10,190 
9.830 
10,91110 
S.6S0 
6,180 

io.iao 

B,8S0 
6,780 

4.700 

8,<00 

H.8ro 

7,010 
0.780 
7,BO0 
5,0.-)O 
l!i,8.V) 

11,710 
8,890 
6,HI0 
5,040 
9.580 
5.610 
8,780 

9,a!» 
8,900 
7,590 

8,eaft 

10,060 


Max. 


18,050 
ll.TM 

ii,sao 

13,450 
81,730 
16,800 
11,130 
l<l.a60 

i4.sao 

18,»W 
15,B0D 
10,150 
13.958 
15,070 

11,S«) 

11.740 

i6..iaa 

90,710 
19.430 
16,«I0 
18.870 
18.4S0 
13.870 
18,S40 

17.610 
13.430 
9.590 
1B,100 
10.080 
ll,.t30 
10,II«0 

21,060 
11,660 
14,6flO 

17,990 
16.770 


H.  V.  iMsa  In  American  Engineer  and  RiiiilTo<id  Ji)Uii\^ 

JSOa,  JeacrilxiB  an  extensive  series  ot  expeT\nw.nV*  ou« 

»oa  Bteel  bHra  in  sheari  ng  inachiiiea .    Some  ol  XVa  x«iN« 


CHAINS. 


30( 


ntmn  nt  pi>int  of  marimtim  resistaooe  for  aotl  sCe«l  b4  _ 
lit  T»ri«8  with  the  thickness.  If  cf  =  <if\tlU  ot 
d  =  .3/  for  a  Hut  knife,  ei  =  .25  f  for  •  f  Iwri-I 

-=  bevel  knife.    Theulrlmati?  p"  r  inch 

!  Iiroxiniatfly  50,000  Ibfi  X  <.  -oo- 

■li  width  of  st«?el  bare  is,  a|  ,  •  :    I" 

-■-w.  ]»i".  a;*):  IJs".  *S00;  the  •■u<      ■  ■  ■.-!!'« 

the  Utlckness.    Iron  auKles  feiiiui.-    n.         ■  ".•  n.'v 

he  Minio  ste«;  steel  breaks  while  u    i     :   .-   '      '• 

1   siefl  the  resistance  per  gquaif  ii^cli  iw    n-cmu- 

iin  110(1  lbs.  to  'JO.SOO  Ihs.,  dfiwndinic  partly  iin<io  iijt 

,    '11  the  sine  of  its  cross-area,  which  latter  element 

mil  iiiillcat*«  the  temperature,  as  tlie  Kinaller  (linietiulona 

Bfiiilerabiv  irmger  tfnie  to  r«luce  them  down  (o  size,  which  Hme 

I  lOKS  of   hi^Ht. 

r>b«blo  that  the  renlatance    In    practice  can  be  hroiiKht  very 
•  l.jwe*t  figures  herf  g-iven— viz.,  4-100  lbs,  per  square  inch— 
of  UOO  Ihs.  will  lieucefortb  mean  a  considerable  increase  in 
I  and  temperature. 

DI?JG-P01¥F.B   OF  BOIL,FR>TrUKS  EXPANDBD 
INTO  TITUE'SHEUTS. 

riuMii.i  by  Chief  Engineer  W.  H.  Shock,  U.  S.  N.,  on  brum  lubea,  3^ 
diameter,  expanded  Into  plates  ^-inch  thick,  gave  results  ranging 
Goto  M.OOOlfiN.  Out  of  46  te8tii5gave  Hgureg  under  10.000  lb«.,  12 
»  W.OOtt  ati(i  ao.ooo  lbs.,  IS  between  20,000  and  30,000  lbs.,  10  between 
md«.(W)  Ihs..  and  3  over  40,000  lbs. 

"tawnii  tiv  Yarrow  &  Co.,  on  steel  tubes.  2  to  2tji  Inche.'*  diameter. 
Wits  •.Imlfsrly  varying,  ranging  friim  7900  to  41.715  lbs.,  the  majority 
«  trim  -.liXiiO  to  Wi.OOO  lbs.  In  15  experiments  on  4  and  .">  inch  tubes 
rAJic.f,,,,..!  t>.  ,,,  .)n  -..p  to6tl,040lbs.  Ueadingihe  tube  doi-K  nni  necefc- 
r-e,  an  some  of  the  lower  (igiire!*  weiv  ohmliied 
'l*r  on  Rules  CJoverning  the  Const nn-tion  of 
,.  i.iiK.iieering  Congress,  Section  G,  Chicago,  1893.) 

CHAINS. 

t  |)«r  Foot,  Proof  Test  mnd  Breaking  W«lcht. 

(Pennjjylvania  Hallroad  Speclflcatlona.) 


Description. 


Weight  per  I 
foot,  Iba. 


^k^-'hain  

flre-<loor  chain 

!<  niwiug-gate  chain  . 
Slimckel-wlieel  chain. 

iBrikechain 

!f'r»iif..ehain    

[I[rn|i.i.o(iom  branch  chain, 

ijnuie-ehnin 

pMp-)xittrini  main  chain.. 

'"•"nechalii 

8*fe«y     " 

Crane     " 

J*l 

ritiiia    •• 


SpeclflcationB. 


Breaking 

Weight, 

Iba. 


I 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


I 
I 


Brltinb  Admiralty  Provine  Teats  of  Cbain  CaMr*. 

links     Jlitiinuiiii -•■ize  ill  inches  iiiid  IBths.    PiovIhr  test  i'm 
MI'i.  Sins:      U       U        \l        U       IS       1     lA,      lA     1,'. 
Test,  tons:   m    K'ft    HI!     134J    ^Hfi    '8   SOft    •-'21 J    »,',    . 
Min.  Size:  1»        1»      l'»      I"      1"      1"     l'«     l'»      se 

Tfst.  toiiH:      40i8   ins    irjg  ruft  nr.,'!,  snA  «'«  ""IJ  TS 

Wrousbt-iroii  Clialn  enables.  -  The  strmplh  of  a  chi 
li»s.«  iImm  ittice  lliat  nf  n  simijflu  Imu  of  ii  stvlinnal  aiva  ti^iiinl  to  tluU 
slili-  'if  l:he  link.     A  w.Mit  p'cisiM  at  unt-  cud  ftml  a  bDiiil  nl  tlif  r.t)ii»r  r 
qiiiriuB  at  Icasr  one  lii-m,  wliioli  proiliiops  a  ilecreaw  in  ili- 
repiirt  nf  ttio  coniinitt**!?  of  the  U.  S  TcsIIhk  Hoard,  nu  le-r 
ami  clialu  eiiblea  contniiis  the  foilowinp  conclilslnjis.     Tl.a 
when  indde  of  Aniericnn  bar  Iron,  with  cast-iron  siuds,  tlie  <iiiil(lr.i 
inff  rlor  lu  slreng-ih  to  ihe  nnstudded  one. 

''Tliftt  vvhiMi  pi-n|)yr  ivirf^  is  PX+^rriHwi   in  the  selection  of  mntprin!.  f 
lion  of  Ti  to  IV  per  cent  of  tlit  stioug:r>st  may  be  expwtt'il   i 
of  cftbles.    Without  this  cure,  the  vurlaiion  may  rise  to  2.s  ! 

"That  with  propr  iiinlerial  and  conBtriicllon  theultin 
the  chain  may  by  exitoctcd  to  vary  fioni  IM  to  170  per  i  ■ 
bar  use<l  ill  making  tfie  links,  »n(l  ishow  an  average  of  nb"'. 

"  That  the  proof  lest  of  A  chain  cable  should  he  about  ."• 
iiKimntB  resistance  of  the  weakest  link.' 

The  deciens^i  of  the  resistance  of  the  studded  below  tli?  utistuiMi! 
m  probably  ilne  lo  ihe  fact  that  in  the  former  the  sides  of  the  Unit 
remain  parallel  to  eiu'li  other  up  (o  fnilnre.  an  llii-y  do  in  111- 
suit  i-;  an  increase  of  slress  iu  the  Hliidiled  link  over  the  i 
proportion  of  unity,  to  the  secant  of  half  the  incllnaliou  ■> 
Toniier  to  each  rither. 

From  a  ereat  Kiiinher  of  tests  of  bars  and  iiriflnlslietl  cable*,  the  ( 
tcB  con8ideie<i  thai  the  avcpiige  ulliniate  leidtnance,  and  pn:i.if  t«nl»j 
caijles  inaile  of  the  liars,  whose  Jiuineterii are  girea,  should  bap"""^ 
shown  in  llie  lU'companjiiiK  (able. 

ITLTHdATK  RF.sISTAXrR  AND  PROOP  TESTS  OP  CHAIN  CAI 


Diaui. 

of 

Bar. 


Inches, 

1  1/18 
1  1/16 

11/10 

lT/18 

1  7/16 


AveraRe  r^fisl 
=  m%  of  Bar. 


Pi-oof  Test. 


PoiindH. 
:«,KiO 

■4-J.O.i'I 
4ii.  IC.S 

Sl.Ofl 
.V..'.I(W 

i».:i-'o 
IV,  i;i'< 


•«,  toe  c 
>f  t««t»j 


1  IH/IC 

1  ia/>6 


Averajce  resist. 
=  10^  of  Bar. 


!*• 


STBBNCiTH  OF  GLASS. 

(rulrbalm's  "  Useful  luforinatiou  f^r  Kngiueers,"  Sef^ood  8m( 

It«<Mt         ConinK*n    ^ 
Klinl<iliu«.  Grvrnaiaa^Oi 

Mean  Hpeciflc  grravlty     8  078  a.SiB 

Mean  tensile  Klrengtli,  lbs.  perni.  in.,  bars..      2,41.1  2.908, 

do.  thin  plates.      4:i00  4.SnO 

Mean  crush 'k  strength,  lbs.  p.  xq.  in.,  eyl'drs.     'J7,.'iH3         WfiJt 

do.  cll'.ies.      I.t.lSU  30,-JM 

Tile  bars  In  teiie-lle  lesl?i  Were  alxmt  W  Inch  dianieler.    The 
%t'ere  niH'li>  on  eyilinlers  alioot  1^4  inch  dianieler  itntl   fi 
«lid  on  culteH  niiproxu;iutely  1  ini-h  on  a  Mde.    The  in' 
<if  );lav<.  as  eiilenliitecl  by  Fairbairn  fmni  a  hieaii  '> 
Ibii.  and  a  inr«n  compressive  ^trenulb  of  in.lfiu  lbs.  [ri  c^.  Iu.,^ 
^•upporletl  at  the  euda  and  loaded  iu  ih'-  middle, 

to  =  3\VVy, 


'  M 


STRENGTH   OF  TlilBEK, 


309 


1  breaViai;  weii^lil  in  1Ij«..  b  =  bn^ulth,  rl  =  ijepth,  and  /  =  Iniiuttul 
tetnal  tnsU  will  probiibljr  show  wids  T*ria>K>n8  in  botll  •ttrrO'I 
lie  niofta  calculated  titreng-Mi. 


PH  OF  COPPER  AT  HlfiH  TSmPERATCRGI). 

A'tmirwIlvOi-n.lili'tHtl  Mune  ^JClM^ritiioms  al  V<jrt!4lii<>illll  l><<ck- 

■'■•■• '  •  -' r.itliri;  on  tile  lODKilif  slrt^M)^U 

:"'riin«*utr«J  ii|H>ii  was  in  riifig 
■ui  :io  ions  per  square  liidi. 

uiL  LiAuit"  ^ijt-' »>  r  a'. 'MIC  '•!    III'."  I  ^r^wutt; 


Mture 

fe 


TeUKile  StreoRtli 
JD  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 


•.a.  115 

SS.'IO'i 

aa.iio 
ai.wiT 


T#raper«mre 
Fahr. 


Atinnftplieric. 
4O0» 
Wl* 


Tenpitr  Streofth 
in  Iba.  per  sq.  In. 


S1.10B 


k  u><nper«lur»  of  400°  F.  the  loss  of  streii^tb  was  only  about  10  pel'  I 

I  .,  t..»  1-   ,1,.,  1,,..^  v/ns  IC  jitrroi'Kt.    The  'eiiipemture  of  Rtpoiii  at 

ihm  nrooniliip  to  Ihpse  experlnienlK  Itiu  liiBH 

:M  not  he  n  Herious  uiaLter.    Above  a  tein(x*ni- 

.   -...  ,  t ■  ,.  rioiiBly  affwleil. 

STRR:«GTH    of    TllttBKR. 

of  Loutc'leaf  Pliie  (Yellon-  Pine,  Pinitn  PnUmtni)  from 
'•  ■'-    '■'     ^     '■■   — - '>'••    Deijt.of  Agrii'Ultiii-e,  less.    Tenia 


UlN-tiii  No 

,r..|.n.T.r..) 


Furewli 


l>iv., 


-..■d  i.ihle  of  th>"  range  Of  resiiKp  of  mechantcsl 
-.  fripiii  iS  liee*  from  four  <llireri>nl  site*  in 
i-ent  moisliire  : 


Butt  Logs.    Middle  Logs.    TopLofCS. 


AT'gOf 

aUButt 
Logs. 


•Ity '0.449  to  1.089  0.ST5  to  0.860  0.4.M  io  O.KIT 

eeMrength.^^' '^.Tttito  16,«)0|7,<H0  tf  1T.148  4,368  to  16,684 

ik»l  elasl  riiiVii  '4,930  to  LS.llOlS.MO  In  11.790  2,5.'i3  Io  ll.SW) 
»»..  ihouK.  ll«.  1,119  to    8.nT|],186tO    2.98S     84210    2,697 
Hst.  roil  rente.' 
PMsiiTiMib.  iu.|  O.^toi.OO 
vtidwise,  sir.  per' 

lh«    .    4,781  to    9.850  R,090  to   9,300  4,BS7  to  9,100 

-    -   .;.;     grain. 

,    in., lbs. I    eVRIO    a.WI     (l-')6  to    1.44.'i     5»l  Io  1,706 

.       I  ,'r.':q  iD.;8,0Oi)  to  aLSOOJCS-IO  to  29,600  4.170  to  23,-J80 

i.-ii)iili    IH'lthl 

»fi  fHTiiq.lii.     4114  to    1.390|  .'i3g  to     1,!!30|    484  to    1150 


1.84  to  4.21     I  "0010  4.66 


0.767 

9.460 
1,930 

a.V6 

7,46'J 

i.snR 

I7,1»B 


Ml  Ihe  teRt.swt>re  an  follows  : 

•  nsiln  urentrlb  ii  rHduclionof  rnoi>(in'e  Ik  ac- 

..trcnifil],  siiflfni'sB.  nnil  ioii(jrliup«s. 

-i  Ki-ii<.iiilly  Imnilln-liand  wiili  »i>fCillo  ({ravliy. 

I  in  lipii;ht  the  viiliies  remnir.  cunslBiil  ;  ilifriil 

I  whii'h  atnoniils  at  70  feet  lo  30  to  40  per  tent ' 


li-l  with  the  Kniiii  and  cnishinpr  across  and  parallel 

illy  111.  ililTereute  wBM  foiini.1. 

•  r  cent  wedker  tb:  i 

III  to  rnniisii  till-  I  Mi'iil 

•■it  onlj  can  bf  num 

rM  iu  no  rvapeet  Inferior  to  unblt^d  timber. 


310 


STREKGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 


The  flfrnres  fur  cruBhinfc  across  the  eraln  represent  ttir  In«i1  r 
cansB  a  coinpivssiori  of  IS  per  coot.    The  relative  elimt  i.     ■ 
poiiuiis  per  cubic  inch  of  the  material,  is  nhialneci  liv 
tit  iht*  plotted-struin  iMOKratii  ut  tb«  trnnnvrrM-  l«-^l  fi- 
|k>biit  In  the  curvH  at  whfeh  the  rnte  of  flef)tM.-tU)ii  in  50  per  iiut  <r 
thp  r»te  ill  the  enrlier  part  nf  thf  test  where  the  iliairrAin  l»  artr 
Thfspoinc  i«  HrWtiarlly  chn-ipn  since  iliere  is  uodellnlle  '  rlasiic 
timber  as   there  is  in  iron.     Tiie  ''HtreiiKtii  at    the   elastic  linil 
strength  tnlieii  at  this  same  i>oiiit,    Tluiberis  not  perfecilr  elut 
lomi  It  left  on  any  great  lengili  of  time. 

The  long  leaf  pine  is  foiinil  in  all  Ihe  Southern  const  " 

Carolina  to  Texiui.  Prof.  Joliiison  su.vs  ii  is  prol)al)ly  i 
In  lurite  Khses  to  be  hail  Iti  tlju  Unileil  iStAtes.  In  small  - 
other  species,  ns  oak  ami  blckurv,  may  exc«'ed  it  In  ^^r>■ll^•'ll  a 
ness.  The  other  Simlhern  yellow  pines,  vii.,  the  Cuban,  >-h"r 
the  loblolly  pinea  are  inferior  to  the  lon^-leaf  about  in  Lbe  rati* 
B|>ecinc  itra»itie« ;  the  long  leuf  beinft  the  lieavieKt,  of  all  lbe 
avoraKSS  ikilnilrleili  i'*  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  the  IJuban  47,  the 
'lO.  anil  the  lubiolly  .^1  puniiilK. 

Strength  or  Spruce  Timber.— Tlie  niodiihiK  of  ruptiinf 
is  Kivi'n  as  folliiWK  by  ililTeient  aullioiii :  Halflelil.  990II  llw.  jht  .«qi 
Kankine.  n,10U;  I.,aslett,  ims  ;  Trailtwiiie,  81U0  ;  Rodman.  CK 
wine  ailvises  tor  use  to  deduct  one-third  In  the  cane  of  linolljr 
timber. 

I'li.r.  Lanza,  in  SS  te»ts  of  Inree  spmce  beanui,  found  a  m 
rupture  from  2995  to  5686  lbs.;  the  averone  beinp  4018  lbs.  T 
avernife  beams,  orderiMl  from  <lealer8  of  pood  n-pule.  Two 
aelepted  stock,  neiuioiied  four  years,  gave  T56J  and  Sr4.S  IIm.  Thi 
of  elasticity  ranped  from  897,(Xb  to  l.JSfl,O0O.  nveraKlnc  l.i>94.(M0. 

Time  tests  chow  much  .smaller  rained  for  lioih  modulus  of  ni 
moiUilus  of  ela.slicity.  A  twain  levied  to  .WW  lbs.  In  a  screw  ml 
leftover  nipht,  and  the  resistance  was  found  next  morning  to  hat 
to  atjout  3000,  and  it  iiroke  at  3.VX). 

Prof.  Lanza  remarks  that  while  It  was  necessary-  to  ii«<»  Mnrr 
safety,  when  the  moduli  of  rupture  were  determln-' ' 
pleeeg,  it  will  be  Biifflcieut  for  mot;t  limber  const  ni- 
to  use  a  factor  of  four.     For  breaking  strains  of  '■• 
better  enpiiit-eriitg  to  Jeturminu  as  the  safe  load  oi  u  iiiui«-r  i«  i; 
that  will  n<it  ileflect  it  more  thau  a  certain  fraction  of  it«  ftt«ii, 
1/300  to  1/400  of  Us  length. 

Prop«rtl«»  of  Tlmb«r.  ^M 

(N.  J.  8te«l  &  Iron  Co.'s  Book.)  ^B 


I 

P 


Description. 


Ash  

Be«!h 

Oedar 

Uherry  .. 
Chestnut 

Elm.  

Hemlock., 
niukory.. 
t,neiut. 
Maple 
Oak,  \rhit«. 


48  to  SR.B 
43  to  53.4 
SO  to  56.8 


Weight 
pep 

cubic 

foot,  in 

Iha. 


SS 
MtoDfl.: 


Tensile 

Strenjftli 

per  sq.  inch, 

in  lbs. 


11.000  to  17,207 

n,.'iOoto  is.OiKi 

10,300  tu  11.400 


io,!ino 
i.'),4ooto  \s.-m 

8.700 
IB.***  to  18,000 
3n,t.lX»  to  31,800 
lO.DOOlo  10.584 
10,US  to  19,500 


Rclnllvr 
Crushing 
Strengib  per  r 
|.  inch,       Ii' 
n  lbe.  NX  'i>ie 

Pine  =100 


4,100  to  O.JfiJ 
5,M)0to  e,3« 
5,000  to  6,000 


■\3Mto  5.«00 
0,S3J  to  10,33J 

5.7\10 

H  tK!5 
fl,II3'toII.T00 

H.IM 
4,0M  to   9,.^ 


tOlW 

10  144 

Ui 

]« 

to' 

M 

Xa 

to 

U> 

Ul 

to  I 


144 

i 


STRENGTH  OF  TIMBER. 


311 


ible  should  be  Uiken  witb  caution.    The  range  of  Tariation  in 

,pt  lo  he  iiiuoh  grrfater  ihaii  the  fi(jiii-ea  Indicate.  Sci'  .ImIiiisou'* 

'af  pine,  and  I-in/.a'n  on  sftruoe.  nhove.   The  weight  of  yellow 

»!<•  is  nnifli  Ifsis  than  flint  ;;ivrn  by  .lotinaoii.     f\V.  K  ) 

■Ire   StrcnethH  of  American  Woods,  icheii  ilnwlg 

pjiffiijftKP-ff.  — Approxiiiiate  fiveiaKfS,  dftlue^-U  from  niAiiy  exper- 

p  wlih    ihi'  U-  £>    Giiveiunitiiit  ieKtiiipinHi:hhi€>  at  Wfttt-riown, 

1 6.  P.  SharplfKs,  for  the  (.'^dkus  of  ISS<).    Seu!um.ed  trtioilx  ifsiiit 

ph  b»-tt*rthan  gretdi  oiies:  in  nmny  cases,  tsviceae  well.    Differ- 

of  Cbs  baiiie  wood  vary  ^leatly.    Thv  streiig^Lha  may  jeadily 

Is  one-third  part  more  i>r  lesB  from  the  average. 


hite 


r: 


irhtte 


Bow 

;.  ... 
,Or«. 


End- 
wisf  ,♦ 
lbs.  per 
sq.  In. 


6800 

4400 

TOOO 
8000 
4-100 
MUU 

6000 

eooo 

4400 

sooo 

Aaoo 

5200 
6000 
6800 
7700 

saoo 

8000 

loom 

5000 

gsoo 

7000 
90OO 

6S0O 


Side- 

lb8.  p«r 
sq.  lo. 


.01 


1300  3000 

800  1400 

1100  HUK) 

IDOO  'nm 

000  1400 

700^  1600 

I.'iliol  2600 

71W  1000 


5001 
700 
1700 
900 

isno 

500 
1 800 
1300 

SOO 
'.•000 
1600 

500 

1900 

laoo 

1700 


»(XI 
I3O0 
•JtiOO 
1600 
•iflOO 
1300 

tjeoo 
aeoo 

1100 

4000 

13000 

900 

4400 
«iOO 
5:H00 


1400  ?600 


siig-ar  and  blnoV  . 

vvliite  and  rptl.. .. 

f  Aff.-  ; 

w)ut».',    post     (oi- 

Irnnl,   Kwanip 

white,  red,  and 

lilai'k 

srnih  aod  basket. 
vheMliiut  and  live 

pin 

Pine  : 

white 

red  or  Norway., 
pitch  and  Jersey 

acnih 

Georgia 

Poptur 

Sassafras 

fipruce,  black... 

"        white 

Sycamnre    (button- 
wood  ) 

black 

white  (buttemui). 
Wiilow  .,.,  


End-      Side- 

wiao.*  I  wige.t 

lbs.  per  lh».  per 

an.  In.     sq.  in. 


8000 
Q8U0 


.01 


1S00  4300 
1300  3900 


7000  I60O 

flOtX)  iroo' 

7600  I  COO 

6SO0  11300 


3000   1 


6400 
6.%0 

SOOO 
8S00 
SOOO 

sooo 

5700 
4i0t) 

OOOO 

8000 
,%400 
4400 


'600 
000 

lOOO 
1300 

eon 

1300 
700 
BOO 

1300 

laoo 

700 
700 


laoo 

1400 

SOOO 
2600 
1100 
8100 
1300 
ISOO 

iWOO 

seoo 

1600 
1400 


1.57  ins,  Rquar«  x  12.8  Ins.  lonjf. 

1.57  lus.  square  >:  6.3  ln><.  loiip.  Prejwure  applied  at  nild-leni^th 
vering  One-foiirlh  of  the  leliKlll.  The  tlr-^t  t'olunin  fives  the 
IK  an  indenlAtion  of  .01  inch,  the  sei-'ond  (h'j.He  proiliicinK  an 
.1  inch.     (See  also  page  300) 

of  Timber  Due  to  tlie  AbBorplloll   of  Water. 

(l>t!  Volaon  Wood,  A.  S.  Bl.  E..  vol.  x.i 
:ft  In.,  of  pine,  oak.  and  cliestnut,  were  dried  thoroughly,  and 
~  In  water  fur  37  days, 
■cent  of  eloneation  and  lateral  eT|mn!.l0D  were: 

Pine.  Oak.  CheDtnuC. 

lOii.pereent 0.065  0.IW5  0  165 

vicpunHion,  pi^r  cent.     ,  2.6  3.5  8.0!> 

li  ofWooa  by  H«mt, -TrautwXaa  frtvea  (oir fhe exMr 
ir  /  iit^ive  FhIii;  I  pan  lit  140,630,  or  for  180  deerees  \  U 
}etblnl  at  the  expansion  ot  iroa.  ' 


312 


RTREXnTU   OP  MATEIlIALa. 


SltearlniC  Htrenetli  of  American  Wooda,  a 
nnn  or  Treeualix. 


a! 


per  sq.  in. 

Ash O.SSO 

Beech ..., R«3 

Blreli 559.1 

Cedar  (white) )»7i! 

"  '•      1519 

Ct^ar  (Central  American) 3410 

Cherry 2915 

Chestnut; ...   1536 

Doswood B510 

Ehony T7'j<) 

Oiim 5S90 

Hemlock 2750 

I.it>ciUiC  T176 


Fickory 


Mapla. 

Oak 

Oak  ill»el  

Pine  iwhiip) .. 

I'liif  (Nurlliem  jrllow... 
I'iiie  <Sciiil hem  yellow  I  . 
fine  (very  resinous  ;eUo« 

Pnplar 

SpriuH' 

Walnut  (binek)  

Wiiliini  (uonnnon) 


THU   STBfe'NUTM  OF   BRICK,  STONR,  K1 

A  great  advance  lias  n-cenlly  been  made  in  Hip  iiiaiinr 
the  direi:lion  of  inoreaainp  iheii' Hireux'li.    C'liMs.  1'.  Cl^ 
Netrs^  KuyK:  **  Taking  the  tests  as  ^i\  t*ii  in  gtnndfinl  eDt':i 
or  ten  yoans  ago,  we  fliifl  In  Truiitwliie  ihe  ki length  uf  ii 
4'JOO  lbs.   per  sq.  in.     Now.   takin^r  reeeiit   tesin   iti  e>i- 
Waleriowii  .\rsenal,  the  $ireii|j;tb  ran  from  51X10  lo  •J.iXi'i 
llie  tests  on  Illinois  paving  hnclt,  iiy  Pnif.  I.  O.  Baker, 
strenKlli  in  hard  paviUK  hrick  I'f  over  5(!0011)S.  per  .sqimi 
crushiiie:  streneth  nf  ten  varieiies  of  raving-Uiick  tiuicl^  i 
find  to  be  TloO  lbs  to  the  wiunre  Ineh. 

A  recent  test  of  In-iek  made  by  llie  dry-clay  process  at  Wnterlow 
aooiinllng  to  l'iivi»g,  showed  an  axvrage  eoinpresaive  sliiiii:iti  ■ 
jier  sq.  in.     In  <ine  ihstanee  it  n-nih  d  ■IBT.I llw.  |>i-r  .<q.  in. 
at  the  Raine  plaee  on  a  "rnncy  pressed  briek."     Tlie  ilr 
at  a  pre*^inv  of  .^ii'i.oot)  IIik,  u'nil  (he  briek  ernslj...]  .u 
l!hs.  per  si|    in.     This   iiidicEite.s  ahno-it  i»k  t. 
granite  pavinR-Uocks,  which  i*  fri>ni  IVVOim  i 

The  foiiuwinn  notes  on  bricks  are  from    : 

Strcnstli  of  Brick. -40  to  3no  tonK  per  Fq.  ft.,  «£i  lo  4WM  Iba, 
A.  sot L  III  iek  » ill  L-rush  under  4.'ii)  lo  (KX>  Uja  |i«-r  h'j.  In.,  or  U  lo  I 
,  jBquare  foot,  but  a  flrst-rnte  ninelihie-presi'<<Ml  brick  will  stiuiil  IMO 
.jjer  «q.  ft.  (3113  tofii-Jl  llis.  iMTsq.  iif.), 

lirAlgfbt  of  Bricks, — I'ereiililc  foot,  t<:-:.t  pre>»r<l  biiek,  I.'* 
piv,«<ed  lirii-k,  131  lb''.;  coniiiioii  liaid  briek,  \2J  l\'-.;  f;i».ii  comr 
lIHllHt.;  si.fi  inferior  briek.  KW  llw. 

AbNorption  of  Water.— A  briek  viu  in  n  ff^  niinulex  al 
*i  ill.  of  witter,  tile  last  liidiig  I  7  of  iIm-  weight  of  a  liauil-uionldnil 
of  its  bulk. 

Te»<lN  of  Brlcka,  ftall  size,  on  flat  ntde.  (Tr»>ls  niiid- 
(ov,  ;  III  15S3.)— The  bricks  were  ii-sli'.l  belWH'ii  il. 

('i.  iifiiL-es  (the  larpi'st  KUrfaf't*!  frround  ii|i|iri' 

bi  I  '  :ilM.iit  ^  I..  ?  1  iii.-(i.-<  till.  K.  T.o  lo  8,1  hi.i, 

a.;  I  mare  inch'   one  li'l  r«i 

!1  •  ;  II  third.  hVW  •"  '•A.'f 

li's:  so     in. 

CriiMltliii;  !!<treiiKtIi  of  jfln.xoiirr  Klalcrlala.  iFroi 
"  Beiainint;  VValls.") 

tons  per  «<|.  ft.  toa 

Brkik,  beat  presaed. .    40  lo   3iXl       l.lnicslones  and  uiartilaa.  M 

■"   Jk....- '-'0  lo      30        Snndslono  II 

WIO  to  I'-IK)        Soiip^lonn   .Ill 

l«>r  Grant  t«.— The  crnsldi'K  sireiiKth  of ».- 1 
iv  JA.iVki  lb».  per  sq   bi.  v«b«;u  tested  In  t\i  i  i 

ud  touKueol  of  tVie  ct>mTn«rti\>(  >»»&  -<vf 
^  Jb«,     Samples  ■■!  KvauW*  Wxtift  b  f\\\M 


TIlESOTH  OP  LIME   AXD  <KNJiK 

Lirer,  testeil  .'it  thf>  Walerloirii  Araeiinl,  limr^  ebown  •  ^imiClh  < 
liersq.  Ii  .111/ iVcic»,  .Inn.  I'J,  ISMl. 

til  of  .\  ,  Pa.)  LinieKtone— <£i>i;iiir<'i<ii|f  AVir*, 

3i— Ci'iir<  ;:  uf  ;f  iii.cutxrn:  lighcstooe  1^,11".  RrayiiUiuK 

pvrsq. tu.  , 

■«e  l«r  of  lintpls,  tof'l-tlr««itt><1,  42  In,  l)etw«>*n  l<nlfo-«lj{«<  Iwiir- 
»lrfi  Itnife-e»lge  brmiKlit  upon  lbemiil<ll«  between  ItvarlriK": 

'  H  in  wide  X  10  iu.  bigli,  brokeumlcr  a  loail  of  LUUM)  lliii. 
iiiiituw s.aio   •• 

■I  sf:4  in.  wiiUiX  10  in.  high,  broke  under 14.720    " 

ijiiliiy   •f  iij]iiiire 1,1  <0    " 

L— (irar  sioiif.  . tM  at  li 

Life'l.l  stone U6iiofIII 

Xr«n»TenM  ^trcneth  of  FliMlstnit* 

(N.  J.  Steel  i  Iron  Co.'s  Book.) 
EXPEItnilTin!  JIADB  ST  R   ().   tU'mKIJI  AKD  OTRI3H. 

i  of  the  sione  In  inches;  <1  =  Us  lliickiiHss  in  iofbps;  /  =  dlslniiM 
wrings  in  Indies. 

Iriiip  liMidf  in  Ion*  of  3000  Ilw.,  lor  a  Wflgbl  placed  at  llir  rriitin 
e,  will  b«  on  folldwii : 

'r  '-■ 

Uorcliexter  fnesUme 'JM 

Aubipnr  freesLJlw Klfl 

CiiL'M  freestone H4 

(Sla-«f l.(XX» 

HIate l.-J  loi'.T 


U^ng T+1 

nite (W4 

1  freestone.  RTB 

N.  J  ,  fr»«tnne ItO 

iiiitln-r  qciarij'i J.TS 

il  frw.stone .Il-i 

lock  of  QiUney  Kraultea)  Idclies  wlile  and  6  Inches  ll>lck,  resUntr 
Wineiies  in  tlir>  cli>ar,  wi.uUl  lie  liriik>"n  by  a  loud  twitlni;  nililwuy 

w  beams  =  —'■.'—  X  .C-t  -  I9.W  tons. 
-  ;« 

■CiTH   OF  riMX:  AND  CEIVSNT   inORT.tB. 

H  {Enginerriiiij,  UcloXier  '.i,  IhUl.) 

^nc  till-  Cnlversity  of  Illltifii's  on  the  cfft-cts  nf  n.ldinc  c'<'ii>"'nl  |i) 
■  III  all  llie  ivHlsn  good  iiunliiy  if  onliiinry  fiit  lime  kiis  utml. 
Iwodoys  in  an  enrilitrnwti!  nit  two  fiaris  dy  weifflil-  of 

:ie  Iff  lime.  I  In*  Ioks.  hy  evai  i;j  nitule  up  liy  fie.*"!!  ii'ldi- 

it.T.    '11 .PI s  ii'->l  "'  n  I'l.iiluiirl,  Ill.i.  1.  I'l  .ciiiMid 

■  rds  llhfd' ■^p' (pf  Krilnlini.-  I  of 

'  I'  Hieve.  OS  di'l  T"i  |»er  c'»'n'  -n- 

i.\  l^a^h^'d  BHil  dried,  f»n^-  .-iia 

'•  uiM.l  i,an;;ljr  , .11  II  .Nm   ';■'.  Van  UM'il.    Tlieiuorlnr  In  nil  i  .i.^f-i  <-oii- 

»(>  vijluini'i  <  f  wiiiil  to  oin'of  lime  pa.'-to.    Tlie  foIlHWiiiK  resullg 

Ded  on  u<l<liiif;  various  [itTt'enlu^^ii  of  oeiiieiit  lu  Ijie  nioriar; 

■Il«>  Ktreugth,  ponnd*  per  square  inclt. 


. 

4 

V 

14 

21 

•a 

BO 

(M 

Days, 

4 

Days. 

Dnyg. 

Uaya. 

Day  a. 

Days. 

Days. 

10 

in 

IS 
17 

21 
17 

sft 

»!i«n<lBl<s. 

114 

ortlatid.. ., 

s 

tfl 

14 

ai 

as 

24 

811 

memliiltt.. 

r 

11 

IS 

iBVi 

21 

aj^i 

.•■« 

brilund..   . 

8 

16 

1H 

s;! 

sffl 

88 

27 

lowndnlf.. 

10 

I'.' 

lew 

31^ 

«« 

24 

8G 

bitlaiid  .  . 

ar 

39 

38 

43 

47 

Ml 

fit 

Iiinendflle.. 

P 

VI      , 

£U 

)ti 

.1.) 

ajV4\  •« 

itrttand...      45        .VI     1    65        i 

«W 

iir 

[\Vi      \     W 

^«,U,I^.:     li  /   /«« /    Si^    \ 

ST 

an 

'M%\  aa 

tiaiiil....      />■-    /    01         m-i        / 

131 

B4 

a\0       \  \A6 

^.diSl^E  A;]?    / 

ai 

84 

4&      \     4« 

l&i 

181 

1  ana    \  aca 

r 


314  STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS.  H 

KIODlTIil  OF  EL.A8TIC1TV  OF  TABIOCS  nAIXt 

The  iiioilulii!^  ot  elasticity  ilvieriuineil  froui  a  IvuoiIl'  i- 
iiiotf-iial  Is  the  quolietjt  obtaiupil  liy  dlTidin^  the  tensiilf  ■ 
square  iiicli  at  any  puiiit  nf  tliv  t«8t  by  lliv  floiigutiui! 
prrniueerl  liy  that  slrt*!>s  ;  or  if  P=  pouiuiK  of  stress  a( 
tioiini  nrea,  /  =  lensth  of  i lie  portion  of   ibe  luir  in  v; 
iiienl  18  aiaile,   and   A=  the  elongalioii    in  that  1viil;ii< 

p       X       PI 
elattielt}- 1^  =  -j7  -*-  j  =  r^-    The  motlnjiis  Ik  Keni-nJIy  meaftiirrd  w 

elastic  limit  only,  In  niftlcrialB  that  have  n  wcllHletlnfil  elasiir  limit 

ilT)U  and  stt-el.  and  wljBii  Dot.  otlienvisc'  stated  Hit*  inodnl 

be  the  iiKKluhis  withiti  llie  elastic  llciiit.    Within  thi:^  Umr. 

the  mndtilUR  is  practically  constant  for  any  eivea  l»ar.  ih         :^ 

directly  proportional  to  the  Btrt-sB.    In  other  iiialeriol*.  miwIi  as  t 

which  hav<?  no  well-rlefliieil  elastic  limit,  the  clonKatloiis  from  tlir'i 

of  a  test  iucrpaso  in  a  greater  ratio  than  the  Hirpsm-n.  iinil  ili"  m. 

therefore  ab  its  inazlmiiui  near  the  beeinninp  of  tlin  t>' 

decrenae!".    The  niodnli  of  elasticity  of  various  materia h 

given  «l>ove  in  treating  of  these  inar,erial«,  but  the  foU^j 

MJine  additional  values  selected  from  difTerent  sources: 

Brass.eaiit B.l'O.OOO 

tt      wir6  14  'S^  OOO 

Copper....!.!!..'..'.'.!!]...".    15!(i(W,'O0O  to  18,000,000. 

Lead l.WW.OOO 

Tin,  ca.st -I.eOO.OOO 

Iron,  cast I3,000,OIM  to  37,000.000  (f) 

Iron,  wrought 99,000,000  to  20,000,000 

Steel a6,0OO,(lrt0  to  34,000,000 

Uarble 85,000,000 

;  Slate. H,500,lX)0 

Olua 8,0(10.000 

Aoh. 1,1X10,000 

Beech i,300,ooo 

Blreh.. ],iso,oooto   i,SflO,O0O 

Jfir. 889,000  10    a.i»i,ooo 

Oak  074,000  to    3,883,000 

Teak. 8,414,000 

Walnut 3156.000 

Pine,  long-leaf  (butt-logs)...      1,119,000  to    3,117.000      A 

The  maxinumi   figures  given  by  many  writers  for  Iron 

40,000,000  and  13,000.000,  are  nndoubte<lly  erroiieouii. 

Prof,  J.  B.  JohnsMin.  in  his  repnrt  on  I>jng-leaf  Pine.  ISaS.  ««« 

tnoduliiE  of  einfilleily  in  the  niOBt  conmant  and  rellat'l-  i.r.m^ri 

engineering  niaCeriala.    The  wide  range  of  value  of  the  in 

of  the  varion.H  inetaln  foimd  in  public  records  mast   lie  • 

neons  nietho^lR  of  lewtiiig." 

In  a  tensile  te.st  of  c&xl  iron  by  the  author  {Van  Ncftrnr' 

No.  41,  page  -ISi,  in  whiBh  the  nllimate  strengili  wits  ii. 

the  uieBsiireniputs  of  elongation  were  luadr  'o  .0001  lucU - 

of  elasticity  wa*   found   to  di-creane   from   ttie   beginnini;   i.f   Um 

follows:  At  liXW  lbs.  per  so.   In..  25.000,000:  at  9000  liw  .  r«.908,WI; 

Iba..  15,381,000  ;  at  6O00  lbs..  n,M8.000;  at  8O0O  ih»  .  VJ  :m  ,>.«.     ai  K^ 

ll,a5<1,000  ;  at  15,000  lbs.,  |0,OcJO,«)i>  ;   at  -JO.Ofli)   lb».,   -  •■■  W 

8,140,000.    The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  »teel   (wi'  .  'Is  I 

remarkably  constant, notvriih.itamllnggreal  varlali.  ..    i-ale 

temper,  etc.    It  rarely  i«  found  below  'JH,(KK).(10('  or  aU.ve  ai.iMl.lW 

generally  taken  at  30,000,000  in  engineeriog  oaleiilutions. 

FACTORS  OF  8AFKTT. 

A  factor  nf  safety  is  the  ratio  in  which  tlie  load  tliat  bi  juat  mflj 

overcome  instantly  the  strength  of  a  piece  of  material  I*  i 

grrnte«t  sofe  ordinary  working  load.    (Raaklne.l 

Itankine  gives   the   following  "ezamplea  ot  the  values  of  ! 

which  occur  in  machines": 

Dead  t^d       "i'*  ^'°**' 
ueao  i.o«a.       Qrj.at««t. 


PACTORS   OF  SAFETY.  315 

etor  of  safety,  40,  U  for  shafts  la  mlUworlc  wtaJch  transmit 
Torts, 

the  foDowing;  "  factors  of  safety  which  have  been  adopted  In 
'or  different  raat«rialB."  Tliej-  "  include  an  allowance  for 
Igencies," 

Itaad     ^'''"'  1^»<1- » 

jTTj  In  Temporary  In  Permanent    In  Structures 

^^'  Structures.      Slruetiires.     stibj.  ic  Shocks. 

Bd  Bteel.     S  4                   4 1.0  &                   10 

8  4                         6                         10 

4                        10 

....                        6 

80  ....                 80to30 


iay«  that  "  these  numbei's  fairly  represent  practioe  lutsed  on 
nany  actual  cam-n,  but  they  are  not  very  trustwortliy." 
8  iu  his  "Resistance  of  Jlalfcriuls"  says:  "In  reRai-il  to  the 
»houlc)  bfi  left  fur  safety,  much  dH])tfnds  upon  the  elinrttcter  of 
If  the  load  la  siinplj-  o  dead  nviRlit,  the  ninrgln  umy  l>e  eom- 
nall;  but  if  the  stiiiutiire  la  tu  be  suliJifCtt-d  lu  peroiissivB  fortes 
he  niarg-in  sliould  l>e  coinpnratively  larRe  on  account  of  the 
e  effect  proiluced  by  the  force.  Iu  inacliiueB  whinli  are  «ub- 
on.siaiit  jar  Kliile  in  ii»c,  it  Is  very  difficult  to  determine  the 
;iu  uhirh  ■:<  coiiiiistent  with  economy  and  safetj".  Indeed,  in 
ecouoiiiy  as  well  as  safely  generally  consists  in  itiakini;  them 
Irons,  B.1  a  single  breui(ai;e  may  coKt  much  more  than  the  extra 
essar>'  to  fully  injure  safnty." 

Lsiiin  (-r  till-   resistance  of  materials  to  repeated  stresses  and 
la.  ■      JU). 

s  of  safely  It  Is  becoming  customai-y  In  deslKnInK 

'!  pounds  |>er  square  inch  as  the  maximum  stress 

'  il  on  a  piece.    Tluis.  in  desieninp  a  lH>iler,  instead  of 

:   :iiifetv  of  6  for  the  plat«s  and  10  for  the  stay-bolts,  th* 

ni{l  h  u°f  the  Kteei  beliiK  from  M.IJOU  to <iU,000 Ibe.  per  sq.  iu.. 

iin  stress  of   10,000  lbs.  per  «q.  in.  on  ibo  plates  ana  6000 

Lbe  Klny-l>olts   may   1m?   specified    instebd.     So  also  in 

'  f  .1  i^lumns  (see  page  •,'CO)  the  dinvensioiis  of  acoliimn 

iiiiiii;  a  nmxiuiiiiu  allowable  couipresalvu  stress  per 

>•  side  of  the  column. 

iinilerdt-iidlondasKiven  by  Runklneandbj'Unwin, 

.«-  H  r.'iiiai  kabiedifTt'rcnce,  which  may  possibly  be  explained 

[the  actual  crushinir  istreuKlh  of  a  jiier  of  masoniy  la  known 

iment.  then  a  factor  of  safety  of  4  la  sufflcient  for  a  pier  of 

—"     Llity  under  a  steady  load;  but  if  the  cmslunf?  strenf^th 

Dm  fltrures  given  by  the  authorities  (such  us  the  crush- 

1  brick,  quoted  above  from  Howe's  Retainine  Walls,  40 

f'Sqaare  foot,  average  170  tons),  then  a  factor  of  safety  of  iM 

'  1  great.    In  this  case  the  factor  of  safety  is  really  a  "factor 

i  of  the  proper  factor  of  safety  or  the  proper  mnximuni  unit 

;lveu  case  is  a  matter  to  he  largely  deterniiued  l)y  the  judjt- 

jer  and  b_v  experience.     No  definite  I'uies  cjin  be  jriveu. 

jlvisal)le  factors  in  niuny  particular  cases  will  be  found 

kre  considered   tbroUKhout  tills  book.      In  gceneral  the 

Dces  are  to  be  taken  into  account  in  the  selection  of 

l^nltlniate  strength  of  the  material  is  known  ulthlit  narrow 

caw  of  structural  steel  when  tests  of  samples  have  be«n 

ii  ii  ely  a  steady  one  of  a  known  amount,  and  there 

•it-rioratioii  of  the  tiietal  by  corrosion,  the  lowest 

,.ted  Is  i. 

uiioiiinces  of  1  are  modified  by  a  portion  of  the  load  being 

lof  warehouses,  the  factor  ahotild  be  not  less  than  4. 

loaii,  or  nearly  the  whole,  is  apt  to  l>e  allernatel}'  put 
rtn  Busjieiision  rods  of  floors  of  bridges,  the  factor  should 

I  Ht»*«e8  are  rvversvil  In  illrectloii  from  tension  to  corttpres- 
thrfilgt) dimtT'iitls tiiJ  imita  of  iiiocbiues,  the  factor  ^\o\jiV^ 


316 


BTRENRTH  OF  MATERIALS, 


I 
I 


I 


6.  When  Hie  piece  Is  iml-Jected  to  repenlwl  iJiocks,  titv  tan 
not  lews  than  10. 

0.  Wli«-ii  llie  |iieci^  Ut  subject  to  deteHomtiou  tram  ccirrosinli 
sUoilld  lie  t^ufflciendy  iiici-fHSfd  to  allow  fnra  ilvBiii^>-  ■■■ 
before  the  piece  he  so  far  wefikeiieii  hy  it  ax  lo  iwiii 

T.  When  the  streii^clh  of  the  material,  or  tlie  niti" 

ai-e  11  nee  1-1  air),  the  fiictur  tbould  he  increased  hyiii 

cover  the  amount  tif  ilii>  iiuceitaiiit)'. 

8.  When  tlie  ^t  ruins  nre  <if  n  ciJiiiiilex  eliarnoter  and  uf  iineerl»lu  • 
8uoU  us  those  in  the  craiik-slmft  ot  n  reTcniini^  enijiiie,  a  ver>  hicb  ( 
necessur.v.  poiisibly  even  oh  hi^h  as  40,  the  a^ure  given  by  Raukltui  foi 
in  mill  work. 

TKJB  ITIECHANICAL  PBOPEBTIES  OF  rnjtK 

Cork  posse.s.sej«)  qualities  wiiloli  (li.siin^uish  it  from  all  ••! 
bodies,  Dainel.v,  its  power  of  altering  its  v  Innio  in  u  i-r     • 
cousetiuence  of  chatiee  of  prestsuie.    It  constst.H,  ji'" 
tlon  of  mliuite  air-vessels,  imTinff  tliln,  wnler-liKh' 
and  hence,  if  compressed,  ihe  re«lsiaDc«  to  funi'  • 
more  like  the  t-eslsianee  of  gasos  than  the  ii-~ 
as  a  sprine.    In  a  sprinR  the  pressnrfi  incf 
lance  to  which  the  spring^  is  oornpresKed.  In 
creases  in  a  much  more  lajiid   mutiner;  that  is.  iimi>- 
which  the  giis  is  made  to  oconiiy.    But  from  the  perm, 
air,  it  it! evident  that,  if  Hiihjn^ed  lo  pressure  in  oik-  dii 
gradually  part  with  il.s  occludeil  air  by  effuxinn. 
ihrough  tlie  poroiK  walls  of  the  cell-;  in  which  it  )•< . 
part  of  cork  constitutes  5.'i!C  of  it.s  hulk.     Its  elosl  t- 
cooslderahle  nmee,  hut  it  is  very  pei>i»lent.    Thus  ii, 
used  In  boitliui>  Ihe  curk.s  expand  the  lustunt  they  < 
This  expan^iou  may  amount  lo  an  increa.*ie  of  volii 
corks  have  heen  kept  in  u  slate  of  compressioM  in  i 
If  the  cork  he  st4?epe(l  in  hot  water,  the  volume  i 
it  attains  netirly  three  tiineM  that  wIiIcIl  It  occiitiied 
Wlien  oorli  iiisuhje'-ied  to  pressure  a  certain  ttui'. 
matlon  or  '•permam-nt  set     takes  place  very  qn 
common  to  all  solid  elastic  substjinces  wL'ii  t.ii'.i 
limits,  butwitb  colli  the  limitsarecctiMi 
nent  stct,  there  is  a  c«riuiu  amount  (>r 
beinjt  released  from   pieKsiiie  spnn(;s  i 
the  complete  recovery  takes  an  apprecijiMr'  tini.» 

Cork  wliich  had  been  o"inipivK#.-d  and  releasf-d  in  natrtf  many 
times  had  not  cliauKed  its  nmleciilar  structure  in  the  l-.mt.  nsi.i 
ued  perfectly  servicetihlw.     Q  trk  which  has  been  k- 
thii>e  atniospheies  for  iiiaiiy  weeks  appear*  (•>  h.i * 
MS*  of  its  oi-ii.'inal  volume.  — iViii  A'«.iti'i;iW'»  Km/t; 

TliSTS  OF  VI7I,('.«NIZED  INDIA-ULUUKSi' 
Lieutenant  L,  TIadoinilolT,  n  Russian  naval  ofliier.  Ims  uianlh 
out  a  serli*3  uf  tests  at  the  St.  Petei>biiix  Technical  I-    *  •  .  i    . 

estahllshlna  rules  for  ettiinatinK   the  quality  of 
The  rollowin>»,  in  brief,  ore  Ihe  conclusions  arrivi  .1 
to  phy&iciil  propei'lii's.  sirif»«  clienueal  analy^i-  ■'■  • 
suit:  1,  liidiii-nilil»-r  sliiMild  not  ic've  the  lea 
when  iM'iit  to  an  aiit;le  of  ISOdeunt-s  aflcf  tiv 
air-bath  to  a  lenip^-ruture  of  i-jo°  (.'.    The  l^-,  i 
thick.    ■-'.  UiiIiImt  iliatdi.ies  not  contain  more  iliui.  ■ 
He  <iildes  shiiiild  slreteh  til  five  liiues  lis  length  wi! 


lanytl 

i 


[INUM — ITS  PROPERTIES  AKD   USES. 


317 


llnetl  ma^e!!ite,  mixed  wilb  enwdiist  an<1  B&turateil  witli  a 
Dricle  of  calcium.  This  pastv  uiass  is  spread  out  Into  Klieels 
I'tii  ft  pressuri;  nf  atoui  1W0  Um.  lo  Oie  hquury  iucli,  and  ihon 
Hl>e  Mr.  Specirtf  (,'ravily  l..Vi3,  Tlie  I'raolureJ  siirfauw  sliows 
't  grain  of  a.  yellow  colf'f.  It  liafi  a  trrminnal  ivsistaiicr  wLcn 
er  square  Inch,  auil  wlien  wet  tttKint,  tlli  ll)s.  Wlicii  iiimiei-sed 
f Jioiira  it  tskes  up  i.  \f  of  itjs  weight,  and  3.SS  whi-n  imitiersed 

for  several  days  \ritli  hydrot-hlorlc  acid  it  loses  2.3^  in 
v^  11..  I...;-;  <,f  weiglil  nuder  bollioi.;  In  water,  hrJne,Biida.lye, 
if  r  iron,  of  eopper,  and  of  ammonluin.   In  hardness 

It:  ''ii  fetilsiiaraiul  quartz,  and  as  a  niji- conductor  of 

Lt jvstos  and  corli. 

■  Well,  and  at  d  red  heat  it  is  rendered  brittle  and  crumbles  at 
irelainH  Its  general  form  and  coliesion.  This  xylolith  Is  sup- 
B  from  Jj  in.  to  AXi,  in,  thick,  and  up  to  one  metre  s<|uare.  It 
[UKefl  InrTerntany  for  tlooi-s  lu  railway  HijitionK,  hospitals,  etc., 
lof  vessels.  It  can  be  Hawed,  horeil.  and  shaped  with  ordinarv 
jtools.  Putty  in  the  Joints  and  a  »;orid  (Xint  of  paint  make  It 
{Kproof.  It  is  sold  in  Gennany  for  flooring  at  nlKiui  T  cents  per 
Ind  the  cost  of  Ia3'in|;  adds  about  1  cents  jnore. .  fe'iify'j/  AVic/i, 

-  Dd  July  ar,  isas. 

TNUm-ITS    PROI>ERTIBS    AND    178K8. 
Ted  K.  Hunt,  Pres't  of  llie  l'illslHirj;h  livduetioii  Co.) 
I  gravity  of  pure  aluminum  in  oca>t  state   Ir  iJ..'iS  :  In   rolled 
lecdon  it  is'JG;  in  very  Ihin  sheets  mlijected  to  liiKli  cotii- 
'  chilled  ri>ll.<,  it  i.H  as  inucli  as  ST.     TiikinK  the  weitjht  of  a 
jtt  ahiniinum  as  1,  wron(»lit  iron  is  liiK)  times  heavier  ;  strue- 
(6  times;  copiwr,  3.00  ;  onlinnry  IiIkIi  liniHs,  .H.J.%.    Most  wood 
(in  MlniclureM  has  alxiul  one  tliiril  ihe  weight  of  aluminum, 
b.OiU  ih.  to  Ihe  cnl)lc  Inch. 

um  is  pi-aciiC4iUy  n<il  acted  upon  by  boiling  v .iter  or  steam. 
>  or  imlrogen  sulphide  does  not  avX  iiixin  it  at  any  tempera- 
'  F.  It  iii  not  acted  upon  by  most  organic  secretions, 
acid  is  llie  bei-t  solvent  fi'r  aluminum,  and  ."trong  solutions 
e.s  reaiiiiy  dissolve  it.  .Ainmonici  has  a  slicht  solvent  action, 
ed  sulphuric  acid  dis.solvea  aliiuiimim  upon  heating,  with 
phiirons  acid  i^a.**.  Liilute  Kidplmric  aciil  a,ctH  but  slowly  on 
Dgh  the  prc*encc  of  any  clilnride-i  in  the  sulntion  nllnw  rapid 
t.  Nitric  acid,  either  coicenirftled  or  ililute,  has  very  little 
■  meta),nnd  snlphtirlias  no  action  iinlcH.stlie  meiallsnt  a  red 
ler  lias  very  little  effect  on  alnioiniini  .'^trip^of  tlie  metal 
■ld»'«  of  a  wnofien  shiii  corr<jdi»d  le-^s  tlian  I/itltKJ  inch  after  six 
mre  to  seftwater,  corrodinK  li»ss  tliau  copper  sheets  fimtlnrly 

tn  pure  nhiminum  b  only  ex>,''*e<led  by  poUl  nnd  silver.  In 
■nda  s<?venili  In  the  .selies.  beinjf  exceeded  by  jfoid,  silver, 
ll^  verv  soft  steel,  and  copi»er.  Siieets  tif  ahunitJum  have  I)eeii 
ka  thickness  of  tl.UlltKi  lindi,  and  la-aten  into  leaf  nearly  as 
taf.  Th«  metal  is  ni<i«t  nudl>-nlde  at  a  teiiipernture  of  hetAveen 
F.,  and  at  this  temperntnre  it  can  lie  drawn  down  between 
fly  as  much  drnn^ht  upon  it  n»  witli  lieated  nteel.  It  has  also 
Dwn  iuto  the  very  llnest  wire.  By  Ihu  Munnesuiann  jirocess 
t^  have  bet*n  nuitle  in  tlerniany, 

lauds  very  hiKh  in  the  series  as  an  electro-positive  nu>lal,  and 
the)'  melals  sliouid  be  avoided,  as  it  would  establish  a  gulvanle 

il  conductivity  of  tdiuninuin  isonly  surpassed  liy  ptn-e  copper, 
Itl.  Witli  silvtr  taken  al  100  I  lie  electrical  condnctiviiy  of 
l.IO  :  that  i>f  KOliI  "111  llie  same  siule  is  78:  /.ino  is  i'.I.SIO;  Iron  Is 
jilatinuiii  lO.OO.  Pure  ahiminum  lias  uo  polarity,  and  tli« 
inrket  is  absiililtely  lioii-liia^liHlie. 

cau  be  niudi'  of  nlniufiiiini  In  either  dry  or  "jtreen  "  sand 
"chills. '^     It  must    not    be   heated    iiincli   beyond 
list  be  poui-eil  w  iih  ciiie,  o«  inc  lo  the  ready  aVii4viv\ 
■  air     T^ie  shiinliagi-  m  oi>olliij{  l.s  17  ni  hii'li  twi 
orJInaiy  bnis-i.     If  shoold    be    in    "      '  jAvy 

niDlitl  iH^conipH  mull f II  nt  n  tompei 
!r  JtoberlsAuslen.  oeutliMy  y.  (,c<-.         i     i 


ALLOYS. 


Nu«.  la  and  3  were  fuU  of  btow-)iol«s. 

IVsU  NoH.  1  and  1ft  show  ihe  Tarlatioii  iti  cast  coi>i 
riitioi'S  of  oa^tin^r.  In  tin'  i.-rusliliip  teiJls  Nos.  IS  to  . 
hrol>«  miller  rlit-  siroin.  luii  all  tli»>  others  liulf''!  ui 
caM*H  I  he  L-ntshiti^  xlrrii^lh  in  tiikt'ii  to  be  that  Hi; 
iO»  ill  the  IruKlh.  The  leit  |ii<H.vs  werp  Sin.  lonj?  n: 
loi'sionol  lt«t»  were  itiaile  In  Tlnir»toii'»  loisloii  ii 
tliinriftpr  HinJ  I  in,  Kinjc  het»vfi*n  hc«i<ls. 

8i>eclfic   Gravity   or  the    Copp«r-iln    AIIocmv 
gravity  of  i.'t;ipp«]r,  as  Iniliid  in  llteK£  to^M,  Ih  H.87<J  (t^^tA-uiii 
the  inicoi,  and  lediiccd  to  39.1°   K.).    The  allny  of  iinixiiituii 
eoiitftineil  (W.4JcMpj>Hr,  -IT-IS  thi,  ami  nil  tlic  nllojH  ooiitiiiiiliig 
till  vHried  lrren"l'«rly  hi  sp.  j»r.  Iietwwn  S.iii  anil  f.Wl,  ihe  tiwmj 
not  on  the  ■.•oiiipnsilioii,  lint  ou  the  p<ir(*liy  of  the  ra«  ' 
that  ihi-  actual  *p.  pr.  uf  «ll  Ihi-.w  alloyn  ooiitahiiUir  l^'^ 
H.B.'i,  nnd  nny  smullKr  llKiire  iiulicat.v»  porosity  In  the  siH 

Fiom  :J7ji  to  lOflS  i  in,  i h<«  up.  gr.  tl(«jreo.i<?» regularly  in 
8.950  to  that  of  pure  tin,  T.'jaS. 

Note  on  the  Strength  of  the  Coppei— tin  , 

Thi^   harK  containing  from    'J^  to  ~4f  tin,   hivliisive,    hat^j 
RtreiiKtli,  ami  all  tho  rent  aro  prncticully  worihlivss  f'-r  pinp. 
R*,reTi<lli  is  reipilreil.   Tlieiliviiliin;  line  helwern  Ihe  ^  1 

is  nrfCiKely  that  at  wliich  Uie  color  tlietines  from  , 
white,  viz  ,  at  a  composition  containing;  lu-iwwn  S4: 

It  iippHai'-i  lliat  the  tensile  and  oomprriMiive  strpiii:!  lis  ( 
ill  no  way  related  to  each  other.  Ihiit  the  torsional  Hire 
poriioiifti  to  the  teiiKlle  streiitth,  an<l  that  tlie  Iransver 
p-nd  in  some  de^Tcn  upon  the  compressive  gireiigih,  bnC 
nearly  vehiiwi  to  Ihe  tensile  strenKlh.  Tlie  nimlnliis  of  rn|i 
by  the  Imnsverse  tests,  is,  in  uenemi,  A  fl;nire  lietvreen  t]io5M9( 
conipi'cKsive  xtreiit;!  lis  per  square  inch,  but  there  area  few| 
which  it  Is  lnr>;er  iliaii  either. 

Tlie  Mreiijstlis  of  tin"  .iIIovb  al  Ihe  copper  end  of  (lie  verles  tn^ 
with   the  uJiiition  of  (in  tillalioiit  A^  of  tin  is  i- 
strength  continues  rejrnlLuij'  to  iniM-ease  to  llie  ma 
tniiilni;  alioul   IT}),^  of  tin  is  reacheil,   nhile    thi- 
Ktrenirlhs  nl*>iiiciea»ie,lniL  Irregularly,  to  tiiettaiue  p.. 
Is  |)loli-ilily  due  to  tmriisily  of  die  metal,  ami  iniiirlit  P" 
Hiiy  nieiiiiis  wliicli  wonlil  iimUe  thi^  eaAtiiijo^  more  coinpa 
Id  readied  at.  the  alloy  cuniBiiiiiit:  Sa.Ti)  copiH-r,  17.81 
Rtreiiiftli.  Iiosvover,  tieiiig  very  much  greater  al  this  polo 
or  lorsionul  KlretiKih.    Kroiu  llie  point  "f  inaxliuiitu 
drop  i-npldly  to  I  lie  alloys  contuinlnj^  alionl  '.fT.AjCor  tlii,ttfl 
til  17  fif,  at  wliii'li  poiul  the  iiikiiiiiiiKi  (or  nearly  llie  mil  ' 
all  three  iiirilii..l-<  of  le^l.  In  iviie.lif.l.    The  alloys  of  mil 
round  froiii  a7.!>t  tin  to  Si.^f  titi.    Tliu  ubsolulv  inhiiuiiiiul 
ihf  of  I  In. 

Fmm  .Vi..%]<  of  tin  to  nliout  77.fif  (in  there  in  n  rather  slo 
crwise  In  strength.     Froiil  ''.'>f  tin  to  Ihe  end  of  the  seilrCtj 
BlrenglliH  hIohIv  and  honiewhal  irrejtnlaily  deerena«v 

The  n*Miltii  of  these  tests  do  iint  seem  to  corrohorate  Ih^  Ih 
Home  »rlloi"!<.  thai  peculiar  properiles  are  ]>■  isio-ssiil  by  il 
ni'e  coiniioiiniled  of  Klinple  iiiidllple!<  of  tlicir  uloinit:  weiiclilt 
eijiilviilrel'i,  .■inil  Ill-It   these  pi'o|>erllea  ore  I'lsr  n-^  Itii 
nioi'  ' 'lite  constiiutlon.     T  .^^^ 

pi  v<»  a  tnasliniini 

|>.-i  -  •  luillter  nf  these  i 

»liiii 

I  livrease  from  Ihe 

nil'  -1  tM  hnvi>  any  ti-latli 


qTi' 


ip,  mill  re-iiiieiiij 


rr»i|U 


■•  liritlleallo^-H  It  I 


1  found  Impossible  to  turn  I 


^  mionlh  Mll'fuce.     'So.  n  Vi  >».  V.  VlftJ*  tO  I 
Uk>I  M  all.    Chtps  wuviU  Q)  uR  \u  tt^ii* 


iliOYs  Of  oopPKU  \SD  xmc. 


E 

^^^reonnl  no  limt  the  bars  ooiilil  be  la-Nll^  hinieil. 

IKoVS  OF   COPPER  AND  ZINC.    (U.  8.  Tent,  IkArd). 


321 


«viug  •  rniigh  surfucv :  or  tli«  tool  wouJd  aometiluo,  aupArentlr,  ! 
'ions  of  tlitf  metal,  KiHodiDf;  it  to  powder.     }it<ymid  4bt  Un  llio  , 


Kla.»lic 

M.    ,  1  >r 

Torsi.insl 

tao  C'JiU' 
miiUoii  hy 

Tensile 

Liiriii 
If  of 

II 

vfnm 
Test 
Modu- 
lus of 

ture, 
"23,197 

c^  .   C'.«»h- 

TriilB, 

lualysis. 

StretiKtli, 
Ikm.  per 
sq.  in. 

I$re«lc-  S  ^ 

Load,    ^  JJ 
n».  per  H~ 
K|.  in.  1 

C  .    0         ">K 

=  S~ '  Etr'Eth 

5  S   .f;a 

•r. 

Ztao. 

per  s(i. 
In.,  Iht. 

lg=- 

III 

r.8S 
i.sn 

1.S8 

1C.98 

27.240 

M.aoo 

"i>a.\" 

26.7 

...^. 

1.10 
165 

367 

Bent 

329 

.91 

77.99 

32.CT0 

30.6 

.(1.4 

21,  IM 

'• 

16« 

845 

r.» 

;a.45 

3s,«:jo 

ao.o 

;15..', 

26..')74 

** 

16U 

811 

1.65 

28.06 

ao,!}:io 

24  0 

•35.  H 

32,32j 

" 

42,000 

IVi 

•JB7 

I.SO 

26.47 

a\.6i^ 

■3.7 

.-H.r, 

2.'),H94 

•• 

16H 

293 

.a 

SB.U 

80.510 

•JS.S 

iiia 

21,4ia 

IIM 

209 

1.74 

30.06 

2S.V10 

28.7 

20.7 

acs.'M 

ti 

143 

202 

I.S7 

83.50 

87,800 

25.1 

.57.7 

28,469 

•  ■  •  .  •• t  • 

176 

•  T 

1.44 

3S.»6 

48,3(10 

3i.8 

"1. 7 

4.3,210 

•• 

202 

2*1 

i.m 

88.65 

41,065 

40.1 

20. 7 

3H.088 

14 

75,000 

194 

202 

j.411 

41.10 

fiO,4M) 

04.4 

I'M 

63,  :m 

M 

227 

93 

).!& 

44.44 

4t.«S0 

44.0 

15. .1 

42,463 

7«.000 

209 

109 

.M 

44.78 

46,400 

53  9 

8.0 

47,955 

1* 

2-.':j 

72 

i.« 

00.14 

S0,6!W 

.M.5 

5.<> 

33,467 

t.'X 

117.400 

172 

88 

i.W 

60.88 

•M.O.'O 

nKi. 

0.81   40.1«It 

0  (!| 

170 

16 

'.66 

S2.28 

24.  I.W 

100. 

O.W    48.471 

1.17 

121,000 

l&S 

13 

.« 

60.23 

0.170 

100. 

■  •  (• 

17,6111 

O.lO 

88 

S 

.» 

6«.13 

8,7e7 

100. 

,..- 

7,761 

0.04 

18 

S 

.94 

ee.^ 

1.T74 

100. 

fl,'290 

0.04 



S9 

1 

.M 

70.17 

6.414 

100. 

16,fi7n 

0.(M 

40 

ft 

.(n 

77,63 

t»,0U0 

100. 

o.s 

82.372 

U.13 

62,158 

66 

1 

i.>,  u.;     .'7 

1«.413 

100. 

0  4 

.13.020 

0,31 

82 

3 

1R,065 

100. 

O.S    «(5,3«*^ 

0  46 

81 

.k.1 

fi.400 

75. 

O.Ti     7.r\S» 

0.12 

32,000 

87 

142 

I 
I 


UtloQ    In    Ntrpucrth    of  Gnn-bronzr,   and    mean*  of 

UTtllg  tlie  Slrt'Ugtli.— Tlic  lltui'c.^  oliinined  for  Blliiy«  of   from 

I2.7jC  IID,  viz.,  fniiii  ai,St«  to  2y,4:^0  jKHiudK,  are  iiiiicli  leKH  thaii  are 

'((iveD  as  (be  !itreuiclli  nf  f^n-metal.    Bronze  guwn  tire  iisimlly  cnst 

ho  pressure  of  a  liead  of  metal,  whieli  tetid.^  tt>  increAse  (he  t^tren^tll 

aoilv.    The  BtreriKtIi  of  llie  iijiper  iinrt  of  a  irmi  etwliiiK,  orKiiiklUK 

•  •rtlinn  that  of  (be  siiiall  bare  whieli  have  lieeii  liwled  in 

I*.    Tlie  fullowinx  is  nil  extraet  rroiii  the  report  of  Major 

Iheclrt-nglh  und  den.sily  of  (oin-liroii/.e  (ISWi:  — Kxtrenie 

imjjle.s  from  difTereiit,  parta  of  the  same  Bun  (a  32j(>oiiiider 

■.•  gravitv,  8.4K7  to^.^Hj:  leimcity-,  26,428  lo  .VJ.l'.B.  Kxtiwiia 

■  •  -uHple.s  tesieil:  Siieoiflc  gravity,  H.3i1K  to  H.H,y);  teiinclty, 

me  variation  or  all  Ibe  samples  from  (ho  gun  heads: 

.  S.75<1;  teimeity.  2:1.520  to  3ri,484. 
Ii.»  (general  resulla  on  the  quality  of  bronze  «s  It  is 
Hi.Kitly  of  a  iii'jjative  ehnracter.  Tliry  expo-e  defecis  in 
ifTtb,  develop  the  helenipeneous  teituie  of  the  iaet.il  In  djf- 
1.'  same  piiu.  and  .show  Uie  irrepilttrity  and  imeorHiinty  of 
—lid  the  eastli.^ot  all  gnns,  althuiijfh  made  from  b  niUar 
I  ia  liUo  manlier. 

.    hron^.K  coiitaliiinK  9  parts  copjier  and  1  part  Ihi,  texted  ol    

iijt.jii,  Li.  C,  ill  1S75-0.  showed  a  viirialloii  in  teiiRile  Rtri-nRth  frtun  ^m 
to  61.400  lljs.  per  .•^iiiiare  inch,  in  eloiiEalion  frcm  3^  lo  m-f,  and  iu  sv*^  ^M 
r»?lty  from  1?.:19  t  o  f .  S,s.  ^^H 

lafratr  j/jj/uy)irinfjit  max l>e  made  in  (he  deUHlty  nuJ  tcnac\ty  ov 
ftuip  /<r  cttni/itvs.-'ion  lijin  Ivfii  shnwn  hv  (lin  eA|ierillietil s  i>f  Mr .  H.  B . 

(•^1,  Maas.,  ia  ISO'J  ami  by  tliosc  of  0«iieral  Uc»>ntUis  iu  Ku«vr\a 
I  w  t<.870,aua  Uie  teaacty  from  V7,238  lo  41,471  pounds  pet 


322 

ALLOYS. 

T^ 

^^  eqiiHre 

liicli.  Tlie  lal  ter.  by  a  Eimilnr  process,  obtained  Uie  fo1lo«lM!M 

^K  for  t«nacity: 

^^^H 

Founds  pt^^M 

BroniK  with  10^  tin 78.0^^ 

Bronze  with  8* 
Bronze  ^Wth  0* 

ALLOIS   Ol 

tin ....  1 

tin , ,  1 

?  COPPKB,  TIN,   AND  Z 

(Report  of  U.  S.  Test  Board,  Vol.  11,  1881.) 

^ 

TensHa 

Elot«II 

H     No. 
^KBeport, 

Original  Mixture. 

Transverse 
Sli-ength. 

BtreiiKlli  Tier 
squaie  inch. 

mrrtnl 
BbHk 

Muilulus  Dellec- 

Cu. 

Sn. 

Zn. 

n'          tiou, 
Rapcure      |„s 

A. 

B. 

A. 

H 

M 

.■5 

5 

41,334 

3  <\a 

23,6(10 

30,740 

I.8I 

H 

f-S.U 

1.80 

10 

3I,»8G 

3  07 

3. '.000 

33.000 

17.6       1 

H 

8S 

S 

10 

•44,457 

2.85 

28.810 

28, 560 

6.80 

H 

f.-> 

10 

5 

02,470 

2.56 

86,680 

Sfl.OOO 

S.5I 

■        89 

86 

13.B 

3.5 

(W.-I05 

2.83 

3t,.VO 

a-.'.iJOi) 

I,-.-9 

H        88 

sa.5 

12.5 

.'i 

BC,960 

1.61 

36.000 

:J4.000 

.80 

H 

B-.'.a 

15 

2.5 

nn.pjn 

1  09 

a3.<iOO 

31.800 

■ 

») 

5 

\r. 

43,1.18 

3.88 

37..S(i0 

JI2.3nO 

ii!«"' 

^P 

SO 

10 

10 

C7.117 

2.45 

8S.a30 

31,950 

1.57 

V        6S 

M 

15 

6 

54.47B 

.44 

33,350 

80,780 

.58 

■         86 

77.5 

10 

12.5 

03.849 

1.19 

85,500 

86.000 

1.00 

W         87 

77.5 

la.s 

10 

»1.7iW 

.71 

36,000 

32.500 

.71 

S3 

75 

5 

W 

5.'>,355 

2.91 

33,140 

34,960 

(.80 

BA 

78 

7.S 

17.5 

B2,607 

1..TO 

33.700 

30,300 

l.M 

B4 

75 

10 

:h 

58.345 

.73 

85,380 

81.000 

l.M 

HA 

75 

15 

10 

51,103 

.31 

35,410 

28,000 

.80 

(W 

75 

a) 

h 

40,2.15 

.31 

23.140 

27,660 

.48     ., 

83 

7i.8 

7.6 

ao 

.M,83fl 

S86 

32  7110      34  -Sikl 

s.gX 

K     (» 

72.5 

10 

17.5 

S3,-»'30 

.74 

3.i'."   ■ 

■       RD 

70 

5 

25 

,'.7..H49 

1.37 

S!-. 

'-§■ 

■       83 

70 

7.S 

aa.s 

48,838 

.36 

.>,'"                      .    ■• 

■       (iO 

70 

10 

30 

80,520 

,18 

33.I4Q      2C,:x» 

■^^1 

■       01 

70 

15 

15 

37.924 

.20 

33,440 

27.800 

^^^^1 

■        63 

70 

ao 

10 

l.i.l2« 

.08 

17,000 

1$,«00 

]^^^| 

■        8T 

67.S 

S.5 

so 

5H,H4w 

aot 

34.?20 

4S,RV» 

*.^^^l 

■        74 

07.5 

s 

27.5 

.W,M70 

.49 

W.OOO 

34.4GO 

li^H 

■        75 

67,5 

7,8 

25 

46.875 

.32 

20.500 

'jl.OOO 

■        80 

6i 

2.S 

32.5 

sti.oin 

2.36 

41,350 

38,300 

*^^l 

■        » 

05 

5 

so 

513GU 

.56 

87.140 

36.000 

i.^H 

■        56 

65 

10 

«5 

27.07.') 

.11 

85.720 

22.800 

■        ^7 

as 

15 

20 

l.'J.fiOI 

.07 

6.820 

7.431 

.,,. ..i«  n 

■       S8 

65 

•->0 

15 

11.932 

.05 

8,:tB 

<,ori5 

■       70 

6-.>.5 

3.5 

85 

OB.aSi 

a.si 

44.400 

45.000 

■'s.ii' 

H  ^ 

60 

2.5 

.^7.5 

«B.508 

1.40 

67.400 

58.000 

4.fC 

■  <^« 

00 

e 

35 

4«.07« 

.as 

41.100 

3S.S.10 

,8* 

V     N 

60 

10 

30          3-1,699 

,13 

sn,7iw 

il.940 

.!»     . 

SI 

CO 

JS 

85          18.2-lS 

.09 

18.080 

12,400 

li 

58.it: 

a. 30 

39.-I8    Wtfi-.'H 

1  90 

66.500 

67,6011 

"a'is  1 

8 

S8.75 

8.75 

82.5      3fi,7.VJ 

.18 

Broke 

Ix'forst 

4 

S7.5 

21  .**. 

21  «5 

2,752 

,i>2 

7*1 

l.*» 

7S 

35 

0.5 

•14.5 

72..t(W 

8.05 

68,900      68.1100 

■'oa 

bO 

U 

5 

•to 

88.174 

.29 

87.400 

3ii.rMx> 

.4* 

H     •'^< 

M 

10 

8G 

SS.SSK 

.14 

S.V4r.O 

18,800 

.H 

1  " 

50 

3 

45 

ai.8i4 

.11 

88,000 

81.800 

\\ 

^^ne  t. 

M 

Die  Ce 

Pit"  ie«i-«  wei 

<•  niiKif.  in  nam 

1  ill 

laile  ti'irt."!  w< 

■I'l'  miifl"  iifi  liars  0./ 

II 

'M  ot  l/je  tri»ii-r        •    •  liiir,  oue  Uali  !.■  m^-  -..n 

K--.l^H 

ALLOTS   OF   COPPEK,   TIN,  AKD   ZINO. 


323 


ronzrs.— Tbe  usiinl  compoBlUou  of  ancient  bronze  was  ihe 

bf  tnodeni  gun-inetnl — 9(>  copper,  10  tin;  but  the  proportion  of 
I  5%  to  15<,  anil  iu  some  cases  leJid  has  beeu  founiJ.  Bome  an- 
I  tools  coiitniiifHl  I'S  copper,  I'Jtin. 
|<>f  tbe  Copper-zinc  Alloy*,— The  alloys  coiitaininK  te*8 
Biio  tiv  nrJKiiinl  inixinit''  Ken:  Ki'iii-nUly  ilclVolivL'.  The  bam 
juv-holfs.  and  Ilio  tiietul  slinwed  aigaa  of  oxulncioii.  To  itiBure 
I  it  appeal's  that  copper-ziau  alloy  b  should  con  I  aiu  more  tiiBU 

tto  Xo,  6  iuclusivp,  tC.OB  to  'iO.06%  zinc  the;  bara  sh<iW  a.  reniorfc- 
irity  in  all  llii-ir  propnties.  Tliey  have  all  nearly  the  same 
111  ducLililv,  itiu  Inner  decreaslnK  sllKliUy  iiu  zinc  iucreareK,  and 
»like  iTi  color  ami  appearanee,  B.-i\ve<;«  Nos,  H  and  ](l,  3i).0C  and 
tlie  slrengih  In  nil  method!!  of  teKt  rapidly  increases.  Belwet-n 
Su.  I'l,  3tl."i*i  and  fi'J.l-IS  Kiiic,  llr^re  is  anoliier  ^ronp.  distinguished 
tiDcth  and  diiniaisliecl  ductility.  Tli«?alloy  of  inaxiiniiin  iciisUe, 
"(d  t^ji'i-ioiial  slreuKth  coiitainy  about  il.'t  of  /inc. 

ontaininj;  loss  than  Sis  of  zinc  are  all  yellow  metals.  Beyond 
lturiget<  to  while,  and  Ihe  alloy  becomes  weulc  uiid  brittle.  Be- 
I  pure  xliic  tbe  color  in  bluiKli  ^ray,  the  brittleuu.v8  decresiws 
|tn  increases,  but  not  to  such  «  degivw  lus  to  luake  them  useful 

ie  purpope*. 

kre    bet'H'een   C'ompoaltlon    by    mixture   and    1>x 

,— Then-  IS  in  every    Uhc  a  Binaller  iierceniiifte  of  zinc  in   the 

ily.si.s  lliaii  in  the  original  mixture,  aii  I  a  lar).'er  perceuiage  of 

le  Ions  of  zinc  i*  variable,  but  in  pcneral  averiigeis  from  1  to  JjJ. 

ou   or  Separation   of  the  ITIctalii.— In  several  of  the 

hl'jifll.le  ainoimt  of  iitpmtion  to<'U  place,  nnalj'si.s  Bhowiny  a 

I   •sitiori  of  Ih'i  two  endd  of  the  Imr.    In  such  caiieH  iba 

I  on  WOK  gradual  from  one  end  of  the  bar  to  the  other, 

-M-ofrTal  coiitumiui^  the  higher  percentage  of  copper.    A 

miC'-  wa.s  bar  No.  13,  in  theubovii  table,  turnings  from  the  upper 

Ina  4t>.3t><  of  zjnc,  and  from  the  lower  end  4H..V.'f . 

ifiravtty. — The  specific  gravity  follows  a  dellaite  law.  varying 

sitlon.  and  decreasinK  with  the  addition  of  zinc.    From  the 

lof  iipeciiic  graTitleii  the  following  mean  values  are  taken: 

0      10     80      80     40      60     60      TO     80     00     100. 
8.80  S.T8  8.80  8.40  8.3«  8. SO  8.00  7.72  7.40  7.30  7.H. 

lepr<<«pnlatioit    or  the    I^aw   of  Variation    of 
■  <'opp»'l— Tln-5Rliir  Alloy*.— In  an  louiiateral  triunj;le 
!  pi-riH'niliciiluiili.sliinces  from  any  iMiitit  wiihin  it  to  the  Ihiee 
to  the  aitiinde.     Sneh  a  tt-ian^Ee  can  ther'efore  be  u^ed  to 
»lly  the  perc»'nlii(re  composition  of  any  compound  of  three 
triple"  alloy.      Ijel  one  side  represent  OcDp|>er.  a  second 
■  d  0  zinc,  the  vertex  opposito  each  of  tiiese  bides  repre- 
cli  elenieiiL  re»i>eclively.    On  points  in  a  tiiunj-'le  of  wood 
ertfUt  alloys  tested,  wires  were  erected  of  leiitrllis  propor- 
Snglli».  and  the  triangle  then  built  up  viith  pliiKier  to 
rires.    Tho  surface  thtis  foriui"*!  has  a  characteristic 
Dting   the   variations   of  strengtli  with  variations  of 
»t«liow»  the  surface  tints  made,    Tlie  vertical  section 
I  the  law  of  tensile  stren^t it  of  Ihe  copper-tin  ailoj'S. 
hat  of  Hn-ziuc  alloys,  and  the  one  at  the  rear  that  of 
'«.    The  high  polijt  represent*  the  strongest  possible 
b-tnls,    ItscoinjHisilion  i s  copper  ."i-"),  zinc  43,  tin  it,  and  ita 
_        llis.    The  hich   ridife   from  Ibis  ixiint  to  the  point  of 
!  of  the  speti'in  on  tlie  left  is  the  line  of  the  strongest  alloys, 
e  foniiida  zinc  +  (3  X  liuj  =  5.5. 

>^  the  rear  of  the  ridjte,  containing  more  copper  anil  legs 
[  of  greater  ductility  thnn  those  on  the  line  of  nia.iininm 
(vnliml  lie  commercial  alloys;  those  in  fronton  tht-drcliv- 
"I  valley  are  brittle,  and  those  111  the  valley  arc  boili  hrjt, 
\>f(  from  Ihe  valley  toward  the  section  at  iIh'  rl 
jetiess  and  become  soft,  the  nmxiniuni  s 'mii'<ii»J 

reinaiii  weak,  as  is  «honri  by  Ihe  low  ebvn\\o5 
_  wof  pfuiiiiiHl  ami  c'onstrucled  hr  I'rof  'V\\VH 
ACK.  /(mi,  H?pon  of  the  U.  «.  Board  unv 


test  Iron.  St(!el,  etc.,  toI.   U.,  Washington,  1881,  and  Tburstno's  It 
of  Enphienhin,  vol.  lii.) 

The  best  iilK.y  obMin^d  in  Thuivton's  r»*i«Tt.h  tor  (hi*  U.  •i.T»««l«1 
hna  the  compiwition,  llopiwr  .Vi,  Tin  0.5.  Ziuc  <<  5  Tlie  ipnsUe  Onifl 
cast  bar  was  (S^i.iKX)  Ihs.  jK-r  Hq.  in.,  Iwosproitnen*  ^rivrns  ihi-  •jin»<  nt 
eloni^atioti  was  47  ti>  .11  i>«'i'  I'piil  in  5  Inoiiw!.  Tliur-ion's  romuila  for 
tin-ziac  alloys  of  maxiiuum  sU'tmglli  iTrans.  ▲■  tx  C  U.,  1861)  ( 


AI.LOYS   OF   COPPEK,  TIST,  AND    ZINC. 


ZIdc.     Copper. 


B3 

58 

a 

68 


TeuaUc 
BtreiiRth, 

IbK.  per 
vq  in. 
firi.ilOO 
61,000 
6H,ililO 
.'iT.OOO 
SS.UtK) 
RS.OIK) 


Tin.      Zinc.    Copper, 


7 
B 
9 
10 
II 

n 


29 
18 
14 
10 
6 
8 


71 
74 
77 
80 
83 
86 


I 

SirengthJ 
lbs.  p«*r 
a<l.  In. 
M.noo 
49.000 
47.000 
45,000 

4%ona 

41,000 


omposIUou   or  AllOT*  tn   RTerr-dajr   tl»o   in 
Fouudrlcn.    <^mt'n'('<i>i  MacUinial.) 


Brass 


llmlly  metal 


t  metal. ..... 

liruD  metal., 
imetnl 

bhur  broows. 


r  metal., 
solder 


Cop 
per. 

Zinc. 

Ihs. 
87 

Ihs. 
5 

16 
16 

"a 

6< 
39 

B  : 
1 

20 

1 

19 
«0 

"'46' 

w 

90 

SO 

3 

so 

Tin.   Lead, 


Ib8. 

8 

lbs. 

4 

...„. 

4 

S 

4 

m 

1 

ZH 

8  pbos.  tin 

10     "       " 


For  partK  of  pnglnea  on  boor 

nrtvnl  ves.-w.'ls. 
Bf  Us  for  sliiiw  ami  Tiu-lorieK. 
For  pljuilx-rs,  lililp  and  hous 

biTuus  wurk. 
For  bearingbiii»he«f  or  shaft  ini 
For  putiipsanJ  other  hydrauli 

jiurpows. 
Cavtings    subjected    to   stcail 

jiressurc. 
For  heavy  beariiitrs, 
M<<tul  rroin  whi>.'h  boHsaiid  out 

lire  fi>rK<^d,valvi?  spiiKllfS,  etc 
For  valvefi,  pumps  and  g(;nem 

n-ork. 
For  ooe    and    worm   wlH»elP 

biiKheii,  axla  bearinKtti  »l'(l' 

vttlvijs.  etc. 
Fliingcii  for  i"Ofi|»«T  pliM'g. 
Solder  for  Ihu  above  nangen. 


i«f  *•  Bronxe.— 10  part-t  copper.  1   tin,  i  line,  W  lf«d,  used  t>; 
tU  K  liurli;}'  .>f  Troy  for  ilie  framework  of  their  onjfinoer'B  trainlif 
•lr>>iiirlli  41,114  IhK.  por  .SI],  in.,  elongnllon  LT;(  in  I  Inch,  sp.  gr.  U.U9( 
.  Ke^p.  Tram.  A.  I.  M.  E.  WM.) 

Useful  Allojrs  of  Copper,  Tin,  and  Zinc. 

(Selected  from  imint^ruiM  sources.) 
Cftpiwr. 
.  8.  Navy  Dept.  Journal  boxes  IIS 

nni'  i;niJdi>-plb3 (~|8!!8 

S8.33 
02 
U.S.  Navy. 88 

f»(J   Rose) {"t 

9«.5 


.326 


ALLOYS. 


Copper.   Tin. 


I 


Art  Tironze,  doll  red  fracture, vt 

Gold  bronze BM.5 

Beuriiignif^tal  ...  ,. ,  ...  S9 

eo 

88 

....  85« 

80 

TO 

74 

...  84 


Snglhsh  brass  of  a.d.  IMM . 


U 
2.1 

8 

14 

18 

3 


Copper-NIckel  Alloys,  Crerman  SDrer, 


Ofirmon  BUrer, 


Nickel 

I  A  lef 
Bessem 
manure 
ri?qiiir<-> 
Ironi  p 
R  can  h 
easily  1 


Cupper. 
51.0 
50.8 

ei.i 

S2to5S 
TStoOG 


A  leflned  copper-nlcTtel  nlloy  contntning  S0<  copper  and  iH  i 
Tery  vmall  amounts  of  iroii,  Kilicoii  and  larboii,  ii>  prrMuct^J 
Bessemer  ninlte  in  tlie  Sudbury  (Cnnadaj   Niclcel   \V.irk<      li^ 
manurac'turers  piirohasp  a  ready-made  allo.v.  whii-1i  i- 
ri?qiiir<->B  simple  nddlciou  of  zinc,  iiisiead  of  liuyinn 
fi.?piimt<?ly.    This  »llo3',  "SWiO"  as  II  it  called,  is 
Ironi  pure  ulclcel.    Its  cost,  i*  les*  than  niclsel,  i' 
('It  can  be  ca.'*t  '-■olid  in  any  fonn  drsin^fl,  and  tu^ . 
easily  lii  ttie  lathe  or  planer,  yi<-ldiiii;  a  siiverj-  \«  • 
air  or  moisture.    For  bullet  ca«inR8  now  used  iu  vaiii>u«  Uruiab 
neutal  rides,  a  special  alloy  of  SO^  copper  and  2llJ  nickel  U  mule. 


Xirlirl, 
35.8 
H.fi 

IBtoiS 
25  to  S3 


Special  Allojra, 

JifAMESB  Allots  for  art  work : 

{Etigineer.  Hkrcb  M,  IBM.) 

Copper. 

Silver. 

Gold. 

Lead. 

y;in^ 

ft 

Sliakn-do 

glilbu-iehi 

94.  SO 

ar.31 

1.B5 
S2.07 

873 

trace*. 

on 

.52 

traoe. 

M 

;  In  pUaliir«(| 
r  fiuible. 


QiLBEBT's  Allot  for  cerapmrdula  pnxsesa,  for  cAsUng  I 
Copper  91.4  Tin  6.7  Lead  2.9       Very  I 

COPPEB-9E1NC.IK03I  AI.I.OTA. 

(P.  L.  Garrison,  Juia.  Prank.  Inst.,  June  aud  July,  1S91.) 
HeltaMetal.— This  alloy,  which  was  fonnprly  k;  ■■  -*  — 

^isooinpoeed  of  about  (yi  L-i>p|>er,  fruiii  31  to  44  zinc,  ^'  t 
Tbe  peculiarity  of  all  the-^e  alloys  i«th>»  .-miMnt  of  ; 
^  have  the  property  of  inL-rvasiiig  their  si:'-     -•  -    - 
iiuiking  delta  metal  the  iron  in  previoii-s 
deflnlte    propoMinus.      W'liea   nrdiiiarj' 

liifdtrn  zine,  tile  !■!" ■  '''■■   '■      'lr*?soi  dn.' 

It  up  to  llie  extn  Tf.     Byn^i 

bbiaiued  to  liie  i  ;  co|iikt.  it 

(leOaite  quaiiiit>  -••  ■■<-u  n).  m-,..  aiUJ  the  coppci  miui. 
fidlowlDg'  as  tbe  raiiKe  of  compositiou  ot  coptAsr-siutMroa,  ■ 
tln-iroD  alloys  ; 
I. 

Percent. 

Iron n 0.1  to  6 

'Copper nn.^.^t..   SO  to  ((5 

Zluc 49.8  10  80 


PHOSPHOR-BRONZE  AND  OTHER  SPECIAL  BRONZES. 

^eii  easi  in  sand  delta  nietnl  basatensile  streoetli  of  about  4S,000pound8 
SI  f  loujjatiou  ;  wflieii  roU«d,  tt-nsile  strenf;lh  of 

!  •*  inch,  elongation  from  M  (o  1T<  on  bars  I.1S8 
■■'  a. 
Kivc-i  ttie  uliiiiiine  ti'iisile  slren^h  .13,600  to  bl,510  pounds  per 
^iiicli,  wiib  from  lO^t  lo  'iOf  vl.iu^atioii, 

^tn«tal  can  be  forired,  stamped  and  rolled  hot.    It  must  Ije  forRpd  at 
[  cberryred  beat,  and  care  taken  to  avoid  sirikiag  when  at  a  black 

..ding  to  Llo.vd"8  ProviiiK  House  tests,  made  at  Cardiff,  Pwenil^er  20, 
I  lialfinoh  dtilia  niKal-nilliHl   liar  f^ave  a   tonsile  sti-^nglh  of  88,400 
At  ptT  sqiian*  inch.  Willi  an  elniiK-atioii  t>f  Sk^  in  three  inches. 
•Mn  Bronze.— This  alloy  is  practically  a  sterro  or  delta  metal  with 
•  •'liliii.r!  of  a  ■iiuall  aiuouut  of  lead,  which  t«nd8  to  render  copptT  softer 

U  inor>»  dliclile. 

Ike  full  owing  analyses  of  Tobio  bronze  were  made  by  Dr.  Chas.  B.  Dudley: 

Pig  Jletal,       Test  Bar  (Rolled), 
per  cent.  per  ceul. 

opper ,.„• r.9.00  61.30 

88.«  87.14 

2.16  OBO 

0.11  0.18 

0,31  0.35 

^TTTlttHt.  "  Wo  tested  the  test  bars  and  found  78,5nO  teosila 

.iion  in  two  inches,  and  40U.<  in  t^iitht  Inches.    This 

only  he  obtained  when  the  metal  is  mnnipulatcd. 

irdly  he  ciMLWctcd  with  cast  metal  " 

in    i.ronze  in  IhiS,  an  described    by  Thurston,  Trans. 

i.  composition  of  copper  ftS.SS,  tin  S.30,  zinc  39.48.    As 

1  V  of  liS.OOO  lbs.  per  sq.  in.,  and  as  rolled  79,000  lbs. ;  cold 

11  llw, 

■  Ilia  Brass  &  Copper  Co.  f:ive»  the  following  :— The  tensile 
•lu  bronze  one-inch  round  rolind  rods,  turnerl  down  to  a 

.  .it  an  inch.  tWitod  by  Fairbanks,  avertt^^  T9.600  lbs.  per  sq. 
istic  limit  obtained  on  three  speclniens  averaged  54.'i'i7  lbs.  per 

li'-at  Tobin  tironxe  can  be  forged  and  ntaiiiiwd  a«  readily 
I  nuts  can  be  forged  from  it,  cith>>r  by  hand  or  by  mii- 
ked  degree  of  economy.    Its  great  tensile  strength,  and 

■  rrosive  Action  of  sea-waicr.   render  it  a  most  suitable 
-^r  plat4*s,  steam-launch  shafttug,  ship  sheathing  and 

II  plates  for  steam  yachts,  loipedo  and  life  boats,  and 

meiit  bos  siiecilled  Its  use  for  certain  purposes  in  the 
•w  cruiserg.    Its  specific  gravity  is  8.071.    The  weight  of 

'1  IS   ■j'.i:   lb.  ^H 

IO«IPHOR-BRO\ZG    AND    OTHEB    SPBCIAL       ■ 
BRONZBS.  V 

phor-bronze.— Tn  the  year  ISi.M.  Mniiioflorcft  Kunnel  of  Li«*!r». 

fi»iiiiil  t>y  jidiliiik;  siiidll  ])n»nnrtions  of  pliosplionis  or  "phosphoret 

eoptier     ifi  copper  that  liie  oxides  of  that  metal,  nearly  alnays 

ipurity.  more  or  less,  were  deoxidized  and  the  copper  much 

trengili  and  diiclility.  the  grain  of  the  fracture  became  liner, 

1  !i  fr    ili-r  fliiiditT  was  attained. 

■  I  Tonze  tested  hv  KIrkaldv  gave : 

4.  in  Si.fOO       !.'4,70O        16,100 

■rsq.  in.  ...     SS.C.aS       4C.U1i1        44.448 

,perc.iii     M.40  1.50  83.40 

phosphor-brotize  vai-ics  like  that  of   ordinary  br 
.  "Pr'^-niaees  of  copper,  tin,  zinc,  lead,  etc  in  ihe  alloy. 
Brona««— This  alloy  resembles  phosphor  bronze  son 
ion  nfiii  also  delta  nii'tal,  in  conta-luing  xiuc  and  iron.    ~ 
fil«K'*<^  it*  average  compusiUoM: 

&'67  I    Iron  0,10 

tE.40       Silver    0,07 

3.ai      Pliosphonta ..     0,( 

........    i.U  / 


328 


ALLOTS. 


I 


ComparUun  of  Copper,  Sfllcon^bronse,  and  Pli« 
bronze  WTirea. 

{Engineering.  Nov.  23,  18M.) 


Description  of  Wire. 

Tetuile  StretiKlh  per 
aqiMre  iacii  in 

Be) 

OOBdU 

Tods. 

Lbs. 

Purecopper 

BUlcga  bronie  (telegraph) 

'•          "       (tt-lepbone), 

17.78 
)8.S7 
«.» 
45.71 

41JHU 

t(».OW 
MMM 

M 

« 

Phosphor  BroDze  (ti^lephone) 

ALvmrNvn  ai.i.ovs. 

<AlDmlnaaiBrouJEe.  Cowles  El«itric  Stneliing  »ni!  "  >—'•■■ 

Tlie  sian.latd  A  No.  a  grade  of  aluminum  bronze,  com 
nuin  aiiil  IX>!>  of  ci>pper,  liaa  many  retiiarliable  charsi.  - 
ttngulsh  it  fi-om  all  other  metals. 

Til'"  t»>nacit.v  of  castinf;*  of  A  No.  8  prade  metal  varies  brt«« 
and  00,0110  lb*,  to  the  sqiiarB  iuch,  with  from  if  to  \tf  eJongatlon. 

Inciea.siuf;  llie  proportion  of  aliuuioum  in  broDie  beyoiid  110  fti 
brittle  alloy;  tiierefore  ootbiui;  higher  tban  tbeA  No.  1,  wliichooBt 
is  ii>u-le. 

The  H,  CD,  and  E  prades,  containing  7}*^,  S<.  2V^.  aud  I>i<  of  ah 
respectively,  drcreaae  in  ipuacity  In  tlie  order  natm-'l,  thnt  of  Ihe 
being  about  Vi.WO  pounds,  while  the  latter  is  25,0On  |v  tmac     Wiil^ 
also  a  proportionattf  dei;ipas>' in  transverse  and  tri 
limit,  and  resigtonce  to  compression  as  llie  perci-n; 
ered  and  that  of  copper  raised,  the  ductility  on  th'- 
the  game  proportion.    The  «peciQc  gravity  of  Uje  A  >>  i   I  j-t  mx-  i-  ■ 

Bell  Bros,,  fiewcaatle,  gave  th«  SfMOlfic  gravitjr  of  the  alntnlDuat 
•a  below: 

Sit  aluminum 8WI 

4ji       "       ,„, „.., B.*;i 

W         " 8JW 

lOjt         '•  7.BH 

OmatlBfr.— The  melting  point  of  aluminum  bronze  varies  lH^ 
Uwamouiii  of  aluminum  contained,  the  hi)rher  gmile« 
what  lower  lemiierature  than  the  lower  grades.    The  i 
•t  alaoul  1700"  F.,  a  littl(>  higher  than  ordinary  bronxe  of  J 

AlumUnim  bronse  Bhririks  uioi'e  than  otdinary  hi'u.><s. 
fleg  rapidly  it  ia  neces.saiy  to  pour  it  qiiioklv  and  t' 
large,  »o  that  there  will  be  no  "fivezing"  In   tb>- 
properly  fed.    Baked-sand  moulds  arc  preferahle  i 
small  cosUnge,  and  when  fine  ulcin  colors  ore  de«irv4]'  lu  tlie  ca 
paper  by  Thoa.  1),  West,  Trans.  A.  S-  M.  E.  ltW«,  vol,  *|ll.) 

All  grades  of  aluminum  bronze  can  Ur  p  Urd.  twedged, 
cold  exrept  A  1  and  A  2.    They  can  alll  i   -t  i»  brluVil  i 

In  rolling,  iwedging,  or  spinning  cold  innealed  \ 

at  a  l>riB"liier  red  heal  than  is  UBwl  for  1  r:t->is. 

BraKlntc— Aluminum   bronze  will   Wrase  as.  well  M  otljr 
using  'ioe  qiiiirter  braac  solder   (zinc  500,  copper  600  (and  tiUWtl 
b*»ra> .  "T.  '•"■tit-r.  thre*'  quarters  cryolite. 

?»'     ■'         ■    '.- To  sol(ler  aluminun^   ' 
B'  •  well  the  parts  to  bo  j 

pi  -  to  be  S'dderrd  in  :\  st: 

pi..  ill)  a  roil  of  - 

a  ~  ;.erydllte  i>ii' 

b'>''  ,   lie  clean,  tii  : 

Im*  liiiiM  d  li.v'using  a  duiil  •: 
tliw  finlln.irv  way,  with  C'  ' 

Mifrziaski  recommendu  •  .  _       _ 

«Vi/ny  ot  the  usual  hAK-aud  iiolt  le«w\-t.iii  aoVd«c,  '«(Vt)i  I 


'1 

nr  <)■■ 


■  h  ordinary  wO  ( 

lagresaeaiiiKli 

.'f  snlphataofenl 

I  he  pariA  to  hw  VlMS 

on  the  roeUl.    llMM' 

KVti.    TbcftO  i 

i~solve<l  In  iiyilt 

Ider,  and  soft  111 


AXUMINUM   BHONZE. 


32£ 


Vest*  or  Alamlnum  Bronsea. 

tJ.  Dagger.  Ill  a  paptT  mad  before-  the  British  Association,  186».)  i 


Teasile  StrenKUi. 


Tottsnor 
square  inch. 


40  to  45 
88  •'  40 

85  "  30 
15  "  IS 
13  ■•  IS 
11  "  13 


Pounds  per 
square  inch. 


80.(500  to  100,8(10 


T3,9J0 
5fi,(J0O 
33,(W 

ao.iJO 

34.ei0 


89,(MM 
67.S00 
40.3:iU 

la.fsoo 


Ktoiiga- 

tion. 
per  cent. 


8 
14 
40 
40 
50 
55 


Speuiflc 
Gravity. 


7.38 

T.W 
8.00 
8.37 
8.6ff 


I  and  chemical  leests  madt;  or  MuniileA  eiit  from  varlouK  sec 
_  I  5*.  Tiff,  or  10*  aluniinlziMl  fiippor  eastiugs  tent]  to  jirove  that 
(mim  unites  itfii>lf  witli  •'acli  particle  of  copper  with  niiirorin  pro- 
iMch  case,  ao  that  we  Imve  a  picxliicl  that  i.s  frt-i^  from  liqtiution 
Ir  homOBPne'ius.     (K  C.  t'oU*,  /ion  .'l(/<\  Jan.  16,  IHBO.J 
ilnuDfBraJMi  (K.  H.  «.:o«K's,  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E  ,  vol.  xviii.'i — 
ituinhiiini-lmiKs  is   made  lij  fiisinj;  together  equal  weiuhls  of  A  1 
bruiizf,  ropp«M-,  and  zinc.    The  copper  and  bnmze  are  (lr»l  thor- 
1  and  iiiixud.  and  the  iiinc  is  dually  added.  The  material  in  left 
ace  until  finall   ipHt  hars  are  takt'M  frnni  It  and  brokvip.     When 
ii«-  n  tensile  streii|;i|i  of  80,0(10  jvilTKls  fr  over,  with  i  or  3  per 
■y.  Ilie  iiieliil  is  ready  lo  he  p<>ur«l    Tests  of  this  hras-s,  on  small 
■I  licncs  sliiwu  ax  Inph  as  10(1,1)00  pounds  len.sile  slren)icth 
Ir  of  the  Uidled  .States  Kunljoat  IVlrel  is  cast  from  this  brass, 
|ft  trille  le.^s  •/.inc  in  order  fo  InnreaHe  its  dttctility. 
Teat*  or  Aliimlnnm-Brntta. 
(Cowles  E.  S.  &  Al.  Co.) 


I 


•llUgSu) 


Diameter 
of  Piece,  I 


Iivch. 


,  Area, 
'itq.  in. 


.465 
.«U 

.4en 


Tensile 

Strenjttli 

lljs.  per 

aq.  )li. 


.mas 

.1B61 


41,ii35 
78,337 
72,348 


Elastic 

[..iinlt. 
Ills,  per 
sq.  in. 


17,6«S 


Blonga-I 
tioii.     Remarks, 
piT  ct. 


41Ji 
2« 


Cl  B  3) 

*'3  St; 


\bT»f.s  on  the  above  Ifet  ia  an  extremely  tonrt  metal  with  low 
.  tiini}"  jtiirpo«ely  no  aa  to  "  upset "  easily.    The  other,  whicli  Is 
■  Xo  a,  is  very  harn. 

■  xintry  oriii  Kngland  any  official  niandard  by  which 
1 1  cliaracierist  ics  of  cast  nielals.    There  «  re  two  con- 
'Cly  iieci'skary  lo  be  linown  before  we  can  make  a 
Mi-reiu  materials:   nnniety,  whetiier  the  cnsHoj;  was 
und  or  in  achill,  and  ivheiher  Itwna  aitoehed    to  a 
by  Itself.     Itha-sol'^a  lieeti  found  that  chillcastings 
tn  sand-castinus,  and  that  burs  c«sl  by  lliemn-lves 
Sniost  invariably  run  higher  than  test  hnra  attached 
fad  that  bars  cutout  from  castings  are  generally 
icnst  niniie.     (K.  H.  rnwlns.l 
■«   to    Reported   Ntrcnfrth   of  Alloya.— The   sani(> 
-   has  l)eeii  f.jiirid  in  tests  of  gun  metal  icopp" 
-eipecicd  m  tests  of  uliiiiiinnin  bromsaj 
•  xceediiigly  snbjei't  to  variation  In  xle^ 
•'I  in  -;(/rer,.,„vw  („  niflhnd  oririolding  and  oasliitg 
[  «Ak>«/h/  aiiape  of  easting,  depth  of  "sinking  he 


ALLOYS. 

lAlamlnnm  Hardened  by  Addition  of  Copper 
Sbeeta  .04   lucli  Thick.    {The  Etigineer,Jiutit,\ti 


Cu. 
I'er  cent. 

a 

4 
« 
8 


Sp.  Gr. 
Calculated. 

s.n 

2.S0 
3.02 
3.14 


Teata  of  Alamliiuni  Anoya. 

(Eneinee r  Harris,  U.  a.  N..  Traiis.  A.  I.  M.  E..  vol.  rrlllj 


Compositioa. 


Cop- 

AlHmi' 

Silicon. 

per. 

num. 

Bl.SOK 

6.50* 

!.:.'< 

nA,fui 

9.3S 

1.6(3 

pi  50 

6  50 

1.75 

so.oo 

g.oo 

1.00 

18.00 

a.ai 

0.33 

13.00 

8.S8 

0.S3 

•t.fiO 

«.w 

1.75 

n.oo 

«.so 

0.50 

88.00 

9.33 

1.C6 

S3.00 

e.so 

o.so 

Zinc. 


Iron. 


0.«« 

U.SO 

0.3S 


33  33t 


0.«5 


0.50 


Tensile 

EIbkUc 

KlonJ 

lioo, 
ixrrrt. 

■ 

Strfiiptli. 

Limit. 

■ 

perMj.  ID. 
lbs. 

lbs   in-l 

titl.  Id. 

1 

60.700 

18.000 

a.s 

1 

60.000 

87.000 

4.S 

67,Cl)0 

24,000 

18. 

1 

7V.S.10 

83,a» 

«.•» 

&>.iW0 

oo.noo 

«SS 

ro.*» 

56.000 

0.4 

&0.1OO 

19,000 

15  I 

1 

ca.oao 

19.0UO 

es 

i 

00.930 

33.000 

1.3* 

4B.5aO 

17,000 

7.8 

i 

For  romjjaiison  with  the  above  6  tests  of  "  Navy  Vnrfl  i 
So  10,  Zu  S,  are  (tlven  In  which  the  T.  S.  raiigra  frum  is.otui 
from  lO.OOCt  to  13.000.  El.  2.5  to  5  f'i.  Red  4  7  to  10.ts». 

Allojra  of  Atunilnam,  Silicon  and  Iron. 

M.  BDd  E.  Bernard  have  succeeded  in  obiuiiilnK  throti>;li  elrt-tr 
treating  directly  and  without  previous  puiiflcatlua.  the  aiwiiiluii 
(re^i  and  white  hHUxites)  the  following  : 

K.-illoy.s  such  u-Hfeno-aluniiMum.  ft.'rrosilii"""  "i""i''"im  aiid  silk 
mil.  wher»'  liic  pioporthin  of  silicon  may                        .vhicb  are  i 
I  the  rni-tallurKV  nf  in^n  for  refliiinir  sie«-l                           i 
Also  silic(jn  nliiniinuni.  wlier*'  Ihe  pii)|Kji I-"— 
K.  which  limy  !>«  eniploved   In  inechiiiiicai  cm 
■ninif  red  cmidition,  in  place  of  Kleel.  nn  uccom 
ijx'cially  where  the  Ilglilhe.«s  of  the  piece  in  coi..>..«. 

of  ihii  main  condilinna  of  succe$e. 
The  followinc  ttnniyses  are  given: 
1.  Alloys  applied  to  the  iiibtiillurgy  of  iron,  the  raflning  of  i 

Typeft.                  Alnininuiti.  Iron,  BOiooo. 

,1 7(«  SM  W 

.t ~ 70  SO  to 

,8. 70                  15  IS 

.4. 70  10  ao 

,B 70  10  10 

.6 70  trace  80 

^S.  M«c)uuiloal  aJInya: 

Types.  Aliiniinum.  Snicoa. 

9'-'%  fl.7B# 

- "  B.KS 

-,-., 10.00 

imnB  t(  hn  b"*' " 
Bum 
al'.. 

,  uii  )>  A  w  lie-  t*  V  wv  \\\  >i^r  .»  vd.n  i>v  iiu 


3'iiiiiliiijtu-iLiitIitiuuy  uIIoyK  iu  AL*<iiiifiiuiiIeat!^>ii  reatl  bpforw  llip  f5(jci(.»t,_ 
f^mic-nl  Imltistry.  I'lie  rf*nlt*«  of  his  rt.*.soarchys  ilo  til>i  Jis^:lirSM  ilr 
uoe  of  A  coiiiiiKTuiully  iisKful  alloy  of  thcsw  two  niHluls.  ami  lijiv* 
ir  wienliflc  than  prncticnl  iiilrrcRt.  A  rem(iik(ii>|p  point-  is  I  but  the 
nitli  the  cbeiiiieal  ooiiipositiuu  .1/  Sit  lius  u  hielit^r  iiiHliiui:  point  ilmu 
Aluminum  or  antimony  atone,  anrl  thai  when  alttiniDULii  Is  cui^letl  to 
■stjcnoiiy  the  rneltinc  point  croes  up  from  that  of  nDtimony  (450°  O.,' 
trCAin  leiniK-raturu  rather  above  thnt  of  silver  (1000°  C). 


:lLLOVS  OF  inAN(;ANKSIi:  AND  COVPER. 


Ilona  Idani^nese  Allofi. --E,  II.  Cowli-s,  in  Trans.  .\.  I.  M,  E, 
vui,  p.  4'.«.'i.  .siuifi  ilml  a.>  liie  rrsull  of  tiuineioiis  oxperiineiiUs  oti 
r*^  of  the  !i<-vfrQl  nietHts,  copper,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  aluminum,  iroti,  and 
.,,..-..    ,11,  I  ti...  nielnlloi(.l  juliin m ,  anil   Kxprrlnient.*  upon  lliB  ;saine  in 

~tr»»ni;th,  iliiclillty.  color,    etc.,   tlie   most  importatil, 

r  to  l)p  about  as  foUciwij : 

io  Mianpanese  exerts  a  bleactilnR  effect  tipon  copper 

nou  even  tliun  nickel.     In  other  words,  it  was  found 

••-ie  present  in  copper  jiroduces  as  white  a  color  in  the 
of  nicliel  would  do,  this  being  the  aiuount  of  eacb 

■  •  last  irnoe  nf  red. 

-O^  nr'S>%  of  iniii]^ane.se  may  he  added  to  copper  with- 

..-^  .:,. ;iiily,  although  doubling  its  teuBile  streiiKth  anil  choiiK- 

^t.io,. 

Uat  mniiKnnese,  copper,  and  zlue  when  melted  together  and  poured 

ioiiIiIk   beliave  vei-y  much    like   the  most   "  yea.Hty  ''  German   silver, 

rlni;  Hu  ingot  which  is  a  mass  of  hlow-huleH,  and  which  swells  up 

the  nioiild  liefore  cooling. 

hat   the  Alloy  of  iiiaDKaiieHe  and  copper  by  itself  is  very   easily 

NIL 

hot  the  additlou  of  ].'J3$  of  aluminutn  to  a  ninnKanusecoppernlloy 
•r-  it  f r.  ifii  .  .ni-  of  I  ln>  moHt  refraotory  of  nictalB  in  the  ua.sliu^  process 

I  iiii;  qualities,  and  the  noii  corrodiDility  of  whici 
I  han  that  c.f  either  German  or  nickel  silver 

•-s|ii'imilv  desiiriied  for  iod»,  sheets    and  win 

- •    Vld,,  ri  ,,,.^..     IK-  ulnmlnlim    1  Stf)*  adienfi    flR 


I 


a 


"33?" 


MJtA^m 


<4)  Good  beariDfc-metkIs  shoulfl  nhow  small  rriedoo. 
Is  almost  wholly  a  qiie^itinii  oF  tliH  liiliric-ant  used;  but  the  iii« 
(ds  has  certainly  gome  infliitiuce.  

(A)  Other  things  being  equal,  the  best  bearing-meial  U  tii«tl 

slowest, 

Tbn.princlpa]  coDBlitiientii  of  lieariof^-niftal  alio; Kure  copper, 
zinc,  antimony.  Iron,  atiiJ  aluminum.  Tlie  follnwiiku:  fablr  ^'tc^  tlia 
ents  of  Dinst  of  the  prouiiiieiit  bearlng-melaU  as  unatjzed  al  Uid 
Taoia  Railroad  lotiorotoiT  ni  Alimmo. 


Aiialr»eii  of  B«arine^'iiieUkl  Allojr*. 


Metal. 


Cainella  nictaL ,.... 

Anti-friction  luetAl. 

White  metal 

C«f-liruss  lining. 

BalRtv  antifriction 

Orapliitf  beariDR-inctal 

AntiiMonial  lead 

Carbon  briiiiie 

Ooriiish  bronze 

Delta  metal 

♦MaKnolin  metal 

Amerioan  anti-frioliou  metal... 

Tobin  brnnzi^ 

Qraney  bronze , 

DamaseuK  bronze 

Manganew;  bronze 

AJax  metal 

.Inti-f rici  ion  metal 

Harrington  bronie 

Car-box  metal 

Hnrd  lead , 

Fh<i8plior' bronze..... 

t'.x.B.  melai 


Cop- 
per. 


tO.30 
l.CO 


4.01 


75.4r 
77.83 

trace 

'5»!66 
75.80 

Tfl.41 
90.K 
81  .S4 


G&,;3 


70.17 

Tfi.ao 


Tin.   Lead,   Zinc. 


<.«5 

fl6,l3 

trare 

H.38 

"6'. 
S.OO 


S.irt 
B.W 
10.00 
».S8 

10  g« 


14.7& 


O.K 


iO.'JS 
6.00 


W.87 
1.15 

er.Ts 

8r).B9 
14.  &' 
l-.i.40 
S.IO 

8»..^5 

78.44 
0.31 
15.0« 

i:».U 


7. 17 
88.% 

84.83 

Di.40 

»  El 

15.00 


I0.» 


te.5; 


18. 
18.1 


88.40^......  J 


42.07 
trace 


iuH 


14.; 


i:a 


Other  con»tituent-s: 

(11  No  graphite.  (o  Jfo"^••"■~•— 

(^)  Possible  trace  of  carbon.  (0)  }'' 

iSl  Trace  of  phosphorug.  t7i  I' 

(4)  Foggilile  trace  of  bismuth.         (8)  rij...-t......  ,.<. 

*  Dr.  H.  C.  Torrey  aayii  this  analysis  is  erroneous  and 
metal  always  contains  tin. 

A«  an  example  of  the  inHiieuee  of  minute  chsi 
rinRton  bronze,  wliich  consists  of  n  minute  pri'i" 
jiDC  alloy,  showed  after  rolling  a  tensile  Blrenglh  < 
gatiou  in  '.'  iijchex. 

In  experimenting  on  this  subject  on  the  Penn«ylrnni8  Rnllmait, 
niiiiili-f  of  ill.- Ii'-iiiip'k'"  "ere  made  of  a  standani  l>i-nTin;:.iii..(«l. 
BIT  •    of  the  metal  to  be  lr.>.i'  ' 

|f,  C  the  same  axle,  our  '^ 

Ki  iiiei  the  eiperimeulBl.    1 

At^rt!  Ljircfully  neighed,  and  after  a  s<iilllcieiit  111110  t 


I 


BEABING-MBTAIi  ALLOYS.  335 


CoinposiMoD,  Rate 

of 


r 

^F  Copper.         Tin.  head.       Pixtm.       Arsenic.  Wear.] 

iK T9.ro  10.00  9.50  0.80  100 

'tin 87.50  12.50  ....  148 

-(in,  second  experiment,  snino  nielat , 153 

-tin,  third  ezpt*riiiii<Dt,  iiaiiif  iiii.-tal J47 

l-bronze  89.30  10.00  ...  0.80         Ha 

)fbronze...    ..  79. W  10.00  7.00  ....  0.80  115 

t-brotiae 78.70  10.00  9.50  0.80         101 

rooze 77.00  10.50  Vi.M  ....  ....  02 

tonse,  tiecoad  ejcperimeiit.  game  metal  9i.1\ 

'B" 77.00  8.0O  15.00  ....  ....  SO.sJ 

1(1  copper-till  alloy  of  7  to  I  lias  repeatedly  proved  lis  inferiority  to  tba] 
•r  iir  )ii/,.>  metal.      Many  inoiw  of    the  copper-tin  l^Brliigs  healed 
-Iihor-bionzi-      Tlie  showing  of  these  testa  wns  ao  satLsfoo- 
ii>r.lironze  iriLs  udoplei]  a.s  tho  standard  bearii:K'i»etal  of 
1 1  K.K  ,  aiul  <xa^  used  for  a  long  time. 
tipt^ii:ji»^nL'*,  however,  were  L'<>niiitued.     It  was  found  that  areeniaJ 
ally  taki's  the  pliioe  "f  pluisphorus  iu  n  eopper-tln  alloy,  and  IlircaJ 
are  ui:ult!  wilh  iirsenic- bronzes  a.H  noted  nl>ove.     As  the  pro|>nrliou] 
is  JncreH.sed  to  correspond  witli  Ihe standard,  theddrabiUry  incrensea 
In  view  (if  Ihe.-se  re.4iilt«  ilie  "  K  "  lironze  wan  tried,  in  which  neither 
■  '(■11.^  i!0.-  ai-sMijiir  were  iisetl,  an-l   in  whieli  the  lead  was  increased 
:i  tlie  stiindard  phosphorhri>n!!e.   The  result  was  I  list 
;  iw>-r  lljttu  tlio  phosphor-bronze.      No  trouble  from 

mI  witli  the  ■' K '"  bronze  more  than  with  the  standard. 

li*'>    -uuliiiue.^; 

out  tliin  111110  wotiej^an  to  find  evldencea  that  v/ear  of  bearlnK-metal 
nrled  tn  accirdanee  with  the  fnllowin^  law:  "That  alloy  wbioh  has 
u»^t  power  of  ■li'iiortiori  without  rupture  (resilieneei.  will  bertt  reHlst 
It  was  now  atieinpte*!  t<>iie^i>;n  iiii  alloy  in  aeeordance  with  tliifl 
ting  first  the  propoiiiniis  of  iv.ppi-r  nnil  tni.  0>4  pttrt»onppt>r  to  1  of 
^Titled  On  iiy  r^Xiieriiiient  as  the  sLaniliird,  nItlMiufch  s*hiib  evidenod 
tliine  tends  to  .show  lliat  1 .'  or  po*i.sil)ly  15  pnrts  eopper  to  1  of  tin 
Tbeen  bettei'  Tlie  Influenoe  of  teoil  on  this  copper-iln  alloy  seenig 
'i  the  some  a.4  a  siill  riirlher  diiiiinuliuii  of  tin.  Hoivever,  tha 
'  the  iiietui  loylelil  under  preiisiiro  increases  as  Ihenmoiilit  of 
plHlied,  and  llieuinoiuiiof  the  lead  iuurcased,  ko  a  liinll  ia  But  to 
id.  K  ceriaia  uinount  of  tin  la  also  necessary  to  keep  the  lead 
,  )  the  copper. 

(Were  c  '»t  of  ihn  iiielal  noted  in  the  table  as  alloy  "  B,"  and  it 
!  slower  than  the  slniidard  phosphor-bronze.  Thin  nielal  is  now 
ndanl  hearini'-inetui  tit  the  Peniisylvaida  liHilroad,  being  sIlKliily 
1  in  0iMi)pi>sit|nH  U-t  allow  the  use  of  phosphor-hrLiiize  «erap.  Thtt 
L  ddopieil  is:  (Jopiier.  105  lbs  :  phosphor-hronyje,  00  11)9.;  tin.  i)*^  llw.: 


I 


L  Udopleil  is:  (Jopiwr.  105  lbs  :  phosphor-hrdnxe,  00  11)9.:  tin.  d>4  "'^j^l 
1.4  lbs.     liy  iisinK  oidinary  eiiie  iti  the  fonndry.  keejiin^'  ilie  nieial'^| 
i-rt'  I  will!  charoojtl  during  the  meltini;.  no  trouble  \h  ioiiihI  in  castinft^H 
villi  this  nielal.    Thn  copper  and  the  ])liosphor-broiis»*  can  be 
T'lre  putting  it  In  tlie  ineUing-hole.   The  tin  and  lead  should 
'lie  p<il  is  taken  from  the  tire. 
Jut  Kn    wii  whelher  the  use  of  a  little  zlne.  or  pOBsiljIy  fiouie  ntlier^H 
Ition,  ioi;;lit  nut  k'lve  still  belter  rejsullR.     Kor  the  present,  liowever.^H 
>v  is  ronslih'Ced  to  fulfil  the  various  oonditions  required   for  itooa^B 
tliaii  any  otiier  alloy.    The  pho.-iphorbroiize  had  an 
-111  of  ao.iHKi  llm.,  w  iili  fii  -d, .Illation,  wlierea.i  the  alloy 
'■khIIh  Htreii^th  and  ll,<  eluiiKalion. 
Uior  Usviiig-metaia,  aiie  Alloys  ooalaiuing  antimony,  on  next  pogo. 


■fii^ 


ALLOTS. 


ALLOYS  CONTAINKNU  AJfEimOfilC. 

VABioug  Analtbks  of  Babbitt  Metal  anp  oraim  ALUirs  coiruil 
Aktimony. 


Tin., Copper    AiiUmfiny.      Z1n<y, 


BabbiU  melal    1 

fifl 

1 

tiirllKlit  duty  \ 

^«).3 

1.S 

nanlef  Ra1)l>iti.  ( 

<M 

4 

for  bearings* ) 

=  88  9 

3.7 

BrfUiiiiiia  .... 

H5  7 
M.il 

1.0 

H 

81.0 

a 

Ik 

70, S 

4 

»' 

84 

10 

••nabbiu".... 

4fi  5 

1.6 

Plate  pewter. . 

89.3 

1.8 

MTjite  iiiettAl... 

85 

» 

fi  partit 
B.Upercl. 
8  pnrtB 
7.4perct. 

10.1 

16.8 

10. 

^.S 

6?. 

13. 
7.1 

10. 


s.a 

1.8 
1. 


40.0 

Bi^ariiiifs  (xi  C.t 


LeA<l.       BM 


— 1( 


—) 


I 


*  It  is  niixi'd  aa  follows:  Twelve  parts  of  copper  nre  flrsi 
86  partij  of  ilu  are  odJed;  14  purt.s  of  aniiiiiuiiy  aie  put  in  .> 
i>f  tin.  thc>  tfjiiij^ialure  being  luwenil  a«  soon  b«  ihr  c<'i' 
urder  not  to  uxiilixt*  llm  tin  and  iLnlirnoiiy.  rlie  HUrfiuTe  i< 
prutecte'ii  fioiii  contuet  with  tlie  oir.     Tbc  alloy  Itiiis  initil 
reiiullfrt  in  tlip  pnipnnlnn  nf.W ports  of  alloy  lo  100  ilii. 

Wbltc-nictal  Alloy*.— The follfmingulloys  are  um-i 
l>y  llie  KriKlfin  Kailroaduf  France  (1800): 


Number. 

1 

S 

a 

4 

Lead. 
...    05 

0 

70 

80 

Aiilicnony. 

28 

11.18 
20 
8 

Tin. 
0 

83..33 
10 
U 

Qpqi 


No.  1  iii  used  for  lining  cross-head  slides,  rodbrasaes  and  axtebn 
No.  ii  for  liniuB  axle-bearlncrs  and  coiini-cllnfr-rod  brasses  of  benvir  i 
No.  3  for  liriins  eoccntrlc  dlraps  and  for  bronze  Hlide-valves;  onJ  S« 
liM!t.allic  riHl-packinf;. 

.Sonio  of  the  lie.st-kitown  wlilte-nietal  alloyii  are  tlie  rollou'ia| 
of  Hovelurf  [JieokliBUS,  London,  1893): 

Tin.       Antimony.     Lead.      Copp 


L  Parsons'  

8  Rielmnla' 

68 
TO 

1 
IS 

3,  Babbitt's 

SS 

18 

4.   Fentons'    „ 

16 

0 

TJ4 

n 

6.  German  Na»y 

85 

T! 

0 


^ 


"Tliere  are  ensineers  who  obji'ct  to  whit^  tneUil  containing  ImWI'4 
Tills  l«,  lio»evi>>,  a  prfjiidlce  qnile  unfounded,  inlLsmiieh  asleiul  CI 
oflen  iiave  propi-i  ties  of  ^reiit  use  in  whlt>-  nllovK." 

it  in  a  furllier  fact  that  an  "  easy  liquid  "  alloy  i-, 
llutn  MH  of  antimony,  which  is  iiti  invalnnblji  ihcre<i  ■ 
ItnppovinK  iI^^  hnrdni-ss;  but  In  no  case  iiinst  il  exti' 
would  redure  (be  pliuiticity  of  llie  compound  ainl  make  ii  t.riu;.- 

llardejii  alloy  of  iln  and  lea<):  0  tin,  4  leail.  Ilai'dcst  of  all  tin  ntl«r 
till,  18  aniiiiiony,  M  copper. 

Alio?  for  ihlu  o|ien-worl(,  ornnmentAl  castlnjfs:  L»?«il  t,  •iiMM 
White  melal  for  p.illeriis:  I>ead  10,  bismuth  0,  antimony  3.  coninto*  I 
tin  It). 

Tjrpe-mrtal  is  made  of  varioiii;  proportions  of  lead  and  aQCiino<i< 
ITS  to  'Jui  iintlniony  accordiiiK  to  the  lianlness  ilenliwl. 

'•   R.  Toinplclns,  iUrc/iiiiiifuJ  .Vt-     '-  •     ' 
roil-itoKrs  wilU  H  melnl  Ihat  > 
Ml  ludle  Is  not  ivlwayu  f>  mu'  i 
i-erties  as  for  the  couv«n\i«m»  »\»A  cU»*v 
oi  line  wllta  t,>ie  s'l'*'*  ^VtiftfiW  v\«  mm 


tS  CONTAININQ  ASTIMONY.  337 


T<<.xi'-^  I  hat.  are  bored,  no  niAtter  how  ai'ourat*,  rt^qutre  (ri-eat 

"  •tiifs  theui  to  the  frame  or  other  parts  of  u  iimchiDH, 

»i  liont'VBr,  to  us*  (hi>  shaft  for  thy  |iiii  pow  of  uasl- 

L-  .      ,        i  I.V  if  the  fbflft  be  steel,  for  the  rensoii  that  thi-  hot 

o  spring;  it:  tht<  betCfr  plan  in  UiMsea  niantirel  of  the  Haiiie 

largvr  for  tlii»  jjurposi^.     For  HJow-riinninf;  joiiriiuls,  where 

>deral**,  ulriiost  any  metal  that  may  be  convt-'iiiently  uielte*! 

ec  will  answer  the  purpose.    For  weariiin  proia-rlli's,  with  a 

d.  there  in  pi-ohnbly  untliing' -snijerior  to  pur«>  zine,  but  when 

W'iih  Home  <j[her  met  il  jl  sIirinkK  so  n)ni-*h  in  i;ooling  that  it 

flnnly  In  the  reci»j-3,  and  si>on  workH  loose;  ami  it  lacks  thos»> 

0|«Ttie3  Hliii;h  ar«  nect>sf(ary  in  order  to  <>tanil  high  SfM-wl. 

tlnR-,  and  all  work  when-  Ihfl  speed  is  nor.  over  SIX)  or  •ICH)  c.  ii. 

8  parts  zino  auj  Spurts  bloeklin  wdl  not  only  wpar  longw 

KMllion  of  this  elass,  but  will  snccejtsfiilly  rnslsl  the  foroc  of 

The  tin  roiuitcruol.-i  llif  chiiiikaste.  so  that  thi-  inrlnl.  If  not 

[II  firmly  adliere  to  th»?  l)ox  nnlil  it  in  worn  out.     Utit  ihiH 

r»t  pos-^t>ss  Kufflfient  anti-friction  pr"r*rile8  to  wurrorit  it»  iiwj 

IJourualc. 

It*  *<ofC  nietaU  in  nsi'  lhpr«  nre  iiont*  that  pr»ss«*s3  prt-aler  anti- 
lifijlhan  pure  k'ad;  but  If  ad  alone  isiiiipracticabte.  for  it  is  so 
not  b«  ii!iained  in  the  rt'oesu.  Biu  when  by  any  process  lead 
(lly  hardened  ti>  be  retained  in  the  bo.xes  without  moterially 
J-friction  propi-rties,  th»-rH  is  no  inpliil  tliat  will  wear  longer 
Itudne  journals.  WItli  most  of  the  best  and  most  popular 
plals  In  mto  au<l  eoid  under  the  name  of  the  Babbitt  metal, 
i. 

timony  have  Iho  property  of  condiinin^  wilh  each  other  in 

witlionC  impairing;  the  auli  friction  ui-uperties  of  either.    The 

ens  thB  lead,  and  wlien  mixed  In  the  proportion  of  HO  parts 

;  \^  iih    ?T  parts   anii?nony,  no   other  known   ooinposiliou   of 

f  inti-frlction  or  wearing  pro|>erties,  or  will  Ktacid  a 

fi  t  ur  abrasion.     It  nnm  free  in  ilH  melted  state,  has 

B  er  adapted  to  light  hiKli-speedfd  iimchinery  ilifiii 

|»u  nift.il.     Care,  however,  should  be  uianirested  In  u.'^iujf  It, 

brvr  bo  hualed  lieyond  a  temperatme  that  will  H;yiX"h  a  dry 

fci.  -itiona  are  BCilii  under  the  name  of  Babbitt  metal. 

I.  ire  worlhlesB;  while  hut  veiy  Utile  neTuiiiie  Balibitt 

li  -  strictly  according  to  the  original  formula.     Mont 

j")il  uoNr  that  name  are  the  refuse  of  type-foundries  and 
tw  orks,  n»elte<l  and  CAiit  into  fancy  in^olH  witli  spt^'ial  bi'anils, 
•  llie  uam.f  of  IJfibtdtt  metal. 

•t  ilie  present  lime  to  deierminti  the  exact  fornitilas  used  by 
bbitt,  tne  inventor  of  the  n-cussed  box,  as  a  nnndx^r  of  diflTer. 
(re  ifiveii  fur  that  COinposilion.  Tin,  copper,  and  aniinion.v 
lientii,  and  froui  the  best  Buuroes  o(  information  i)ie  uilKlniil 
re  as  follows : 

Another  writer  Elves: 

In  =  8B.3H  88.8:C 

opper =    a.lW  8.M 

luilmony =    T.K  S.SjC 

hu  tint  melted,  and  the  antimony  added  flriit  and  then  about 
Dunds  of  tin,  the  whole  kept  at  a  dull-red  lieut  and  eoii-ilanlly 
>e  ruetaU  were  thorouRhly  Incorporated,  after  which  the 
f  tin  Wa.s  a^iiletl,  nn<l  after  beinj^  thoroU||rhly  Rtirred  af^aln  it 
iritij  lUL'ols,  \vhen  the  ropi>ei-  it*  Ihnroiiphly  inelte^l.  and 
[I  hied,  a  handful  of^  pnwilered  ohnri'oal  should  I* 

h  •'  form  a  flu.v.  In  order  to  exclude  the  air  and  pre- 

vaporiziiif^;  otherwise  mncli  of  it,  will  rs.-uoe  in  iln* 
aod  consequently  be  wasted.     T' 
ttbably  one  of  liic  best  metals  in  u- 
lieavy  welKlit  and  wear;  but  for  i 

ller»  ft  mare  aneceptible  to  fricti'  .u 

Detal  com}>osetl  of  lead  and  antJnr.  i.«v 


r 


STKENGtn   OF   noPES. 
Flat  Bopen. 


330 


if* 

RfffKht 
Fnthom . 


Pounds. 
iiO 
Si 
•X 

30 
M 
40 
45 
!» 
55 

r<n 


Iron, 


Olrtb. 


Tnubes. 


8W 

3«xlT/16 
4     x]|/ie 

<Wx« 

■lWx« 


Weiglit. 

per 
Fathom , 


Founds. 

n 

13 
15 
IC 
18 
30 
23 
1» 


Steel. 


Qlrtb. 


Inches. 


Weight 

per 
Ftttliom. 


Fouads. 


10 

11 
12 
IS 
15 
18 
1« 

ao 


TeDsHe 
StreiigLh. 


Gross  tons. 

sa 

27 

as 

Xi 
36 
40 
45 
SO 
56 
W 


ar    E>oad,    Diameter,    and    IXrelg^ht    of   Ropcfl    and 
cSatHB.    (Klein'B  Weitibacb,  vol.  iii,  part  1,  atec.  3,  p.  5UJ.) 

rii».^!    >i  =  diaru.  of  rop«.     Wire  rope:   li  =  dlam.  of  wire,  n  = 
J     fr  =  weight  per  riiriiiinK   fool,  *;  =  fi'crnilssible  load  In 
'  ••  Inoh  nf  section.  P=  pertnlssiljle  load  nu  rniie  or  L'lialii. 
I  =  diam  of  iron  nwd  ;  inside  diniennioDsot  ovnl  I. .'id  and 

icli  link  in  a  piece  of  cliain  S.dii  Ion?.    (Vo  =  weight  of  a  single  UdIc  = 

$.;  O  =  weiKlit  per  running  foot  =  B,T3(i'  Ids, 


I 


Hempen  Rope. 


Piy  and  Unlarred. 


uao 

0.03  VP 
liaW'  =  8855ff 

=      1.3*/'  =  ooooasp 


AVet  or  Tarred. 


1160 
0.083  i'P 

].54rf>r:0,{lO05P 


Wire  Bope. 


ITOOO 


0.008' 

13.5!iOnrf»  ^  4590(7 
'IMUul*  =C.niKW18P 


tlha.)  = 


Open-link  Chain, 


8500 

0.0087  ^^ 
IJHSOrfi  =  l»60O 
9.7ad'  =  0.OOO737P 


Stud-llnli  Chain. 


11400  _ 

O.0O70  S'F 
1780O(i»  =  1600(7 
10.65cf  >  =  0.0006i» 


Chains  4/8  times  ns  gtron);  as  npon-linlc  vnrintv.     [This  is  contrary  to 
laments  of  Capt.  BeardslEK>,  U.  8.  N.,  in  (he  report  of  the  U.  S,  Test 
Me  hol(la  that  tbe  open  link  is  stronger  than  the  studded  Unk.    See 
mte}. 


SKGTtt  OF   MATBlllALS, 


rRENQTH   AND  WEIOHT  OK  WIKB   BOPE.   HEMPEN 
CHAJN  CABIJ£S.    (Klein 's  WeUb«;h.> 


Jreaking  Load 

[n  tons  of 

«»l01bs. 


Kind  of  Cable. 


16  Tone 


90  Tons., 


I  Tuns.. 


iTooft.. 


44  Tons. . 


61  Tons. 


Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Kope 
Clmiii 
Wtic  RoiMi 
Hoinp  Rope 
CImiii 
Wtre  Bnpe 
HiMnp  Rop« 
Chain 
Wire  Rope 
Hftmp  Rope 
Chuin 
Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Rop« 
L'buiii 
Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Rope 
Chain 
Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Rope 
Clialu 
Wire  Rope 
Hfiiip  Rope 
rimin 
Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Rope 
Cliaiii 
Wire  Rope 
Hemp  Rope 
Cliaio 


Girlli  of  Wire  Rope 

mill  of  Hemp  Rope 

Iliameter  of  Iron 

of  Cbain,  inches. 


3.^ 
7.0 

it/ie 
n.o 

B.O 

la/io 

3.5 
0.0 

4.0 
]0.0 

St/32 
4.6 

u.o 

1.1,10 

S.O 
12.5 

1.3/l« 

5.& 
14.0 

I.S.'IO 

6.0 
15.0 

l.T/in 


WeiKh  . 

Ftxitial 


|Iiength  Bitfflclent  to  pioviJe  the  maximum  working  sli'ess : 

Hempen  rope,  dry  and  untarivd. 9tA 

'•     weturlarrtMl 1873 

Wire  rope ,„  .,  ,  UM 

Open. linli  chain IMO 

Stud  chain 1000 

I  Soineliines,  wlieu  thedepllisai-eTeryirreat.  ropes  are  given  i 
Tit"  fonii  of  n  liodv  of  itnliorm  bireufrili.  by  makiiiKtliemof  «(_ 
k1  ■  Icrs  nimiiiisb  towardx  tile  lower  end.    It  is  eTld«inl  I 

i.Kicurt  in  the  fibres  caused  by  the  rope's  own  wt 
■  liiiiiiii<lied 
_IIo|>e    for    Hvlallue    or    TranaMilmlan.     IHl 
**    \V    Htnil  C'^nipatiy.  New  York.* — l<<ii>^  UHed  for  holiiiin^ 
||lls.sjiin  Iff  p(»weiYs  »snl)jrt'ti-d  to  a  ve)\\   s^'trre  t<*st.     C^ritiitl 
lliil  eriiids  t.i  powder  In  Ute  centre,  while  ihe  exterior  may  I 
\  was  liul*'  woi-ii. 
_    lu  liendinu  a  ro|)e  over  a  sheave.  Iheftrandsand  llieyanu<if  t 
slide  a  fiiiail  diKlaiicc  Upon  eacli  other,  cauxing  (rlctinn,  nod  we 
intemnlly. 
The  "Srevprlnrii "  rope  used  hv  the  C.  W.  Hun;  Co.  Is  iii.-i.l.-  t'V 
he  till!  >.  niixerl  with  siiflloii'nt  tallow  ' 

fliis  li  ii>  iif  tile  inpr.  and  prevenl'' 

ear.  !i  -.rt  limu  the  exterior  of  Ihe  !• 

•    flhres  niu  flr^t  wiuo  iido  a/vn 

I  lUfd  '•  rlKlit  hiiiid.  '    From  JO  to  I 

111  II-.-  -i/i.  .,f  Ihe  roj«",  Ave  vhen  v^iv  \uit«<lMri 

ifvcdon,  or  "lefl  LnnOk,"  \nvo  a.  *».tvuX, 


8TRBNC.TH  OF   ROPES.  341 


r   foiir  for  a  4-Rt.mDd  rope,  are   theit   ttviKt>'>l 

jain  In  llie  "ritt'it  lianil '■  direetinn.    When  llin 

1-  ent'h  of  tin-  Ilirenils,  iinrt   whon   llir   HitvK 

i    intu  riipe.il  uiitwisin  tlie  siriitiilH,  tmt  H|;niii 

_  llie  iiirifiis.     11   IS  iliis  i>p|ioxite  fwlst  that  kt'(-|>H  tlie  ropit  in  its 

iinn.     WbfU  a.  weight  ik  1uii)>;  cut  tiie  end  of  a  ro|ie.  ilii*  teiiu-*ni'y  ia 

rope  to   UTitwUt,  and   l)Ci'niu«  longer,     In   iintwistlngr  tin-  rojie,  it 

lijil  ihe  threaUs  up,  nml  Ilio  «L'li{ht  will  rtvolve  niiiil  iJie  Rlruin  (jf 

risliii^  Ktrantls  just  cqiiulK  the  siruin  of  thtf  tliremis  b^iiif;  t^istiMl 

III  inukiug  a  rope  it  is  iinpu«Hll>li.'  lo  malce  tbe^e  strains  exactly 

meh  other.    It  is  this  fsrt  Ifiot  maUeH  it  nocfssaiy  U>  take  out  lli« 

In  a  aew  rope,  thnt  ia,  untwiot  itnhen  it  k  put  at  work.    The 

list  ()iic  «huuM  Ixi  put  in  tlic  tbrfads  Ims  bevn  aKcertuiued  appiux- 

i  |.'iice, 

work  that  the  rope  will  do  varies  greatly.    It  ilepeuiU  not 

;y  of  the  Hbi-e  and  the  method  of  layiUK  up  the  roiie,  but 

'if  weatlier  whf-n  the  ro|w  ts  used,  the  hlocks  or  Klieaven 

!),  anii  tliH  Ktrain  in  pi'opi'Mlion  to  theMraiu  put  u|inn  th*« 

i|ial   «enr  conie.n  in    pracliL-e  from  defective  or  batlly  Net 

■■S3  of  load  and  exposure  to  storms. 

"on  the  riipu  sliould  not  exceed  those  given  in  the  (alileB, 

•  inioal  wear.     The  indieaiions  of  exeessive  load  will  l>e  the 

if    the  rope,  or  one  of  llie  strands  slippinK  out  of  lis  proi)er 

.iti  HUiuunt  of  iwiKt  comes  out  in  unlng  it  the  first  day  or 

it  the  roi»e  ethould  renutin  sulisuuitiallj'  the  same.    If  it 

I   is  too  great  for  Ilie  durahility  of  the  rope.    If  the  rope 

:  -;ide,  and   is  ^ood  on  the  Inside,  it  slujwti  that  it  has  been 

_  over  the  pulleys  orsheaveji.     If  the  blocks  are  very  small. 

>  .vliding  of  the  strand;)  and  threiidm,  aud  result  in  a  more 

"ir.     Rope  made  for  hoisting  and  for  rope  traitsniission  is 

:,  four  strands,  as  experience  has  shown  tliis  to  l>e  I  he  most 

»ie. 

«aKtb  »nd  weight  of  "stevedore  "  rope  ia  estimated  fts  follows: 

reAkior  strength  in  pnunils  =  790  fclrcumference  Id  Inches)'; 
rdgbt  ID  |>otjnda  per  foot       =  ,032  (circumference  in  inches)'. 

reehnlcal  Wordn  reiatlne  to  Cordage  most  frequeatly 

c: 

—Fibres  twisted  together. 

li  — 'i  IV..  itr  more  xuiitll  tiriotil  twiste<l  together. 

Mt  a.  little  larger  j/arnt, 

twiMted  together. 
I  -nether. 
»  misled  logetlier. 
■  Nree  strnniia. 
of  font'  eirfinrls, 
'ed  together. 
Hil  into  strtintis, 
,       _         Miideil  into  fopo. 
Mtkmib  liAid  \.i\t  iell-iiUiideii  into  a  cable. 
l: 
V  Ik  l-iloL' stiunds  together  In  making  the  rup«. 

rtuollier  ro|)e  by  interweaving  llie  strands. 
■•s.  i\  suing  iiroimd  the  end  to  prevent  untwisting. 
led   by   winding  a   yarn  continuously  and    tightly 
t.  -    " 

t«D.— By  wrapping  with  canvas. 

'    -  Wli^n  I  wi .  porta  are  bound  togelliei^  by  a  .yam,  thread  or  string. 
I .  tnrred  or  greased  to  reHisC  wet. 

'    -linojed. 

iiee  in  a  transnilssion  rope  is  not  only  Ihrt 
first  pni'i  in  fall  when  the  ropejswg 
•  ■••.  tie.'  projecling  part  wlj" 
111  ofr  of  the  sinindB. 

D*  I  t  rojie. 

operftion  in  apU 
ijulj  -j/i'ra vii/^  nuji  wnJi.-  tnuu  a  fuJl-aize  i 


4 

4 


^kS                 stubmqtu 

OF   MATERIALS.            ^^^| 

^B 

y  ■ 

^^^^^^B       ^-.^^a^ 

^  ■ 

k  j^   I 

^^^B  - a   '  S-  £] 

^^^^ 

L       ^ 

^H^^^^j 

^^^^t                    CORE'^^ 

r   1>.      M 

■  A 

f^     fl 

^^^^^^^^B 
^^^^^^^B' 

^■^^^^ 

V    '^a 

B^^^^ 

bBBW^^o  ^^-^'^'-'mAw^^^^^^^ 

£'10.  79.                                     ^^1 

^^^^^^l^^^r^Hf 

^^L         n'  \\  It        ^ 

V^^VI^9^^P^^PVBH^^^^B^^^^Br     ^^ 

^P^     SiT^^ 

p^^^^'^^^'^g^      ^L 

^^^^^^^^^^                                            ^^v 

Fio.  sa                            ^1 

^^^V                         7     8 

T^^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^                    Bpuctxu  of  Rons.                  ^^^^H 

8PUCING  OF   EOPES. 


343 


(>r  twine,  (I  and  10,  around  the  rope  to  be  spliced,  about  (i  rc«( 

i  ■  liiy  the  Btraiids  of  each  end  back  to  the  twimv 

-r  and   twist  each  cnrreHponrtliiK  pair  of  siramla 

pj  in  Ijeiii^  tmiKlHil,  ftH  shown  in  Vig.  18. 

I  ia  now  cut.  and  the  strand  S  unluid  aud  strand  tcareflllly  laid 
fa  distauct"  of  four  and  a  half  foi't  from  tlit>  jiniuliou. 

I  is  next  uiilaid  about  one  and  a  imlf  feet  and  Btntud  S  laid  in 

tUe  cores  ar«  now  cut  off  so  thej'  just  tneet. 

I I  four  and  a  half  feet,  lay  ine  strand  3  iu  its  place. 
I  3  one  and  a  half  feet,  laying  iu  strand  4. 

triuids  off  lo  a  length  of  about  twenty  iuuhes,  for  convenleni!e 

IU. 

IV  tlit>  form  shown  in  Fig.  ru  with  tho  raeeliii);  puinls 

I  ,i|iart. 

t  ^iK-iM'twlvely  8iil)jt-eti'd  to  the  followiiisr  o[»'ra,tlon: 

pint  "f  iiiceiiiiK  of  Ihe  Blrands  8  and  T,  uuhiy  eucli  •me  three 
Ah  tho  strand  Sand  the  strand  i  iu  halves  as  far  hack  as  tliey 
d  and   "  whip  "  the  end  of  each  lialf  strand  with  a  Kinall 

lie  strand  T  ia  now  laid  iu  three  turns  and  tli»  Imlf  of  A  also 

urns.    The  half  strands  now  meet  and  are  t ied  iu  a  iiliupla 

9,  making  tlie  rope  ut  thi.t  tiuiiit  Us  original  size. 

now   opisned  with  a  ninrliii   spike  and  Ihe  Imlf  si  rand  of  T 

I  the  littif  strand  of  S  liy  pa-'isinn  the  end  of  the  liiilf  strand  7 

ipe,  a-s  slinwii  in  the  enprnvinp,  drawn  taiil  and  a|<aiii  worked 

|uf  stmnil  until  it  reaohes  the  half  !<tra<id  13  that  whs  not  laid 

tKiraud   1.3   is  now  split,  and  the  half  slnind  7  drawn  ihroiich 

Us  fUaUe.  and  then  tnt'ki^d  nudnr  the  twt-i  adjai^eut  Ktniiids^  as 

il.    The  other  half  of  the  strand  H  is  now  wound  around  tliu 

^  7  In  tlie  satMH  manner.     Aftt^r  eaeli  pair  4if  strands  haa 

•  tliii  innnner,  ilio  ends  are  cut  orf  lU.  I'.',  learini;  them  uIkiuC 
B.  After  u  few  days'  wearlhey  will  draw  into  Ihe  body  of  the 
(f.  MO  that  the  locality  of  the  splic^e  can  scarcely  lie  detected. 
CiitK.     It".  >V.   Hunt  Co.). — Tlie  nuKjiint  of  coal  that  can  be 

rope  vane.s  tyreatl.v.  Under  tlie  ordinary  f^nditions  of  use 
Irom  5000  til  fHKK)  toni^.  Where  the  ciieunistances  are  more 
Rnioiints  run  up  fretpieiitly  to  12,0tK)or  l-VOOO  tons,  occosioo- 
pd  in  one  ease  iL\-tOO  toim  lo  a  single  fall. 
Ing  ioiM<  is  fii>it  put  in  use.  It  is  likely  from  tlie  strain  put  upon 
rtieo  lUe  liloel!  is  loosened  from  tliu  tub.  This  occurs  in  the 
•ro  only.  The  rope  sliould  then  be  taken  down  and  the 
lout  of  the  ro|>e.  When  put  up  aKain  the  rope  ashould  give 
Ible  until  worn  out. 

y  that  ilie  rope  shoijld  l>e  much  lanrer  than  is  needod  to  bear 
I  the  looit. 

pxrience  for  many  years  has  siibslantially  sellled  the  most 
Bof  rope  to  be  usi'il  whicli  is  irivi-n  iu  the  tiilile  bel^iw. 
M  Ore  not  splk-ed,  us  it  is  diffleiUt  to  make  a  splice  lliat  will 
bile  runnini;  over  the  sheaves,  and  liie  iiivreused  wear  lo  Uo 

•  way  is  very  small. 

[iy  liolsted  with  what  is  conitnonly  called  a  "  double  whip;  " 
runiimi;  liloclf  that  is  attiiehed  to' the  tub  whicli  reduces  the 
|ie  lo  aiiproxiniaiely  one  half  the  weight  of  the  loud  lioi.sted. 
table  gives  tile  usnul  size's  of  Itoistin^  rope  and  the  proper 


.S44 


STKENGTH   OF   MATERrALS. 


III 

^    »/16 


'Weight  &nd  Strenglb  of  nanila  rord 

Dodge  ilhDUtacturing  Oo. 


»/)6 


1  1/10 

1_ 


5   S 


12 

IH 

30 
S" 
4fl 
65 
ft) 
9M 
IJO 

ua 
:;o 

300 

27] 


«  St 

111 


541) 

0» 

1.000 

l.«80 

1,M9 

a.sso 

4,000 
5,000 
0.SBO 
T,S0() 
9.000 
10,S00 
18.«S(> 
H.OOO 


•d 

1. 

§  i 

« 

-P 

5^ 

"SSB 

-2- 

"a 

^?a     1 

50- 

5  " 

1  -vid 

810 

.«'   4" 

l"f^ 

346 

a^ 

I7I 

890      1 

an 

1  9/15 

43S       1 

17  8 

\^ 

480 

IS 

sei 

n  s 

s 

678 

7    0 

'?4 

797 

6 

s- 

WO 

5 

Sf 

I.IOC 

4    S 

9h, 

13s      I 

3    C 

8'^i 

1,4S0 

3 

8 

1.57S 

8    7 

^ 

1.700 

2  a 

1.961 

1 

^V    T.  Sppm-er  Miller  iKun'il  AViph.  Dec.  8. 1x90)  •_•■■•.     •'      ' 

^^1  lireftUin^  slreii^th  t}(  tnaniln  ro[j4>,  whit-'h  ho  *' 

^B  the  strviiKth  L'oiiipuleil  In-  Mr.  Uunt'tt  fonnul.i 

^^  fi^ireuinrerence  In  iMchesl'-'.     Mr.  Miiler'tf  formula  c^.   opfim  ju^  w«m 

ciremnfcieiiee'  x  a  ciiefflcient  whicb  Tories  from  900  for  I4"  »  ' 

illametiT  ro|«.-,  <is  shown  in  Ihe  table, 


Plam. 
ill. 


Circuin- 

tereuce. 

In. 


3 


intimate 

8lreiiRlh. 

Itw. 


2,000 
3,a50 
4.000 
13.POO 
7,000 
«,8S0 


Coeffi- 
cient, 


900 

R45 
t<30 
790 
7S0 
765 


Diam. 
ill. 


CIrouui- 

fer«a«». 

In. 


'iU\ 


For  r"iM»-<lrivioe  Mr.  Hunt  recoiiiniemlK  thai  the  wnrkp 
liiot  rxc-erii  1 AJO  nf  iliv  uiiim&te  brfskiuK  strain.    For  fur 
[•Hef  "  lioiw*-4i living." 

Knota.-.V  Kifdt   iiumlMT  ot  IcnoUi  have  been  iltirin 
loiil.varc  iltiiHirHtfd.  but  tliosi'  selected  are  the  ino!i.t  fn 
itUe  cul.i.  Fip  Sa.  they  aresliown  open,  or  l>efor>' 
tto  uliow  the  position  of  the  parts.    The  names  1 

A.  Bight  of  a  rope. 

B.  8ifii|ile  or  OTertiaud  knot. 

C.  FiKiire  H  knot, 

D.  Di>iil)lf  liiiot. 

E.  rtojit  liMot. 

F.  Bowline,  first  step, 

0.  Bon  line,  »eeun<I  step.  V.    !■  rrA] 
H.     Bowline  i-oinpl«'ted. 

1.  Square  or  reef  knot. 
J.     Sheet  Vienil  or  weaver"?  knot. 
K.    Sheet  lj«*iij  «illi  8  tofjgle. 

Currk'k  linid. 
Stavedure  kuot  completed. 

8(eviK.lof6  knot  commenoed, 
aup  knot. 


P. 

H 

i: 

I 
11 

8. 

•1: 

T. 

(■ 

V. 

U 

V. 

T' 

\v. 

1! 

X. 

K 

Y. 

1; 

Z. 

WjuI  Uii.,1 

A  A 

.. 

BB. 

V.  All  kuoC 

CVl, 

»»        «* 

KK018. 


priuciiiW  of  a  knot  is  that  no  two  pnrta,  which  would  mov«  in 

■  111  it  llie  n.pe  were  to  slip,  should  lay  along  ni  ie  of  aitil  UiuofiT 

Is  on-  of  ihp  ino-"!  us»ful  knots,  it  will  not  slip,  and  after 
-iitiotl.     Commence  by  inakinsra  bipht  in  (ho 
ihe  biglit  and  under  Hip  smndlnj;  part  as  sho' 
'I  tlirautfU  iliH  hitflil.  and  bmil  tiji;lil. 
■  i-miiu'.'  •r  ri"i-f  kifiii   miisi   nut  be  n)islaU>-n  for  tlif  "  praiinv  " 
sli|i«  tinder  a  Klrain.    Knots  //.  A'  »od  .v;  aie  eoail)'  iinti>-d  after  bi-iiij; 
r  strain.    Ti(4?  kmit  M  is  uwftil  xvbfii  tlie  rope  passes  Ihroueli  an  eye 
•  hrld  by  the  knot,  as  it  will  not  slip  and  ia  eaail;  untit^d  oftsr  being 
aed. 

A  a  e  D  e 


3^ 

in^^l 

AJ\iOS- 

.fter 
cnot 


UA.UVIX1UAJUU   'VJV 


p-rop»l 


To  Splice  a  'Wire  Rope.— The  tools  required  will  be  i 
spiki-.  nipping  cutters.  an<l  either  clam;is  or  a  small  hemp-rop^t 
which  to  Hi'ii])  aroiiixl  nuii  utitwiKC  the  rope.     If  a  l)«nch-viiie  1*1 
It  will  lie  r>juii(l  eonvwiiienl 

Id  splicioK  rope,  n  c«rtaln  lenRtli  is  used  up  in  iiiakiDgf  ibe  s|i 
alliiivmii-e  of  not  l&xs  thnn  16  feot  for  ^  incjh  rope,  drul  pnvpof 
Irintcer  for  lai-ger  sizi'f,  must  be  adiled  tu  the  length  of  an  emuM 
<irdei-iiig. 

IIuvin>:  nivaiitirBd,  carefully,  the  length  the  rope  should  lie  >( 
ing,  anil  marked  the  points  M  and  J/',  Fip.  W8,  unlay  the  strandl  t 
end  Eaiid  K'  to  M  an\i  M'  and  cut  off  the  centre  at  Af  and  Af',  and 

(H.  Iiit'MiiM'k  tho  six  unlaid  strands  of  oooh  t-nd  alternately  I 
Ihem  liigftlifr  so  tlint  the  points  JIf  and  M'  nipr-c.  lis  in  Tig.  tH. 

{2k  Unlay  a  t^tiaiid  from  one  end.  and  foIKivvint:  the  unlay  clo«eh 
the  seam  or  groove  it  opens,  the  strand  opposite  it  tx-lonpng  to  ] 
end  of  the  rope,  until  within  a  leiipth  e<]ual  to  three  or  four  tiniM  \ 
of  oiia  lay  of  the  rope,  and  cut  the  other  >;trand  to  at>out  the  i 
from  the  ]">iiit  of  nieetinir  as  at  A,  Tig.  85. 

(^>.  Unlny  the  adjacent  -strand  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  tttHl 
unlay  closely,  Iny  iu  itji  plnce  the  correapoudlnK  opposite  strand,  d 
ends  ns  dfscril>ed  before  at  H.  Fi(r.  85. 

There  are  iio»'  foiii-  strands  laid  in  place  terminatiDg  at  A  l 
eight  remalninc  at  IH  M',  as  in  Vig.  Hfi. 

It  will  l>e  well  after  laying  each  pair  of  strands  to  tiethetnl 
the  pnintii  A  and  U. 

Pursue  the  same  course  with  tlie  remaining  four  pairs  of  oppodj 


DMt 

lias 
tttoj 

._id,ci 

oppocfli 


■  proper  places  wit 


Fio.  86.  Fto.  87. 

SpLICI.VO  WlRK  ROPB. 

slopping  each  pair  about  eight,  or  ten  turns  of  the  rope  ahi 
Ing  pair,  and  cutting  tlie  cuds  as  liefore. 

We  noiv  have  all  tlie  strands  laid  in  their 
Ive  eiiils  iio-ising  each  other,  ax  in  Fig.  ^16 

All  nietho'lH  uf  rr'pettplicing  are  identical  to  this  point ;  their 
Rists  in  the  method  uf  tudttng  the  ends.    The  one  given  below 
most  genHnillv  practiced. 

Cl^nip  the  rope  either  in  a  vise  at  ft  point  to  the  left  of  .1,  Flp  W 
hand-clanip  applied  near  .4,  open  up  the  rope  by  unt\u  " 

cut  the  core  at  A,  and  seizing  it  witli  the  nippern,  let 
otlt  «lo"|y.  you  following  it  cln.<elv,  crowding  the  strai 
is  ail  laid  in.  Cut  the  core  wln-re  the  strand  ends,  an 
into  its  place.  Remove  the  clamps  and  let  the  rope  cli- 
Draw  out  the  eore  in  th"  opposite  direction  nod  lay  tin 
C'-ntre  of  the  rojie,  in  the  game  manner.  Repeat  the 
remaining  jMiint.s.  and  hainnier  the  rope  liphtly  at  the  i 
pa-ss  each  'iilier  at  A,  A,  H.  /?.  etc.  v(  ith  Binnll  wo<nl. 
splice  i-  '  lut  shown  in  Fig.  S7. 

If  n  ■■  "e  are  not  ol)taiiiahle.  two  rope  allQg»  and  dio| 

Ipvf'r«  I  !  to  unMvi>^i  and  <i|i©ti  tjp  the  rope.  J 

.4  aliove  will  he  ncnrly  its  st mng  as  thi>  ortctnaj 

"     After  rnnrdng  ii  f>'w  days,  the  splice,  if  n 

c.:  M-ept  by  clost!  examination. 

■jiir-  lotloua  hove  Ixsen  adopted  bj  Iho  loading  top* 


HELICAL  STEEL  SPRINGS. 


SPRINGS. 

ftloiM.     A  spiral  spriti^  lis  onr>  which  i.t  iround  nrounri 

ceuti^e,  and  conlhiually  lecedinir  from  It  like  a  \vuh.-li  «|ii'inK', 

prdiK  Is  one  whicli  in  wounri  around  an  arbor,  nml  a'  ihi'  iMiriie  llnni 

:  hkt^  the  tbrejid  of  a  screw.     An  flliplieai  or  iHiuinatefl  Kjiriii^  b 

(lot  liars,  plnirs,  or  '■l(?:iveK,"  of  rrgiilurly  vnryiiij,' Iciigtli.s,  wijier- 

Nl  One  nnori  llip  -itliHr. 

Iiiiiuat«d  iltecl  Spring*. -Clivrk  (Rnlfs.  Tablets  and  Diito)  nlvea 

"»Mii>g  Crom  his  uoik  on  Aiii'iray  Machinery,  1855: 

A  _  1  66Z.°  _   bfH  _  1  mW 

I  =  clastioity,  or  d>?flectif>n,  In  sixteenlhs  of  an  hich  per  ton  of  load, 
t  =  wurkini? strength,  or  lond.  h)  tons  (i'MO  lljs.), 
-  '■■■'■^    when  loifcdeii.  hi  inches, 

;  :h  of  pliites.  in  Inches,  taken  as  iinifonn, 
<"$$  of  plnteK,  in  8ixt««ntlis  of  an  Inch, 
t  _  „.,...u<^r  of  pUiteti. 
Hfc— The  span  and  the  elasticity  are  those  dtia  to  the  spring  when 


mmii 


I 


.'ra  Ihtcic  hack  and  short  plates  are  used,  they  must  be  replaced 
..••nt  number  of  jilates  of  the  rulii^g'  thickness,  prior  lo  the  em- 
ilie  first  two  formula;.    This  ia  fonnd  by  miiltiplyinc  fhp  mim- 
exua  thick  plntes  by  ilie  cube  of  their  thickiiettf,  and  dlvidin^r  by  tho 
Ilie  rulhi);  thicknes.-!.    L'ODverfiely,  the  miinher  of  plates  of  the  ruliiie 
(J  ven  by  the  IhinI  forniulH,  required  to  b^  Jeiiucteil  liiiil  replttcea 
uulier  of  extra  ihiek  plates,  lire  foiifiil  by  the  same  t'fik'Ulalion. 
Lined  that  thtt  plute.*  are  slniil.trly  and  reKularly  formed,  Btid 
(if  uniform  breadth,  nud  hut  t^liKlilly  taper  at  the  ends. 
Constructor  gives  for  semiellijitic  xpriugs: 


P  = 


Snhh* 
61 

t  max.  direct  flhre-ntralu  in  plate; 
=  nUdilKT  of  plates  in  spring; 
E  oDP  half  leii^tli  of  spring; 
Eload  ou  one  end  of  iipriiif;; 


and     /  = 


6Pf» 

b  =■  width  of  plates; 

h  =  thickness  of  plates; 

/  =  deflection  of  end  of  aprine; 

E=  ra. •      •  ■ 


I 


>duliia  of  direct  elasticity', 

ve  foriuiilft  for  deflection  can  be  relied  upon  where  all  the  platen 

-  Ill-*-   reifularly  shortened;  but  in  semi-elliptic  sprinj^s,  aa  used, 

.-rally  several  platt.-s  i-'XtemUng  tlio  full  length  of  tlic  spring, 

rtiou  uf  tb<!se  long  pUites  lo  the  whole  number  is  usually  uboui 

t.hpi*  ^^ 


I  bmrth     In  such  casoa  / 


JCiMt'' 


(G.  R.  Henderson,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.I 


i.'oiniMjre  the  formulw  of  Reuleaux  and  Clark  «e  may  make 

:  KuhsllMillons  in  the  latter:  <  in  tons  =  fiu  lbs. -i- 11:^0;  as  = 

,  I  7=  IQJi;  then 

iMxBfXP  „., ,  TP 


Aa~W  = 


whence     /  =  j 


■  -lOOO  X  n-JO  X  nlih''  ^       S,BS7,183' 

Ml  corresponds  with  Keuleaux'a  formula  for  deflection  if  in  the  lattec 
»  e  i  Il.J,IC.'.HO0. 


P  SSOiiWi'  , 


/»  = 


la.  68711  ft/t' 

I 


n.U  with  Reuleaux's  formula  for  working  loa<]  when  .S'lu  ( 
■    I 'JO. 
iisuully  taken  at  80,000,000  and  S  at  SU,0IX),  in  wlilch 
,,  ji;e'  become 

i».yaiifcfc«  .  j^* 

(  ona       /_  5  oQo  O00,i6/i«' 

_1  Steel  8prliiK«.  -f'lark  quotes  the  following  from  Ul 
Vttlvcs  tTrans.  In.-.i.  Engrs.  and  Shiplitiilders  in  Scotlai 
,l»  y.  w 


P  = 


BFBH^aS. 


1 


compreKBion  or  extenalon  of  one  eoQ  in  tnobea,  

diameter  from  centre  to  cectre  of  steel  bar  cOnstttttHnC  I 

in  inchtss, 
weight  applied,  lu  pouodH, 
diartmtvr,  or  sid«  of  tht;  irquare,  of  the  steel  bar.  In  sixt««eDii  1 

■null, 
.  constant,  which  may  he  fatten  as  &l  for  round  ste«lj 

sqiiar«  steel, 

^        — Tlie  deflection  E  for  one  coll  1«  to  be  mnltiplied  by  ( 

«e  coils,  to  obtain  the  total  d>-llection  for  a  f^ven  spring. 

The  relation  between  the  sufe  load,  size  of  steel,  and  diAineUiri 


7  ted 


be  token  for  practical  purposes  as  follows: 
^H  D  =  i/ ^1  'or  round  He«l: 

^^^■mkine*! 

^^^  Tn  islil/«1t 


for  gquare  steeL 


Bkine's  Machinery  and  Millworlc,  p,  300,  gives  tiie  foUov 


V 


ir,  = 


■  19C/cf' 


=  greatest  safe  sudden  load. 


a 

In  which  d  is  the  dlameKr  of  wire  in  Inches;  c  a  ( 
elasticity  of  wire,  say  10,500,000  to  ia.(KKi.O(W  for  char 
I  radius  to  centre  of  win'  in  coil;  ii  effective  number 
shearing  stress,  say  30,000;   tV  any  load  not  exeeediiij?  ^;IWlI^st  i 
r  correspoudiuif  extension  or  conijirrssioii:   ^\',  jjreateist  luifo  I 
greatest  safe  hteacly  extension  or  compresBlou.  j 

If  the  wire  is  pqiiare.  of  the  diiiienHiuus  it  x  rf,  the  load  for  a  ^Itmi  a 
tloti  is  greater  than  for  a  round  » ire  <if  the  dianiuier  J  In  the  ratio  uft 
l.BtS  or  of  1 .48  to  1 ,  or  of  10  to  *,  nearly. 

WilwinHnrlneU  (Proc.  Inst.  M.  K,  18*;.  p.  .Iiv  "'  •-' 

!^prln(;  may  be  calculated  from  the  funnnbi  on 
fttl  Ittll^y  and  Tables";  but  the  experience  wi!  ■ 
iliat  the  aflfe  limit  of  KtreBB  is  more  than  tn 
namely  BO.OX)  to  70.000  lbs.  per  square  lueli  uf  - 

about  50.01KI  with  Vi  Inch  wire.     Hence  th.^  .     ... 

8prlDt;8  of  wire  Ik  four  or  livo  times  as  great  u»  Uanume  iuijivb. 

For  9i  inch  wire  and  umier, 

„      .  ,      J  ,     lu  18.000  X  (diam.  of  wlrr>» 

Maxiniiim  load  in  lbs.  — 


Weight  tn  lbs.  to  deflect  iiprlng  t  in.  =  j= 


('■W 


Mean  radius  of  - 

IS'.'' 

NumlM*r  t 

The  work  In  foot-poiuidii  that  can  be  stored  up  In  a  spiral  giitiAC  I 
lift  It  above  50  ft. 

Ill  a  few  rouKh  experiment*  nia'l'  ,  t|io  i 

rlpidllv  was  noticed  to  tie  l',',(K)0,(« n  i, 

r..r  il/a-I  iiiili:  nn.t  Kl.liOD.IHK)  to  11'  ' 

Heilral  Sprlngrn.-,).  UeK'ti-nj.,  in  lb..  .l./ifii<-iiN  JfurA/afl 
IH,  iw.',  «lve.-  r.ii  iiiiilii-  fur  ilie  deilection  and  carryinif  capacit; 
«4pringii  of  round  iiu^l  Hi^inire  steel,  Jilt  Tollow: 

w=.sk:^     ) 

V  for  rouiul  staeL 

'    ~  °  >M1         •        1 


for  aquars  i 


HELICAL  SPKINGS.  349, 


,  W^  enrryinK  capavity  iu  poiindH, 
S  =  gipatHst  Uiusile  KlreKs  per  square  inch  of  material, 
d  =  ili&ni'ter  nf  stt-el, 
I)  =  uiilsl<l(?  diftiiieier  of  coil, 
F—  deflection  of  onp  coil, 
£=  torKi'jiial  muiiulus  of  elasticity, 
P  —  loot!  iu  pounds. 

I  tbrnc  fonnulas  tlie  folioning  tal)ie  ho!;  he^n  caloiilat4Nl  by  Mr.  Beg'-l 

A  !;priii^  be>li<i;  made  of  uu  elautlc  iiiai«iial,  and  of  Eucli  Kliaut!  mb  iO| 
■fdefliMjliori,  will  not  Uh  affected  by  sudden  siioelts  or 
•nt  ns  a  litjid  body,  and  a  factor  of  safety  Vfi-y  inuc" 
>triicliutui  may  be  usetl. 


I  «Uicofni 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  TABLE. 


ugoTofc  a  spring  for  contiououB  work,  afi  a  car  spring.  UM  mt 
factor  of  iiafely  tlian  In  the  table;  for  intermittent  worlciii?,  as  In  J 
n-en^ne  governor  or  safely  valve,  use  figures  plven  in  table;  fop' 
steel  iiiuhtply  line  irby  \.-i  and  line  Fity  .50. 

ojtlr  t. — How   mucli  will  a  spring  of  &^"  round  steel  and  3"  outside 
er  carry  with  saft-ly  1    In  the  line  benued  I)  we  find  3.  nnil  rl){bl  Uii- 
Lh  178,  whicb  is  the  welRbt  it  will  carry  with  safety.   How  iiiiiny  coils j 
\is  sprliif?  have  ko  an  to  deOeot  3"  with  a  load  of  4IK)  r>oniHii$  *   Assuiii-1 
iixftihi-!  i>f  elasticity  of  IJ  millions  we  find  in  tlie  centre  line  heiideil 
10;  lliis  lit  drfleclion  of  one  eoiJ  for  a  load  of  llH)  iionmlK; 
4  =  .an"  is  deflecMon  of  one  coll  for  -UK)  pounds  load,  and  3 
lie  number  of  cuils  wanted.     This  spring  will  therefore  b« 
\e  wlir-n  el<«ied,  counting  working  coils  riily.  and  stretch  tu  '•%". 
iplr  S. — -\  spring  3(..("  oulslde  diameter  of  7/IG"  Meet  in  wound  cloae; 
Itch  raTi  it  tie  eiiended  without  e.\cetMlinir  the  limit  of  stifefy  y    W« 
i»i"i  '       iiJ  tor  this  spring  to  be  TM  pound''.  Jind  deflection  of  I 

If..'  I  ■  loail  .0405  iiiche.s;  Iberefore  7.(12  x    niOo  =  .-iM"  \»  tliol 

t  ».;  iiening  between  coils.     We  inny  tlins,  wilhuut  kliow«| 

!>ja<l,  (i^-. 'rutin  whether  a  spring  Ik  overlondeil  or  not. 

rtilK  Capmclty  aad  Deflet'tion  of  He  Ilea  I  SprinirM  of 
Boaud  ^teol. 

liatiieier  of  6t4^1.     D  ~  uiithide  diameter  of  coil.     H*  =  safe  workliift^ 

f,,..,..  "--•.'....M..  ci..usq  not  exceediug  tW.iWO  pounds  per  nqiiare  iiicli!' 
li»  [xiuuds  of  uuH  coil,  and  a  modulus  of  elaMll-1 
respectively.    The  ulllinate  carryiuf^  ciipacitj^l 

.....,i .,.^, — .;  load.  1 


StI 

.50 

.71> 

1.00 

1.25 

K 

16 

« 

7 

n 

OKO 

.anwi 

\.va 

S.aOi 

7.3SO 

OflU 

.auTs 

i.sai 

3.058 

0.-JI4 

0>07 

.VlAi 

i.oaa 

3  544 

S.178 

=.n 

75 

1.00 

i.ai 

l.iW 

65 

46 

«> 

39 

.0887 

.SOTiO 

,iwi-j 

.a«.w 

-  , ,  > 

.QN04 

,2191 

.48.19 

.feJIS 

\>\\\\ 

.(»70 

.m 

.3WX1 

.7010 

7^ 

I     (Ml 

l.S) 

1  nd 

1.75 

l!« 

104 

8M 

.01)07 

.ITOS 

.280(1 

,0T7M 

.1100 

.94.'>7 

U^il'J 

.OtlJS 

.f.'17 

.«01S 

'  .^tl 

1    7.- 

8.00  ■  a.ta  1 

.1087 

nA«  fi 

.  liJSW 

.       ,  -,     OSUl  .;S6V  ./B44I 

'*i,  .iU7hI  .ohm  .OTB-il  .11371  .jOlOl 


V      »M) 

"^ 

■r 

SPBINQS. 

^1 

^1           Carrying  i 

sTpwcuy  ■ 

nd  IleOectlon  of  flSueSniH 

■ 

Round  Steel.— (Coii/itiiifti). 

^1 

D 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

S.50 

2.75 

8.00 

3.35 

8.901 

1          ^ 

W 

600 

SCKI 

426 

371 

829 

29Q 

207 

245 

( 

.OliM 

.0242 

.0302 

.0503 

.0854 

.1187 

.liiSS 

.2066 

.2640. 

H 

f] 

.0117 

.0207 

.0386 

.0508 

.0732 

.1012 

.ia.'.7 

.1771 

2263  . 

^1 

J_ 

.0097 

.0173 

.0280 

.0424 

.0610 

.0853 

.113)1   .1476 

.1886. 

^^1 

n 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 

3.00 

8.25 

8.50  ,'  3.75 

~sk 

w 

765 

663 

isy 

528 

473 

43:3 

398  1     368 

*9 

.0169 

.02A9 

.0377 

.0528 

.0711 

.0935 

.1200i    .1513 

.imR 

F- 

.0145 

.0222 

.0323 

.0462 

.0610 

.0801 

.1029 

.  1297  .  tow! ' 

^^Iw- 

D 

.0130 

.0185 

,02tJ9 

.0376 

.a!j«« 

,0668 
3.25 

.OHM) 

.lOttl  .(338. 

^^^^~ 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 

8.00 

8.50 

3  75     4.00 

ir 

1£63 

1089 

937 

8,53 

770 

702 

044 

596      U4 

^ 

.0081 

.0120 

.0180 

.0262 

.0357 

.0472 

.0617 

.n::.'  (itiui . 

~        II 

F- 

OOGS 

.OlOU 

.0160 

.0225 

.0306 

.0405 

.0529 

■a 

"F 

.0068 

.0090 

.0138 

.0187 

.0255 

.0337 

.0441 

~ 

8,00 

3.23 

S.50 

2.75 

8.00 

3  25 

3,50 

~3.75     4fl 

S 

w 

1063 

1683 

1472 

1309 

1178 

1071 

982 

906     H 

i 

I 

OOIS 

.O0C7 

.0080 

.0141 

.0191 

.0259 

.0336 

.0427  .^H 

f\ 

.0086 

.0(X->7 

.0085 

.0121 

.01B7 

.0822 

.0288 

.0860  :^H 

•« 

_2 

.ocm 

.0048 

oori 

.0101 

.0139 

.OIK) 

.0240 

.om^H 

1 

D 

2.50 

3  75 

3.00 

8  26 

8.50 

8.75 

4.00 

4.25    "oSP 

H' 

2168 

1016 

1?20 

1500 

ur, 

1815 

129) 

J137     imis 

eS^ 

.005« 

.OOKl 

.0112 

.0151 

.0197 

.0252 

.0816 

,0390  .0474', 

H 

J!"- 

.OUS 

.0070 

.0090 

.012» 

.0169 

.0210 

.0S71 

.0334  .OM  . 

L  ^ 

D 

.0040 
8..VI 

.0058 

.0080 

.0106 

.0141 

.0180 

.0225 

.0278  .0889. 

m  17 

2.75 

300 

8.25 

3..'H) 

3.75 

4  00 

4.2s      4.S0 

II 

W 

3066 

2707 

242-i 

2191 

2001 

1841 

1704      1587  1  14»l 

.0034 

.0040 

.0068 

.0092 

OlJI 

.0155 

.0196,     airx  (f-liT 

F- 

.OOW 

.0042 

.(KB9 

.0079 

.0104 

.0133 

.0168.    ." 

rs 

.0024 

.0035 

.0049 

.ouce 

.0086 

.0111 

.0140     ' 

4.5<l      4.1.-.       ■•" 

D 

3.00 

3.2S 

8. SO 

3.75 

4.00 

4  25 

III 

W 

8311 

2988 

2783 

2500 

2311 

2151 

2009  1  i.--.-.     i;:: 

t 

.0048 

.0058 

.OffiV 

.0100 

.0127 

.0167 

0198    .1'.    ;    ■    , 

^C 

^1 

.C0S7 

.OOSO 

.IW66 

.0086 

.0108 

.0185 

.0165      ■ 

1 

.WHO 

.0042 

OOM 

.0071 

,0090 

.0112 

.0138,     ' 

^ 

D 

3.00 

8.25 

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8.75 

4  00 

4.25 

4.B0     4  75 

|S 

II 

II" 

4418 

397« 

3615 

8318 

8058 

2810 

2651      S4.% 

I 

.0028 

.0038 

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.0105 

.0129    .0157 

J^^H 

f\ 

.0094 

0033 

.0044 

.0057 

.0072 

.0090 

.0111;   .0188 

"S^H 

•o 

1 

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.00-.'7 

.ooae 

.0047 

.OOflii 

.0076 

.0098    .0118 

M 

o 

3. SO 

3  75 

4.0O 

4.25 

4.50 

4.75 

5.00   8.au]^l 

k 

»' 

eut3 

54flO 

5051 

4676 

4H.M 

4073 

382C     S^^^H 

f\ 

0021 

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.00«5 

.0045 

.0055 

.0067 

.0081  .oannH 

II 

.0018 

.UOKI 

.ooao 

003S 

0047 

.oam 

t»7o  .ncBjH 

■0 

\ 

.ooie 

.0080 

,0020 

.0032 

.0039 

.0048 

.00581   .0009  .an 

p 

8.S0 

S.75 

4  00 

4.25 

4.60 

4.75 

.'.  .                    •  "' 

i 

w 

942.'> 

8M8 

7854 

JTJ50 

BT32 

62Ja 

f>^ 

It 

1 

.0012 

,0016 

.0021 

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.003:1 

0U41 

.l"'  1 

f\ 

.0010 

.0014 

.0018 

.0023 

0028 

.0035 

.OOU      ■ 

1 

.OOCH 

.0011 

.0016 

.0019 

.OlW.'i 

.0029 

.0083|     , 

Thft  fominlffi  ftir  ilefleotlon  or  compr*!sslon  given  \yy  CUl'l 
tteclnip.  nlliinnirti  very  dilTereiit  iu  forui.  hIiuw  a  KubstHl 
when  f^  ■'■  ■ '■"■II,.  fi.iiii.    I/;t  <i  s=  diameter  or  wlr#] 

mr»'  It   I  lie  number  ot  uov\&,  w  vte  «,y 


H>0  pounds  to  cause  comp.  or  ext.  of  1  in.  =     „^ 

nOcient  C  reduced  from  Martnell's  formula  is  8  y  180,0(X)  =1,440,000; 

to  Clark,  10*  y  £2  =  1,441,702,  and  accordins  to  Begtrup  (usIliR 

tar  the  torsioniil  rnoduluo  of  elustiolt}')  =  13.000,000  -•-  ?  =  1,600,000. 

»'■  fomuln  (or  greatest  safe  ezt«naion,  t',  =  -^^^ — ■,  ■^'    may  Uke 

cd 
78A4n/)  1 
*'  ~  "     lood      1*  '^  "■«  *>."<*  ^"^  12.000,000  as  the  values  for  / 
teetiTely. 

Mat  fomiulfe  for  safe  load  Kiven  above  may  be  thus  compared, 
lot  diameter  of  wire,  and  O,  =  mean  diameter  of  coil,  Roiikine, 

KTcUrk.  IT  =  *^^';  Begtrup,  W  =  ■^.,    naru,ell. 

.     Substituting  for  /  the  value  30,000  given  by  Ranlcine,  and  for 

d'  d' 

Ml  giveo  by  Besl^rup,  we  have  IK  =  11,700  ^r-  Rankine;  12,888  j.- 

d*  rf 

,SeS-=r  B^trup;  :;4.000  -7-  Hartnell. 
iv,  I), 

from  the  Pennsylvania  Eailrottil  speciflcalioas  (he  capacity  when 
the  followlnesprines.  in  which  rf  =  diameter  of  wire,  D  diameter 

lil,  Oi  =  b  —  d,  c  capacity,  B  height  wlten  free,  and  h  height 

All  In  inches. 

d  =  J4        D=1H     /),  =  !«         «  =  «?      ff=   ?    '•  =  ? 


8  3H  l.WO  8  6 

a                 H^i  &  S.IOO  7  4U 

1                      5  4  B,100  lOU  8 

lU                  8  «K  lO'OOO  *  S?^ 

m  m  ^         le.ooo  ■!«      88 

Jog  the  values  of  0  In  the  formula  c  =  W  =  a-  —  we  find  a:,  the 
to  ba  respectively  33,000;   38,000;   33,400;   £4.888;    34,6flO; 

rij.ooo. 

<P 
I  OB  the  eoelHcIenl  of  zr-  according  to  Ranlcine  and  Clark  for 

1  24,000  as  the  coefficient  according  (o  Beptrup  mid  Hartnell, 
pthe  Bafe  load  on  iliese  springs,  as  we  take  one  or  the  oUier  co- 

T.  8.  K.         D.          I.            C. 

I  Clark ISO  600  l.OliS  3.0O0  3,750      5,400  lbs. 

.    300  l.afiO  S!,024  CtHKI  7.600  lO.WO    " 

when  closed,  aaabova    400  1,'JOO  !2,100  8,100  10,000  16,000    " 

loud  (Trans.  A.  8.  M.  E,,  r,  173)  gives  the  following: 

P  =  load  on  spring; 

8  =  maximum  Hhcaring  flbre-strain  In  bar; 
d  —  diameter  of  8(eel  of  wlilch  sprini;  is  made; 
J!  =  radius  of  centre  of  coil; 
{  =  length  of  bar  U-forv  collinjt; 
O  =  mndulun  of  ghenrin;.'  plnslicity; 
/  =  deflecMoD  of  sprint,'  under  load, 

ikes  S  =  80,000  and  0  =  1->,aoa,000. 
kin  a  helical  spring  is  almost  wholly  one  of  torsion.    For  i 
pe  (ormule  tor  springs  from  (orsfooal  formula  aets  McJ 


aELlCAL  SP&tNGS.  351 

Compression  or  extensioii  of  one  coll  =  :~^\^; 

Cd* 


I 

I 
i 

I 
i 


35'2 


SPRtXOS. 


ILE.IPTICAI/   SPRINGS,    SIZES,   AND  PBOOP  TBtT 

Pennsylviiiiia  Hitilroad  Speclflattlong,  I8881 


OiaM. 


See 


A,  Triple. 


^B^  Quadruple. 
^B,  Triple 


,  single. .. 

"F,  Triple... 
tt.  Double. 


m 


Double 

I  Double,    (, 
'   B  plaies  ( 


t  Double, 


^  )    7  pl&ces 
M.  Quadi^ple. 


Il» 

Bin. 
15^ 


3     «« 


xM 


3x11/38 
3xll/3S 
8 


a 


Tmu. 


To  BUnd  Ins.  Htgti. 


914  between  baods. 
is 
a        "         •• 

m    " 

V  8  "  " 

S  '•  " 

^  II  II 

3 

S  bet.  c*n»i*e  of  eye 
and  top  of  leaf. 

a 

2Ui  between  Itands. 
1 5^4       " 

18 

3 


13/16 
18/16 


ii 


*  A.  p.  t.,  Buxitlnry  plates  toucliinK. 
PUOSPHOR-BBONZU  SPRINGS. 

Wilfred  Lewis  |F.nginefii>'  Club,  I'lillu^e l|iliin,  mSi)  niadv  iHMni 

bliosphor-broiize  wire,  .]'i  in.  dlanielcr,  oolli'it  in  tite  form  o<  a  a| 

ijki  in.  iliuiiietfr  frtuu  ci'tilrti  U>  (;enire,  uiahJnt,'  ."is!  ooiln. 

I  Tills  spring  na.«  londeil  grndually  up  to  a  tension  of  9i)1l>t> .  but 

Ifas  removed   it   bfcaniy  evident   tiiat  a  jMriimuent  set 

jucti  a  Kpihig  ut  Btenl,  ncfoidinK  to  the  praclloeof  the  P   K.  R. 

'   ed  forWll*.    A  weight  of  ::t  lbs.  was  then  si,-     -  '    ' 

[iibII  auuiuMt  of  \'il>t-aii(.*ii,  and  the  leit>;th  niefisn  J 

Kiurs  the  spriiin  leiiglliened  frimi  Jii^  inclii's  10  ,  , 

JSH^  iliclies.    71  Wu'acoiH-lu.lrd  tliftt  L'l  Mm.  wbh  : 

hat  probably  ICi !)»  was  as  inui'h  us  eonld  in'  d-' 

For  11  ({'""en  Uwiil  ilie  cjilensiun  if  the  bron/^ 

'extension  of  a  HinulHr  steel  spring,  that  1h,  for  [lie  >,:iiiir 

spriri^  b.  twice  us  Hir«tii|;. 

SPRINGS   TO   BtCStST   TORSIONAL    POR 

k(Ueuleaii('B  Constructor.) 
,t  spiral  <»r  helical  spring. ..  P  =  ■"     '  «      «. 


* 


iiUuO  helical  upriiig  —     P 


LICAL  8PR1KGS  FOK  CARS  AND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


,    9- 


,^ 


aS^ei- 


<;  a  a  e 


a  S   e   d     a 


t-     C-.     IS  TKia'  o   ei 


a      a      a    a  c  (t    a    «| 


*^    «c    to      Ok 


8S^  s  s 


-i^cmaoatoaot-cDSoook    tooMOs^oo     03     c    •o^Id     idIv 


^ 


I! 


<oe<0 

i-  93  Cb  JC^  ^jv\ 


sis   I^S   S   Hi 


98  t:  S 


§ 

pi 


=  8 

II 

23 


5?« 


1^-' 


•Si"  ^ 


n 

hS 


li.^ 


40  1fi10 


ees  teo  »e 


W*'.3ff*-^«3WA-3'3^  ic  a  O     OuJ     W     >-  a>l 


1354  R1Y£TE1)    JOINTS.  ^^^| 

RIVETED  JOINTS.         ^^B 

Falrbalrn'H  ExperlmentB.    (From  Report  of  CnmiRimMI 
Kiveted  Joints,  I'loc.  itxst.  M.  B.,  April.  18&1.J 
The  earliest  published  experinientg  on  riveted  juiiiUi  «ne  cnDlaliml  i 
memoir  by  Sir  W.  f  airbaint  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Uoyai  Soclttf. 
ing  certain  em  pineal  allowances,  be  adopted  the  following  raliut  « 
preciiiuK  the  reUUvc  strength  of  riveted  joints: 

Solid  plate 100 

Doiible-riveled  joint 70 

Single-riveted  joint S0 

These  well-known  ratina  are  quoted  in  most  treatises  on  rive 
Btlll  sometimes  referred  to  as  having  a  conxiderable  aulhorkly.  Itl 
however,  thai  Sir  W.  FairbaJrn  does  uot  apjwar  to  have  been  awa 
profKirtioii  of  metal  punched  out  io  ilie  line  of  fracture  ought  lol 
in  properly  designed  dLiiihle  and  single   riveted  jijiu(.s.    The«i«  I 

Iriiilos  would  Hwrefore  appear  to  rest  on  a  very  uusiatisfactoryl 
ihi-  pxperinit-ntij  on  wliirli  thev  were  bawd. 
I.osa  of  SIrengtb  In  k>nncbed  Platca.— A  report  J 
Piirker  iiiid  Mr.  Ji-lui,  niade  in  IS78  to  Lloyd's  CY'Uiinlltee-,  on  (' 
piJiielitug  and  iliilling,  showed  (hat  ihiu  steel  plates  loet  eompai 
from   punching,  but  that   in  thicli  plates  the  loss  waa  very  ( 
I         The  following  Uible  gives  the  results  for  plates  punclied  and  I 
or  reauied: 

L  Thickness  of  Material  of  l<oss  of  Tea* 

Plates.  Plates.  per  cent. 

a  Steel  8 

g  M 

ii  Iron  18  to  23 

The  effect  of  increaaing  the  size  of  the  liole  In  the  dle-blodc  j 
the  following  table: 

Total  Taper  of  Hole  Material  of  Loss  of  Tenacity  t 

in  Plate,  Incties.  Plates.  Punohiikg,  per^ 

1-18  Steel  17.«j~ 

H  "  (Hole  ragKed)  84.51 

Tlie  plates  were  from  O.STS  to  0.713  inch  thick.    When  ^1». . 
were  reamed  out  to  It^in.  diameter,  the  loss  of  tenacity  diss, 
the  plates  carried  as  hlgn  a  stress  as  drilled  plste.s     AnuealingT 
to  punched  plates  their  original  tenacity. 

Strensth  of  Perforated  PlBt«s. 

(P.  D.  Bennett,  Eng'g,  Feb.  12,  1886,  p.  1^5.) 
Teats  were  made  to  determine  the  relative  effeel  produced  apoo 
strength  of  a  flat  bar  of  iron  or  steel:  I.  By  a  »4-infh  bole  drilled  to  I 
quired  tiizi-;  ii.  by  a  bole  punched  i^  inch  smaller  and  then  drilled 
size  of  the  first  hole ;  and,  3,  by  a  hole  punched  in  the  bar  to  the  siaa 
tinlled  bar.  The  relative  results  in  strength  per  square  incb  of  origtal 
Were  as  follows: 

1.  8.  «  ■ 

Iron.       Iron. 

t'njierforated  liar l.tXW        1.000 

Perforated  by  drlUine 1029       1.018       l 

"        "  punching  and  drilling.  l.OflO       1.006       i  i>..'j       i 
"  "    punching  only 0.TB5       0.894        0  ?5J       f  | 

If—  rl 

hi 
IpMt's  teetfi  on  an  imu  bat  t>  >»«  Vn.  < 


IKyCY  OF  niVETINO  BY  DIFFERKNT  METHODS.  3 


J  <k  aioillar  bftr  turned  to  0.84  in.  diaiueter  at  one  point  only,  sbow! 
I  rt^laliye  strength  ot  the  latter  to  the  fonuer  was  1  .aa3  to  1  .lX)0. 

Bted  Joints.-  DrllUne  veraua  PunrhlnK  of  Holes. 


i 


•port  4 


..t  of  the  Research  Committee  of  the  lustltuiioii  of  Mechanical 

rm  RiTftedJoiots  (188l),aiiil  records  of  Inves'tigationB  by  Prof. 

IS8I.  1S8S,  aud  1885),  suiiimarizB  the  exlsliuif  inforinatiou 

ii'ative  effects  of  pnjicliiii(»  nnii  driMinR  upon  iron  and 

I  an  exHiiilQalioii  of  tliu  vohiuiinous  tables  (fiven  in  Pro- 

nins   Kt-j>ort.  the   resndls  of  the  fcrtalest  number  of  the  experi- 

le  t.u  iron  and  steel  plates  lead  to  the  general  coiiclnslon  that, 

plttleii,  even  of  ateel,  do  n(»l  Buffer  very  inucli  from  puncliing,  yet 

r  t^inch  tliielmess  and  upwards  the  loss  of  tenacity  due  to  punch- 

1  from  lOf  to  23J  in  iron  plates,  and  from  lit  to  :13S  In  the  ease  of 

In  drilled  plates  tliere  is  lui  appreeiable  loss  of  streD(rth.    It  Is 

J  remove  the  bad  eltects  of  liuiiehitiB  Ity  subseiinent  reamiiiR  or 

p;  but  the  b-peed  at  which  work  is  tiiniF-d  mit  in  these  days  is  not 

I  to  multiplied  operations,  and  »iich  add  ilonnl  ireiitnient  is  seldom 

,.    The  iiiir.>luotion  of  a  procticahlp  niethtMl  of  drillinR  the  plating 

iiiid  other  structures,  after  it  has  l)een  bent  and  shapeil,  Is  a  matter 

Importance.     If  even  a  portion  of  the  deterioration  of  tenncity  can 

■  a  much  stroiiKOr  structure  results  from  the  sjime  material  and 

.itlitrK.     This  htts  beeu  fully  recognized  in  the  modern  Kngliiita 

48S7J  of  tl»e  coiifitructlon  of  steam-boilers  with  steel  plates;  punch- 
"   sing  almoKt  entirely  nbolislied,  and  all  rivetlioles  being 
*es  have  Iwen  bent  to  the  desired  form. 


Bfflclcncy  of  Riveting  done  by  DlflTerem 
jncthodja. 


* 


Th 

Ht  ■ 


l>e  Reports  of  Professors  Unwin  and  Kennedy  to  the  Institution  of 
Aical  Engineers  {Proc.  1881,  188a,  and  1885)  tend  to  eatal>Ush  the  four 
tOe  point-^! 

That  i:i.-  sli-aring  resistance  of  rivets  is  not  highest  in  Joints  riveted  by 
"fc  ■■'  '  ^i    pi'essiire; 

ie  St  renRtli  of  joints  is  not  affected  to  an  appreciable 
■f  riveting;  and,  therefore. 
'  pressure  upon  the  rivets  in  riveline  Is  not  the  Indlspcii- 
!iiit  it  lias  been  sometimes  siipposud  to  be; 
•  1  i.  us  defect  of  hand  riveted  a.s  compared  wlthmachine- 
1   the  fact  that  in   hand-riveted  joinis  visible  flip 
I  iitively  small  load,  thus  (fivinc  such  joints  a  low 
^,  au'l  iiosslbly  also  reiideiinK  them  liiii-ki  to  failure 
I  (litis  lift,*!-  slip  has  once  ccmimenceil. 
__  Mjturen  of  meuu  rfsult.s,  talten  rroin  Prof.  Kennedy's  tables 
leW,  pp.  aiS--Ji.'it,  give  a  comparative  view  of  hand  and  liy- 
.-jjr.  as  reiyarda  theirultimatti  strengths  hi  joints,  and  the  periods 
both  caries  visible  slip  commenced. 


I 


I 


3S6 


RIVETED  jonrra. 


Some  or  the  Conclnslona  of  tbe  Committee 
on  Riveted  Jolnte. 

(ft-w,  Iti-'l.  M.  £.,  Apl,  ItWo.) 

The  conclugiona  nil  refer  to  jointH  made  In  mifl   ste*'l  plulM 
ri»6liS,  the  holes  all  drilleil,  iiiitl  Ihe  plates  in  their  ni 
In  every  casa  the  tlvct  or  sheariiiK  area  lian  been  ;> 
halea,  not  the  noniiiuil  (or  real)  a.va  of  the  rl\' 
Btreogth  of  the  metal  in  the  juliit  has  heen  i'oiii[  :at 

cut  from  thu<  sniiiu  plnti^s,  and  nnt  merely  with  ii'>  i  iri 

The  metal  helweeu  Ilie  ilvet-li<iles  has  a  coiisKt-  ■.■,rf  I 

gistance  per  square  (nch  than  the  unperfornred  nietal.  This  exMS 
ainounteu  to  iiiore  tlian  SO;!,  both  la  ^^  Inch  and  Ti-iiich  plate*, 
pitch  of  the  rivet  was  about  1.9  diauieterii.  In  other  ease«  4i-inch  j 
&□  excess  of  15*  at  fracture  with  a  pitch  of  -  dlanietera,  of  10<  wit 
Of  8.6  diatiieler^.  and  of  G.GjC,  with  a  tiitch  of  3.9  diaraeteni;  and  ^-1 
g-ave  T.Sjt  excess  witli  a  pilch  of  "J.S  diameters. 

In  sinKle-riveted  joiiilu  It  luny  be  taken  that  aboi, 
is  the  shearing;  resistance  of  rivet  steel,  when  the  i 
not  exceed  about  40  tons  per  square  inch.    In  (I  ' 
rivets  ot  about  %  Inch  diami'ter,  most  of  tbe  expcriineiii  - 
per  Mjuare  inch  as  the  shearing  resiKlanue,  but  the  joint  - 
at  a  tous. 

The  ratio  of  shearinj;  resistance  to  tenacity  is  not 
very  m  vrkedly  and  not  very  irregularly  as  the  tetii 

The  suso  of  the  rivet  heads  and  ends  pluys  a  XU' 
strength  of  the  joints — at  any  rate  in  tlie  case  of  slu;;].--!  iveied  J.. 
increase  of  about  one  thinl  in  the  weight  of  the  rivet.--  tall  ibis  in 
course,  eoine  to  the  heads  and  ends)  w&^  found  to  a<ld  about  8| 
resiatance  of  the  joint,  the  plates  remainini^  unbroken  at  the  full 
resistance  of  S2  tons  per  siiuare  Inch,  instead  of  tearine  at  a  sheai 
of  only  a  little  over  20  tons.  The  addilionni  strength  Is  probably  ( 
prevention  of  the  distortion  of  the  plates  by  tbe  great  teDsils  (tn 
rivets. 

The  in  tensity  of  bearini;  pressure  on  the  rivet  exercises,  with  Jola 
tioned  In  tbe  ordinary  way,  a  very  iniportnot  iuHneuce  on  their 
So  lonpr  tut  it  does  not  exceed  40  tiius  |>er  square  inrh  (meAsured  0 
jeoted  area  of  the  rivets),  it  does  not  seem  to  aiTpor  Thfir  'rtrnnglh ; 


« tc 

iich. 

'  exceed  42 or 4 

]■■%  OS  win  be  m 

stress  may  prol 

tlie  plate  te 


sures  of  M  to  55  tons  per  (Kjuare  inch  seem 

moftt  cases  at  stresses  varymur  from  1$  to  r>* 

dinary  joints,  which  are  to  bo  moilo  eiiii.illi 

the  bearinsf  pressure  should  thci-efore  i 

square  Incn.    For  doul'le  riveteil  butt 

a  nigher  pressure  may  be  allowo.l ,  ns  i 

be  more  tlian  1(»  or  is  tons  per  si)U.'ire  irn-h  wi 

A  margin  (or  net  distance  fmni  miiside  nf  holes  to  eiji^of  platelec 
diameter  of  the  drilled  hi. le  has  been  ^Hindsunieienr  In  nil  .Tii.Ntiithi 

To  attain  the  inaximiMn  streuKth  of  a  joint,  tli- 
Bucb  as  to  prevent  it  from  breaking? 2il;7u^r.    II  hn"; 
metal  measured  zigzag  should  be  from  30>(  tii  t).Vi  n; 
straifibt  acnjss,  in  order  to  insure  n  straitrht  fiactnre.    Th'ii  oonr 
a  diagonal  pitch  of  2/3  p  4-  if.  8,  if  ]i  be  the  straight  pitch  aud  d 
eter  of  the  rivet-hole. 

Visible  slip  or  "Rive"  occura  always  in  a  rivii'  " 
much  ljeU>w  lis  bri^akin^  load,  and  by  no  inetins  f 
A  1' tll.Ttlon  of  the  results  obtalneii  in  meaBunn;;  il; 
pel  '  number  and  size  of  the  rivets  in  til' 
nil  nnd  thai  it  l<  toleralilv  eiiii.itnnt  fi'i 
(?ii  ii.iiit.  The  liiaji.s  i)er  rivet  at  wliicli  1 
ahp  vi-^iDly  are  apprfixlmqtely  as  follows- 


Bivetin^, 


1.0  (ell 


DOUBLE-RIVETED   LAP-JOINTS. 


357 


I  ""* 

I^W  probable  load  at  wMch  n  joint  of  anjr  lirendtli  will  coinmeticfj 
imltlnly  the  numlier  of  rive  is  In  thf  jt'Vfii  breadth  by  tlie  firoper 
ken  from  the  last  C'Iuiiid  of  the  table  iibov«<.  It  will  be  uDderBlooil 
i>i,,,v„  ri.^iiri>s  nr^  iiiit  given  OH  exivoi ;  but  ilirj-  re|jieseHt  very  well 

•'xperiiiieiita. 

:  s  point  to  simple  rules  for  the  pit>|?ortioniTiK  of  joints  of 
...  .^.  ...;:h.  Aasiiminp  that  a  bearing  preusiire  of  43  ioiih  tier  t-qiian! 
r  beBilowed  on  the  rivet,  ami  that  the  exeess  teiinciiy  or  ilie  plate 
[ta  original  tctren^th,  the  foil  uw  mutable  ^iven  the  vahieK  of  the  ralins 
(terd  of  hole  to  thickness  f  of  plate  dJ  +  /).  and  of  pitili  jj  to  iliam- 
Oieljt-t'd)  Id  joinui  of  tnojcimuni  iilretigtb  in  s^-lDch  plate. 

For  Slngle-rlTeted  Plate*, 


1  Tenacity  of 

Sheariac:  Resistance  of 
Rivets. 

Ratio, 
d-s-f 

Ratio. 

Botio. 
Plat*  Area 
Klvet  Area 

V 

Uw.  per 
»q.  in.  _ 

87.«00 
«,T90 

«r,a» 
tasM 

Ton*  per 
M).  in. 

Lb».  per 
sq.  in. 

49,300 
40,300 

58,7BO 

94 
24 

8.48 
2.48 
e.S8 
9.38 

S  SO 
8.40 
«.S7 

a.3« 

0.0(17 
0.7S5 
0.T19 
0.690 

ble  shows  that  the  diameter  of  the  liole  (not  the  diameter  nf  the 

Milil  be  °.I)^  limes  the  thiuknH!i.s  of  the   plate,  and  the  pikh  of  Ihe 

.iiiii.-H  I  lie  diameter  of  the  hole,  AIho,  it  luaiieKtbernean  pliite  area 

■rea. 

•t  be  UHe<l  than  that  here  Kpecifletl,  Jlie  joint  will  not  be  of 

.1  i(-fnr«  not  of  inaxiroiiin.  streuitth;  but  with  any  other  Kiz«> 

ilir  liKai  result  will  be  gol  by  uoe  of  the  pitch  obtained  from  the 
>rinula 


4 


p=a—+d. 


tp,  d  In  Ihe  diameternf  the,  bole, 
be  coDiStBiit  <i  In  this  equatk'D  is  as  follows: 
For  SO-ton  plate  and  SS-ton  rivets,  a  =  II  524 
"    28  "  as  ••  ••    0.558 

"30  '•  84  ••  ••    0  570 

"    S8  "  84         "  "    0.006 

the  pitch  p=  O.W*  +d. 
oMced  that  nitfa  too  smnll  rivetH  tliiK  Kive»  pitches  often  < 
mnnll»rln  proportion  than  S^  times  the  diuineter 
a-rV^r-rlveted  lap-JoLuU  a  similar  ualcMdui  inn  t^  Ibat  given 
,1  sonieniuii    Hmaller  ullowniic*   for  excess  tenacity,  on 
tje  (listbTiee  l)el«eeM  the  rivet-ho'es,  shows  that  for  joints 
luiii  >!>  I  '-ui^th  the  ratio  of  diameter  to  tliiekneHs  MluiUld  remain  pre- 
■■•iD^le-riveieil  jiiinti<;  while  the  rntio  of  pitch  to  dinmet<>r  of  hole 
M,K4  (or  30. ton  plafeis  and  22  or  24  tun  rivets,  and  3.8S  for  i8-too 
••^  •'     -irnx  ( Ivets. 

■  than  in  ihe  former  cane,  it  i«  likely  that  the  prescribed 

..ften  Iw  liictinvenlently  lanje.    In  this  case  iha  diameter 

taken  as  larire  ns  pnsNlble;  and  the  niroDfceht  j.iint  for  a 

r  pliite  and  diameter  of  hole  cau  llien  be  obtained  by  usIoK 

^ >  Liie  equation 


p=  a 


d* 


t-  -'. 


of  Ihe  constant  ii  for  dllTerent  stp'ii^tlitj 
I  taken  »«  follows; 


UIYETKU    JOINTS, 


Table  of  Proportlona  of  DoubIe-rivet«d  Lap-jc 

lu  wllicll  p  =  II  —  -i-  rf. 


Ori^i'ial  tenacity 

Sliearinj;  Kesist- 
iinee  of  Rivets. 

ViilueofO 

of  Plate, 

SUtU. 

Tods  per  t^. 

In. 

Tons 

pemq. 

in. 

SO 

•M 

V 

88 

24 

iM 

30 

24 

« 

o^ 

30 

al 

tS 

28 

24 

iH 

30 

S3 

iS 

88 

W 

i9 

Be  asKUined  tha  rivet  (liainet<<r  as  larve  tui  | 
ifo; 


rrai:li.."ully,  havin^ 
i'ftii  llx  lliL'  pitch  as  follou's,  fof  aiiy  thickiit»L4  nf  iiliitc  riviii  Ht'> 

For  aO-lon  plate  and  24'ton  rivets  I.  „  _  t  m  _  a.  J. 
'•    30    "       "       "   28    "       "        j>=l.06^  +  d;i 
'•    29     "        "       "    34    "        ••         p=l.;4'''  +  (l 

III  doublc-rlvpted  butt-Jolnta  It  is  impo»<ilile  (oilrvi^nf  IM 

lii-aiin;'  ivsistrtiii'i'  III'  tliH  jiiiiii  » itlmiii  gpttinir  excessive  I"  <  -  — -^ 
fCjiuKir- tilt)  xlitsai'iiiit  iiifn  is  douljlrd  nitlioiit  iiicreiisinR  ili 
liu  |>ri«siiit?  arts  CoiiHiderinK  only  llie  plate  rexiKtn.in.'e  • 
I'ussiirH.  nod  tiikin^  tins  latter  an  43  tons  per  sqimre  iiii'l< 
oiild  lie  iilMMIt  4  limes  the  diiimel^r  of  tlie  liOle.  We  in  > 
I'ilh  some  itrmliHy  Unit  a  pressure  of  from  43  I"  .W  i>>iii  }•■■■ 
till'  rivets  will  cilurte  sliciiriiip  lo  take  plaee  nt  fmm  li"' '  ' 
[iieli.     Workinj;  iiitC  tin*  i^qiiaLkiiiKaR  liefore,  Itiit  allow  : 

unit-  Ti^  on  ac'C'otiiit  of  the  lnrj;e  pitch,  we  lliitl  tliat  tlir  ;  

rlieteil  hiittjiHHl.'i  iif  ntittxlnumi  strciifrlh.  uiuler  iriven  i_ ni  •n'si 

"  f  Ihu  following  table: 

Iloubleorlv<^ted  Bnlt-Jolnl 


Original  Ten- 

Sbenrine  Re- 

Bearing 

acliy 
i,r  I'latB, 

sisliincv 
of  RivetR, 

Pres- 
sure. 

Ratio 

Tons  per 

Thus  per 

Tons  |M!r 

M|.  in. 

rq.  in. 

!^|  ill. 

t 

W 

45 

l.SO 

$8 

45 

1.80 

ao 

48 

1.7U 

88 

48 

l.TO 

SO 

&0 

300 

S8 

fiO 

£.00 

Prftctloolly.  therefor?,  II  may  Ij"  Maid  Ihat  wo  itol  a  iloiible-iivct* 
lof  iiiuxiinniii  Klreii^lli  hy  mnkiiie  the  dliinielerof  hole  iiboiil  1^ 
lUilckneKS  of  lliH  plate,  and  iiiakiiiK  ibe  pitch  4.1  lliiitw  lb-  «llM4 
litoli*. 

The  proportliins  just  eivcn  heloiiK  to  joint.i  of  niaximiim  i 
Ik  iMiller  lliH  one  pnrl  nf  the  Julnt.  the  tiliite.  lit  iiinob  iiiorw  i 
lUiuii  lite  Ktlier  part,  the  rivets.    It  Ik  tiierefure  not  mireiu 
[the  ixMCKiiliiire  hy  whit'li  the  plnie<  iiiluhl  he  uenkived 
■     '   r-  ii.mld  l»' nnllt  fur  iitC  at  il«  pi'.i|ier  steuii 

1  i^-ly  to  Ihe  pliitr  urea,    I'r^'hHlli.^  the  tiest  I 

;   Ti  till'  joiiil,  !i  .1  fi.r  iheaLtniil  tliloktit* 

>Miy  the  aH^iiiiuHlJ 
'tilt-  itf    uniform  ^ 
hlUjlii   lip  to  Willi 
i/iii/i'  ■-  .M-v».e\wA,\\w  v>>Tt<y%Vi>6 


mVKTfiO  JOINTS. 


350 


Efllclenclciik  or  Joint*. 

'pra^e  r«jsulu  of  expt-rimifiitB  liv  ihv  LMuiimttlef'  »;flv«>:   Krtr<iovibl«- 
np  joints  in  *6-lin.')i  plntw,  ••(flci<>Dcl'-s  raiiRinn  from  67.1?  lo  Kl  !>i(. 
"I  l)iitt-jniiil«  (III  doiililf  stienrl  a\Af  lo  TI.V    Tlii-s*-  low  re- 
ly <lm-  lollmii.iHuf  vfry  s<iri  steel  in  tlie  rivets     K(ir«in«le- 
..f  vmious  diiuoUHloiis  the  efticlenrjes  vnriid  fr.  ni  .iJ.Hjt  to 

:pt*rlnieiil«  sliowed  Ihat  the  slii'arinf^  ^♦*^iBrn^«*»  of  ^t^'Hl  ilM  not  ill- 
wsrlj-  wj  fast  ns  ils  leiisile  resiistBiife.'  Witli  very  soft  sleel.  for 
.  of  Mnly  31  loiiB  ii-naciiv.  the  Klx^riiie'  r&<il»tniicf  »v«s  nlxiut  KO^  ol. 
lie  rcsisloiice.  wh>T«'n.i  wl'li  very  tinnl  Fteel  of  b-i  (•  iir  iciiiu-i«y  llie 
•  re-iisl ain-e  «'a»  only  Hoini'irheie  alioiic  BAjt  of  tlic  tc iisIIh  rvj^jsui   ct". 

rllnnai  «r  Pitrli  and  Overlap  of  Vinten  to    Diameter 
at  Klvrt-llule  and  TliIruiieHK  of  Plate. 

ttrof.  A.  H,  A.  Kennedy,  fnw.  Iiixt.  M.  fc',.  Ai-ril,  lsa5.) 
t  =  thickness  of  plate; 
d  =  (llitiiieifr  iif  rivet  lacliiall  in  paiallel  liole; 

■     p  =  piteli  of  rivets,  centre  10  ivntre; 
t  =  spHve  l)etw-.-en  lines  of  rivets; 
I  =  overlaii  of  plate. 

tcfa  N  ns  wiile  as  IH  iiMoM'aUc  without  liupuring  llie  tielitii>>SK  of  Ihe 
ler  Men  in. 

i riveted  lnf^'j•.'ln(fs  tii  the  circular  seams  of  boilers  which  liave 
d  luliKiludinul  lup  joint!*, 


1 


d  =  f  X  2.S!5; 
p  =  dx  1,25  = 
/  =  »  .  6. 


f  J"  5  (noarly); 


Iveted  Isp-joints: 


rf=S.85t; 
«  =  4  5f ; 


»-riT«teil  Joints, 


IB-16 


Double- riveted  Joints. 


^\^ 


i  j>ro|><<rtloM<i  and  nand  wiirlcinanisUtp  there  nerd  be  uo  fear  of 
nm  through  the  riveted  Joint. 

'•mil  urea,  or  itna  of  plutr,  iilimK  a  xittxat;  Due  offrHclure 
Irsx  iliau  am  III  exuexs  of  the  net  urea  straiclit  n«.*roi«s  the 
1  lietler. 

i  C'H'I'er  (R.  li.  dnzrtlf,  Aug.  Ji,  ISflOl  referrlnB  lo  I'tof.  Xen- 
ntoiioled  ulKive.  (five's  ns  a  KufHeienily  apprDXliiuite  rule  fi»r 
iJlcli   iii-IWi'en  the  rows  in  fttHEgered   riveiinp.  one  hnlf  i>f  the 
ir«-i.-  Ill  u  r'W  jjlim  one  qiiorler  the  diniiu'lt-i  (if  a  rivi't-liole. 

!x«*riii>  In  strength  oT  Perforated  over  Uii|>er- 
t|«-d  Platen.  iPri«c.  Inst.  M.  E..  Oelolier,  IhKS.i 
riivern  llie  rivet-holeB  ban  a  eon-'ideraUlv  prrater  (eii-'lle  itp- 
»fe  Inch  than  the  iiiiperforntoil  metal.  This  e.xeesw leniu'liy 
than  '.»<,  both  In  >(iini'h  ami  n-.-ineli  (i|.iii~;,  wlii-n  llie 
xrtuk  iilioiit  J  U  iliaini'lei>.  In  ritlier  i-jotes  ^^ 
|Jr<  at  fntcnire  wilh  /i  /ii'd-h  of  2d  la  meters,  ot  ' 

arm  <ini'  ^f  f.lf  »Jlli  a  iiitcli  of  ,1.l>  diunit'teni    " 

rettvtm  ffth  a  pitch  of  i'.ti  iVaiimterB. 


r 
I 


I 


360 


HIVETED  JOINTS. 


fl)  The  "PTCfss  Btrfn^h  dtw  to  fwrforatlon  "  Is  (niTM_ 
which  lends  to  make  the  Btress  in  lh«  plal**  uniform,  niiil  ' 
efffMit  of  the  iiai-mw  Birip  of  iiieunl  al  tlie  edne  of  the  spt^.'in 

(2)  It  is  diminished  by  increase  in  the  rario  of  )j,'(I,  of  pitch  j 
hole,  80  Ihat  in  this  respect  it  t>ecomeH  Ittw  a«  Die  efflcieni; 

(;^)  tt  is  (liminLsbed  i)j'  any  lnur«aBe  in  hardness  of  D.p  plai« 
(•I)  For  a  given  rnliu  p/d,  of  piich  to  diani<"t«*r  of  liul«".  ii  is  all 
diminishcHl  as  th«  ttiiclcnfS!!  of^tliB  pifttf  is  lncri-a»«d.     The  raf 
thicl(uetis  of  plate  does  not  »eem  to  affect,  this  matter  dir 
within  (lio  liniitH  nf  tlie  expei'imentj). 

Text  of  0oable>riTet«d  Lap  and  Bnit  JolaUi 
(I'loc.  Inst.  SI.  E.,Ocloljer,  Ib««.j 

Steel  plat««  of  85  to  iO  tons  per  square  inch  T.  8.,  sUjel  rivMa  of  i 
Khearinf^-slrenKlli  per  minare  inch. 


Tbiekiiess  oC 
Plate. 


Diameter  of   Ratio  of  Pltcli 


Rivet- holes. 

0.8" 

07 

1.1 

1.6 

1.1 

].e 

1.8 

1.75 

l.S 


In  Diameter. 

».6-; 
2.8a 

4.41 
4.01) 
S.M 
2  4« 
3.09 


sad 


Kind  of  Joint, 

Lap 

Butt 

Lap 

M 

Btttt 

Lap 

Butt','".!!!!  " 

Some  Rules  M'tilch  tiave  b<>eii  PropoH«d  for  1b«  Ma 
of  (be  Rivet  ill  !$llt<:le  !>«hear.    ili">,,  .liin>-  l«i,  IM 

Bnjwiie t/ =  ^MiMili  il.iHlilet-M\<-r.s  IVi/) 

Pairbairii d  =  '.''  fur  ptaie-4  le.><a  tliun  Xi  in. 

"         ...  rf  =  l^f  for  |ilale«  Rreal^r  tViAn  Ml 

Leniaitre d  =  I  .V  +  n.m 

Aotoine ...^ ft  =  II  VI 

Po)ili< -  d  =  a<  for  iKilTer  rlvetine 

"         rf  =  3f  f'T  extra  strou(5  rivetinjc 

R«dtenbacher rf=  1.5no-,'i 

Uuwin .. d  =  »iM-5,  lflloH'  + W 

"     d  =  l.S  »  f 

Tlie  following  talile  coumins  xonie  dati>  ot  the  gixea  <>f  , 
practice,  and  tlie  cntr>*K|K>ndlUK  Kixeit  Riven  by  s<iiiie  of  theie  i 
Diameter  of  Rlveta  for  DIITerent  Thldineaa«« 


Diameter  of  Riveta,  in  inches. 


HIVETED   JOINTS. 


361 


)BKtli  Of  Double -rlTet«d  Scania,  r'aIculaiL>d.  —  W.  B. 

la.  Jr.,  in   fuirer  for  June,  IWW,  Rives  laljleH  of  rt-liilin-  slrviiRth  of 

litd  pans  of  slie«?l  lM»r\\u**ii  livftsi  in  »io»il>le-riveted  Ke^iinti,  oontpared 

rfu^iit  <if  nlirU,  biuuffl  (Ilk  tlio  aKKUiiiptjun  tlial  (he  Riteuring  Htrt^nt^lti 

•■  tensile  slreiietli  of  steel  aree<iiial     Tlic  following  flK"i' 

.  Ills  tables  which  show  the  nearest  appiuxiuiAtinii  t'>  eqnal 

„       ijf  riyets  and   aavls  of  plates  l>e»ne*;li  Vli«  iivet»,  lOKUther 

«  iNfrtentage  of  escli  lemtire  to  tuo  streugtli  ot  the  soliil  plate. 


PeiT^entage  uf 

o£ 

FereenlagBof  i 

lioh 

Sixeof 

Klreiieth  of 

JTi 

Pitch 

Sbe  of 

Sli-enBlh  ot 

of 

Rlvct- 

.        Plate. 

1  = 

of 

Rivet- 

Plat*. 

veta. 

holen, 

•a  i' 

Rivfls. 

holes, 

1 

'Jies. 

inches. 

in«hes 

inchea. 

^ 

Rivets. 

Plate. 

^i 

RlTets. 
.734 

PUte.' 

S^ie 

.789 

.76S 

7/W 

S» 

« 

.738 

^B 

.T96 

.rrs 

7/lB 

^Vi 

«  1« 

.758 

.740 

^K. 

% 

.786 

.MOO 

7/16 

3^ 

% 

.758 

.750 

^E 

ii/i« 

Big 

.810 

7/ia 

4u 

15/16 

.705 

.773 

^M. 

y/i6 

.749 

.786 

i^ 

giZ 

% 

.707 

.700 

^Bt 

if/i« 

.748 

.76a 

1.Z 

5Js 

IVIO 

.7JI 

.718 

^K 

.761 

TWO 

i^ 

31^ 

% 

.740 

.731 

^H 

^ 

.780 

/.9S 

1^ 

^^ 

15/16 

.7S6 

.750 

^H 

.797 

.788 

iZ 

4l2 

I 

.761 

.7S8 

^H 

1!/I0 

.7.W 

.7!» 

»/ie 

V^ 

i.-j/ie 

.701 

.690 

^B^ 

1" 

.754 

.7«0 

U/IO 

% 

.711 

.708 

^K 

.783 

.776 

U/IB 

^'^ 

15/16 

.727 

.7!K 

Wm- 

.773 

.788 

9/10 

sii 

1 

.743 

.733 

Wi 

n/io 

.714 

.711 

U/16 

<U 

1  1/16 

.7« 

.;50 

B.  Porsonn  {Am.  Kitijr.itH.  R.  Jour.,  1893)  holJn  ihat  it  U  aa  error  to 
ihttt  thesliearluii!'  strenpihof  the  rivet  iser|Uftl  tolhetensilestren^^th, 
VrriiiK  to  the  nppAi-eni  exeens  in  slirntth  uf  perforaieil  over  \)n(««r- 

^ (lutes,  be  olaliiiK  tliuton  nccoiint  of  Hie  <link-ull;r  In  properly  irmtob- 
mles.  and  of  the  sitrefa  uaiisud  by  forclns.  as  i»  too  ofleu  the  case 
lice.  ibi»  addiliotinl  atrenglh  cannot  be  trusted  miit^h  more  than 
fiction. 

iDK  the  sizes  of  iron  iHvel*  as  penerally  iineil  in  American  practii-a 
pla.t«>:<  from  ^  to  1  inch  tliiek:  the  tensile  strength  of  the  plates  ua 
R.;  tilt"  shearlnt;  strenKlh  of  the  rivets  an  40,tt)0  for  Klngle-Hliear  and 
>r  double  -  shear,  Mr.  Pansons  calfnlatex  the  fi'llo«  liiij  tnl»l<»  of 
so  that  the  strentrth  of  the  rivets  aealnHt  slieariiiir  will  he  appi-oxi- 
iqual  to  that  of  the  plate  to  fear  between  rivet-holes.  The  diftineter 
TiMs  baft  lu  all  caM«K  been  taken  at  1/16  in.  larger  than  the  nominal 
Uie  rirel  is  assumed  to  fill  the  bi>le  under  the  power  riveter. 

Riveted  Joint*. 

r  OB  Butt  mra  Sinolb  Welt— Stekl  PijtTits  and  Ibok  Rtvets. 


I 


Diaineter 

«f 

Bivetfl. 


Pitch. 


Single. 


Double. 


in. 

m 

2  11/16 
■i  7/10 

s  t/ia 


Efflclencf. 


Single. 


■PS2 


RIVBTED   JOINTS. 


Calculated   Kfflciencien— Steel   Plates  and  Sfol  H' 

'I'he  diff>-renccs  belwepti  the  cftlculntod  ettlcieiiries  jriven  i 
nlinve  ar(<  notable.    Those  given  by  Mr.  RuRgles  are  r'ri>l)i.i 
he  OiHiimus  the  Kheariug  strfOKth  of  the  rivelj^  equal  to  M 
of  the  plaies.     Those  ffivtMi  by  Mr.  Pursons  arc  pnohobly  . 
otitainHd  in   practice,  .since  the  fii?i»re  he  ailopls  f^ir  siu 
rathpr  low,  ami  he  makes  no  allowance  for  excess  of  siifi 
rated  over  the  unperforated  plate.    The  following  table  )> 
1>V  th    author  un  tlieaswiiniptlons  that  the  excels  streugi ! 
iiliilB  in  KW,  ami  that  the  shearing  strcni-th  of  the  livpts  |.,  ,    .,.,. 
four  fifths  of   the  len.«ile  ptreuiirr.h  of  the  plate.    If  f  =  lliifl<iir» 
li  =  diiitiieter  of  rivel-holc,  /»  =  pitch,  and  /'  =  teuKlle  ntwigth  p( 
inch,  (lien  for  single-riveled  platen 

(p-d^X  l.ior  =  ^cP  xir,    whenoep  =  .571?  +  A 


For  double-riveted  plates^  p  =  1.144—  -\-  d. 


I 


The  coefflcientg  .571  and  1.M9  a^ree  closely  with  th(<  arerarn 
given  hi  the  report  of  the  uoitimitiije  of  U>u  Institution  of  MnMiai 
g-iiieers,  tiuoted  ou  pages  357  and  aS8,  ante. 


Diacn, 

of 
liivut- 
bole. 


H 


7/10 


PllicJi. 


be 


Id. 

i.oao 
i.sei 

1.071 

i.as5 

1.137 
l.!M4 
1.551 
1.21M 
l.BO? 
3.011 
l.lSlI 
1.484 
1.880 

a.aoe 


9  is 


In. 

1.603 
S.0i3 
1 .04J 

'J  .008 

;  7ii! 

•.!.0.->3 

a. (15 

1  SKI 
S.-tftl 

a.so6 

l.ft4T 

s.ais 

S.8S4 
3.610 


SlfflcieDCy. 


«  a 


57.1 

00.5 
53.3 

30.5 
.53.3 
55.7 
4S.7 
53.3 
57.1 
45.0 
49.S 
BS.8 
5G,0 


75.S 
flS.U 

:«.o 

87.1 
C0.5 
71.5 
65.5 
69.5 
72.7 

te.o 

66.  J 
ftlt.l 
7J-3 


Dlaui. 

of 

Rlvet- 

tiole. 


Pitch. 


M 


.  I 


^1 


74U 
14-.' 
.5711 


Biretlns  Preaanr«  Required  for  Bride*  *nd  ■« 
Work. 

(Wilfred  Lewis,  EDgiuuers'  Club  of  rhiladel|>lilii,  Sar..  IM 

A  iiiimber  of  U-inch  rivets  were  subjected  to  pressure*  lieiwern  1 
aO.OUO  ll>s.   At  10,000  lbs.  the  rivet  swelled  and  fllled  llie  hi'l*-  k  <tM> 
a  beail.     At  20.000  ll)s.  the  head  waK  formed  and  the  iil.. 
pltiuhtMl.    At  30.0UO  lbs.  the  rivet  won  well  »rt.    At  4il,ilOi>  I- 
plHte  surroimdln?  the  rivet    beirnii  tn  stretch,  niiil  llii- 

mure  on^l  "    - -    ■' 

lb*      hV. 


RESISTANCE  OF  RIVET  IRON  AND  STEEL.   363 


earing  BeslBtance  or  Blvet  Iron  and  Steel. 

In»(.  if.  B„  ]8r»,  EKgineering,  Feb.  20, 1880.) 

,  earing  nwistaiice  of  the  riveU  canuot  be  niicertalD»'<J  from 
sdii  ilvetttl  juiiiiis  (I),  because  the  unifrmii  (liHlribuMon  of  the 
the  rivets  CHtitpot  lie  in»iirvd;  (',')  be<'»u««i  of  iln*  friuiiipji  of  the 
•h  liiw  the  irffrcl  of  iiicrt-aiiiiig  tlie  apijamit  leKislsiicf  lo  Khear- 
•leiiietit  uncertain  in  ain<iiiilt.  Pinlialily  in  tin*  ease  tif  liinKle- 
Xs  Uie  shearing  resistance  is  out  much  niTrCtrtI  by  the  fiiction; 


lear  (12  bars). 
gfaear  (8  bars). 


reU. 
Iloe. 


Ultimate  SlieariiiK  Stress 
Tons  per  an  In.     Llw.  per  oq.  in. 


■  Hn  in. 
a4.15 


l^-lti.  rivets.. 
Sj-ln.  rivets... 
mean  Talue.. 


2i.63  5t).66n    Bariiabv. 

•JS.SO  40. Mi    Raiikiue. 

28.05  to  iS. 57  61  eaa  to  57.ar7 1 

SI .  83  to  27 .  94  B4 .  477  to  (iS.  .SOS  J-  Riley. 
IB.O  M.OOOj 

19.01  ii.Wi  GreipntidEyJh, 

17  to  28  88.080  to  !W.240   Furker. 

31.a7toa3.R0  70.941  to  75. 4Gl>i 

30.45  to  as. 73  B».S!08toS0.0:» -Riley. 
33.3  74.59-M 

22.18  40.688   firdK  ftnd  Eyth. 

pxperinienti!  xhow  that  a  rivet  is  6!^  weukei-  In  a  ilrilled  tlian 
bole.  By  roiiudinfr  the  edire  of  the  rivet-liole  the  upparent 
iktauce  is  liicreaseu  1^.  >lr.  Maynard  ruiinil  tli«  rivets  4^ 
■illni   boICK  tliaii  iii   punched   holex.    But   ilicse   rrHulls  were 

riveted  ji>int.3.  and  not  by  direct  experiments  oji  shearing. 

hI  deal  i-pf  (tifUcully  In  cletemiininK  the  iniR  ilinmeter  of  a 
•,  and  it  is  doubtful  wliether  iu  these  experiuicuts  Ihediuiueter 
Urately  ascertained.  JIt".<sr».  Orelg;  and  Fylh'n  experinienl.s 
greater  resistance  of  the  rWets  in   piiiiclied  lioltrs  Iban  in 

Im  a^ovp,  the  apparent  shearing  resistance  i«  less  for  double 
is  probably  due  to  unequal  distilbuiiun  of  the  8lresB 

■i.-  of  a  bar,  when  sheared  in  oircuinstaiicea  wliicli 
^  usually  less  than  the  leiiaoity  of  the  bar.    The  following 
crease : 


Tenacity  of 
Bar. 

SheaiitiK 
BesiAtance. 

RaUo. 

1 

ia.i 
!25.4 

aa.a 

as, 8 

16.5 
a)  2 
19.0 
24.1 

0.63 

Kit,  iron... 
W'     steel- 

0.T9 
0.85 
0.77 

,  researches  (in  lH70i  the  shearing;  strenpth  of  iron  was  fouDfl 

)lli?i  r.f  the  teiiaclly.    Later  researches  ot  BaiiHchiniter  conllini 

•  ■A  tliey  dhow  that  for  iron  the  ratio  of  the  sbearinR 

(tHiH-tids  on   llit^  direction  of  the  stress  relatively  lo 

The  nbori*  rnllo  is  valid  only  If  the  shear  is  in  ft 

<  I  be  dlreetinn  [if  rullini;.  ami  if  the  lensiou  is  applied 

ftioii  of   rolling.    Tlie   sheurinK    resistance  in  n  plane 

clion  of  lollinp  is  differenl  from  ilwt.  in  n  plane  perpen- 

ction,  and  a^nin  differs  according  as  llii"  phliie  nf  shear  Ifl 

jirallel  tri  the  lireadth  of  the  bai'.    In  the  former  case  the 

ImC  greAter  than  iu  a  plane  perpendicular  to  (he  fibres,  or 

jnaelly.    In  the  latter  cam  it  Is  only  half  as  great  as  in  a 

cular  to  the  Dbres. 


CAST  lEOS. 


CAST  IB«S. 


ur  I'liiiilx-r  ft  gnulefc  .t^jjIb^  ■ 
|>rtiM-ipBl  hibJi  I  II  nn,»ii 
>-eor  No.  3..iMtair4  «r  !f«L  «.  a^  «*«* 
^."«  sbDKtiNiei  made.  ••  IC«.t  I.  tetveca 

i  are  ^r^m  to 

[qomlitj  » 

t  and  cok«  p«.    Cwithiia  a"ke  a^  » 

-     --       -     -      -    jiamUr^'mti 


lawOt T.  rqy^rtWrfyta^  taK,t|fifii» 

AviAnr  larv>-~  3b>  S  aoA,  a«  Mbt  lnni»;  taaMk4; 
■■^  IW  for  t»r»fc.*fc  iHMljIai.  aa  a  nip,  •>■  h.  •.» 
«nM.  TtoMlnviBrkaa 
.  ^.TU:  ««.  «.4»:  r.  •.«aL 
IC.  t-MT.  0(n*rr.a49L     VbecMlwaB 
raac  «r  •uwe.  H  f^  *^  «■  *>««'-    >^J^^ 
.mm-.  Or»|>Ucie  C  «»:  CuniWteiH  C.  t.»^  F. 
■  a  gTjr»itT  wan  T.Si  and   i«i«<*t  tt,T»t  A*. 

,— W.  JT  KtrfTM  rictrait.  te  •rr^ral 
L  4immm^  tae  taflii»aee  of  vaHoos  d 


f-^r^M  tTMtmtt  laeaM  irna 
■  oTtiic  fttUw^ 


IRON   AND   STEEL. 


366 


iron.  Carbon  mechariiuall v  lolxixl  » uh  the  Iron  as  eraphlte  I 
Ine  Id  color  from  gray  to  black,  while  tbe  fracture  of  the  iron 
light  to  a  very  dark  Rroy. 

Silluou  will  expel  eurboii,  if  the  iron,  when  tneltrd,  conta 
bOQ  that  it  citn  hold  nod  a  portion  of  Eilicoii  be  adtlcd. 

Prof.  Turij»?r  concludes  from  hlg  testa  that  the  amount  of  sillcor 
the  maximum  strength  is  almut  l.HW.  But  this  is  ouly  true  w! 
base  is  used.  If  an  iron  is  used  as  a  liase  which  will  prodiiccaan 
tobe^u  with,  each  additlonof  silicon  will  decruasestrengrh.  Sill 
a  weakening  aKfnt.  \'ariatiotis  in  the  jwrceotage  of  silicon  acli: 
iron  will  not  insure  a  ffiven  strength  or  physical  structurf,  but  tl 
will  depend  upon  llie  physicul  propertiea  of  the  original  iron. 

After  rnoiiKh  Kilii.''>n  has  betni  addpd  to  cau.se  solid  caKtinKR.  < 
addition  and  consBquent  increase  of  graphite  weakcnB  the  caj 
softness  and  strenf^h  given  to  caRtin^  by  a  suitable  addition 
is,  by  a  further  increase  of  Kilicon,  changed  to  stiffness,  britll 
wealcness. 

As  Btrengih  decrpa'«»,s  from  Increase  of  ^aphlte  and  decreaw  ol 
carbon,  deflection  increaKcn;  or,  in  oiher  words,  beudinir  l»  liu 

f!;raphite.    When  no  more  K''"I>hlte  can  form  and  siliron  ~"i 

flection  diminishes,  showinc  that  hish  silicon  not  oul,v 
makes  it  stiff.  This  stiffness  is  nut  the  same  slrenciti 
caused  by  compact  iron  and  eomi>iQed  eartHjn.     It  is  o  '■■ 

In  pig  irons  which  received  their  silicon  while  in  tip 
([^rapnite  more  ea."iily  BepftratHS,  and  the  shrinkaf^e  is  If  ~ 
ture.  As  sihcoii  increases,  shrinkaRti  nlsti  increases,  h 
creasea  Bhrink(M;e,  though  by  reaxon  rtf  Its  action  upon  il 
nary  practice  it  is  truly  said  that  silicon  "takes  th«i  sht" 
iron.'  The  slower  a  casting  crystallizes,  the  greater  \\i:.  ^>, 
of  eraphite  formed  within  it. 

Silicon  of  itself,  however  sniall  the  quantity  present,  hAntl 
btit  the  decrease  of  hardness  from  thecbanf;e  of  the  combliq 
graphite,  caused  by  the  silicon,  is  so  much  mure  rapid  than  I 
producea  b.v  the  increase  of  silicon,  that  The  total  effect  is  to  ( 
neas,  until  the  silicon  reaches  from 3    to  !>i. 

As  practical  foundry-work  does  not  call  for  mor<>  than  3f( 
ordinary  use  of  silicfm  doi-s  reduce  the  hardness  of  iNi-.tiii(t'>;  ^ 
duced  through  its  Influence  on  the  carbon,  and  not  it«  direct  la 
Iron. 

When  tho  change  from  combined  to  eraphile  carbon  biw  ( 
Ish  hardness,  saj'  at  from  8/  to  Ti^  of  silicon,  th»«  lun.t 
itaelf  becomes  more  and  moro  npi>arenl  as  the  silir 

Bbrinkaee  and  hardness  are  almost  exactly  pr.n 
Taries,  ana  other  elements  do  not  vnry  mnteriiilly. 
aga  are  soft;  as  shrinkage  increasi's,  the  eastinir-; 
notexactly,  the  same  proportion.     hVir  itnlinary  f- ■ 
of  shrinkage  may  be  made  also  the  scale  of  hanlm     .  , 
sulphur,  and  phosphorus  especially,  are  not  prejieni  lo  c<Hn|il 
suit.  ,, 

The  term  "chillintt"  irons  Is  generally  applied  to  si»cl>  a«  eonli 
would  be  gray,  but  cooled  suddenly,  iM-come  white*  en  lit  ■ 
cient  for  practical  utilization  it'.y  .  in  carwiieelsi  or  so  far 
tal.     .Many  irons  chill  more  or  less  in  cJUluct  "iththe  >■  ■!  J 
monld  In  which  they  are  ciisl,  especiiilly  If  they  are  tliin     Stn»>l 
te  a  valuable  quality,  but  for  general  foundry  pur|>o>ieii  il  U  d« 
have  all  parts  -if  a  oastin;;  an  even  gray. 

Silicon  pxi'itfi  a  powHcful  lnn\|Hiio«  upon  this  profierty  of  In 
or  entlrelv  removing;  their  capacity  of  chilling. 

When  silicon  is  mixed  with  ijuus  previously  low  In  sillConl 
Increased. 

It  is  not  the  percentage  of  RlliC"n,  but  the  state  of  the 

act  in  II  uf  Kill  con  liirouirJt  i.'tiiHr  Hi.Miit*:ils,  which  cituses  tll»  Iro^ 

^  ilriiion  of  iinpurling  fltf 

Ir.i  trill  tii<it  upluSf  orlltl 

th'       ,  '     -  <   M-'llM.-. 


wUal  Uc  >wal'ui  a.  \,>  v>tv:;tllu 


ru  not B Ktwner or  a. leHener or uummite; 
to  influence  on  carbon,  and  only  during'  a  certain  sta^e,  does  it 
!  etlecta. 

S.— WJille  phosphorus  of  ItHelf,  in  whatever  qoaiitity  present, 

-iron,  yet  in  quautiries  less  thim  i.Sjt  its  influeuce  Ik  n  t  Bndl- 

to   ovfrbaiance  otijer  benelicial  effects,  wiiieli  aiti  exerted 

■~    ■-■  readies  if.     I'robably  no  elt-itient  of  tlself  wealcetig 

i";phi>riiB,  especially  when  present  in  iarL'e  qiiuniltieij. 

li  wlieu  pboHphorus  is  increa-Ked.    All  t)ie;b-piius]>lini-UH 

B  ii.m  Miiinliiige.     Phosphorus  does  not  ordinnrily  harden  cast 

f  f or  the  rea-^oii  that  it  dties  not  increase  combined  cai-bou. 

' d  the  metal  is  slightly  inereased  by  pliosphuru;),  but  not  Ic 

It  extent  lis  has  l>eeu  asc'ril^ed  to  it, 

?r  Of  remaining  hmp  in  the  finid  state  must  not  lie  confounded 
or  it  is  not  tlie  n>ea.sure  of  its  ability  to  make  sharp  i-astinRs. 
the  very  thin  parts  of  a  mould.  Generally  speaklin;.  the  state- 
fled  that,  to  some  extent,  phosphorus  prolongs  the  lltiiiJIry  of 
;  it  is  tilllug  the  mould. 

Mtairiins  contained  about  \i  of  phosphorus.  The  foundry-irons 
^faoui:ht  for  for  sniall  anil  I  bin  casllnKS  in  Uie  Kastern'States 
^Berai  lliinii;,  over  ]%  of  |ih>iKphorus. 

I^which  contain  fmni  4%  to  "%  aliieon  have  been  so  mucli  used 
f  thi-ir  ntiility  to  soften  other  irons  that  th<"y  have  come  to  Vie 
Bfleiiers  "  and  as  ies^eners  (vf  shrliikUKB.  Tlfese  irons  are  valu- 
ers of  silii.HJti  ;  but  tlw  irons  wlik'ii  ai"e  sold  Tinist  as  softiMters 
^•lesseners  are  those  eiinlalniiiK  from  1^  to  2^  of  phoBpliorus. 
■refore  atuM-ilie  ll»e  reputation  of  sosoe  of  Lheui  largely  to  the 
inrt  not  wbollv  to  the  siliooii  which  they  contain. 
I  ls(  of  ph<>s]>nonis  will  do  all  that  can  be  done  In  a  Vieneflcial 
above  that  amount  weakens  the  iron,  without  corresponding 
«  n<»l  necessary  to  search  for  phosphorns-irons.  Most  iri'Mis 
I  than  ia  needeil,  atid  the  oai-e  should  be  to  keep  it  within  limits. 
Only  a  small  p'-rcentage  nl  siUphur  iim  he  made  lo  remain 
1  iron,  and  Ic  is  diflicult  to  iiuroduce  sulphur  Into  ^ray  east  iri>n 
ArboniKed  inin,  althongli  ^ray  east  iron  often  Cakes  from  Ibe 
1  more  sulphur  as  the  iron  originallj' coniainr'd.  I'erceniaKt's 
latcould  Ije  retained  by  gray  east  iron  eainiof  Muiterially  injure 
•fit  through  an  increase  of  shHoka^,  The  higlier  the  carbon, 
!r  tlie  silicon,  the  smaller  will   be  the   ltillni;iice  exerted   by 

iiu  of  sulphur  oo  all  ca-t  Iron  is  to  drive  out  carbon  and 


-"IWWiSK^V 


furtlifr  ioerfsiseJ  by  j.i 

iisul,    1,1  is  "  i.'.i"  I'.  1    -.,..„ |i,  , 

whereas  o  '.  _.-  1>  uf  ii  aixl  over  is  ■ 

fuel  in  the  ■  special  prt^»utioiis  ai  • 

offlulphur  ::. ....  ..^1  will  in  most  (.-aArs  be  i[. 

Tliat  the  auluiiui-  contents  ot  pig  iron  may  l«  lucrtfus 
cotiLaiiied  iu  tlm  cuke  u$t^d.  is  sLo*a-d  by  K<.>iiie  ex{kerinipl}tl 
reportwl  by  Mr.  Sau.    Sevrn  coustcuUve  lients  wcrtr  made. 

The  sulphur  coiutint  of  the  cuke  was  ii,  and  H.'f  of  fuel  was  I 
cliaree. 

Berure  melting,  tlie  silicon  rim-^l  fn.n,  0.S3O  to 0.830  in  t1i»B 
after  mpltin>;,  it  was  from  0  1  'h>?  loii.<i  in  nieliiimr  beij 

to  .3T&.    The  sulphur  Itefore  I  i  rom  .07G  to  .DM,  anil  a 

f  r.ini  .130  to  .171,  a  jriiu  frmn 1 

Kro'ii  the  rf^iilcs  the  fuUnninfj  ii>uolu^.ii>ng  were  drawn  ; 

1.  Iu  all  (he  cliurKes,  wiihout  exc«-|)tioii.  »ulphiir  increased  In  I 
arteritis  iias.-;ai;e  llirntiKh  the  cupola.  In  suiiie  uase.s  this  ind 
Ihnn  ilutiblt^l  the  oriKiual  imi'  'Uiii  uf  siilphnr  rciiiiid  In  the  piiK  in 

i   The  iucreuike  of  the  sulphur  i'i>nteni.*  iu  the  irou  fo|Jow«  the 
r»f  a  g-reater  amount  of  silict^n  fron»  that  >.'iiii»»   iioii       A  Inryrr 
limestiine  added  to  thwie  eharge.s  would  Ir 
aud  undoubtedly  luits  sulpliur  \v<iuld  hnv' 

3.  Tills  cyke  containe<l  1;?  of  sulphur,  nil 
the  iron  there  would  liave  heeii  an  nvera^-e  uicreaisi' 
Ihe  seven  charges,  while  the  rv'al  itiiMviLse  in  the  pi^r 
0.081.     This  showK  that  two  thirds  of  tlii' sulphur  or  tl:         - 
by  tlie  iron  in  its  nus-sago  through  the  cupola. 

Ma.nojI-nk.«e,  -  Miui(,Tiiie«e  i.s  a  nearly  white  metal,  Imvinf^aboa 
aiipejirjince   when    frucrunni  as  white  c&st  irun.      lis   'viHt-iiio 
aliout  K,  while  that  of  white  ea>>l  iron,  reoMonahly  fi-. 
but  a  little  above  '.5.    As  pri.Klupe<i  coininercially.  it  i 
and  with  siuull  p*:'i-oentnxe«  of  silieon,  iihoHphorua,  m 

It  Is  ireneially  prn<liiced  Iu  the  bhi-st-nirnaoe.     If  tl- 
iOf.  with  the  reiualnder  mostly  iron,  and  silicon  not 
called  spu'tfeleisen,  and  the  fracture  will  allow  Uat  rei! 
w'hii'b  it  Hikes  its  n.Tiiie.  , 

With  uuiiiKaiie.se  above  50:*,  the  irou  alloy  in  called  fernMnang 

Ah  maiit;aiii-.^-  iuorrases  lieyimd  SO;;,  the  mass  craciis  in  civiliui 
il  appri'iiches  W'i  the  mass  crumbles  or  falls  in  aiuHll  i 

Manttanese  ciiuitjiiius  with  iron  in  aiinoHt  nnypro! 
con  till  run;;  mtiKganeseiHreiiieltetl,  iiiiire  or  less  of  tli.- 
bv  volnliliy-atloii,  and  by  oxidatiou  wiili  other  i  ■ 
it  Huliihur  be  iireyent,  some  of  ihe  luau^iiet^;  ' 
and  escape,  thus  reduciiiK  theamoiint  of  Imth  ■ 

Cojit  liou,  when  free  from  luauKanese,  canni>i 
boil ,  and  3.50.<  is  tt,s  much  as  is  ^.-eiie rally  present ; 
carbon  also  increases, iinlil  weofienllnd  it  in  - 
ferro  inaiiKaneiie  aa  hicrb  aa  (W.    This  effect  on  cup,uii>  Ui  hoK 
ueciiliar  to  mnii)^nese. 

JlauKHii.-s.'  I'-nders  cast  Iron  less  plastic  and  more  brittle 

Mnii  K'asesthe  Bhrinl(Bi(e  of  caat  iron.     Anincreawl 

the  HI  .     JiidKine  from  some  test  recordo,  uianxaiM 

inflii''  ail;  but  other  tests  show  thai  "iih  ii  i.'iv<n  [>e( 

■llicoii  111!- cai  lj"a  niav  be  a  liille  more  in- 
form, and  therefore  the  chill  may  be  a 
chill  In  h.' (h"  Siiiiie.  ii.  woiiM  se.-iii  that  t! 
a  lilii.  ui  it. 

All  i^ed  the  bardnea*  MV. 

chill.  i.iln^  hardfieflBti>Uieirl1i 

lan.li  -.y.  l-;i|;,  ilif^cusBlDe  the  influence 

'"  coiiibinalioii  tmtween  carbon  and 

I  1 illv  larae  qiviu\\\\\i>«,  \*  IFVV& 

-U  \vuuUJ  \>e  tUiiuraW;  tr — ' 


in  andkni 


TESTS   OF   CAST   IBOV.  36^H 

lllia  oapacEly  of  irnii  to  retain  larger  amounts  of  car-        ^ 

n  in  tlie  ooiiibincil  stale.  ^^mm 

&  iKorien  iisi-il  for  rixiiitlry  ^mr|H>«»'s  when  luiiuu  chill  u>4^^| 
MC0  Ik  rt'qiiU'fil  iit  ilit>  vastiiig.  For  tli«  roUt:  of  Bi«el-ra^^^| 
>ut  Into  lilt)  niixtiiie  ii  liirK'"  amininl  of  iiianganiri«ri)ii.s  itoii,^^l 
tbLuined  always  presented  tiie  desired  b.'irditeKH  of  siirfuce 
mottled  Hiniciure  on  the  oiitKlde.  The  inside,  which  al-  . 
h  slower,  wa.s  ^ray  Iron.  Une  of  the  stAiiduid  mixtures  lliat^H 
|;OOd  results  was  the  rollowirif;:  ^^H 

indry  iroii  with  t.'li  Kilicun  uiid  !.!>.'(  iimiiprunem;  ^^m 

indry  Iron  with  1$  silicon  and  l.At  niiinganeise;  ^^H 

(rail  ends)  with  alKjul  0.35^  to  O.'IOiv  carlxjn,  ^^M 

tig  from  thix  mixture  contained  ahoiit  }■(  of  silicon  and  Ij^^H 

ire,  which  differed  but  littlo  from  the  preceding,  was  as 

tn  with  about  t.af  Killcon  and  1.5^  inaniranese;  ^^m 

in  with  about  1^  silicon  and  1.5^'  nian>;uiie»e ;  ^^M 

Ottted  iron  witli  aljont  0.b%  to  VM  SI.  ami  1  -Jf  Mn.  ^H 

t««l-rail  ends  with  alwuit  O.^ii^  Ui  O.HK  f .  and  OM  to  U  Mn.^^ 
sed  Id  tbo  precediut;  mixturfs  conlnined  dI.io  iiivariubly 
of  phosphorus,  H3  that  tlie  rolLs  obtaliieil  llierefroni  carried 
(  of  that  element.  The  lo-st  mixture  iiaeil  prudueed  rolls 
e  averaK^  O.RS  to  if,  of  Kili>:< m  niul  If  of  innnf;ane.se.  Wben- 
IDake  tljoti«  rolls  from  n  mixture  coiituiiiini;  but  K),i%  to0.a;( 
roll*  were  invariably  of  inferior  quality  proyer,  and  con* 
*.  Manganese  iron  cannot  be  used  indiscrlniinateiy  for 
IB.     Wlien  greater  80ftnes.s  is  reijnireil  in  tlie  co-stint'S  nian- 

I  avoiddil,  but  when  hunlnes.s  to  a  certain  extent  has  to  b^^B 
aene  iron  can  be  ujmmI  with  advantage.  ^^H 
3-easeM  the  magnetism  of  tlie  lion.  This  cliaracl/erlHtic  Id^^H 
peroeutaKC  of  man»;anesu  tliat  enters  into  the  composltlOB^^ 
t  iron  loees  all  II8  inaeuetisni  wtien  munganeiie  rt-acheE  IXii 
Ion.     This  peculiai'ity  liatt  boon    niade   use    of   by  French 

draw  a  clear  Une  benveeii  Spiegel  and  ferro-inaiiKanese. 
iitains  less  tUaii  °.i5t  of  mauicaiiese  it  is  clattsltied  as  spii-eel, 
fAins  more  than  a5  ilj  is  cla.'ssifled  as  ferro-uiaii};aiie.se.   Fur 

-r  'n  has  to  be  avoided  iu  ca.Htingii  "t  dyuainu  fleldv^^B 

luoleclric  machinery,  where  magnetic  couduO^^H 

))>iiilerat{oiis.  ^^^| 

i>.>.i.il>titlon   or  Silicon   In   Pig   Iron.— J.   W;^' 

'je,  ^ov.  i-i,  IH'Jll  finds  in  aualyziiiK  samt  les  taken  from  every 

fUjt  of  piK  iron  tliat  (lie  silicon  varies  consitierably,  the  Inm 

II  (he  furnace  having  genfrally  tbo  highest  percenlnjje.  In 
la  the  silicon  decrea."Jeil  fron<  2.1)40  lo  1  T13  from  the  fii-st  beil 
In  another  case  the  tliird  iM-d  lind  l.'JliOfii..  the  seventh  1.71B, 
1 1.101.  He  als(j  Amis  that  the  silicon  varies  in  each  plj;,  be- 
»  point  titan  at  the  linlt.  Some  of  his  n^ures  are:  point  of 
t  of  same  2  157:  point  of  pig  l.fWI.  butt  of  sjime  l.TSrf. 
f  or  Cast  Iron.  (li.  I^anza,  Trmm.  A.  H.  M.  K,  x.,  ltl7.J 
lalyveo  were  as  follows: 

Gun  Iron,       Common  Iron, 
per  Cent.  per  cent. 

Itntrbon 3.51  

diite 2.80  

Knr 0.13S  0.178 

tohonia O.l.W  0.413 

Ml l.UO  1.S9 

(,.,.i.t  i.-or..  'io  Inches  lomerand  square  in  sectinn;  those  (eat-etf* 
ry  nearly  one  Inch  square,  and  those  tealed  with 
si  nearly  one  and  one  quarter  inches  square,  and 
>  one  inch  square. 

Tensile      Elastic      W«><»ulu« 


StrenKtIi.     Limit. 


iiOOT.  8.  A». 


2-^.066 
90,&»] 


o,r,oo 

5.B3a 


of  Elos- 
licity. 


>i4till.l>M 


S8.I76   ll.UQQ 

ao,soo 


w 


370 


lEOX  iSSV  STEEL. 


I 


The  el  stic  limit  U  noi  clearly  deOoed  incsnt  irnn.  ihe  eliMimtioiuli 
ia:C  f'^C^r  lltan   the  iiicrease  nf  tbe  loadH  frtu 
Tlie  modulus  of  eloslicity  is  tli«»r>ffonf  T«ri«bl' 

ci^isc    Koi- cifliiiplf,  ilie  following  re«ulw  of  ..  :   ■.■ji 

reported  by  Prof.  Lanza:  ^H 

LbiL  iwr  so  in  EloDRBtion  in         Sets.  Modalua  ot  ^M 

lAM.  per  gq.  in.     ,3^  jnche*.  a.  ElastWty.  ^^ 

1000  .0004  1V.S17.400 

8000  .0018  io,7r7.;oo 

aOOO  .0094  14,0U.«I0 

4000  .OOM  is,ioi.aw 

BOOO  .0048  lS.BOa.«0  „ 

tOOO  .0061  .0000  I3,319.3rw     ad 

8000  .0068  .0001  II.OOii.SOO    ^M 

10000  0119  .0001  io,iL<ki:iuu   ^H 

laOOO  .016-'  .00117  V.7H.300     T] 

CHEHUSTBT  OP  FOUNDHIT  IHO.^S, 

(C.  A.  Meissnc-r,  Cutiimbia  College  Q'ly,  1890;  Iioti  A^e,  18NJ 

Silicon  It!  a  very  Important  ulemenl  In  foundry  Irons.    l\i  ii-Ddi!i<c]i 
not  atMire  'i}^  is  to  canse  the  carlxiii  to  spparate  out  " 
cuHtiug  llie  Vlpslred  benefits  of  (rraphltic  iron.     Betw.- 
i8  li«^t  a<lupted  for  Inm  cati-yinR  n.  fnir  pniporilou  ot 
clotie  iron,  for  ordinarily  no  miicturesliould  run  below  i),iii  siIilxm-  I'lC 
caslingM. 

Kiom  H  to  .'><  silicon,  as  occurs  In  silvery  Iron,  will  carry  lie«»y  omiW 
Bcrap.  CoHtiniCK  arn  lialjle  10  be  brittle,  however,  if  not  haadM  mr 
aa  leicardH  propxrtinn  of  '^crap  iiwd. 

From  lU  ^to  i^  silicon  is  beHt  adapted  (or  machine  woric;  will  gtm 
clean  caKtiii^  if  not  much  xi-ran  is  used  with  it. 

Below  1<(  silicon  !;a<>iua  8uit«J  for  drilU  and  eosUnes  that  have  10 
great  varlation-i  in  temperature. 

Silicon  has  the  effect  of  mnkin;;  casiiiii^  fluid,  sIronK,  a"' 
ttl.«4o  MOund,  by  its  tendency  to  sej^arHte  tha  graphite  from  1 
and  con8«|nent  Kliglit  exiiansinn  of  llie  iron  on  cofilint:  .•  • 
tliorouKhlr.     Phosphonm,  when  hi);h,  hiu  a  t«iideii'  1 
retain  lis  lif-at  ]oiii;t>r,  therKliy  helpiiic  to  All  out  all  s: 
It  iriakeH  iron  brittle,  however,  when  above  J^jt  in  cit- 
when  high  to  us«  In  a  mixture  of  low. phosphorus  iron-, 
pood  results,  but.  n»  said  Iwfoi-e.  the  casting  should  be  Ik  1 
Mtroiie  tendency  when  above  11  in  pig  to  make  the  iron  li^'^    - 
ventinif  the  sieparation  of  t;raphite, 

Hulpnur  In  open  iron  seldoni  boibers  the  founder,  as  it  is  M'Idnm  pT 
10  any  extent.  Tim  conditioin  causing  open  Iron  in  the  funiftc*  c»u* 
HUlpliur.  A  little  maniraneiw  is  an  excellent  antidote  nKaingt  iiuU>hni  < 
furnace.  Irons  alM>ve  \i  manganese  B<.-ldom  have  any  Hulphtir  uf  U} 
Reuiienco. 

Graphite  i«  tlie  all-important  factor  In  foundry  Irons:  udI- 
In  sulTlcient  amount  in  the  casLlU);.  the  latter  will  l>e  I  : 
(ira|)hlie  onuses  iron  to  slif^htly  expand  on  cooling,  uiukeK  : 
Uuid.     (The  statement  88  10  expansion  "II  imjlinjf  is  Ueniedtn  w   J  K' 

Il€>lailoii  of  the  Appearance  of  Praetnrc  19  tbeCbeW 
<'oinp<>Mlllt>n.      8.    11.   Cliiiiivenrt  .-uiys  when   run  [fr.nn  tli.-  I''i«* 
uiiifj  the  lon.r  Ite.l  U  almost  iklways  cIukc  Krulii,  hut  sho"  - 
Bdue  aualvsLs  OH  the  lari^e  Kiiiln  in  the  ristuf  the  cast.     ' 
rapidly,  thi^  loiver  beii  may  have  a.s  large  grain  a.s  am   in 
iion  runs  rapidly  for,  say,  six  IhmIs  and  some 
causes  the  seventh  Ived  to  till  up  slowly  anM 
close -v'ln 111.  nithoiigh  tlie  eighth  l-il.  if  iliciii' 
open  .      .  .  .(her  the  grai 

l(il1u<  f'nicture  in  < 

silli'  ,.  in  I'fli'li  :  .    !■    ' 


^  luodb  tor  VkM 


CHKMISTBT  OP  POUXDRY   IKONS. 


3711 


_^  _  -,  and  unless  the  coDdition  o(  fiirnaL'p,  whellier  the  irou  ran, 
•ow,  arid  from  what  part  of  pig  bed  tlie  snniplo  te  tiiken,  are  kiio' 
itire  IS  nft^n  Tery  misleading;.    Take  Ihe  followiiiB  analyses: 


Ic  c»r.. 
arbon.. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D, 

E, 

4.315 
0.006 
8.010 

4.8ie 
D.ooe 

8.767 

4.aT0 

o.oor 
i.esa 

8.SS8 
0.033 

a.sia 

S.B69 
0.008 
3  070 
0,108 

rj- clos«-p-ain  iron,  dark  cnlor,  by  fracture,  gr»y  forge. 

en-graiD.  dark  color,  by  Tract  lire.  No.  ]. 

rv  close-Krain,  by  fracture,  Ei^-V  fofKC. 

iJium-graiD,  by  fracture.  No.  3,  but  much  brij;hter  and  more 

C.  or  F. 

Ty  larfce.  open-)rraiii,  dark  color,  by  fracture.  No.  I. 

ry  close  grain,  bv  fracture,  pay  forR*'. 

mparing  analyRes  A  and  B,  or  E  and  F.  it  apix'nr.'i  that  llie  elose-J 

DO  ts  in  each  cose  the  higliest.  in  graitliltic  carbon.    Coinparl 

the  graphite  ta  about  the  same,  but  tht<  cliwie-giain  i»  liii^iie 


open 


ring 
liest  In 


.nalj-aea  of  Fonndrr  Iron*.    (C.  A.  Heisaoer.) 
Scotch  Irons. 


arade. 

Silicon. 

a.To 

a.4T 

8.44 

B.70 

8. 1.5 

8..19 

i.ro 

S.U3 

2 

4.00 

Plios- 

ptlOd'US. 


a.Mu 

ft.TW 
I  mill 

0  oi.s 
o.sin 

1  100 

i.aoo 

0.000 


Mnnjta- 

Btil- 

Oraph- 

uose. 

pliur. 

Ue.      ( 

l.BO 

0.01 

3,00 

2.M 

o.ol.^ 

j.ro 

fl.Ol,') 

a.w) 

0.02 

'J, no 

2.R0 

O.TO.'i 

.'!.7fl 

i.ro 

0,010 

3  75 

1.83 

o.tMe 

8.50 

2.8S 

8.41 

O.OIO 

1.78 

Conih 
Car  Ob 


0.25 


O.SO 
0  21 


0.90 


AMKBtUAM  BOOTOB  IRON*. 


Phog. 
jihoruit. 

Manganese 

Sulphur. 

No. 
Grade. 

O.<30 
IIWO 
1.000 

o.eao 

0  613 
0738 
1.000 
1,«00 
0.S03 

1.00 
1,1K) 
1,70 
1.40 
2.51 
1   10 
1.70 
\.fi> 
2.96 

1 

'  a" 

8 

1 

0.016 
0.318 

1 
1 
1 

casting 


oaating 


'  Ibma  atrvugUi, 


1,  Well  known  Olilo  Scotch  Ir 
:qi;  made  from  jinrt  l.|a<*1:-bft" 
/  Kty^s it  irs.Kcrap-cnnyinK  < 
-,  iiiAde  at  acaie  nuiks;  caiO 


372 


IKON   AND   STEEL. 


Ni.i.  3.  Foiinerly  a  fiiiiiouis  Ohio  Scotch  brand,  not  now  in  the  inaili 
Millie  iiiniiil.v  from  blai:k-l>anil  ore. 

No  4.  A  goiHi  Ohio  Suutcli,  very  Soft  and  fluid;  mikde  from  bliKtk-bl 
ore-niixtui'e. 

Nob,  5<!  unci  66.  Brier  Hill  Scotch  iron  and  cnstliig;  mode  for  stove) 
poses;  330  \tni.  of  iron  used  lo  150  llis.  Krrap  ^ave  Tery  soft  fluid  irou;  i 
well. 

No.  Iki  Shows  coinpariHiiii  liptwi-cii  .Siinimerlp<*  (Scotch)  (Ou)  and  Brierl 
Scotcli  ifi^'i.  Dnilinfc's  canio  frcui  a  C'lc velaud  fouiidiy,  whlc!i  found  I) 
in.DS  closely  nlike  in  |iliysici>l  nnd  worltinj;  qtiiUitj. 

No,  T.  One  of  llie  best  soiiiliern  brands,  irery  hard  to  compete  with, ov 
to  it«  ifcneral  qualities  and  gi-cnt  repiilarily  of  grade  and  gviieral  Korkiif 

Machine  InoKs, 


Sample 
No. 

Silicon. 

Phoa- 
phorns. 

Manfta- 
iiese. 

Sulphur. 

Graphite. 

Comb. 
CArbon, 

^ 

8 

S.RO 
1.90 
S.flfl 
3. 63 
S.iO 
1  37 
S.10 
3.18 
l.TO 
1  4S 
1.40 
3.S6 

o.eo 

0.4M 

o.sea 

0.770 
0.411 
0.415 
0.204 
O.I-Jt 
O.iStO 
0  ffiti 
0  470 
0.316 
0.430 
O.ltti 

0.01 

0.70 

i.ao 

1.25 

O.fiO 

l.M 

(race 

0.80 

1.00 

1.23 

1.37 

0.35 

0.90 

O.OIH 

o.oao 

0.030 
0.014 

O.OTjO 
O.OHO 

o.oai 

g 

10a 

S.51 
3.05 

106 
11 



\ 

12 

la 

8.31 

0.78 

1 

14 

IS 
IBa 

"coos'" 

0.008 

1 

1(U) 

17 

18 

O.Olfi 

4 

DESCRiPTtoK  OP  tJAMPLKB.— No.  B.  A  famous  Southern  brand  noted  fori 

macliiiie  castini^. 

No.  !S.  Also  a  Southern  brand,  a  vui-y  (?iifjd  machine  iron. 

Nos.  liVu  anii  10/j.  Foriinrlv  one  of  tljf  liest  known  Oliio  brands.  Does  I 
shrinlt;  i.s  v«i-y  Hnid  mid  BtioHK.     Foundries  hftving  used  tliishave  Pi!p 
very  favorably  on  it. 

Nij.  11.  Iron  fmni  Brier  Hill  Co.,  made  to  imitate  No,  3  ;    was  Din 
tlian  No.  3;  did  not  pull  cn.stli>g-»;  was  fluitl  anil  soft. 

No.  12.  Cop3'  of  H  very  strung  Enj^ltsli  matihlne  iron. 

No.  13.  A  PennB.vlTania  iron,  very  (ouEti  and  soft.    This  Is  partially  1 
mer  iron,  which  accounts  for  Htri'iiKtIi.  Khllo  Uif^h  oilicnn  niakt*!!  it  nod. 

No.  14.  Castings  made  from  Brier  Hill  t.'o.'s  machine  brand  for  scale  li 
very  siitisfiietory,  stron;;,  Noftaud  fluid. 

No.  15.  Coatiiigts  made  from  Brfer  Hill  Co. 'a  one  half  machine  braiwj. 
half  Sirotch  brand,  for  scale  works,  castings  desit^d  to  be  of  fairsti 
but  very  fluid  and  soft. 

No.  KSir.  Hrier  Hill  inafdaine  hranil  nmdrt  to  compete  with  No.  3. 

No   106    CastiiiKS  l.clotlii-s-liooks)  from  .same,  said  to  Imve  worked  1 
oa.stlng's  ljt;ing  vrliite  and  irregular.     Analysis  proved  tbot  sonwotberi 
too  high  iu  inangan<.'3<4  had  been  use<l,  and  probably  not  well  mtied. 

No.  17.  A  Peunsyivauia  iron,  no  shrinkage,  exccUeut  machine  Irni.  I 
and  strong. 

No.  18.  A  very  good  quality  Northern  cliairoal  iron. 

"Standard    trades ^'   of  the    Bri«r   UlU   Iron   and 
Conipanjr. 

Hiier  Hill  Scotch  tron.—Stundartl  Analuti*,  Grade  -Von   1  oiid  t 

Silicon S.OOtoS.OO 

PhnavhoruB Q.WloO.TS 

Ma.nt!i\ne!ie "^ ■'»  >-"''*■  * 

C^-etf  sticcfjwf iilly  for  scales,  tnowwK-TO»c'Wm»a,»w\<3*^.»«J^^«^«»  \ 
Boveltr  iiaidware,  eounding-boards,  sVovea,  »»\4  »iw.vf  ""«»•  w«8a»J 


flmnngir»T  or  ioukdbt  iboxtb. 


878 


r 

WL        Brtm  mt  SOmrg  Inm.— Standard  AnaktU,  Chnda  No.  1. 

W        Wkoa «.M)toS.BO 

fr       noi^konm > l.oOtoi.M 

'■  VMiCMieM S.OOtoS.tt 

I  aoceMaftiUjr  for  hfdknr-ware.  ear-wheelii.  etc.,  Btores,  bumpers,  and 

r  woiic  with  taurj  wnoonta  or  ecnp  In  sU  case*.    Should  be  mainly 

1  where  floldlhr  and  no  grt^  streDgth  Is  required,  especially  for  beary 

When  used  with  scrap  or  dose  pig  lowln  pfaospnorus,  castinga  of 

' '  I  atrBiigth  and  great  finidlty  can  be  made 

fbir^i  Beaog  Maekine  Iron.— Standard  Aualtti*,  Orade  No.  1. 

Silicon l.TBtoS.M 

F!ioq>honis O.BOtoO.80 

Manganeae 1.80  to  1.40 

Vw  beat  iron  for  maoliinery,  wafron-boxea,  agricultural  Implements, 
pav-wo^a,  hardware  specialties,  lathe*,  stOTea,  etc.,  wliere  no  lane 
pMinta  of  aerap  are  to  be  carried,  and  where  strength,  combined  with 
■■at  ftoiditr  and  aoftneoB,  are  desired.    Should  not  liave  much  scrap  with 

Segular  Marine  hvn.— Standard  AnalyiU,  Orade  No$.  1  and  8. 

aiioon 1.50to8.00 

Fboephoro* O.SOtoO.SO 

Xaa^eae O.SOtol.OO 

Uaad  for  hardware,  lawn-mowers,  mower  and  reaper  works,  oil-well 
~    MnetT,  drill*.  One  madrineiTi  atovea,  etc.    Excellent  for  all  small  fine 
Lings  requii-ing  fair  fluidity,  softneaa,  and  mainly  strength.    Cannot  be 
'  Dsed  alone  for  lane  cnatlngs,  bat  gives  good  result*  on  same  when  used 
•bov«-meatk>ned  heavy  machine  grade:  also  when  used  with  tlie 
A  ill  right  proportion.    Will  carry  but  little  scrap,  aud  should  be  used 
I  for  gm>d  mnrng  casting*. 
For  Axlet  and  Materiala  Requiring  Great  Strength,  Orade  No.  2. 

Silicon l.SO 

Phoaphorus O.aoOand  less. 

Manganeae 0.80 

This  gave  excellent  result*. 

A  good  neutral  iron  for  gvnt,  etc.,  will  run  about  a*  follows : 

:  Silicon 1.00 

Phonihorus 0.85 

Sulphur 0.90 

'  Manganese none. 

It  sbonld  be  open  No.  1  iron. 

P**><*  (rives  a  very  tough,  elastic  metal.    More  sulphur  would  make  touKh 
ecrease  elastfcl^. 
'  fine  castings  demandlog  elecance  of  drsifcn   but  no  strength,  pilos- 
is to  S.00!(  Is  good.    Can  also  stand  1.60^  to  SOOsdnaDKaneRe.    Foi'wcrk 
lard,  abrasive  character  manganese  can  run  2.00^  In  castinK. 
Analraea  of  Oastliig:*. 


pfe* 

Silkion. 

8.50 
0.8S 
1.S3 
1.84 
8.80 
8.50 
2.80 
8.10 

s.ao 

8.88   J 

4.ao  / 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Manganese 

Sulphur. 

Orapliit<-. 

Comb. 
Carbon. 

r  « 

t  Ml 

1.400 
0.351 
0.827 
0.577 
0.748 
1.206 
0.418 
1.880 
0.8T9 
0.4OB     1 

O.eeo 

1.4S0 
0.900 

o.veo   1 

8.80 

0.98 

1.08 

1.04 

1.10 

1.16 

0.64 

1.14 

0.80 

l.iO       \ 
0.78 
O.B0       / 

l.SO      1. 

6.030 
0.040 

siio" 

""bW 



^*te 

m.    JBa 

B6 

Be 

Bd 

■; y ':::::::::.. 

''  y 

\  ........ . 

/M/ 

0.025 

:  ::x"V^..... 

::::::::::;krr;:: 

I 


374  lEON   AND  STEEL. 


No.  31,  Sewiiignmchine  casting:,  said  to  be  verjr  fluid  aad 
This  is  nn  ndj  nnalysi*.     I  slinuld  say  it  would  liavw  lief  n  too  1 
tie,  yet  no  t:<>ni[ilniiil  wiis  iiiiido. 

No.  3'.'.  Very  vtoral  ruaohltie  ca.slirgr,  strong,  soft,  no  .shrfnkam 

No.  S-3.  OrilliiiifK  ti'oiii  an  unnyalt- r-boit  that  Btood  llie  h^at  v* 

No.  S4n.  Diiltinps  frmn  (tnor  liing*^.  very  slrong  and  wift 

No.  S46.  DiiUiags  from  cloiiies-liooks,  touKli  and  aiifl,  stood  | 
nierini;. 

No.  3*:.  DrilliQBS  from  window-hjind  hinge,  broke  ofT  fiiuldfl 
strain.    Too  Iiigh  phosphorus. 

No.  35(1.  Castin)^  for  heavy  Indie  support,  very  KtrnnK. 

No8  85f)  and  35c.  Brolte  after  short  usage.    Pliosiitinriis  too  1 
bumpers. 

No.  SSflf.  Elbow  for  ftteam  heater,  vpry  toii^h  and  Ktrong. 

No.  36.  Ong  wh<»els,  very  Boo<l,  shows  alwoliitely  iici  sliriuknKe. 

No.  37.  Heater  top  networlc,  i-equiring  fluidity  but  no  strength. 

No.  37rt.  Gray  part,  of  alKive. 

No.  37(>.  WliUo,  houeycombed  part  of  above,    Probaldy  b<ul  i 
Kot  cliilled  suddenly. 

STRENGTH    OF    CAST    IHON. 
Rankine  gives  tlie  following  figures: 

Varinus  <nialitle«,  T.  S 13,400  to        29.00(1,  BTor«g«i 

('<im|ireasivo  Btrenuth SS.IKIO  to       IW.nOO. 

Modulus  of  elasticity U.OOO.lWO  l«  39.9(10,000,        '•        UJ 

Specific  Gravltr  and  Strcnsrtb.    (Major  Waile,  18M,) 

Third<-lBsa  gutks:  8p.  C^r.  7.0(37,  T.  8.  JU,  HA.   Another  lot :  least  Sp.  Of. 
T.  8.  a.Wi. 

Seoond-clnssKuns:  Sp.  Or.  7.154,  T.  8, 81,7(57.    Another  lot :  mvm 
7  30i.  T- 8  27,2.'^. 

First  class  ?uiig:  Sp.  Gr,  T.iiOl,  T.  8.  S8,80S.    Another  lot:  irre«l«al 
7.408.  T.  8.31, 0S7. 

StrengrtU  of  €harcoa.I  Pig;  Iron.-Plir  Iron  ma.I.  ' 
ores,  iu  furnaces  at  \Va.esjvio  and  Mdlerton,  N.  Y.,  has  sli"  ,^ 
T.  S.  rn-r  .s<jiuire  in<'li,  one  sitniple   Eiving  40,'.?81   lbs.     Mn. 
t«»te<l  at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard  showed:  averojre  for  Sr.  '^  inui. 
lbs.:  No.  3,  i£f,g.'>9  lbs.;  No.  4,  41,321)  IImI.;  average. density  of  No.  4,'.W 
I.  W.,  v.  p.  44.) 

Nos.  3  and  4  charcoal  plRlnHi  from  Chaplnville.  Conn.,  ^'  '      '■ 

strength  per  square  ineh  of  from  31,761  lbs   to  4I.S8'2  lbs.     i 
from  I  Shelby,   Ala.   (tests  madw   hi  Aiicust,  IHOIi.   show. 
34.800  lb.'?,  for  No.  8;  Nn.  4,  30,075  ll)s.;  No.  B,  46,460  llss.;  nfi.i  ii  ii>;.in 
eqiial  parts  of  Nog.  8.  3,  .(.  ami  fi,  41. 170  lbs.     (  Riill.  I.  it  S.  AA 

Variation  of  Density  and  Tcnaritf  orGnn-1ron«.-< 
crease  of  density  Invariably  follows  the  rniiiil  C'X'lliiK  "f  o   -^ 
K«>i»eral  rulo  the  tenacity  Is  increased  l>y  llie  .-^me  rnem 
prenerally  increases  quite  uniformly  with  th«  ileiisity,  luitil  i: 
to  som«i  ^Iveii  fKilnt;  aft«r  which  au  increased  deoKity  is  ni.X'"ntp'iii«^ 
diminished  (cuacity. 

The  tnrninKiiiiiiU  of  density  a(  wideh  the  best  ntiallrlei  of  pniititwl 
their  maxiniUMi  tenacity  appears  to  be  about  7  ati.     .\-  •'  -    .  .. 

or  near  ii,  whetlier  in  proof-bars  ny  Kun  heads.  Hie  <•  i 

As  the  ileiisity  of  iron  is  iiicreascil  ll*:  liquidity  wliei 
Thi-!  calluses  it  to  enuirP.iI  quieklv.  and  to  hirm  cnvltji-i  m  wi.    i;i:.'i..i 
castiop.     (Paui|ililet  of  Itiiilders"  Inui  Koun.lrv,  1R93.1 

SperlflcallonH  for  rai>t  Iron  tor  tbc  World**  l^alr. 
Ing*,   I89!i.  — !•  xcej'l  where  ihdled  irnii  is  «in'<lfled.  all  euslia 
of  toiii^li  tcruy  iron,  fre^   from   injurious  cftldHliiUs  or   blow.f 
pattern,  and  of  a  workmanlike  liuish.    Sample  pleics  1  In.  «)iia 
the  siiine  heat  of  metal  iu  sand  mnulds,  shall  be  eacwldr  •■!  tm 
dear  span  of  4  feet  »  inches  a  central  load  »f  fiilO  IIm  wh>^i 
^xuuKh  Imr. 

Bctttcatlona  far  TeatK  orrast  Iron  In  1 '? '  rr    T 
plilet  of  BujJ(J[orp,lii>n  (■'■•uintrj-.  I^W  )— CVmiimi. 
^h  of   ^ *' ^^t 'Amjn list  average  jtt  eaeb  end  .. 
t/r-  •  «ii  to  lie  over  37.1H»H\>»  w-t  «vviy 

xuy  Imi  Alt  low  OS  %.wn  vb&.  v«( 


r  im  uiiwMJivu  us  uie  ucmu  wuiin  yuiijuu  iv  luc  ^uiiib  wucie— 
gtn  to  sliow  III  tJhe  wlil((?.    Tlie  erades  ai-e  to  be  l)y  elKliths  of 
i.  M.  %•  li-  ^%-7^  etc..  iiiiiil  tiie  iron  is  iiiottlml;  llie  lowest 
of  MM  iiiuTi  ill  (lepin  of  i-hlll.    TliB  piK'S  i)f  oach  i-aat  urn  to  b 
the  rtfpth  of  chill  Rho\ru    by  its  te.sl-piece,  and  eiiCli  ^rade 
■  ilK»'lf  at  tliH  fiiiiiarc  ami  In  forwaiJliiK- 
ir  Cast   Iron  M°l(h   Steel,— (.'hi-   whoels  nrf;  lioinetlmea 
iiiixiiire  uf  I'liaicoal   iiun.  aiitliiacite  Iron,  and   Bessemer 
lluwiiii;  i'honM  the  tensile  streneth  of  a  niiriilier  of  te^ts  of 

eaveraKe  leDsUosCreugtb  uf  tiiu  cbiircoal  iruri  iised  beiuj 
lbs.  peraq.  in. 
thSUjtst**! S-J.467 

*        "    S^iSBteel .26.783 

"    l}^)(  .steel  ami  6>.;f;<  anthracite ...  SMOO 

••       "    TJJje  steel  ami  T|t5»antlirRcIte ..   .  28,150 

^K"    Si^  ste  I,  -JtO^t  wroH  Iron,  and  Bi.j$  antli. ..  S.MUO 

^■•'    S    iCHteel,  5$  wro'l  Iron,  and  10  S  until 'MJiW 

^^  {Jour.  C.  I.  »'.,  ill.  p.  184.) 

r*rttally  BeM«i«merized. -Car  wheels  made  of  pur- 
Haeil  iron  (blown  in  iiittissenier  enuverter  for  3ii  niiuutes), 
litest  lumiM  over  ua  inuli  deep,  ju»taii  a  test  of  cold-blast 
or  cur  wheels  would  chill.  Car  wheels  made  uf  thin  blown 
."ill  l»J  miles.     {Joiir.  C.  I.  H'.,  VI.  p.  77.) 

Iron. —On  October  15.  1M1,  the  ca.st  iron  fly-wheel  of  a  largo 
etiKineii  beloiiKiiXT  to  the  Aniobkeag  Mf(;.  Ci>.,  of  BlHUchestei', 
1  from  ceutrifngal  force.  The  fly  wheel  was  Wl  (>'et  dlain- 
iches  fa<-e,  with  una  sot  of  13  urm's,  and  weiglnil  UO.CXlO  lbs. 
ent,  the  rim  castinen,  as  well  a»  the  ends  of  (lie  arms,  were 
I  of  ilawii,  caused  chiefly  by  the  ilrawhiK  and  HlinnU-iiiie  of  the 
lens  of  the  metal  were  tested  for  teii'.ile  streii(;ili,  iiiiuvaritwl 

jwr  »qiinre  Ineli  lu  sound  pieces  lo  liiOO  Ihs  Jii  spongy  ones. 
Rnurs  .showed  on  the  dnrface,  and  a  rigid  exniiilnutioit  of  tlie 
ey  were  erected  failed  to  tfiveunj- cause  to  siisiwct  their  true 
'imenli;  were  carried  on  for  some  time  after  the  accident  in 
Company's  foundry  in  attempting  to  duplicate  the  daws,  but 
i  In  appronehltiK  the  baduess  of  these  eustliiKS- 

in.iliI,E.18I.G  CAST  IRO?(. 

^MK  Iron,  or  uialieable  iron  castings,  are  castings  made 


ITC 


IROV   ASD  STEKL. 


Buleit  for  Vme  of  in»lleiible  Cantf  ni(s,  by  Oommltlcei 

"llt'illlHli-l>"  A6»  II.  1SW>. 

Ncrrr  mil  ubriipil)'  rroiii  n  l.t^ry  to  a  lip;iit  »><-iion. 
t:.  An  Uie  BtreuKlb  of  luallealilp  eiu(  ii-ou  lies  In  tiie  skin,  rxf 
mfiift*  ILS  possible.    A  siiir-sliaiifii  wet  km  is  the  sironitiia  w 
bliicb  a  casiiiif;  caa  be  mode.  For  brackdii  use  a  Duiiilx^i'  u(  iUIb  i 
Tone  thick  one. 

3   Avoid  all  round  Eection«;  prncliee  liaa  deiDon»imle<l  ilils 
frakesit  form.    Avoid  sharp  auKlea. 

4.  Shi'iiilcnc  (rfiifcnllv  iii  rnstiiigs  will  Iih  S '16  in.  rx^r  ro.it 
Streuglh  umallpable  C'aat  Iron. -K 
I'i  iiiHll**attIe  CH^i  ii'on,  miKle  in    li^Jl    bv  a  com 

iililciV  Assoclatiuu.    Tli«  atn-ngtli  of  this  m>^i:U  

I  the  followiiiK  rtinults  on  upeeiianns  from  H  to.  to  1^  iu.  tn  ilticktiMrill 


DtiiiensioiiB. 


Teiiaile  Strength. 


per  Bq.  In. 

at.TOO 
SS.TIX) 
».'.800 
S^.IOU 
2S.I00 
3il.«W 

ao.aoo 


Elongalian. 
InjPCTfiil  in  4  in. 


I 


Th<>  Inw  (liictillly  nt  llie  metal  is  worthy  of  nolloe,     Tbn  enininl 
tli>-  fiilloHine  latiln  nt  th«  coiiiparaiivo  teniilu  realiitsnco  and  < 
iiial|paLI»  i-iisl  iron,  aK  <'umpared  with  nlhw  iuat4M*lalt* : 


WROUtJHT   I  HON. 
WBOfTCnT  IRON. 


1 


doence  or  Chemical  Compoaltlon  on  the  Properties 
T^roUKht  Iron.  (Br-iii<lKlv«  ou  Wrought  lion  3ikI  C'liniii  (Rubles. 
iKeiiit-iil  by  \\.  K«iit.  Wllfj*  Sons,  18ri».)— A  seiimi  of  :;>000  tests  o( 
(iii-iis  from  14  briiiiclsof  wrought  Iron,  incmt  uf  I  hem  of  lilifh  repute, 
nuiile  in  lli',1  l.y  Capt.  L  A.  Beanlslee,  U.S.N.,  of  the  United  Ktatea 
lip  H'lttcd  K<iily-iwo  chemical  niialyw?«  were  ii)8d<j  of  theso  Ironii. 
it  view  to  ileterinhie  wliut  iiittiiencti  the  chHiiiicnl  ouinpoBltlon  hnu 
Uif  btreuK'h,  ductility,  iind  wel<ljrig  power.  From  the  rt'jxirC  of  (hose 
hy  A.  I^  Holluy  the  following  {IgjuivK  are  tukeu  :  ^ 


A  verntre 

TensilK 
BtrciiKlh. 


M,5g8 

M,SC3 
63,764 
61  .TM 

SI  ,1m 

50,TC3 


Chemical  Composition. 


tracp 

10  OOff 
10.001 

o.ooe 

(0  IKIS 

>(i  oai 

1  O.OOi 

10.005 

0  007 


p. 


10.065 
(0.084 

o.aso 

0.005 
0.^1 
0.140 
0.1181 
O.OCT 
0.0J8 
O.ISB 


Bl. 


O.OIW 
0.10ft 
0.183 
0,0-."8 
0.156 
0.182 
0.3-.'l 
O.Offi 

o.ora 

O-LM 


0. 

Uu. 

0.212 

o.oas 

0.512 

o.njo 

0.038 

0.1  Wi 

o.osa 

o.ooo 

0  015 

o.niT 

O.OJT 

trnco 

o.aii 

O.Ofi.1 

(l.OI.'i 

O.lXW 

o.ow 

n  WW 

O.Oli 

o.cvji 

Blag. 


0.1 
n.-i! 

0.H4I 


i 


O.IIVS 
1.731 
1.ISI4 
0.074 


i»fe  two  BiiAlyttc-t  arc  ({iven  they  are  thi»  extremes  of  two  or  more  Him- 
{jln^  lirjiial.    Whvre  one  U  Kiven  it  is  the  oulf  aimlysiis.    Urand  U 
I  L'lii.HW'd  B8  a  |iuilillcd  gteelT 

OnDcn  or  Qiiamties  QnADED  ruoM  No.  1  to  No,  18, 


Tensile 
etreiigth. 
1 
<! 
IJ 
]« 
IS 
19 


R(?<luctioii 

nt  Arva, 

18 

0 

u 

19 
1 
U 


KlunKation. 

10 

3 
IS 
Itl 

4 

in 


WeldiiiK  Power. 

mntil  iiiiix^rfect. 

badly. 

best. 

rather  badly. 

verj'  good. 


jtL'lInii  of  area  varied  from  84.*  to  tS5.ll  per  cent,  and  the  elouKa^ 
[an  l»  lot).!!  pprcpiii. 
J  thp  pure-it  Iron  of  llie  series,  riuikifl  Ko.  IB  in  tensile  gtreii(tth, 
me  of  tho  moHt  ilm'iile;  brand  H.   quite  liiipfire,  w»r  tuilow  the 
j>tli  I"  FlreiiRili  and  <luctiMty,  but  wiis  the  l«»st  in  welding-  power; 
ill-  Impure,  was  one  of  the  best  in  every  respect  except,  weldint; 
_1ie  hlfcrbeKt  In  xlrenglb,  was  no*    the  most  pint-,  tt   hiid  the  leaabi 
(y,  Atiil  lix  «el(liu)c  power  \vii;<  iiioKt.  Inii)erfect.    Tlie  eviilence  of  ll 
KMT  of  i-hfmiciil  coiniiKsl'ion  upon  tjimllty,  ilioiefoi-e,  Ik  qiiiie  contr 
f  Aiiil  confiisinK.    Tlie  Irons  dl(Teriii>;  reinBrkahly  in  their  mechanical 
rtlMi,    il    wa»   round  that  a  miicli  more  mnrked  Influence  upon  llieir 
,111  >v.i>t  >-nijtti'd  by  itifTerent  Irenimeiit  In  lUlNiig  than  by  dilTereuoes  In 

.  sliijt  Mr.  llolley  says.   "  It  appears  that  (he  vmallevt  nn(| 

PHI  often  h««  the  most  kIjir.     It,  U  hence  reaKonabie  to  ■.■on 

r  in  mnv  Ix"  dlrt3'  and  yet  thornnpUly  condensed  ' 

.IV  of ''  What  la  learned  fiijiii  i-heiiilcal  annlyslH."'  ha  sayn: 

I  appear  that  Utile  of  use  lo  the  niaker.oi  or  users  of  wnaieht 

in  i.."o  livirned      .     .     .    Tlie  ehariioter  of  steel  can  lie  mirelv  prml- 

on   'be  nnalyscH  of  the  inaterlalH:  that  of  wixnipht  iTOn  Is  altered  by 

fin-T  t»nolt*erv»'d  eaiiNes  '' 

!i^c  Of  nednrtion  In  Rolling  n-om  Pile  to  Bai 
ill  of  Wronelit  Iron. -The  tensile  mivntjih  of  I' 
i-e's  tests  mnf^ti)  from  40,000  In  (a.70O  lbs.  pw 

Kfii.   i^^Uy »  atfifl.  n<it  hniliK  Ooiisidered,     Some  up 
r  «w  //<en  «»  Tn.ooo  llm.    The  atnoiint  of  reducttoa  i 


tab^ 

saf^ 


HBrea. 


IRON  AND   StEEt. 


in  rollfng  the  bars  has  a  notable  iuSueni.'e  on  tlie  strennrth 
limit;  the  greater  tbe  reduction  from  pile  to  bar  the  higlier  tha 
The  following  are  a  few  flares  from  Cejig  of  one  of  llie  braiKla' 


1^ 


IMof  bar.  in.  tlinm.: 
a  i^f  pile,  »(\.  in.: 
r  per  Cfrni  or  pile  : 
iisile  Hl,reii);t)i.  lb.: 
loi^tlc  limit,  U).: 


4 

80 

80 

3 

T2 

] 
SS 

i 

15.7 

B.83 

4.9S 

8.M 

8.  IT 

4a.lti3 

47.T61 

48.280 

Sl.lffl 

Ba,!CT 

n,m 

at,-wo 

31,803 

86,4«7 

S»,t9( 

M 


BpectficatlonM  fbr  Wrought  Iron  (P.  H.  T/ewis,  GneiReer»'4 

of  Hiiluili-liiliiJi,  iw'jn.— 1.   .Ml  wioii(rlil  iii.n  must  lie  lODKb.  <lurt)l<>.  ~ 
anil  of  unirorm  qimlily  for  each  cla-is.  slraight,  smooth,  fn-«»  from  i 
X'ltets,  fliiHs,  biieklxs,  lilltlfis.  and  iiijiiriou.s  oracks  aloox  tie 
UKt  have  a  workinanltkf   dtiLsh.       No  specific  process   or  \— 
niifactiire  will  be  clptunixled.  provided  ihe  material  fiilfiia 
ntsof  these  specifications. 
S.  Tlie  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elosticil)',  and  ductilllv  Klinll  be  i 
ued  from  a  stnndnril  li'Ri-pit»ce  not  U>8.«  than  t^  inch  ililrk.  cm  fr^inr 
ill-sin.vl  l)ar.  and  (il.ined  <ir  liiriit-d  iKirallel.    Th»,-  area  of  cross  Hf>ctii>n  4 
not  be  lesA  than  V>i  )^iifire  Inch.    The  elon^tton  shall  be  measured  ti 
brf'nkiiiK  on  an  iiriginil  lenifth  of  »  Im^bes. 
3.  The  testa  shall  show  not  less  ilian  the  following  reaalts: 


or  bar  Iron  in  tension 

Dr  shape  iron .......,.....,, 

Dr  plates  under  SB  in.  wide, 
or  plates  over  30  in.  wide.. 


Uttimstn 

'Strength, 

lbs  per  St). 

inch. 


Baooo 
«8,ooa 

40,000 


tJltlll  of 

Elasticity, 

lbs.  per  sq. 

inch. 


SDiOrO 
».000 
S«,0(W 
89.000 


per-Sj 


4.  When   fnllsizpd  tension  members  are  testeid  to  proye  the  i 

eir  connectionik.  a  reiliiclion  iti  tlieir  iitijniale  strength  of  (500  : 

rj  pounds  per  jttjiiare  inch  will  he  allowed. 

(C.  All   iron  ,'>IihII  beihl.  cold.  IHil  degrees  around  a  curve  wbrwij 

(twice  the  thickness  of  piece  for  Iwr  Iron,  luid  three  times  tike  1 

•  plates  and  shn  pes. 

1.  Iron  which  is  to  be  worked  liot  in  the  nianiifacture  niiMt 
bending  sliarply   to  a  rifjlit  angle  at  a  nurking  heat   wltbc 
kctiire. 

K.  Rpecintens  of  tensile  iron  upon  beinir  nicked  on  one  ^ide  and 
BOW  a  fracture  nearly  all  flbrous. 

is.   All  rlvpt  iron  mui-t  Iw  toiiKh  and  soft,  and  be  capable  of  liemliDf  t 
ntil  th»^  sides  are  in  close  contact  w-ilhout  sign  of  fracture  f>o    '      ''^ 
sidi-  I'f  the  (  urve. 
IVnnaylviinIa  Railroad  SpeclBcatioiiB  ftor  IHcreli 
*'■       M.ini'OUf.  nifrolisnt  bur  Ikui  or  vteel  t" 
^I>  ;  ninK  >iliu|)es  and  ii»«H  are  issued.  %h*^\ 

;■<  KTi  uOi)  ll>s.  per  s(|uare  Inch  and  an 
;;ii.iNi  -J  iiich'.'s  lone. 
So  Iron  or  steel  will  lie  accepii^  under  this  sijeciflcntlon  If  ten« 
Ilia  below  48,000  ilw  nr  Roes  al>ove  IXI.OOO  lbs.  [ler  squari-  Inch,  |_. 
"Jnn  is  less  than  l.'ijC  in  i  inches,  nor  if  it  shows  a  eranidar  fraet<i 
'  more  than  60y  of  Ihe  fractured  !;UrfBce,  nor  If  U  showik  any  dlj 
ilaiitir, 

,..,,.._  .,:  ^,      '■  ,-n    round   or   - -..].. ~   <  .-.     . 

■~»fil  sectior.^ 
acs  in  uiiy  J 

•  l*«.-7>    |,l-,l-|MI-l   .--^   i\   IM    ilO    IllUde   lOfUii    illFtPII*     lUH!-"     I  V      lit. 

I  In.  Ihick  or  less,  or  totiured  fonns  of  Iron,  audi  a 
"f,  be  accepted  If  tenMle  strv-URWx  \s  %bove  45.0 
■j  but  Uie  It^llng  ol  «ucb  Mi«««B.4.iiee\hm%\&\ 


FOB  UNIT  STRAINS  FOR  IRON  AND  STEEL.  379 

OBB  for  WrousUt  Iroa  for  the  World's  Pair 

lEiig'g  Ni^wii,  Muiili  "26,  ISfl,'.)    All  lrt)ii  to  he  iist^il  iu  llie 
of  opeu  truBucs.  latornls,  pins  and  bolts,  except  plale  iron 
ide,  anri  shaped  irou.  imiKi.  show  by  Ibe  Ktaudanl  IfHt-piecea 
Ui  In  lbs.  per  stiiiaiv  inch  of  : 
_  V.IHM  X  ttifa  of  ori)^D(il  bar  In  sq.  in, 

~   circumference  of  onsinal  l>ar  in  inches ' 
limit  not  less  than  half  the  utreugth  given  b}-  tbin  formula, 
Ion  of  SOjC  in  8  in. 

Inches  wide  and  under,  and  more  tlian  8  inches  widt>,  must 
ndard  test-pieces  a  tensile  streiigtli  of  4>^,00n  il>8.  iKr  sq.  in. 
limit  not  less  than  %,CKXI  lbs.  pur  vquare  ineh.  aud  rii  t-lon- 
S8  Uian  lif.  .\l\  plates  over  '-H  ivjchi-s  in  iviiltli  niuei  have  a 
*  not  less  tlian  4C,00O  lbs.,  with  an  eliiMlie  limit  not  less  tlmii 
iqtiare  Inch.  Plates  from  "J-l  inclies  to  yti  Indices  in  wultb  nauHt 
Tion  of  not  less  than  \0%;  those  froiu  »()  inclies  to  IS  inches  in 
48  inche.s  in  width,  5%. 

IU,  tiaoges  of  huams  and  cliannels,  and  other  iron  not  herein- 
,  must  Kbow  by  tiie  standard  test-pieces  a  tensile  strength  iu 
neh  of : 
t^y^i^  _    7,(J00  X  area  of  original  bar 
'  circumference  of  oriKinal  bar' 

limit  of  not  less  than  half  tlie  strength  g;h-en  by  this  formula, 
on  of  iSi  for  bars  %  inch  and  less  in  thickness,  and  of  13%  for 
thiclcuess.    For  webs  of  beams  and  ebuutiels,  gpeciflcatloiis 
ipply. 
_  niii.<*(  l>e  tougli  and  soft,  and  pieces  of  the  full  diameter  of 
>e  capable  of  bending  cold,  until  thesidc{;are  in  close  contact, 
fracture  on  the  convex  side  of  the  curve. 
Irou.— Mr.  Vnuctaiu,  of  the  Ualdwin  Locomotive  Work.s, 
r  tile  American  Railway  Master  mechanics'  As-souiatlou,  in 
ly  advocate  the  softest  iron  iu  the  market  as  tlie  itest    for 
believed  in  an  iron  as  liard  as  was  <:ousisteut  witli  heading 
The  higher  the  tensile  .strength  of  the  iron,  the  more  vil)ra- 
,nd,  for  it  is  not  so  easily  si  ruined  beyond  the  yield-point. 
>e«itlcations  for  stay-bolt  iron  call  for  a  tensile  .strength  of 
lb.'*,  fM?r  square  inch,  tlie  upper  llgiire  being  preferred,  and 
iiisisleil  n|)on  as  tlie  niininiiMn. 

lijE  FOR  UNIT  STRAINS  FOR  IRON  AND 
STICKL  IN  STHLTClTURKfiJ. 

L  I>«i-i.  EuKiru-ers'  t'iiib  iif  i'liiliiiiilphia,  1H91.) 

(  forniulHi  for  unit  straiu»  per  mpiure  inch  of  net  gectlon&l 

ed  In  determining  the  allowable  workine;  stress  in  eachmem- 

sture.    iFor  definitions  of  soft  and  niealum  steel  aee  Specill- 

1.) 

Tenalon  Iftembera. 


380 


IBON   AND   STEKL. 


Shearing. 


On  pinsand  8hop  riVL'ts 

On  field  riveta 

In  webs  of  ^rdem. . 


Wrougbt  Iron.         Soft  Steel. 


(iOOO 

4800 

Will  not  be  used 


Mediu 


Will  ] 


Rearliig. 


Wrougbt  Iioi), 

Soft.  Slm-t. 

«eJiu(»l^ 

On     projected     dernl- 

inti^dos  of  niajii-plu 

holes 

18,000 

13.200 

14,800    J 

On  projected  seml-la- 

trados of  ilvet-liol.?s* 

i2.oon 

13,800 

H.aM^| 

On  lal)*nil  pins  ...   . 
Of  bed-plalc«s  on  ina- 

ii,ooa 

19,."i00 

I8.0(^B 

soiirj-  

asoib*.  pei'sq  In. 

*  ExceptluB  lliat  iu  pin  coiiii<"<;L»1  iiikdiIhth  UikiiiK  altf male  slressei,  I 
beuriiiff  Htiesai  uiimt  not  exceed  'MM  lUs.  for  ii  oii  or  sttfl. 

BeudlUK. 

On  extreme  t\hm  of  piuA  wliru  cruliuK  nf  bearings  Are  conaMer  d  i 
points  of  application  of  xtraius: 

Wrouijlil  Iron,  15.000,        Soft  St*el,  Ifl  OOO.        Medium  Stw-I,  I'.OOO. 
Compreaalon  Iflenitocrii. 


Chord  aactioiu ; 
Flatenits 


One  flat  and  one  pin  end . . 

Chords  Willi  pin  ends  and 
all  endpoata 


All  treatle-posta. 


Interini*<llat«  posts  

Lalernl  stnits,  and  coiii- 
pression  In  c  o  1 1  i  r  1  o  n 
Btrulji.  SUIT  suspenders 
and  stiff  ci lords 


Wrouglit  Iron. 


7(x»(]-f.£!l5)-3oi 
^       max.,/  r 

7ooo(i  +  I?l'-^)-aa-' 

V  max./  r 

V  max./ 

7000  (1  + inliL) 

V  '  max./ 


7500  -  M  - 


40 


35 


10,BOO  _  50  - 


Soft  Steel. 


lOS 

greater 

than 

iron 


Mmtiom 
Bt«el. 


Ill  which  furmiiltfi  I  =^  loiijctll  of  comprttsslou  liiMniln'r  in  inclii 
lea.Ht  radius  of  g^rntioM  of  jnj-ii)LH:!r  in   incliis.     No  conipressiiwi 
shall  Jiave  a.  Ii'ii^th  i-.xoeediikcl.')  times  its  leiisr  widlli.  and  iiu  post  1 ' 
IIMed  ill  whii-'li  /  -V  *■  exi'ffdK  lii. 
niembera  Subject  to  Alternate  Tenalon  atid  Compr 


For  oODipresgion  onl.v . . 
Far  ttie  greateift  Bti'et»i 


Wroiiglit  Iron. 


Use  tlie  fni-mulie  above 


Sott  Steel. 


ft  U\Mt.  (^tfCl^T 


\   ftC  creater 


v\i».ti  Vnm 


Ifite  the  ronnula  givloK  the  greuleat  areo-oT  ae^^^'?^^-      ...  v.^.,,. 
The  contpreaaloiitiaaiea  of  beaiua  ani  v^^^*  ^viVrs  *\v«a>««*^ 
i-secrioii  AS  the  tension  flange*. 


FOB  UNIT  8TBAINB  FOR  IRON  AND  STEEL.  381 


4 


,  dis».-ii?isiii{;  till?  formulas  proposed  by  Mr.  Lewia,  says;  "  Taking 

1-;  a  whole,  I  ani  constrained  to  believe  that  they 

'if  resi-ilBuce  for  Hllft-^^t(wl  columnB  over  those 

;  1  -O^  to  ■jr.*  for  medium  s>teel,  rather  than  IIK  and 

I  capacity  of  soft  steel  for  endiirinK  torture  Ills  it  eminently  for 
Bd  conibine<l  airesses,  uuil  for  Hint  reason  I  would  g)ve>  ft  IB)! 
r  iron,  with  about  'JiS  for  medium  steel,  U 

tests  on  sl«!el  wein  to  sluiw  that  IS;*  and  2!!jt  Incnuises,  for  the  V 
res{)eclivuly,  are  amply  justlHed.  ^ 

I  not  liesitate  to  assign  15^  aud  22*  inrrenses  over  vahieti  for  iron 
ugAn  I  b(>ndinu;  of  Knft  ntiil  nipriruni  sleel  as  l)eiiiK  within  tlie  safe 
eiperience.  IVovision  should  kIko  be  made  for  increaaiiij^  pjn- 
.bending  and  bearing  stresses  for  iucreAsiiig  ratios  of  fixed  tii  uiov- 

mntn  PermUslble  Str«Hii«B  In  Structural  RlaterlalD 
I  BolldlneH.  iKuildiii^'  Onliimnoeaof  the  City  of  CtiicaKo.  I!iU.'l.) 
i,crusbii,n  snesis;  For  plates.  l.\OUO  llj.s.  p<-r  squaie  inch;  forliiilelK, 
,   r.r  f.riiels,  compression    13,S00  H>s   per  :'cjuare  inch,  and  (eiiKJon 

areinch.    For /[girders,  Ivanis,  corhelK,  brackets,  nud  trussex,  , 

|iiare  inch  for  steel  and  12,0(10  lbs.  fur  iron. 
11-  rfs :  I 

r_  „.  maximum  bendlD<;  moment  In  ft.-lbs. 

Mf  lan^e  area  = 

mn 


Cb. 


8  = 


knee  belnretfu  centre  of  gravity  of  Bangei)  in  feet. 

•I.MO  fiir  steel. 

1U,(K10  for  iron. 

,„  ,                 iiuiximum  shear     „      l  10. OCO  for  steel, 
WrI.  area  = .    C -.  )   c.oOO  for  iron. 

I  in  siuKle  shear  per  isquare  inch  of  rivet  area  : 

Sleel.  Iron. 

...  .„ OOOOlbo.        TStOlbs. 

•l<('driveu   7S00    "  6000    " 

•  girders ; 

b  =  breadth  of  beam  in  Inches. 
d  =  depth  of  beam  In  incites. 
cbd*  I  =  length  of  beam  iu  feet. 

■~7~ '  I  180  for  long-leaf  yellow  pine, 

c=  -  I'.tifon.aU. 

I  liO  for  while  or  Norway  pine. 

_^  llonlniE  of  natcrlalM  Iu  tlie  inemplili*  Brideo  (Geo, 
m,  Tiitus.  A.  a.  C.  A'..  lUliJJi — Theentire  superstructure  of  IheMeui- 
gv  is  of  *teel  and  it  wtt.s  ul]  workiil  ns  sleel,  the  rivet-holes  being 
I  ail  priucipul  uiemberK  and  puuclie<l  and  ruanted  in  the  lighter 

^u  ineiiibers  were  proportioned  on  the  l>a.«ig  of  nllnwiu),'  the  dead 

fitrain  uf  t5).(Xki  lbs.  pei'  Hquare  inch,  atid  the  Ijve  loud  a 

I  llis.  per  8i|uiire  nieli.    In  the  case  of  I  be  ceiilral  span,  whel"e 

vais  twice  the  live  loiul,  tlilH  corri'uponded   to  l&.LKM  Uis.  total 

re  inch,  this  beinj:  the  gtealest  ten>ile  strnin. 

i-i^Hion  lueinljerH  were  proportioned  on  a  somewhat  arbltrar.v 

latinctiou  wiiH  made  Ijeiween  live  and  dead  luad.s.    A  luaximuMi 

jlja.  |>er  square  Ineii  wh8  allowed  on  the  chords  and  other 

ineniberM  where  the  length  did  imt  exceed  16  times  the 

Umension.  tl]i.<t  strain  l>eing  retluced  T.'iO  Iba.  for  ejieh  uddl- 

Mi.     In  longcoiupreKsinn  inemijers  the  raaxiniiiin  length 

tinieM  the  lea»t  tran'^verxe  dimension,  and  the  strainn 

per  square  Inch,  this  anmiint  being  iiii.-reased  by  200  lbs, 

rich  the  length  in  decreased. 

>iiis  occur  the  member  was  proportioned  to  re- 

•f  '  1  Olid  tension  on   whichever  ImsiH  ilensioii  or 

'-  the  greatest  i^tiniu  ti«?r  sqnar-e  itich  ;  and,  in 

-  propnrIione<l  to  renit^t  the  maxltnltni  tensioli, 

I  llie  niuxjninin  compreshiou. 

■  -^  M  ere  e/iJci/Jaletl  uu  the  strain  bKlUR  \'m»H 

III  III  fxireiiie /lln-es.   JJivel-hole.s  in  cuver-vVl "" 


^VTb 


IRON    ANO    STKEL. 


_      e  riTets  of  glepl  in  drilled  or  reanieil  boli"s   wei't-  prop"! 
basis  or  a  beariDK  Gtrain  of  iri.ooo  llm.  i>ei'si|iiaiv  liioli  h:   i 
of  T'lOO  Ibx.  per  ^uiLie  iiiirli,  auU  Kiieuiai  piiliis  wen*  tiik'  • 
gh<?ftr  in  as  uiaiiy  rivets  as  possible.    T  tiio  was  tli*"  lm 
rivets.     In  the  case  of  flfUl  rivets,  llie  nuiiiU*r  was  iiicr".-a>'  •!  ( 
The  pins  were  proportioned  on  llie  basis  nf  a  tieanii^  sIrsH 
ler  square  iouh  auj  a  beuUiue  slruiii  of  '."('.OOO  lbs.  per  K)ual 
iiie  fibre,  the  diametei-s  nf  ihe  pins  i>eirig'  never  made  more  I 
than  the  widih  of  Ihe  largest  eye-bar-  iiltachiii^  to  flieiii. 
iThe  weipht  on  the  roiieiti  of  the  expansion  joint  on  I'ier  II  la  ( 
r  linear  foot  of  roller,  or  3,:tt1  lbs.  per  liiienr  inch,  tlie  rollere 
diameter. 

the seciionHof  the  superslrneiure  were iinusiiallj  heavj-,  audi 

n  dead  iouti  greatly  in  excess  of  those  from  inovinp  loud.  It  waal 

it  to  use  a  »llghtly  Iti^her  Hteei   than  i»  titiW  genernlly    U!«e<l  foi 

ImctiireR,  and  to  work  lhi.H  8leel  ivitlioiit  piincliliiK,nll  holet<  lieili|(| 

A  Mjineivhat  softer  Kteel  was  imed   in   the  Hottr-KyRtem  and  olli 

parts. 

The  principal  requirements  whlcii  were  to  be  obtained  an  tlie  1 
texla  on  pampies  cut  from  finished  material  were  as  followi: 


L 


Higli-grade  steel. 
Eye-ljiir  Rieel  .. 
Medium  steul... 
Soft  steej 


Max. 

Ultimate 

Strength, 

lb».  jier 

fM|.  inch. 


7S,5lJ0 
T5,(100 
Ta.SOO 
03.000 


Mill. 

■Ultimate 

Min.ElaKtlc 

StreDgih, 

Uniit.  lbs. 

lbs.  per 

per  Mj.  In. 

sq.  inch. 

09,000 

40,000 

06.000 

88.000 

01.000 

87,000 

55.000 

ao,ooo 

Mill.  |>er- 
centa^'e  of 
Elonesl  ion 
■n  8  Inches. 


18 
S2 


■rBNACITV   OP   mETALS  AT  VABIOCB 
TKjnPUBATURES. 


(Tlie  ItritlKh  AdniiraUy  made  a  Kerie.>«  of  experiments  to  aitcertaln^ 
fslrenKlli  and  ilnctllity  takes  place  in  giin-metal  comp^  sitinns  wV 
I  high  lein|ierat«ies.  It  was  found  liial  all  the  vinl 
IITcr  a  (iradnnl  but  not  mtIoiw  loss  of  slietigili  and  ilu' 
lii|)eiatnre.  at  which,  wliliin  a  few  degrees,  a  greiii  . 
ie  slreiigth  falls  to  about  one  half  the  original,  and  ti  ■ 
gone.  At  leiiiprrBtiires  above  this  pi'iiil,  up  to  WK*,  I,' 
fun  her  loss  of  strength;  the  lempeimure  at  whicli  tli 
if  strt*ngth  taliets  place,  allboiigh  uuifonii  in  tike  ^ : 
'!>aiiie  pot,  varies  about  U>U°  in  ih«  same  compofii  ■ 
nperatiires,  or  witii  some  varying  conditions  Ih  t! 
he  leiniieraliire  at  wiiich  the  change  UKik  place  in  iS' 
jned  lu  lie  about  370°,  ond  iu  thmof  No.  a,  at  a  little  ■ 
ay  lie  the  cause  of  tliis  important  dilTeivnce  in  the  "i;  ■ 
ct  stated  may  be  taken  as  c«*rtjiin.  Rolled  Miij 
itlsfiMMiiry  up  lo  fiOO".  and  may  be  used  as  -i 
;hf  iroTi.  V'»rkwhlre  nnil  rernajuifacinred,  n: 

'iiyup  lo3tXl*.  wheM-nn 
still  h'ss  tiian  at  Ihe  < 
|j  of  Ijinilore  steel  is  noi 
1l|i  I..  :,iHi-.  I. Ill  ii.»  ,iii..'iiniy  is  reduce  more  than  oih 


Bftailt*  Ntrrna:1h   nf  Iron   and  Steel   ait  flltcb 

■"  "  "  :'l    ■111      ,4(/f',      .\\'t       ' 

'i-*  the  teni) 

1  ■^ni"  and 


411  lite  in\ri)('v  r-\ee\v.  \iie  increase  aiiicM 
aquare  Inch  abu'te  V\>«  iatc\n»nn«Dc«ai 


OF  METALS  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES.    383 


lhi<?  mnxinium,  the  strtMiRib  of  all  the  8te«l  ducreaces ateodfljr 
i:  10,0(10  lbs,  (lecrejise  per  lOO*  iDcrcose  of  terap^ra- 
"iil  U)s.  |)er  nqnaii?  inch  Ls  silll  Miown  by  .IOC.  »(«M!l 
1    .  >    fiO  t.)  1.00  C.  sirt-l  al  about  1600°  F. 

»*:•»'  iron  increasi's  wiili  teinperaitire  from  0°  up  In  a 
«00  to  600°  F..  the  liieivus"  helng  from  8000  to  10.000  lb». 
id  then  ilporfni»<>8  steadily  (ill  a  glrengtli  of  only  0000  lbs. 
stiovrri  ftt  1500*  F. 
ippenrs  to  niniiitairi  its  atreiigl-h,  with  a  tendency  to  increiuw, 
reachnl.  beyond  which  t.eoiperatiire  the  strcni^th  grradiially 
Vodpr  tbf  highest  leinpemtuics,  l.Wi)"  lo  IflOi)"  F.,  numerous 
cylindrical  nurfnco  of  th*-  spi^cinien  were  develojied  prior  to 
rrnmrkable  tbiu  <'a.«.t  iron,  wi  much  inferior  in  strrnptli  to  the 
>Blilieiii--  teini)eratiirf,  under  Ihi-  hlehesl   teniperattires  has 
knie  »iir»-nfjtli  (be  bijrli-tentper  »(Pfl<  Ih^^n  have. 
k  of  Iron  and  Steel    Boiler-plate    at    Ulgli   Tem- 
k     (Ctms.  Huston,  ./oiif.  F.  l.  ISTT.j 

'  ATBiuaE  OP  Tbbee  Tests  or  Each, 

K.  68' 

plate,  temtile  Btren(rth,  lbs 55.30S 

"      contr.  of  area  )( as 

nhgleel,  tensile  (ttrengtb,  lbs M,600 

"       contr.  ^ , a 

Je  steel,  teiuile  strength,  lbs 64,000 

contr.  J 88 

k  of  Wronslit  Iron   and  Ste«I   at  Hteh  Tenipcr- 

piir.  F.  /.,  cm.,  1881,  p.  SJl.)   Knllmanii'a  expeihiients  nt  <  )l>er- 

Jed  tests  of  the  tensile  strength  of  iron  and  >tt-el  at  teMi|)ern- 

between  T0°  anil  '.WO"  I'.    Three  kiiid.s  of  iiHtal  were  tested, 

on  hariuKan  ulttinate  tensile  Hlrenirih  r.f  VJ.^Hl  11)r.,  an  ela.-'tic 

>,2H0  ll]«i.,anil  an  elonealiou  of  17. "iS;  flne-grnined  iron  having 

I  elem.-nls  laliies  of  ,5t'i.H92  lbs..  39,113  lbs.,  ami  -.H*^;   and  Heii- 

iving  valnex  of  84.Sv!6  Ibg.,  .W.()29  lb»..  nnri  H.M.    Tlie  mean 

Be  *i('eni:ih  of  eucb  material  expivsjwd  in  rier  cent  of  that  at 

ispheric  tenriperatiire  is  given  in  the  follnwInK  tai)le.  (he  flfih 

k-h  exhibilN,  for  pni^ioses  of  ooiiipariw)n.  the  results  of  e.xp«rl- 

'  OD  by  a  couiintttee  of  the  Franklin  Institute  iu  the  years 


ST5» 

M3» 

88,080 

65.JH3 

923 

at 

66,0H3 

M.iWO 

38 

3:1 

60.366 

6S.80O 

.SO 

SI 

Flbrouii 
WrouRht 
ItOI],  p.  c. 
lOO.O 
100.0 
100.0 
97.0 
96.5 
9S.S 
68.5 
81  .S 
67.8 
44.5 
36.0 

ao.o 

18.0 
16. S 
13.. -> 
10.0 

7.0 

S.fi 

4.S 

S..5 

3.S 


Fine-grained 

Iran, 
per  cent. 
IflO.O 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 

08.5 

AS.G 

90.0 

77.5 

61, A 

se.o 

30.5 
88.0 
«3,0 
IS.O 
15.S 
13.K 
10.5 

8.S 

7.0 

5.0 


Jifssemer 

Franklin 

Steel, 

Institute, 

pej-  cent. 

per  cent. 

100.0 

BOO 

100.0 

102.0 

100.0 

105.0 

100. 0 

106.0 

100.0 

lOfl.O 

!».5 

104.0 

IW.n 

99  5 

(18.0 

IT'.  5 

44.0 

7.1.5 

m.r, 

M.5 

31.0 

86.0 

■2<i.!, 

r  •  t  >  * 

K.O 

18.0 

1.1. n 

ii.O 

10.0 

8.,') 

7.5 

fl,5 

S.O 

>t  r.f'nld  ou  the  Strenglh  or  Iron  ai 

^  were  nnived  at  bv  .Mr,  SIvlTe  lu  18ti."> ; 
.trerjKth  of  iron  m?1iI   sfeel   is  not  din 
III  lunlonest  lemperalitre  nlifcli  ever  n<.'i;iir 
tasmt  the  ordinary  teinp«raturf  ^aboul  60*  F,)» 


IRON    ASb  tjTEBL. 


(tl)  That  nrttta«r  in  Meet  nor  in  iron  is  the este«6lM»tjr  leci  io( 
"^    I  at  tlH!  ardinarr  tnnperatare. 

Tlwl  the  liinU  of  ela«(tcUr  la  bat^  (t«el  sad  Iron  lies  higher  la  i 


III 

■    -iicii  vaniiii.  Ds,  at  ie-a^t  for  oicln.aij-  jni. 

lerp  made  io  1S07  n  nnmh^r  rf  ti^sts  ,  f  in,: 
v  iii>>SJi!<  of  n  falli"!.' 
,  SlyIT>-'8  conuliiiiioiiK  i 

ii|ier«torra.  Mr 
I  of  Ir^iii,  such  AM  ' 
tor  *h"cks  19  c>ii-i 

Inuly  frMiii  onp  tliipl  i"  iH],-  (.mrlli  i.f  Hh  -Iikh^-iIi  m  liidi  imi..-«>-»m 
IW  F."  Jlr.  J.  J.  Welist.r  diihl  tr.  E..  lS«li  Ki.fs  n-nson*  for  .luul 
I'tlie  accuracy  of  Mr,  Sand >>pi'e'i<  deduclions,  nince  iln-  tests  nt  Iho  I 
|t«?nip<T»iurt'  were  lii.-nrly  all  inaiJo  with  il-fi.  IrnRilis  i>f  rail,  wliil*  tbfl 
I  the  hiffh'>r  teiii[iHrature«  wt-rv  made  with  »b' rt  lt-i>|jrth«,  the  ruyp^ 
\t*»*ry  cftrtf-  Vtrltig  the  (tame  di.stnnce  apart. 

W,  H  Barlow  (I'roc.  ln>t.  C  E.)  iiiu<I«  exiicrimentK  on  l 
Ijrori,  caM  irr«ii,  tiinllt^hle  onst  iniii.  Hij^sfiiier  Meel,  Bi,d  ii  ,■ 
'wTprn  tp.>itvd  with  iHiifiilif  aixl  tiuriHv*M(if  i>t  I'm  inn,  and  aU'' 

half  of  them  at  a  teniperutur^  c,f  .^ii"  K.  mul    the  oilier  !i. 

lower  ternvM-ratiiie  wuh  obtained  tiy  placing  the  bare  in  a  f' 

care  ijeiDR  taken  to  iieep  llie  bars  covered  with  It  durlbg  il,,  i 

lh«  eifieritneiitB. 
The  reiiiilts  of  tlie  exiMjriiuenta  were  Bumninriied  as  folloH's  ; 

1.  When  bars  of  u-roiifcht  iron  or  steel  were  eubmiCled  to  a  ' 
I  and  liroken.  llicir  strengtli  was  not  allrcle'1  by  severe  cold  (i°  KJ 
lOuctiiily  was  increased  »lx)m  IS  in  iron  and  3j  in  dieel, 

2,  When  liars  of  cast,  i ion  were  Kiibinilted  to  a  tiansver»e  »tr_ 
liteniperaiiire.  their  xlrenglh  wiu  diminished  about  3;t  and  ihelC 
|«hoiit :»«. 

a.  When  bars  of  wrought  iron,  mnllefibte  ctii^t    iron,  steel,  on 
rant  iron  were  Milijeoted  to  iiii|)aet  at  n  leraperatiira  of  t*  F ,  it 
Biiii'eil  to  break  them,  iind   the  extent  of  their  Hexililllty,  were  I 
follows,  vix.: 

Rc<lnvtion  of  Force  Redtictii 

of  Impact,  per  cent.  Mlitjr,  \ 

R'roimht  iron,  nbont     S 

Stei'l  (Iwst  e(l>l  io.ll).  about JW 

nmin'ilile  onst  iron,  Rboiit 4>{ 

'^I'tt'l  Iron,  nhoni   81  not\ 

Til"  expytleiice  of  railwajs  in  Russia,  Canada,  and  other  coitni 
tlie  ivinter  IK  severe  Ik  that  the  brenl>a(re!<  of  rails  and  tlrmani 
iuuinemiiH  In  the  col<l  weather  than   in  the  suninier.     On  ihii] 
Hofior  class  of  stet<l  is  einpl>>ye<l  In  Russia  for  rails  tliau  la  in 
t*iniierHle  eltmates. 

Th"  evidetwe  extant  in  ri'lntion  to  this  matter  leni, 
Oapalpllltv  of  wronchl  Iron  or  steel  to  resist  itopnet  i- 
|)he  <iiher  hitiid.  its  fintie  strentrth  Is  not  impnire.l  U\   ; 

|{0>irt  «>r   IjO-h'  Tetnperatore*   ou  St    ,  '  <il 

Ixica.     iTIhW,    ,\i,.lre»s.   rii'V.    Iii'-i    L'    K,  »  fi  •  tn 

L'l«eri ■ill, f  ].,i]r',riU.  i.ii.il  r.n.'lh  7  ft.  :''  -r  ai  mMdl 

IiL.iki  >,>  !iiijiacl  at  tM^ 

Has  half  limed ^ 

tnd  ^^  ,  I       ■  '    '  1 1 . 

The  mi-uu  tuici:  of  cuUciiMum  uiulling  fruui  each  Imjiact  waa| 
I  followN  : 

IM  A  -  height  of  fi^ee  fall  In  feM,  tr  =  wHirbi  of  l4>at  hall. 
■<"1W  ."  "1^  work  In  foo'-toiis^x  =  eztciDl  or«lrfle.7tton»  bclwaau  i 

I  -n  |i^(tuea:i  toTVi)  a  —  =  — . 


UBaiTY  OH  IhOK,  COHROSrON,   ETC 


385 


F  these  ezpcirlineat«  sboir  (hnt  whereas  »t  a  lemperatiir^  ot 

|«r«n>ire  mean  force  of  ]T9  ums  vnif  yiifflou'nl  in  onust^  ilt« 

I  axles,  mc  4  i«iiipersture  of  lud*  t*.  uMtil  averiKe  nnfitn 

ns  wA.^  r*'rjiiisit«  to  protlw^e  frnciur**.     In  fthir  wonls.  iht*  r»*- 

f  (he  axles  n(  n  lemporature  of  0*  F.  was  only  about 

viipernture  of  IO(i°  V. 

ilecrion   at  a  iciiipiTiilure  of  0*  F.  wasfl.iS  iu  ,  a* 

II    niifi  Ihi-  bxIhs  at  100°  F    ciiiHer  the  conditions  sta'«wl:  thi« 

ultimate  reiiuvlion  of  fleiiliility.  under  the  test  of  iuipaer.  of 

•the  cold  axles  at  0"  K.,  amipared  with  ihewami  axles  a( 


INSIOTV  OP  IRON   AND  STKEL.   BV  HEAT. 

■iueer  in  charge  of  the  U.  S.  t^estiiiR  iiniL'hiiie  at  W«- 
'  following  resuliji  of  tests  tiiaile  oa  liars  !1A  liichtm 

-■■.  iSiXlJ; 


Marlu. 

Cbemical  conipoBitioo. 

Ooefllclent  of 
Expaoaion. 

C. 

Mn. 

Si. 

Feby 
difrerenoA. 

Ver  degree 
K.  ner  iinil 
oflength. 

.OOOOMiSfrJ 

i::::; 

la 
3» 

to 

4a 

fitv 
da 
7a 
ga 
9a 
10a 

.09 
.90 
.81 
.ST 
.M 
.!V7 
.71 
.81 
.89 
.97 

.11 
.45 

.07 
.70 
.!W 
.93 

.S8 
.56 
.57 
.80 

'.6a' ' 

.07 
.08 
.17 
.19 
.S8 

99.8(1 
99.35 
99.12 
08.98 
98. R» 
96. 4S 
98,6)1 
98.46 
98.85 
07.95 

.o(»oii«7eat 

.0000066850 
.0000003148 

1 

.UX)O0fl0SO7 
.W1OO06IU0S 
.O00O0ti."W91 
.UUVOU04710 

.oooooRiier 

.ooawoi700 
.ooooosmtii 

.0000091386 

w 

tABILITV  OF  IRON,  CORROSION,  ETC. 

|]r  orC'aHt  Iron.— FnvleHcl(  Gi-nlT,  in  an  article  on  llie 
ratei-  Kupply,  says  thai  the  first  cast-iron  pipe  used  there  wiis 
rii«f>e  pipes  were  niHile  of  charcoal  iron,  and  were  in  coiiHljint 
They  were  unconLed,  and  the  iitside  was  well  filled  wlili 
■)ir«lergood  east  Iron,  even  unc^iated,  will  last  for  a  cen- 
't  often  Itecotnert  Boft  eiioiij;h  to  he  cut  by  a  K-idfe.  an  l« 
on  taken  u\>  from  the  hottoru  of  harhorx  after  Iouk  tiub- 
rPBleed.  hard  white  nl^tnl  IflKts  the  longent  in  wa  water.— 
Jll.iil  i-|.  I'*?,  and  Jliin-ll  •,'«.  ISB'.'. 

I  Iron  »neT  Forty  Vearu'  Serrlce,  -.\  square  link  I'.' 

,  1  liieh  tlili.'k  and  alHJUt  li  feet  Ions  wan  taken  from  l!ie  KielT 
>yeHrs  old.ond  teNted  in  conipariMni  with  a  siiidlnr  link  which 
prv«?«l  ill  tile  st^'jck'house  since  the  l(rl<i^'e  wa«  built.     The  fol- 

friciconl  of  a  mean  of  four  longitudinal  teat-pieces,  i  X  If^  X  8 

Ifroiii  c«oh  liuk  (.S(a/il  iinri  Eiirn,  It^UO): 

Old  IJuk  taken  New  IJnk  from 

from  liridKe.  8lore  hoiixe. 

ndh  per  eqtiare Inch,  tons  SI.i'  "iS.S 

m*              ■•                          11.1  11.9 

.percent..     ■                          H*  "■4- 

perceot IT. 35  IS.rs 

or  Iron   In    Brldeen.    Kl.  I.indentliMi 
flM  Old  MotioMKnhelH  iiMK|>enHion  bridge  m   i' 

down  In  INSi     The  tim  rtf  Uie  cables  ».-i,- 
t  of  tiimr  uUlmAie  ttrrngtb,  yet  on  (eating  I  he  in  ttftrr  t 


886 


IROK  AND  STEEL. 


iwe  thpjr  showed  a  tensile  strensth  of  from  78,T0O  to  100,000  lbs.  jw 
inch.   Tlie  elastic  limit  was  from  67,100  to  78,600  11. 
duciidil  at  point  of  fracture,  X>j£  to  '5%.    Their  diaji 

A  iii'w  ordinarv  tel**ifnii>li  wirrt  of  same  pangt* 
showed:  T.  8,  of' 100.000  lbs.;  E.  L.,  Bl,r*0  lbs  ;  i. 
used  as  stavs  nr  Riispt-iidprs  Bliowed:  T.  S..  43,mi  • 
iiiuh:E.  I,.,  i0,3S0to29,200.  Mr.  Lindenthai  draw? 
his  tests: 

"  The  above  tpsts  iodicate  that  iron  higlilv  strained  for  n  lone  ou 
yeAii>,  l]|it  Hfill  within  tlie  elastic  limit,  and'expoMid  Co  slight  rlnrai 
not  deteriorate  In  qtirillty. 

"  That  if  stdijeol<?d  to  only  ooe  Iclud  of  strain  it  will  not  cbanse  llsi 
eirtMi  If  stinined  beyond  its  elastic  limit,  for  many  yerrs.  It  will  nlfii 
beliave  iniK-h  as  in  a  tesllnc-machlne  during  a  Ions  tj-st. 

"That  iron  wdl  cliani;e  im  toxiuro  only  when  exposed  to  nltemst^ 
straiiiint;,  Its  in  bendine-  in  ilitTerent  dir^'tions.  K  tlit:  heitdtD|;  isarfl 
very  rapid,  as  in  vinLnt  viliraii'-ns.  the  effect  is  tlie  same."  J 

Corrosion  or  Iron  BoUm.— On  bridges  over  the  ThanMsta] 
bolts  ex (>oK<'d  lotltc  nclion  of  llie  ntinosphere  and  rain-water«M 
awHv  in  25  years  from  a  diameter  of  ^  in.  to  ^  in.,  and  from  ^  in.  d 
to  5/ltt  inch" 

Wii-e  iDjHw  exjmsed  to  drip  in  colliery  shafts  are  verj-  liable  toco* 

Corrosion  oTIron  and  Steel.— Experiments  made  ai  the 8 
Iron  Worlcs.  Wlieeliiijr.  W.  Vii.,  on  Kie  comiinrative  liability  to  ru«« 
and  son  He«.seiner  sleel:     A  jiiece  of  irf)ii  pUte  and  a  sinnliir  jiitnv> 
iHith  clean  mid  hrijiht,  were  pliice<i  in  a  mixture  ir" 
with  whicli  hiid  been  tliorouKhly  incorpornltxl  sume  ■ 
of  soda,  aminoniuni  elilorlde.'snd  cfdoridc  of  inaj 
prepared  «jis  kept  nmisl.     At  tlie  end  of  33  days  i 
taken  out,  cleaned,  and  wei(;hefL  wliea  the  iron  \v;i 
of  its  weight  and  tlie  st^-el  0.72;.   The  pieces  were  n  i 
welRlied  iiKflln.  wlien  the  ip'o  wa-*  found  to  have  i•.^t  'vVi"-.  "i  \'' 
weiillit  anil  Ihesieel  l.TW.     iT^ny';;.  .lone  Vil,  l^OI.t 

Corronlvo  Agents  In  the  Atmonphere.- Tlie  expi-rimn 
Crace  Calvert  (iVit;inru.'  Ac»i.  Jlnrch  .1,  1N71)  sh.iu 
the  presence  of  moisture,  is  the  ag'eni  which  det- 
iron  in  the  atmosphere.     He  subjected  perfectly  cl. 
steel   to  the   action   of  different  ^ses  for  a  perioii  i.r    r.mr  monii 
resnirsos  folions: 

DiT  oxycen,  dry  carbonic  aciii.  a  mixtare  of  hoth  irases,  <lry  on 
nxyKcii  and  amuiouia:  no  oxldatiou.  Damp  oxygen :  in  thrtv  exp4 
one  lila<le  only  wajn  Klisrhtly  oxidized. 

I'anip  carbonic  acid:  Hli>;ht  appearance  of  a  whits  preclpilala  U 
iroD.  found   to   be  carlionate  o/   iron.    Damp  carbotuM  acid  ami 
oxidnliori  very  rapid.    Iron  inmtersed  in  water  containing  rarbfl 
oxiillzed  lapiilly. 

Iron  linmersf'd  in  distilled  water  deprived  of  its  ^ases  bj  buffing 
the  iron  In  spot.'*  that  ui-i  e  found  to  contain  impurities. 

Galvanir  action  Is  a  most  active  ap>nt  of  corrosion.  Ittaki 
when  nvo  uieiiil>.  one  elfciro-ueBatJve  to  the  other,  are  )dac«l  hi 
and  exposed  loiliinipiii-.ss. 

.Siiljiliinon'i  ncid  itlie  product  of  the  ciimbllstloii  of  lhr-'«iilpbiiel<t 
an,  '  :     'active  corrosive  apenl.  especially  >'^ ' 

VI"  '.     This  accounts  for  the  rapid  Cor; 

bri'.  '■  t  to  the  smnite  from  iocoTuntive*; 

meiiiN  11.^  I  lit- aiiilior<.»n  action  of  suIjibiH  ' 

1875.  p.  -I.'f;  )    An  anulyslK  of  Bixity  ifv 
tlic   prewnee  nf  snlplmpius,  sulidim. 

atiinninln.     Illoxnm  sintes  tlint  amnioni.'t  is  iomihm  irniu  iim>  mii^h.'t 
air  dni'liiET  the  pr'ice-^s  nf  rti^irms 

Rdm|I<-u  roatlnira  foi-  Iron  and  Steel.— Tinidiuc.  fmainrfl 

qii'i  ■■ '    'lilzinu.   el'-ciLoclienucal  painting,   and    oilier   pt^ 

ttir  .<cnRsed  III  two  in'poriant  papers  bjr  M.  I*.  Wo«t,  M 

A  -    XV  Hnd  xvi.  II 

Produrlni^   an  Ino-rT.li^- m.     v----t 

IIS  lit  el>-.irl(iiv  has  If  ■ 

rile  nrilclo  lu  lie  proti'i  1 

Hi  a  teniv»t.H'atnn5   of  iktu   i  ."     n.  i   t     * 
Dugh.  ilie  vraveT  ks  Ae«omv>M«l  IBM  m  m 


DtriiABIMTY   OP  IBOSr,  COBROSIOK,  ETC.  3S' 

r.T,.(  v,v,ir,,....n.  anil  the  osygwi  is  ileposlted  on  ihe  mt^tnl,  while  tlio 

lip  othur  pole,  wliicli  may  eitlier  bn  tlif  tanic  in  wbic-h 

■i«i  >ji'  H  plate  i)f  fiirboii  or  iiiirlul.    Tlie  current  bus 

..  -uicilive  foix-p  tn  crverconie  the  resistance  of  the  circuit 

■  ■■  ilicwaler;  for  if  it  tw;  sitrouver  than  tlii-i,  rhpuij-Ken  com- 

■  ti  to  pnKluo«  ii  pulverdleiil  oxiile,  which  hnti  iiu  niiheretice. 

-Lre  aji  lln»y  Blioiiht  lie,  il  is  only  a  ft»w  lulmites  aft^'r  the 

it  the  Ill-till  heforc  the  (hiriten'ini,'  of    the  surface  showg 

-  united  with  tlie  iron  ((•  tnrui  iL-  mngnelic  oxide  FejOj, 

^..  ^uowu  will  rrsist  the  action  of  the  uir  anil  prottfct  the  metal 

il.      After  the  aelluu  lias  cuntiiineJ  an  hour  or  tivutliu  citatiiig  Ik 
Itl}'  Rolltl  to  resist  the  sieratch-brush,  and  it  will  ilieii  take  a  brilliaut 

liece  of  tliickly  rusted  iron  be  plnt-ed  in  the  linlh.  its  sesquioxlile 
is  rapidly  transformed  into  tlin  nuiKiictie  oxiile.  Thin  outer  layer 
BdheMiiiri,  but  l»-nt'(Ilh  it  there  will  he  foiinil  u  eoittin';  whicli  in 
a  part  i>f  the  nu^lai  Itself. 

r  early  experiiurnt-s  M.  ile  Meritena  employed  pieces  of  steel  only, 

nMi  -lit  and  coHt  iron  he  was  not  siicei'ssful,  for  Ihe  ciiiiliuu  uuiue  tiff 

frieli"n.     }|e  ilieii  plaee<l  llie  Irou  at  the  ueRative  pol    of 

^er  it  hnil  l>een  ulieudy  iipiilied  (o  the  pni-iiive  pule.     Here 

lured,  and  hydro^n  was  iiccuiuulnted  in  the  pores  of  the 

lui-ns  were  then  returned  to  Ihe  anode,  when  it  was  found 

(Huri'd  quite  ren.lily  ami  was  verj'  solid.     But  the  n-sidt 

:>ci.  unilil  was  not  until  Ihe  bnlli  wa.'<  tilled  with  distilled 

that  fruin  Ihe  public  supply,  Hint  a  jHTfeetly  sntisfuctury 

■1. 

.>:i.  ^  '  Plating  of  Iron  aa  a.  JProtoctlon  I'rom  Rnst< 

Jiiig    to  the    Uuliau    I'roijii'sjii).  eiilicles  of    iron   can    Ite   pioleeled 

rust  by  siiikiiiK  tlioin  near  the  nejrttlive  pole  of  an  electric  bjith  coiu- 

'  10  litres  of  n'uter,  IW  graniines  i^f  chloilde  of  niiinpane!<e,  and  '.XIO 

•  of  iiiiraie  of  auuuoniuiu.    Under  the  iuHueuee  of  ilic  eiirreut  the 

lOi^its:  on  ttie  articles  a  flltu  of  jnetallie  nian^ane.se  which  prevents 

►m  r  i^t  iiiir. 

■llzlns;  ProcesH   of  Annealing    in  deHoribed  by  II. 

Vfi'vi,  .Ian.  s!,  IH'.IJ.    Tlie  orilinury  process  of  annealing, 

Il  liio  d  and  Ijritile  iron  or  steel  i«  reiniereil  Boft  iiiul  toutirn, 

-:  the  metal  to  a  good  red-heat  and  then  allowing  ii  to  cool 

the  metal  is  in  a  heated  condition  the  surface  beci>nies 

■  iit-ii  r.>r  many  classes  of  wurU  the  xuiile  nt  oxide  Is  of  no 

^et   in  HOiue  oases  it   is  very  undesirable  and   even 

!■•  expense  in  its  renioval. 

^  a   non-oxidulni;  (fa<",  and  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 

L  Ji>ot-i.  11!  H.irtford,  t'onn.    The  princir>3l  fpntiire  of  this  prx-e^s 

iB  ketfpiug  the  aiincalliiK-retort  in    coinnnuileation  with  the  gu8 

^a.--  fuaifi  during  tile  etitire  proce,ss  rjf  lieutluf?  and  cooling,  the  «na 

•I  to  expand  Ijaclt  into  the  nmia,  and  being,  therefore, 

illy  coiistatil  pressure. 

I  art-  iiiiidi'  rnnii  wrought-iron  tubes.    Tlie  gas  used   Is 

lilviiig  the  city  with  itliiniiiiatiiig  giis.     It 

I  been  blued  or  slightly  ■iililizcd  was  sub- 

I  nine  out  bright,  the  oxide  iH-ing  reduced 

tiAMi  uf  tU'^  c'U;.    I'liictii-iil  use  has  been  made  of  this  fact  iu  deoxl- 

rCaL 

•alive  *.<— t-  wi.-re  mode  of  specimens  of  raetal  annealed  in  illlumt- 
«  a:  iiiieus  annealed  in  nitrogen.   Tlic  results  of  these  lesla 

pa:  ■  results  of  tests  of  speclmdus  anuealfd  iu  an  o|>eD 

-o-  ;,  oud  of  siH'ciniens  of  tlie  unanneuled  metal,  and 

:iL-y  of  the  gas  process  was  deteriiiiuetl. 
made  from  steel  wire  .lf<8  in.  in  dinineter  and  were 
►  rs  of  .156  and  .150  iu.    Dillereut  lots  of  wire  were 
iveriige  ri-sults.    The  elongations  were  in  each 
ijglhof  1.15ins. 
__  ['Ut  of  elongation  and  in  breaking  load  betweeu 

BneAled  in  nitrogen  and  tliotie  anoealed  Iu  UlumiuatUig  gas 

Tbe  arer&ge  restilts  were  as  follows: 


1 
I 
I 

I 


IRON   AND   STEEL. 


Clag  ufted. 


Nltriip«i 
Illiiminnrin)!; 

Nitio^eii 
Illiiiiiinatln^ 

Illurninntini; 

U|ieii  fire 
lTi]aiiii*^nlefl 
U>iautifAled 


Jfo. 

Te>t 

Piece*. 


BrpakiriK 

I^uid, 

lbs.  persq.  in. 


S9.U0 
C3.M0 

co.ono 

B7,!ttO 
ST.KO 
(«,Ott> 
07,120 
90,;iK) 


Elo 


Totnl  p.  r. 


Painting  UTood  and  Iron  Stractnrea.    {E.  H 

^CUili  or  t'liilu.,  Enyiuefiiitii  JNVim,  April  s»,  l8U3.t-A  niilnt  i 
_  •rtioiis— (lie  pi);inent  and   tlie  vfhicle  or  hinder.    Tiie  plfj 
Hii'Xtanoe  wliicU  is  more  or  less  Hnely  (fi-oviiid,  «)  ns  to  T 
niised  U'itli  tin*  vuhii'lci  nf  lieiiig  Finread  out  in  a  thiii  liivi-ri 
llie  surface  lo  ba  fjaliited.    Tlie  vehicle  or  binder  U  lli' 
pigment  is  mixed  orgroiiud,  widcli  Beifes  to  spn-ftd 
urface  to  tw  painted,  and  which  cil.to  holds  II  to  ihat  sr 
alntlnir  the  most  Benernlly  iiseil  vehicle  is  ltns«'<1  oil 
Liiiiieed  oil  possensen  the  peciiliur  properly  of  drviiif;  Ijy  | 
ixygon  of  tlie  air  to  form  n  tough,  leatliei-lifci'  .••■nnnnin  fcf 
For  painting  on  n ood,  zinc  uliite  lina  ^ 
liCRe  seem  to  be  most  fully  devclopetl  v 
miction  witli  white  lead,  and  then  lo  the  I. 
1  used  as  ft  flnril  enat  over  an  elastic  inideri.\iitim.'  of 
tJther  white  base  has  been  dlsicoiered  which  fxissiesses 
fotlier  properties  which  render  white  lead  valuahle,  r^ 
BB|>reQdllie  capacit.w 

t)f  the  inert  piKments,  lamphlnck  Is  probably  the  moKt  raliwhir., 
ItlmoHi  jnire  earlMm.  it  Is  praoiicjilly  uneliHiiirt'Mble  .*xc>-i't  i^v  fli . 

peculiiir  properly  of  absorbing  preat  qiiiit'  

Ipieadiiic  over  a  larRe  Hiirfnee.    French  .« 
riiiore  or  le».s  of  the  hjdraied  oxide  of  Iron. . 
in^  a  larpe  quantity  of  oil,  and  hence  has  etni.^i. 
and  also  holds  very  tlnidy  to  any  wooden  surfn.  ■ 
The  various  iiiliieriil  and  f.ietriliic  palms  are  ul 
un  oxides,    While  these  are  cheap  and  useful 
•iictm-es  they  are  sometimes  reiilly  fjniieilati^, 
rk,  ^»ecaiise,  instead  of  prevenliiip  oxidafi"it 
t'oal  tar  i»  nimh  used  fl.«  a  paint  fur  tli^  i 
id  iron;  in  the  latter  case  especially  for  - 
nrk  I" lie  burled  under(,'rt)uiid.     It  liji-.ti 
;  liaslhedisBdvnnlnifeof  he^'onnnf 
1  sdftehliifc'Bt  ll.'i"  F.    A-phalt  (>e<  i 
re.  but  olherwiseexhibitsthe  sai:  i. 


PH^ ■ 

^•OKPOSITION  AND  PHYSICAL  CHARACTER.   389 

great  umipuition  to  add  Home  aubsUnoe,  mcli  as.  whttlnir,  to 
keit  work  freer,  as  wvll  as  lo  oosi  Ipbr  money  for  material, 
rig  iron  »-orlc  it  is  essential  ihnt  tlie  iron  itavlf  should  tje  ab- 
lii  rust.  Kugt  lias  tiie  peculiar  property  of  spreading  aiiU 
a  centre,  if  there  be  ttie  »li^hteKt  chance  to  do  go.  Hence,  a 
Of  rtiut  on  the  iron  may  glow  inider  the  Kurtaif?  of  the  paint, 
li«  tnie,  ay  Dr.  Duiliey  UMfioits.  that  liiittoed  oil  is  perniesbie 
ture,  and  in  tilliB  tile  paint  will  l)e  tlali«l  o(T  by  the  ruat  nn- 
Kriidimlly  exposing  the  Imre  siirtiice  of  tlie  iroii  to  the  action 
Jd?  agent,  oxy>:eu  iu  ihe  presemre  of  water.  It  Is  neee.omiry 
the  !!Cale  pi»sil)le  from  wrought  iron  l)y  meang  of  stitT  wire 
i  then  to  remove  the  iii>it  by  u  pickli?  of  very  diliiie  aciil,  whieli 
ard  lie  thorontthly  wailied  off  befoie  the  paint  is  applied.  The 
'!<»  ircn  slioiil'l  lie  dry  and  lit  lea.'it  nnHleiately  warmed  ttefore  it 
The  be!4(  method  of  painting  ti  tin  roof  in  to  carefully  remove 
oil  orf^reu-se  from  liie  surface',  of  the  tin  while  it  in  yet  bright 
^;  then  to  apply  a  coat  of  red  lead  aod  linseed  oil.  or  the  betit 
eiAllic  paint,  and  to  follow  tills  with  one  or  twocoats  ol^  graphite 
^aphjte  i:<  almost  uuehon^'eable  by  atmospheric  action,  and  Is 
aterproof  us  well. 

~  AH  *  PreiMrvaUve  or  Iron.— A..  J.  Whitney  write«  (o 
iVtrj.  Aiipuiit,  1^4ll.  that  ill  SO  years"  experience  he  liaR  found 
the  liest  rimicrial  for  preserving  irmi  under  all  circufiistBiiees. 
of  Paint  Beqaircid  for  n  Given  ISarfavd.  (M,  P. 
of  siirfnci:  -t-  '-'im  .;  ^'nllonx  of  liquid  paint  for  t«o coats;  isq. 
^-  IK  =  llj?i.  of  pure  white  lend  for  three  coals. 
M  of  Paluts.  — 77ie  RailriKiil  and  E:iijiitteriim  Journal,  vols. 
iBOand  IHiii,  hast  a  neriwof  articleslon  paint  as  applied  to  iroodnt 
chemical  nature,  application,  niliilteration,  etc.,  by  Dr.  C.  B. 
1st,  ami  F.  N.  Pea«e,  asslHtimt  chemist,  of  the  Peiina.  K.  K. 
re«ullH  of  a  lonf;  8erie»  of  ex{)eriiiientii  on  paiitt  uk  applli^l  to 

I><llnt.  (in.  P.  Wood.>— Orapliile.  mixed  with  pnre  iKiiled 
hlih  uKmall  perc-eul«KP  "'  litharge,  retl  lead.  mniiBauese,  or 
•alt  has  been  added  nt  the  time  of  boiling  to  aid  In  the  oxida- 
I  foniu  a  nioBt  effective  paint  for  nietallio  surfaces,  aa  well  as 
fibrous  substanoeti.  Wood  surfaces  protected  by  tills  paint, 
the  action  of  sea- water  for  a  number  of  years,  are  fojnd  iu 
of  preservatiou. 

STEEL. 
ir    BETWEEN  THit:   rntcmtAi.  ronpost- 

kWD  PlIYSItAL  CIIAR.lCrKH  OK  STEEL. 

tr  (Rf«  Tranit.  A.  1.  M.  K..  vuki.  xxi  and  xxii,  18KM>  f;ives  re- 
tl biiudre<l  Hiialjges  and  tensile  testa  of  luuiic  Bessemer  steel 
mi  a  study  of  them  drawK  couolu&louii  an  to  the  relation  of 

MMitiou  (o  strength,  tliu  chief   of   which  are   condensed  as 

,fij  nii.  n.nt  a  pure  Iron,  witliaut  carlKiu.  phoKphoitis,  inan- 
1  r.  If  it  could  be  obtBined,  would  have  n  tensile 

•  r  (iqiiare  Inch,  If  le»ied  in  aajj-Iiich  pjnte     With 
-  .     ;.-.  coiiHtructed  by  iitMioi^  tlie   followiui^  Imi'deninff 
Mil  by  increase  of  tensile  tstreiigta,  for  the  several  eletueuts 

iKUint  effect  of  SOO  lbs.  for  each  O.OK. 
500        "        "       O.OK. 
Die  elTecl  \a  bi^'her  in  lilgh-carlion  than  In  low-carbon  ataeU. 

tiUudrf^tliH  K 9      10      11       13      13      14      15      10       17 

laa an  effect  lit  lbs.  91X1  1000  lUH)  1«X)  i:k»  MtX)  L'lOO  IRiM  ]M0 
tie  tpffect  decreases  as  the  i«r  cent  of  manganese  iiicreaaeii. 
(    .00    .15    .20    .25    .SO    .85    .40    .45      .50        ..« 

oent. -<    to    to    to    to    to    to     to    to     to       to 

{    .15    .30    .25      30    .S5    .40    .45    .50      .56       ,«& 
•BbPot.OW  240    940   S3(>    -jno    ISO    ISO    140    130      100 

pjfti...  a«»ys:«5KW6iwor«»stkiOa.«ioiwiio  10,4001 


390 


BTEEL. 


effect  li^H 

•lis  tlie  foBS 


Silicon  iB  80  low  in  thl8  Bt««l  tbAt  lU  hai-denJDs  effect  I 

Biilered. 

With  the  above  additions  (or  carbon  and  phoHphoriis 
has  been  eooslructt'ii  (abrldped  from  tlie  oi  JKinnl  l^y  Mj'.  WelifM 
11^)1  rr-s  given  the  additions  for  sulphur  aud  iiiau^HQi-se  ehuuUI 
ttbovt*. 

Bstliuated   Vltiniate   StrcnetfaM  of 


flates. 


Basic 


For  Carbon,  .OS  to  .34;  Pbogphorus,  (10  tu  .lU;  MangauMte 
all  caset!. 


CartvOtt. 


Phos.  .OOS 
"  .01 
"  .02 
"  .03 
"  .04 
"  .08 
'•  .0« 
»  .07 
"  .08 
"  .09 
"  .10 
.001  PhoK  = 


.OS 


.C8 


3B,950  41,550 
40,350  41,SG0 
41,  ]«»(' 18.750 
41,950  ^a.MO 
4-,',7,1()  44,350 
W.S.W  4:5.151) 
4J,!(50  4.'),050 
■J5,150'48,t.')0 
45,950' 47,-550 


46,740 
47,550 
SOlbs. 


4«,«'*l 
49,1.50 
SOlbts. 


.10 


4a,S50 
43.7B0 
44,750 

45,7.50 
41},  750 
47,751) 
48.7W) 
49,7  W 
50,:5() 
51,7,50 
63,750 
100 II) 


.12 


°""^i 


,14 


44.9.50 
45,5.50 
46.760 

47.9511 
49.1.511 


85.151 
.56.3.1(1 
KOII 


40.050 
47,860 

48,780 


.16 


.18 


ai 


48.300  4!>,U0(I 
49,050  fi(>  <'.M1' 

50,a«i    ■  •■ 


.51,501 


50,  IBOl  68,05" 

5!, ^50l  58.56(1 


aH,65UI61.0t(i 
.iP.950  K.56(i 
140  Ibll60  1b  i(H'  i.> 


Inches  thick, 
and  over 


Ill  all  rolled  steel  the  quality  depends  on  the  size  of  the  bhM 
fioui  which  it  is  rolled,  the  work  put  on  it.  aud  the  teniprraturei 
in  flui8he<l,  OS  well  as  the  chemical  composition. 

The  above  table  is  bosi-d  on  tests  of  plateti  ^  inch  thick  an 
liictie.H  wide;  for  other  plate.s  Mr.  Webster  gives,  the  foliowlnt;  c 
(•ir  ihicknesK  and  width.  Thejr  are  made  necejisary  only  by  Ck 
thicknuax  and  width  ou  the  flnJKhiDK  temperature  Iti  ordinat) 
Stoel  is  frei)ueotly  spoiled  by  beinK  ilui^hed  at  too  IiikIi  a  lempen 
Correctlona  for  Sl>«  of  Platea. 

Plate*.  Up  to  70  iiiH.  wide.  OtwW 

LbA.  I. 

-sooo  - 

—  1750  — 

—  1900  - 

—  1330  - 

—  lOOO  - 
...     —  600  « 

0  f 

+  3000         i 

Comparine  the  actual  result  of  tents  of  406  plat<«  <■■ 

rnsiilts.  >Ir.  wetwter  found  tlie  variation  to  ranKe  a«  in  > 

Munimarr  of  tUe  XtllTerenreB  Oetureen  Cali-uiaii<- 

Artiial  RcMults  iu    108  Testa  of  Plato  Sle«i< 

111  tlie  tir-il  line,'  culiiuins  the  etTrcls  of  pulpliur  weie  not  cvQii 

tli«'  latii  iliree  uoluinus  the  effect  of  sulphur  was  estioiated  at  H 

each  OK  of  S.  . 


JTH  OF  BES8EMEE  AND  OPEN-HEARTH  STEELS,   39ll 


t  figure  in  the  t&ble  would  indicate  thatirgpecifloacioas  were  drawn  I 

«■  ste«il  plates  not  to  vary  mure  limn  MOO  llw.  T.  S.  from  a.  specified 

IIIaI  to  a  total  ratine  of  10,(l(Xi  lbs),  there  wniild  lie  aprobafillity  of 

iiriii  i>C  o.<  of   the  blooms  rt.lled,  even  If  the  whole  lot  was  made 

I  tical  ohemicnl  nnalysis.    In  1000  heats  only  3)(  of  the  heata 

■■  requirements  of  (he  urders  on  which  they  were  graded; 

^  WHS  rniioli  le.«s  than  IS,  as  one  nlate  was  rolled  froui  each 

ttsali-ii  before  rolling  the  reniuinUer  of  tlie  heat. 

Hadfleld  iJour.  Iron  <t  Sleel  In»t.,  No.  1,  18W)  elves  the  streiiKtli  of 

■e  Swedish  iron,  retiielteil  and  te8te<l  as  east,  20.1  Ions  (45,0S!4  lbs.) 

n. ;  remelted  and  forceil,  21  Ions  (IT.OIO  lljs  i.    The  analysis  of  the 

was  :  tT.  O.itS:  Si,  0  01;  S.O.Oa  ;  V.  O.O-J;  JIu.  0.01;  Fe.  99.83. 

■t  4>r  Oxygen  npon  Ktrcng^tb  of  iilteel.— .V.  I.jiatA  of  the 

1 .  in  n  letter  to  Jtr.  Webster.  siayK  :  "  We  have  found 

.'.r  (1H93>  that  oxyg-en  plays  an  important  role,  till  now 

iideed.  thAt  (riven  a  like  conient  of  carhon,  phospho- 

ihe  blows,  a  blow  ivitli  greater  oxygvu  content  Kires 

1  less  duetility  than  a  blow  with  less  oiyjjen  cont-ent." 

ietenninlnK  oxyten  is  that  of  Prof.  Jjcdehur,  given  in 

.May,  IMiW,  p.  I9;i.    The  variation  lu  o-Tygen  content  may 

■  a  in  streri^h  of  nearly  ouehalf   lau  per  square  inch. 

■  i-t  Inni..  yo.  1,  1894.) 

BBOF  VARIATION  11V  <<iTRe>GT1I  OP  BESSEinEB 
K  AND  OPKN-HI':.4ICTH   .NTICI^LS. 

■gWKie  Steel  Co.  iii  iSm  published  a  ligl  of  lO^ir  teala  of  Bessemer 
rib  steel,  from  which  the  follawing  figures  are  selected  ; 


F 

Id  of  St«e1. 

1 

o 
o 

Klaatic  Limit. 

tJltlmate 
Strength. 

Elongation 

per  cent 
la  8  inches. 

niph't. 

Lowest 

HJgh't. 

Lowest 

High't. 

Lowest 

■.  atniclural. . . 
«. 

b  wgiea 

K.  are- box 

t.  bridice 

100 
170 

a 

19 

ao 

45,570 
47,090 
41,8S0 

8«,i30 

9s>,9ro 

83,680 

71.800 
78.fr*© 
83,450 
8a.7»0 
6B.0«3 
BO.IMO 

ei,4S0 

65,aoo 

50,130 
50,S50 
59.440 
68,',»T0 

33.00 
8o.-.;& 

34.30 
36.00 
S7.M 
30.00 

sa.75 

S3.1& 
38.25 

£5.63 

19. 3S 
■ii  75 

UE<)(nRKMEjiTS  or  Specifications. 
!  limit.  85.000  ;   tensile  slreiiRlh,  62.000  to  70.000  ;  elong.  32](  in  8  in. 
'Unlit,  40.000  ;    tensile  .strentflh,  67,000  to  75.000. 
Hrolt.  30,000  ;    tensile  Mtrengtti.  flO.OOO  lu  04,000 ;  elODg.  SOjt  in  6  in.  ] 
"  trength,  Ml.iKW  to  fiJ.IKW  ;   elon^.  •i6%  in  4  in. 
lr»-«iKth.  fiO.imO  to  (i.i.0<10  ;  elonc-  1^,*  in  S  in. 
IreiiL-lli.  lH.Oy  to  70.(KK1 ;  elonc  'Htf  in  8  in. 

of  Open-lieartb  8tra<-tural  Steel.    (Pencr.yd   Iron  I 
I  rule,  the  peroeti m>;i'  .if  earbon  in  st4?el  deU-rniine«  il4 
I      The   hft;lier  the  carbon  the  harder  the  steel,    the  J 
ind  the  lower  the  ductility  will  be.    The  following  list 
•  averac''  ['hysical  propwrties  of  good  opan-heartli  steel : 


STEEL. 


proxijunlioa  in  iiiaRle  instance*,  «-b«n  the  rarlAtfoti  fr 
be  Ciinslderable.    Steel  below  .10  carbon  should  \t.- 
wllJioiit  fraclure,  after  li«iiiK  clllll^■ll  from  a  lud   ; 
of  .15  carbou  will   ciocasionally  subiiiit   (o    tli<?    -. 
Usually  IwDil  arouinl  a  curve  whose  railiiis  i»  «-(|ir.4i 
(be  specimen  ;  about  90^  of  specimens  stand  the  iMiief 
fracture.    Ah  the  8l*el  becomes  haidi-r  itx  ability  (.> 
test  becomes  more  exceptional,  ami   when  Ihe  cai 
litllouver  .m  of  specimens  will  stand  the  liuit-dvarri 
having  atxiuc.-IM  carbon  will  usually  harden  sntHci 
and  maintain  an  edge. 

MctlirtenH  gives  tlie  fullon  ing  tables  in  Siahl  unil  Ritfn 

ie»a>  : 

Battle   BesHcmer  Steel. 
680  CharKOH. 

Elastic  LIuilt,  C'liarKCS  witiiin 

|>ouuds  per  llaiiKi:;,  jier  cent 

sq.  In.  of  total  number. 

35.&0O  to  38,400 15.0 

a8,-i(KI  to  OT,800 31  0 

l»,SOOtoll,iOO  i!7.5 

■H.'JtHi  to-li!,?00 IB.O 

<3,7W)  to  <8,400 9,9 

Tensile  i}treiij;tb,       Charges  within 

pounds  per  Range,  per  cent 

sq.  ill.  of  total  number. 

M.OOO  to  56,900 18.67 

WI.OOO  to  ai*,300 38.67 

S8,300  to  6B,7O0 38.53 

69,700  to  «1,)!00 15  00 

"J,800  to  &!,300 8.53 


Stbvotvrai.  Stsbi.. 

Charges  wilbiu 
Klongation.  Kaiige,  jier  cent 

fer  cent.                of  total  number, 
loss   3,«I5 

ZMoM 8.58 

UfltoSfT 17.35 

!U>» 86,70 

ttoM 88.(18 

i«o3l) J4.41 

TtoSi.s e.c! 


Basic  Open- 
to  ral 
-189  til 

Ktastic  Liiiill, 

pounds  per 
K<j.  ill. 
3J.400|n  37.1  «M 
37.000  to  .'J-   I     ' 
38,400toa;',-'~. 
39,800  to  4 1, '.SlO 
41,300  to  «,7X». 
42,700  to  44,100< 
44,100  to  48,4" 
Tensile  Strenj 
Sli.SOO  to  5«,t 
W,90O  to  .W,800. 
5t!,30(l  to  .W.TTO.j 
59,70Ot«>61.i!OO 
Ol.aWt..  ttt.fiiW 
04,000  to  65,100... 
ElougHtlon, 

Iier  cent. 

aotoia 

atose 

•Jfito47 , 

a?  to  as  

38  to  39...., 

B91O30 

80to37.1 

Rivet  Stkku 
Tensile  Strenatb. 

51,800 

51,90(1  to  .VS. »IX» 
53,300  to  .V4, 900. 
54,900  to  50,300.^ 
56,300  to  n<l  '.K>0 
Klougaii 


BiyxT  Stckl. 
s».2toae 90,0 

86  loUT 15.0 

87  toZS 95.0 

88  to29 85.0 

89  t029.8 15.0 

In  tbe  basic  Bessemer  steel  over  tOtwaa  beli> 

wefp  1m»1ow  O.IO;  manganese  was  Ijelow  O.fl  i^'  ■  ■'  - 
sulphur  wajt  below 0.05  In  84lf,  tlie  maiimun 
0.|i>,  and  i^iliCDii  tielowO.Ol  in  nil.    In  the  l)ti 

HAS  li«-lu\v  0.06  In  96^,  the  niaxitnuin  being  u.^   -■ 

"■Ipliiir  below  0.07  In  88j(,  the  maximum  being  0.1^ 
JDUiU.og  to  0  14. 

Eiow  Tensile  Strensrtta  of  Very  Pore  «•'-•! 
open-hearth  steel,  tested  by  I  be  aullior  in  tfWl,  si 
only  42,591  lbs.  per  si),  iu.     A  pifc,-  i.f  Amerlcnn  i. 

lbs.  |>er  sq  in.     Bulb  steels  co..i«liit-il  abxut  .10  c.,i 

and  were  very  low  in  sulpbur,  munganeiie,  and  silivuii.     i'l 
were  bars  about  2  y.%  In,  sect  ion. 
Low   Streni^-iii    t»nn    »<.    (•.-••n>'-loK«    ^Vrt^ 
uns.  A   I.  M 
Kl«-- 


VWiy  healcti  MiOi  (u\WV  •lawu  !<< 


BK8SEMKH  AND  OPEX-HEAKTH  STEELS.  3&3 


EiotiKatiou 

Reilucliou 

in  8  in. 

of  Area. 

Per  cent. 

Fer  cent. 

27 

m 

25 

U) 

IS 

« 

•X 

49 

re  frnin  KS.OilO  tu  115,000  Ihs.  teiifiile  Mrength,  an  elongation 
imI  a  reduciioii  of  arpii  of  fiQiii  Rb%  toTO^.  Any 
iliiive  reUiiciloti  In  tblcluiem  ordinarily  ylHlda  iu- 

ii^ilf  tMSIS. 

>I  iiull  iSleel.— A.  E.  Hunt  iTrana.  A.  I  M.  E.,  I8BS.  vol. 

stcf  I.  no  iiinti«*r  Ihivv  low  in  carbon,  will  liunlen  U>  a  cer- 
-fiinj;  lj>-atiii  n*il  lint  and  iiluuifd  into  w(H«t.  and  that  It 
en  pluDXfil  inlu  luint-and  Irsswliun  qticnolU'd  iu  oil. 
YAA  a  lifut  "f  <i|i«u  lieartl)  bled  of  0.  ia;i  rarlion  and  0,39%  of 
k||avt»  Llie  (uUuwiuK  results  upon  le»i-piecu!^  from  iLe  bamo 

Maximum 

Load. 

lbs,  per  Kq.  in. 

Bd 55,<m 

In  water 74,000 

iu  brine &l,000 

Bdinoll 67.700 

lily  of  sui'li  bat'denpd  steel  does  not  decrease  to  the  extent 
1  ti<nu('Ity  WLiuld  indicate,  and  i»  niucli  i<iip<-rior  to  llial  of 
lie  bi(tli  tt^naoity.  Blill  the  grt-ally  incrL-a.s«l  ti-iiacity  after 
k-s  that  thrie  niuHt  be  a  oonKiderablK  nioli'cular  cliaoKc  in 
M'deued,  aud  that  if  such  u  liardeniii);  should  be  crejiied 
plate,  there  niual  be  very  dangeroua  inliTnal  strains  cauaed 

|<1  BollIUK.— Cold  rolling  of  lion  aud  cleel  increases  thn 
llie  ultimate  Ktrength.  and  decreti'-c^  ilie  ductility.  M»J<>r 
(iilM  on  Ijars  roll.-d  uuil  piiliiihed  cold  hy  [.luitll'i'  procesa 
{e  increa«.>  of  l.>iid  ri'quireil  to  cive  a  sltuht  invniaiirni  net 
Dflverse.  ICiS;  torsion,  'l3ll.t;  compreKSion,  lUlK  oti  short 
h>g.  anil  IJH  on  uolninoK  8  in.  Ioiik:  itMimon,  '.).'>;;.  Thi.-hard- 
"i  by  the  weight  reunlred  to  produce  e<{niil  indenUitioiin, 
;  am)  it  was  found  ifiat  the  liardiie»»  w;is  hh  Kr<->it  in  tbr 
I  as  elaewhera.  Sir  \V.  Fairbuirn'H  ezpfriniems  tdiuwed 
ite  tensile  strenetli  of  !it)%,  niid  a  rpducllori  in  ihe  rlun^atiun 
in.  or  -JO*,  to  O.lfl  In.  or  7.0';. 
of  Xeals  of  Fall-nlze  Ej'c-bnrit  and  Sample 
of  S*itt«  Steel  Used  In  the  inenipbla  Bridge. 
(Oeo.  S.  Morison,  Trann.  A.  S.  (.'.  E.,  1»W3.> 


4 

n  ^ 


ized  Eyebare, 

Sample  Bam  from  Same  Melts, 

lie  X  1  to  i  8/H" 

thick. 

about  1  in.  area. 

ItlOn. 

Elastic 

Max. 

Reduc- 

Elon- 

elastic 

Max. 

Utnit, 
tba.  per 

Load, 
aq.  in. 

tion, 
p.c. 

gation, 
p,  0. 

liinll,, 
lbs.  per 

Load, 

p.c. 

Bq.  in. 

lfl.8 

ai.HW 

67..l!» 

47. S 

S75 

41,580 

73,050 

6.9 

87.080 

70.1(10 

M.a 

5144 

42.050 

7!i.820 

tl  8 

39,700 

6'i..'idO 

47.8 

28.8 

40,380 

To.aM 

17. » 

33.1J0 

B.-.,OflO 

47.8 

27.S 

41,580 

73.090, 

m  5 

3i.)m 

0-..IWO 

44. & 

ao.o 

43.750 

75.008* 

J3.S 

31.1)0 

61.000 

4i.7 

28.8 

48.210 

IW,79l>4 

18.7 

3-1,01)0 

e8,iS!0 

M.a 

28.1 

40.-.'80 

BB.Tao: 

13.  S 

29,.'«0 

6:1.100 

4H.3 

28. B 

3H.0IHI 

71.300 

60 

sw.fwn 

5.VI(Jn 

43  S 

348 

88.330 

70.2« 

11  I 

3»,6;o 

0:1,140 

60. 6 

ae.8 

40.S00 

71,080 

II.8 

3-.!,700 

H5,in0 

40  3 

a&.a 

it»,3<0 

«g,aBO 

18.8 

80,500 

S«,S70 

40.3 

25.0 

40.910 

70.300 

IS  .8 

ss.aoo 

7a,J50 

61.5 

25.1 

40.410 

6«.BflO 

16,7 

8a,5S0 

00,710 

43.0 

27.0 

40.400 

70.490 

I4.a 

88,000 

68,7-20 

14.4 

29. B 

40.0>lO 

«0j«0 

18.1 

8S,«10 

a:J,470 

42.8 

81  8 

4(),t>:i0 

S9.97D 

sf.aso 

4S.7 

27.0 

40  .RIO  1 

j^^^l 

ttturUt  o 

rthrtull 

-sixnl  ey 

e-hara  w 

as  about  8000  Q 

^^^^1 

SJ>>«" 

hit  of  t 

1)8  .•uinip 

If  (est-I 

liecea. 

1 

^^^^1 

oekise 


rf>— <w pi ijir Lf il  Ufmwm) 


!■  Twy  tM»  i—mM  as 
tUdk;  io  I!m«.  •  decree  of  1 
tieaOy  oeaaes.     Oo  Ike  eoanary,  ■•  loaeaaes  a  acraa 

n»  «fect»  JuMfcJ  do  yt  iiwMfclilj  Ml—';  tor  latopwi 

iy  aMWWigMy  aaaeaaig  ilirwul  or  |i— flMd  flt«ei«  Iha  i 
laiStejaeMraatcired  and  ika  cnoccnucd  tlMNie  ItaBk  ivdacvd. 
b«fii|t  iDortiawi  by  the  umftntnre  lit  1 1  hi^Btlnfc  Md  «>»  ■wt>0'»  t*  < 

It  la  profaUale  that  the  bert  rente  oonbiDcd  ««k  leMt  rr 
be  obtained  by  ponefaiBfr  aB  holes  wtaer»  Thai  cnaias  ar»  bm  i 
the  riTeia;  aad  by  teambis  for  importaDt  Joiuia  wbeee  Kialaa  ( 
Jofait*  are  rital,  or  whererw  uei futatfawi  may  lednee  secttooa  ioa' 
The  raamiag  afaoold  be  snfflcicat  to  ifaoniacfaty  nature  iba  i 
torbed  by  puochinp:  to  accotspiiah  thia  It  is  MM  to  ealaix*  | 
M  teasi  yiin.  diameter  with  the  reaaier. 

KlTetlnc.— It  U  ib«  current  pcactioe  top«rforate  holet] 
thao  the  livi^t  diainr-tfr      For  work  to  be  reamed  Itiaalauatt 
ment  to  pooch  the  holes  from  t^  to  I/I6  in.  less  than  the  llniihed  ] 
the  holes  btiog  reamed  to  the  proper  size  after  the  varioiw 
aaKmMed. 

It  is  also  exc*n>-ii>  practice  to  remove  the  sliaip  comer  at  I 
the  reamed  '  >i  a  nilet  will  be  formed  aiUie  JuDCtion  i 

and  head  or  rivet^^ 

Therivei-  '  ti  or  mild  steel  should  be  heated  m  a  I 

?reIlow  heat  and  ::ubjt?cte<J  to  a  pressure  of  act  lew  thai]  M  toiu  j 
Dch  of  Deletion  al  arm 
Tor  tivvtB  ijf  oidlnarj'  l<-ii(rlll    this  prt-ssiiiH  hilstwi-n  fnuBdJ 
ilil  the  hol»-.     If,  howpver,  tl  p 
-',  a  greater  prt^siir*^  and  a  hImt 
ti  I  for  *iiMrter  i-ivet*  lia«i  ti«^n  ("■  ital 

lllii-  II]  II.  -liiKtrisli  flow  of  ilie  metal  lhroii;;Uuul  the  lonycr  Lola, 
WoldlUK.  -Nu  welding  should  l>e  allowed  on  any  Bietii  that  i 

••-il  rnd»  on  ti'nston  bar-  : 
iiiiitr  Ihi-  iiiuUTuil.    Wii 
■  niareed  sti'tioiml  area  ■' . 
Lr''*ii'i  i'l'niiiily  >;  ui^faotory.    Tlia  upsttiiiiR  prioess  thoulj  hrl 
K>  tlial  the  properly  lieatfd  metal  is  L-ornpelled  to  flow  without] 

icallng.     The  ohjeft  of  ami- 
jtiiit!  iiiiiionciii-iiv  of  striumii 
IhtMidn^.  Ill'  tiy  th>-  iiiiml|>iilati' 

Tlif   ol)Ji«i'ts   to   bt-   aiiiiealetl    -limilil    In-  lii-iiii.l    ilin 
iliiiriirin  (finpiM-ature  and  unirorinly  conlp<l. 

.The  plivdcnl  i'(T<rt':  if  iiniiciiline.  as  iiidicttted  by  tenK|lt>  lestvf 
"uni  of  liardpiiiiif;  elements  assxivli 
iioh  the  gteel  is  raiised,  and  the  mril 
Uii 

«!>•.;  In 

ITi- 

PI'  All 


iBiw,  inuu.  JL.  a..u.  &.  leao.  sava: — a  k<xiu  miiu  biwi  iiiii  dr 

»(Iil}' as  wroiiRlit  iron  in  tlie  shop  or  trie  Meli),  unci  even  b<*(ir 
eRtiiit*ii(,  Ii  ivus,  however,  often  tluiiiglit  iiecfssiirr  to  leqiiirw 
uiiiPfUin^  to  remove  the  initinl  strnhiR  due  lo  mllinR.  Tlie  nn* 
.lonhtH.lly  i)f  pieat,  ailviinlMtfe  Id  nil  sieel  nhuve  61.000  llis. 
«7iinre  inch,  but.  it  is  qiK'ttiioimhle  wliellicr  it  is  necessary  in 
Tue  iliMorliDiiK  diiu  lo  beniini;  caiiKc  tnnihle  hi  Kiil>Keqiiei]t 
.  i««iii>i-iully  of  thin  pintwi.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  thnt 
I'lnees  t^reater  toii^jlmess, 

ral  way  all  imanneiilefl  milii  sleet  for  a  Btreiigth  of  56,(X10  to 
V  he  woi'keil  in  the  same  way  as  wi'oUKht  iron.  Koii|;h  treat- 
ing at  II  blue  heat  must,  liowever,  be  prohibited.  Such  treat 
||btH>me  by  wrought  iron,  nllhough  it  dot^s  not  tinlTer  so  niticli 
Hteirini;  is  to  be  nvoided,  e.'ccept  to  prepare  niujili  plates, 
^PtrwardKbo  kiuooIIumI  by  maehine  tools  or  filfs  tiefnre  URiiig. 
HK-to  bo  avoided.  Ijeeniise  the  ed^es  of  lioles  are  thereby 
ind  llie  yielii  poinl.  Reaiiiin^j  drilled  lioles  Is  not  necesxarv, 
when  sharp  drills  are  UKed  and  neat  work  is  done.  A  oliicnt 
g  of  the  ed^e.q  of  drllle.l  holes  i<  all  that  is  necessary.  Wi.rk- 
■lal  while  heated  should  be  moided  a-s  far  an  poHsible,  and  Ills 
lid  bt»ar  Oils  in  mind  when  de.'^itjninjf  srrijctiires.  UpneltinK. 
I  liendinR  oueht  to  be  avoided,  bill  when  iiecesSHi  y  the  material 
attled  lifter  completion. 

iiifof  a  luildsteel  rivet  should  beflnlHhed  asqiiiokly  as  ponsilile, 
I  lo  the  ilangeroiiA  beat.  For  this  rea.son  niiuddne  work  is  the 
s  n  .special  iidvaiitnee  in  rnuchiue  work  from  the  fjti^t  that  the 
be  retnineif  upon  Ihe  rivet  until  It  UOA  eoolctl  snfllciently  to 
Ulion  and  the  co'isi-qiient  lo'iseiiinir  "f  the  rivet." 
K  and  Drilling  of  Steel  l>lat«M.  (I'roe  Inst.  M.  K , 
K8.I — III  Prof.  Inwin's  repnil  the  resiills  of  Ibe  ^renter  niini- 
ueriineius  mude  on  Iron  and  steel  plntes  lend  to  tlie  (;P"crnl 
at,  while  thin  plate,",  even  of  aieel.  do  not  suff"]'  verj'  iniieli 
ig,  yet  in  those  of  |.<i|  In.  thlekness  and  iipunidB  tlie  loss  of  te- 
punching;  ranges  from  UK  to  'S.M  in  iron  pialenand  froni  ll<(  to 
J  of  mild  Bteol.  Mr.  Parker  found  the  lc*s  of  t^'iuieily  in  sicel 
»  high  as  fully  one  third  of  the  original  sireneih  of  the  plate, 
es.  on  the  eontnirv.  tle.M-e  is  no  appri'i-itilde  lo<s  of  sii-enRih. 

.^11,1.^    t,,     ,..ji.,i.i'.4    t'l.o     1.1.1     ^tr. .,-<.■     ..('     1. 1, ....-). .71    r     ).,-     ^■■•l.%;.U(i,i.jrif 


Bbci 


PECTFTCATrOSrs  FOR  RTKKI^  39? 


iCIfriCATIONS   FOB    STBBI.. 

I  Steel«'-Tliurt!  Iihs  beeii  a  chniiiru  diiHii;;  Him  {en  yearn  rroni 
Iiir  n|>4itionKof  enirineerx,  a«  to  iltp  ivquhtMiM-nt*  in  Rpocinea- 
lUral  »l(?f!.  Ill  the  iliivotiiin  cf  .-.  prffciviKw  for  metnl  of  low 
and  k:rt^at  iluciilitj.  The  fijllnwlnp  s<iMH:iflcntinn8  of  difft'r- 
jven  by  A.  E.  Hunt  aiiU  U.  ]l.  Clapp,  Trans.  \.  I.  M.  E.  IS'JO, 

iSTD.       laei.      t8»j.    isav      i88r.        isss. 
oaooo  ■in@4r..n()o  ■«).«»  w.aoo     4Q.mt       ss.ooo 

eO.OOO  *<i®NO,tiOO  70.000  To.OdO  or®  :.■>, 000  63® 70.000 

i--"^        ]>*f        }»i      iw        ■-■<)*  ■''■!% 

.   aoi        m%        45t      4ij:        «!%  4M 

.   O.H.  O.H.  orB.  O.H.     Not    O.H,  or  B.  O.H.or  B. 

«IH.'C. 

Same  $0@r>.';.000  fiO.OOO  fiO.OOO      Banu'  as  tonslon 

as  80@%),000  80.000  W.Oi'O  iiieiiibera. 

'la ten-  18*  IW        1S){ 

RiOD.  aw  85*        3S:« 

fnm  j<(M,  Nov.  8,  IStHiinnya:  Kejfardiii}!; steel  to  l)eiis«i  under 
lliinn  us  Mrrrpiight  iron,  tfint  is.  tn  bf  pnncheMi  without  rt-nm- 
•iK  to  lw«  It  (IcLMded  oi>lnli)?i  (atld  a.  |^^^M•(ll^:  oiil**  hiiioiik  fnui- 
k  1)1  it  tuifx  to  uiw  »IhH  ill  thifi  way,  when  tlit*  uMiinat"  t<Mi.-iite 
oif  fl.i,0ix>  U>«.  ThH  refi.>ioii  fi,r  tfu*  in.  riot  no  much  IwcaiiiM 
hftrUcd  ctian^e  in  Ihf*  niiitefiai  of  Ihis^rmk^.  but  iH-cnuse  all 
y  Ht'HaHnier  Bttwl,  has  a  tendency  to  seKi'egBtioiiH  of  carbon 
K  pjodiieinjr  place*  in  llie  inclsl  wbicb  are  harder  than  ihey 
Id  be.  A.s  lonff  as  tlie  perceutapres  of  earboii  anij  pli08phorii3 
llie  effiHTt  of  lhi*iit?  itegreKations  is  inooiiHiderabl*?;  but  when 
IKec  are  increimttd.  the  existence  of  tbe»e  hard  spota  In  the 

I  more  ninrkpd.  nnd  it  1»  therefore  Iww  adapted  to  the  irest- 
f  wroiiK'bt  iron  is  snbjecled. 

Ule  coii«en4n.s  of  opinion  that  at  an  idtiinate  of  64.000  to  ti.'J.OOO 

tagfti  of  carbon  and  phoBphoriis  i  which  arc  the  iwo  hardeii- 

ieai.'h  n  iv)liit  wber<<  tlie  stetd  has  a  tendenoy  to  become  lender, 

fhen  iMioji?ftei)  to  roHRli  tre-itrnent. 

Bteel,  therefore,  runiiint^  in  ultiiiiute  Btrenf^th  from  54,000  to 

in  aoine  oaiiea  to  64.000  lbs.,  is  now  generally  considered  a 

kl  for  thiK  claag  of  work. 

iiciier,  enKiu««r  of  tests  of  Canieifie,  Pliipps  A  Co..  wriles  as 

^(nK  grades  of  gfnictural  steel  (Etig'g  News,  June  2.  180-.'): 

ie{.— 8leel  nhoil  be  of  three  fcrade;!— twft.  medium,  hiKii. 

Bpecimeni  (rom  flnUhed  material  fur  test,  cut  to  aize  speci- 

Itl  have  an  ull1niiit«  strength  of  from   54.O00  to  63,000  lbs.  per 

limit  one  half  the  ultimate  gtreiiRth;  minimum  elongation  of 

llnlinuni  reduction    of  -area,  at  fracture  .50;i.     This    grade  of 

old  l«0°  tliU  on  itself,  without  sisrn  of  fracture  on  the  outside 

Kioo. 

»r— Specimens  from   f1nishe.d   maierinl  for  test,  cut  to  nten 

•.  shall  have  an  ultimate  Htrenu-th  of  60.000  lo  (18.000  lbs.  per 

liniiione  half  the  tilthnate.'^trenirtli:  minimum  elongation  'Mt 

nuin  reduction  of  area  at  frnotme.  40*.     This  grade  of  steel 

Id*  to  a  diameter  eoual  to  the  thicknetia  of  tlie  piece  tested, 

or  flaw  on  the  oulRide  of  ihe  lieiit  iiortlon. 

>4p<-ciinens  from  nnishexl  umierinl  for  test,  cut  to  m»>  sped- 

II  nave  an  ultimate  Rtreii«:ili  of  (W  OiJO  to  74.000  lb*,  per  so.  in  j 
(e  half  iho  ultimate  «tri>ii(;lh:  niinfmiipn  elonjration,  18)6  in  8 
redmnion  of  area  at  f  rnctiire.  !{&%.  Tliin  ^rade  of  uteel  to  heod 
Snmeler  pqnnl  lo  three  times  the  thielcnc.ss  of  the  test-pie 
Br  flaw  on  the  ontKide  of  the  bent  portion. 
EnKineers'  L'liib  of  Phlla.,  1891,  irivea  apeciflcnlions  for  Ktnic- 
6Ilo;vs:  The  phosphoniH  in   acki  open-liearth   «t*'el  nm**t  be 

t  ite,<«euier  or  basic  steel  niiiHI  be  U**^  tli:.i.  II  i)^  ■ 

d  in  ^pecimens  of  nl  least  one  lin\f     'iim    iur.\x 
iii-rl  imtivrint     KncU  melt  of  uteel  \v. 
n.//e</,  iwd alao  widely ililterintt Ka.uge«ot  Ihe  i 


—  -_r-    T 


'• '  '''^-^U^?^?^^S^S?  "^ 


«3,** 


I 


d 
t!:^ 


Ve  >s  glatnl  nlicrve  for  test-lksra,  auil  he  ca,|uilile  nf  binding 
(hout  bIsii  of  frnr-lure  on  tli<?  convex  siirfuci'  uf  Mie  bend. 
lip,  and  Tank  Platen.    W.   F.  MaMeii  (rron  Aat,  July 
fiuads  Limt  the  dilXiii'<;nt  qualities  of  ntuel  plates  be  uUtstriHed 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOB   STEEL. 


31)9 


lon^rltudlual 

B-in.  lougitn- 
,  percent.... 
looglciidlnal 


'1 


raoBvertie 


Uon. 


Tank. 


SUlp. 


Limit, 

75,000 


0.15 
&isy. 


\      55.000 
)  to  05,000 

80 

Flat. 
I  0»er  1  in. 
I     diam. 

0.10 

( 


}  Careful. 


ShtiU. 


Fire-box. 


\     55.(100       )     S-VOOO 
1    to  85,000    I  to  00,000 


WW 

Flat 
lOvei-i-slu. 
dt.iiii. 
0.06 
O.OCB 
Close. 


85 

Flat. 

Flat. 

0  M5 
n  0.-1 
Rigid. 


ifiietitriug  firm  in  Pittsbtirgli  ailvt<i-(i»«  six  diirciviil  grailtim 

Bws  : 

E        Fire-brtx.        Extra  fliitiK*-.       Flaujfe.       Sliell.       T.iiik. 

■  average  ptiosphoru^  conteiil  in  thesn  g^riules  is,  reH[MH:tively; 

I  .03  .04  OB  0.8  .10. 

pciflcationB  for  steel  plates  are  Iho  fcpllDwIniu;  (188») : 

bs   Viiiy/— Shell :  Tensile  streuBth,  SH.omt  to  87,0lX)  lbs.  p«r  sq. 

h  <    trttiisvfi-w-  si'cKon.  i.'5S  In  r4  in.  loiigitndlnnliieciloti. 

.1.  ih,  SO,Di)tl  t..  :,H,m<  ll3.«.;  elunK'iliori.  *'.«  in  Siuolii-s. 

tj  -     P.  nut  uver  .Oli;;: ;  S.  nol  over  .010,<. 

g  U»i  :  .specimMn  to  stand  Ijeiiii;  \\ein  tint  on  itnf  If. 

lest:  Stj-ol  heated  to  elierry  tvd,  plunged  in  water  82°  F.,  and 

Und  cnrve  l]-i  tiniest  thiuUuesa  of  the  plale. 

Hra//«.— Tensile  slruiiptli,  5S,'2II)  to  OT.'JIH)  lbs.;  elongation  In 

le  fol J-bending' ami  qiiencliini^r  tests  as  U.  S.  Navy. 

toi/ej-iii/ifccnt"  Aumciettimi. —'I'i'iii/Wi!  strenpth.  R5.()00  to  O.'i.OOO 

|D  In  8  in.,  aO^f  for  plates  a^  In.  thict  and  under  ;  -'J^  fur  plated 

;  iR;{  for  plat<>8  *i  in.  and  ovi-r. 

f  ti^l :  For  pla(e8  Uj  lu.  thick  and  under.  s^HH:linen  niuxt  bend 

irithoiit  fracture! ;  for  plates  over  ^  in.  thick,  Kpeciinmi  miist 

idliiK  ltM°  around  a  mandril,  1)^  times  the  thlL-kne<«  of  the 

•P'  I  1  -i  :  P.  not  over  .040*  ;  8.  not  over  .OKK. 

S  ■   As$wiijtiou.—r<iusi\o  strength,  tia,000  to  Ta.tlOO 

til  ,>.eceH  ft  III.  |nll(j, 

uiu  ijl:i.ti>.  hpa((»d  to  a  low  red  and  cooled  in  wali»i-  (he  leni- 
"tiich  is  sa"  F..  to  tinderKo  wilhiiiit  crni'k  or  frm  Inn-  ln-itijt 
1  curve  the  diainetvr  of  uliicli  dues  not  exoee  I  ilin-e  Diiien 

Df  tliH  piee>?  tested. 

keli-platea,    Front  Tabe-plate,  and  Biitli>trl|iii. 

(18IH.I— The   ineltti  ilesiied  is  a  lKiniii;rerii*<in»  steel  lux  ii^K  ii 
of  SO.ftX)  Ilia.  PIT  sq.  lu.,  aiiil  nn  elonifalion  of  '£^\  in  a 
illy  8  In.  long,    Tneso  platus  will  not  lie  ai^ceptcd  if  the  lest- 


pfi-  »n.  In.  ;  S.  An  elouicatlou 

:  ''■.  A  tensile  utivufStli  over 

■nidation  iieHTfl  or  over,  pinliii 


reneth  of  lets  than  n.'i.Odi)  lbs 
llnolly  8  in.  I..nt;  lee-s  tli;in  '.i' 
q  In.  :  «)iould.  Iirmever.  the  el 
•<*tecl  for  lii^h  sirenf^ih. 

lrc>box  Platea,  Including:  Back  Tabe-plate. 
I'Wi  1— The  metal  shinild  .■^liow  a  lerislle  HlienBlli  of  «0,<Wli  llw. 
:  au  elongpatioil  of  'iUji  lu  a  test  »ectioii  orl|;lnally  H  in.  lunpr, 

Compoiiitjoo.  IViiii-ed.  Will  lie  Rejeer<-d. 

01Rp*!rcfrnt.        over  0.25,  lielow  O.IS 

1.  not  above O.tw       '■ 

,  not  above Q.to       " 

•bore  0.(K!        " 

««t>eiw OM 

Mbore 0,03       " 


STEEL. 

These  plates  will  not  Im  accepted  If  the  te«t-ple 
fitrengtli   of  K'gs   Itiari  .Vi.OOi)  IIih.  (kt  sq.  In.:  2  Ati 
oi'iginnlly  S  in.  Inng,  les.s  lliaii  ^,*^  iHK  in  |ilii(rK  ^  Inch  Il7| 
stieuKlli  over  fl5.(KX)  lbs.  ppr  sq.  iii.  (Ofi.oro  for  platrs  U  id 

tliou'uviT,  lliu  eloiiiraiidu  liu  :)0^  or  over,  plau^s  ivill  not  be  \ 
•frenglli  ;  i.  Any  slnKk-  warn  orciiviiy  moiv  than  ).i  lu.  Ioih 
Thre**  fraciur#*H  obtatiieil  on  lest  foi*  htuntiKfrifily,  as  (lexerl 
HiitnojrntMty  te<t :  A  portion  of  ihe  tem-pleoe  !•-  niflcpd  ' 
inoovfU  •.ill  u  iiuicliine,  tiaiiKwrKely  aliout  a  Kixleentli  ufl 
Ibreo  placos  ubout  I'-i  in.  apart.    Tliu  first  KiCHJve  sliuuld  | 

tuiU*",  Ut  ill.  from  the  Kpiaie  end  of  the  piece;  the  bppoI 
it  on  the  opposile  side;  niid  the  third,  IIJ  in.  from  the  I 
Oppo.><ii4i  gjtle  from  it.  The  test-piece  is  then  put  to  a  vli 
Kr<x*ve  about  }^  in,  above  the  ja>v,  care  lieiiig  taken  Ut 
The  prnjeetiiip  enil  of  the  test-pieee  Is  then  broken  off  liy  1 
mer,  a  iiiiinher  of  light  blows  bein^  ufteJ,  and  the  bent] 
froin  tlw  groove.  Tlie  piece  is  broken  at  the  other  twoproi 
way.  The  objet-t  of  (his  ireaiineul  is  lo  oi-en  and  remler  i 
any  seainH  due  to  failure  to  ueld  up,  or  to  foreign  lnti*r|l 

IcnvllleadiiB  to  truH  Imbbles  lu  Ihe  irii;ot.  After  nii)tiire,  4 
friietiii  e  Is  examined,  n  pocket  lens  beiu^  use<l  if  tie<'eM<nrf 
of  Ihe  Heain.t  and  c-avitlr»  Ib  di-teriniu«d.  Thtt  leiieib  of  I  lu) 
■cavity  detortnlnfts  the  acoeptanee  or  rejection  oi'  ibe  plote. 
Ur.  <■.  B.  Dudliv.  olieniist  of  the  Penna.  R.  Jt.  iTrans.  A.  1 
XI.  p.  71)9),  Kives  as  an  example  of  tlie  pioi:re»8ive  inipratt 
Catiou.s  llie  folliiwini; :  lu  the  early  days  of  Kleel  bolleis  lh« 
foreeoidled  for  steel  of  nut.  less  llinn  50,W01(w,  tensile slroB 
than  2.'i;:  elonKiition.  Some  metal  wan  Peel  veil  huvliif;  i1 
rBtren(>ili,  atid  um  the  cloniration  was  all  ilKhl  it  wa>tae<!epu-<l: 
plates  Mere  beintr  tlanged  in  the  boiler-shop  tliey  craclo 
pieces.  An  a  rosult,  au  upper  Uniil  of  CO.iVU  lbs.  tuuall 
e.stabllslied.  j 

Am.  Ry.  Sfatler  Mi-cluinict'  Msmi.,  1801.— Same  as  Peana. 
tioiis  of  IB93,  inehidlnkt  hi>iiiu>;eiieltr  teM,  ' 

(Plate,  Tank,  and  Slievt  Steel.  (Penna,  R.  R.,  ISA 
taken  leUKtliuise  of  eiieh  |>lule.  X^  In.  iliteti  and  over,  wll 
•honld  liave  u  ten.>iile  streii^^ili  of  (J(I,(JOO  Iba.  per  mj  in.,  and  I 
85;(  in  a  Keclion  urigiiiully  il  in.  long. 
Slie''t,i  will  not  l>e  aeeepted  if  the  teats  show  the  tttusile  ■( 
fi5,(X)0  liiB.  or  greater  than  TO.mx)  lbs.  per  sq.  In,,  i>nr  If  the, 
bel.iiv  -Mi. 

Steel  BlllclM  for  ICIalu  and  Parallel  Roda.   (P4| 
—One  blllei  fioiii  euuli  lor  iitUTi  lilllet.s  or  hniiillrr  i-liiinnent  4 
I  or  parallel  lodn  for  loeoinotlvea  will  have  a  iiiet'e  ilrnwii  tn 
L^auiuier  and  a  teHt-se4;tlon  will  be  ttirnetl  down  on  thU  a 
.dinnu'ler  and  2  in.  loug.    Sneh  leiit-piece  should  ahow  a  ta 
"5,1100  IliB.  and  an  elongation  of  Uff.  \ 

No  lot  will  lie  ai-(-epinl>1e  if  the  lest  sliowg  leso  Uuui  9 
ttreii|;lli  or  V2.  e  oiii;iiti  n  in  3  in.  J 

Loroniotlvc  SprluK  tiled,    (Penna  R  R.,  IMtTI— B 
lioie  lliiiu  0.(11  in.  in  lliiL-knesn,  or  more  than  U  Ih.'  in.  in  wliH 
fccrileied,  or  wlileb  lirejik  wlierothey  are  not  uick'tl.or  wlitoH 
Inieked  and  belli,  fail  lo  lirenk  ^piare  aeross  win' '    ■'     '   '  "i 
rt«hirne*l.     The  metal  deKired  hiiM  ihe  folloMiiiK  <  i 

flWanKanejie.  O.i':;;  |ilios|>honis,  not  over  0.0a<;  r 
l^hur,  not  over  0  0!i<;  copper,  not  overOOH*. 

Shipineiils  will  uoi  Ih*  accepted  wljich  shuM'  ua  annl.vsis  k 
Bver  l.l<l:i:  of  earlion,  or  over  O.UH  ut  niaiiKaneiw,  6.Ul^  of  |l| 
If  sllii'oii.  ('  (C-  iif  uMlpliiir.  and  no.'.-,  nf  ropper. 

Stefil   lor   Locoinollvo   Drlvliig-axl«a.    iPeiiit 

Sleel  for  ilnvini;  iixles  -.liould  have  a  irijHile  hlieiiKih  of  BA^ 

in  »iHciion  orlifinully  2  in.  Iouj^bth 

•  Mil re  Aiiil  eireninferi'iice  of  thoAk 

led  if  teiiiillo  HtreliKlh  la  leKS  than 


icet  ror  <  r:ii>i.-tiinB.    itVnna,  U.  R.,  IW. 


eciflcatkons  ot  Uk«  »e<ien& 


M>^^l 


•MwiBiij  wiwBen  COB  iwD  iMH  01  ui«  piH  wu  10  lUArKea  ii\u  it 

ly'kU-nniiieil  not  In  |>ii(  Ihi"  \ot  nf  50  pins  in  ii-e.  To  fi;iiaiil  afrniiisl 
hliuisoi't  in  riiliii'f,  tlie  spcriflcnlioiiBui'u  lubt-aiueniled  Lo  reqiiiio 
liHiTvnn' in  ultiiiiult)  mi-eiigth  vt  the  two  specimens  sliiill  not  !>« 

.  .MM  111" 

['»r-axlra.  (Pennn.  R.  K..  1S!>1.>— For  each  100  axles  onl«ml  tOl 
urni-li.  ,1.  fruni  wliicli  one  will  be  tiikeii  at  raiidimi,  and  siilijei'leil 

i>r  pagtieuifer  C'lri*  and  pasneiij;**!-  loriirnutlve  and  tender  IriicUs 
tiaac  rif  st«*l  und  !>>•  ronitJi  Inini-d  (liToa>;li<iUt,  Two  UMil-pieoeH 
I  fiv»(ii  an  tkx]e,  tuiii  tliH  ti'Mt  >ifL*liona  nf  ^  in.  liinIIlfle^  by  2  in.  long 
itaiiy  (i»n  of  Ihe  «xle  piovidwl  tliiir  tlie  ceniie  line  of  the  tent- 
I  lu.  fnnn  llie  cenne  line  kI*  ilie  axle.  Sueli  ten  I -pieces  Kliniild  huve 
Imii^lb  of  Sil.lMX)  lli.«.  per  smj-  in.  and  an  eloii);atiuii  of  SO*.  Ailea 
e  KCVepted  if  the  tensile  KM-en^th  i.s  Itwn  than  75,000  Ib.t.  or  the 
IjHiiiw  ]ifi,  nor  if  lliB  fiiiLtures  arc  Inejfiilar. 

r  freight  eiirs  niid  freJKht-hx'mimtive  lender  (rucks  iniist  be  made 
id  will  be  siilijeeted  to  Ihe  fnllowin^  tesi,  which  they  muKt  slund 
IWtul'e  : 

IS  DUMGTEK  AT  CENTRE —  KiVB  blon'8  at  20  ft.  Of  a  l(HO-lb.  welfflit, 
kiway  Ijetween  Hn|i|>oi-t8  3  ft.  apart;  axle  lo  be  turned  over  after 

tBI.  OIAMKTEB  ATCicvTRE— Kivehlow8Bt  S.')  ft.  of  a  IIHO  lb.  weitrhl, 
Uwajr  betwe«u  tfiippurtx  3  ft.  apari:  uxles  to  be  turned  over  after 

)r  Rails. —P.  H.  Dudley  (Ti-anH.  A.  8.  C.  E.  ISf)8)  reeoinmencls 
IlK  irlieiiiiunl  coiiipusition  for  rails  of  the  weights  sjiecilied  : 

s  per  yard W>,  CS,  and  70  Iba.       75  uu.l  SO  lbt=.     KW  Ibf. 

4.il0.ri,')J  .fiO  to  .GO;;  .«5io.7f/if 

teights:  >lan|jr.i.iie>ip,  .&lf  lo  1.00^;  .silicon,  .lOjt  tu  .l.');*;  phog- 
tover  ,OCS;  sulphur,  not  over  .<'?]<. 

yllself  uptoorover  1^  increases  the  hardnessand  tensile  si  renirth 
rapidly,  and  nt  the  xaine  time  docreayes  the  clon);Htii>n.  The 
carnoii  in  Ihe  etirly  rails  rnnf^ed  from  O.'Jft  tt)  0  5  of  ]%  while  in 
1  and  very  heavy  nections  it  ha<  t»een  iui-reaKCil  to  0  5,  0.(1,  und  0  75 
bgoud  irond  and  suilable  aeeiiun.'i  it  can  run  'ram  OSS  loO.T.*!  of 
ng  to  th«  section,  and  obtain  ftne-)^raiii  touicli  rail«  with  low 

L 

iletn  It  neeeaaary  lu^^redieDt  in  the  first  plat-'e  to  lake  up  the  oxide 
iii^l  liiil.(>bBttaof  inolt«uniPil>Hj(lui-iiiKlDe  blow.  I(  alsoisoficn'at 


BTBEL. 


the  diameter  without  showing  craokx  or  ftaw's.    Tht-  steel  mii 
mori-  than  .085  of  l*'of  plioaphoiiis,  nor  more  than  .(M  nf  l<  of  ^ 

A  lot  of  S)  aiiccenivft  testji  of  rivi^t  Kte<»l  of  the  low  trnslli' 
and  Vi  Wsls  uf  the  higher  leusUestreoglb  gave  the  (ulluwinj;  i 

I^w  Slevl.  Wg 

Tensilp  atreijgth,  lbs.  persq.  ill...    61.3)0  to  M.IOO       &9.100I 

Elastic  liiiiitjtix.  per  sq.  in 31. 0.'>0  to  33,100        X!.u8a  I 

EloDKaiiou  In  S  ill.,  percent 30.&  lu  35  S3  SB.'i  I 

CiirlKin.  v>i-.r  cent .11  to  H  .191 

Phosphorus (fc!7  111  .(K'9  .i 

Sulphur U33lo.t)SB  .OSS  I 

Tha  safest  steel  rIvetK  are  Ihonoof  the  lowest  tensile  slreniflli 
are  the  lea.«t  linljle  to  hecome  hardened  and  fincluro  by  < 
break  ff<iiu  repealed  coueiissive  nm1  vibrfttory  stialn.-i"  ' 
Biilijecled  ill  pruclice.     For  CBlciihilionsof  the  ptrenKth  oi 
tensile  slreiiKth  in;iy  he  taken  a.stlie  iivernKe  uf  Ibe  flBuies  tihij\ 
K!,00.'<  ltj».,  tttid  the  slieaiing  streiiKlli  at  4.j.(.Hitl  lbs.  persq.  in. 

ntISr£l.I.ANKOl;S  NOTICE  ON  8TEKL. 

nia}'  Carbon  be  Hurned  Out  of  Steel  f— ICxperiirier 
the  LuiioiKloiy  of  Ihe  Peiina.  liiiiliouU  L'o.  iSpeciflcnlinns  fur  S| 
with  the  st«el  of  spliol  HpriiiKS,  show  that  the  iilfi<t>  from  «li|i 
nre  taken  for  analy»iN  has  n  verr  iniiMirtaiit  inniience  on  the  a 
bon  found.     If  the  sample  is  a  piece  uf  l he  ronml  hnr   niKl  t^ 
taken  from  tlte  etnl  of  this  piece,  the  carbon  is  nli^ 
boriiipn  are  tnken  from  the  *iile  of  tlie  piece.     It  is 
eiice  of  O.IW  tielween  the  ceiiire  and  side  of  the  Im: 
illfTerenee  m  us  liiKh  as  l>  --l?-     Kiirthermore,  ex|s'riMiei.ij4f 
taken   from  the  drawn  out  end  of  the  iiur  show.  iisiiMltl 
samples  tiikeii  fioiti  the  iriiiiid  imrtof  the  bar,  even  thuU 
be  taken  out  tpf  the  side  in  both  ca.ses. 

Apparently  diirini;  [)>e  process  of  re<lueiui;  tlie  luetal  f lom  th . 
round  Imr.  with  successive  heating,  the  rarhou  in  tlie  oulslU^ 
biiriieii  out. 

'*  Becaleacenoe  "  of  Steel.— If  we  heat  a  bamfcnpii 
of  constant  streiigili,  and  nine  caielully  ihe  intervul  of  iIiq 
parsing  from  each  degree,  to  the  next  higher  dejfiee.  we  find  " 
tervals  increii.se  re^iiliiriy.  i.e.,  tliiit  tlie  liar  heats  more  and  i 
its  temperature  approaches  that  of  the  tiaiiie.     IF  »e  sittiirt| 
Bleel  for  one  uf  copiwr,  we  And  that  the.se  iuierval--  '• 
a  certain  point,  when  the  rise  of  temperature  Is  sn<  i 
greatly  retanled  or  even  completely  arrested.    Afi' 
lemperature  Ls  resumed,  thoutrb  other  like  retai'<l  . 
temperature  rises  farther.    So  if  we  cool  a  linr-t  ljr| 

temperature  is  greatly  retardeil  wlien  it  reai-lies  ii 
neKs.     If  the  steel  contains  much  cariion,  anil  if  cei  i 
be  maintained,  the  temperature,  after  descendiiii:  ^ 
8poutaneoimly  very  abrupth',  remaiiia  Htati(inai'\ 
cenda.    This  spoutaneouM  reheiiiinK  is  known  a.s  ' 
I  These  reiardoiioiis  iiidicaie  that  stime  change  v- 
tt  occurs  within  the  metal.     A  i-elardatlon  while  ! 
Iioint.s  loachani^e  which  nb'HiroR  iieai;  a  retanlaiioii  ■miiin:  c-o 
lOHOine  chaupe  whlcli  evolves  heat.   (Henry  M.  Howe,  on  "  Heat 
of  Steel,"  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.  vol.  xxii.) 

Sffect  ofMckiiiKaSteel  Bar.    *"' 
tltai,  OWIU(c  to  I  lie  li(im<>):enelty  of  ste> 
Id  one  of  its  ed^eti  ij«  Inihle  to  rail  by  ili 
thus  hiH*ak  under  a  very  much  jtinallei-  i>'Mti  - 
Is  contende^l  ihi*  does  not  occur,  as  this  met.. 
Benjniiiin  IViker  has.  hoH-evrr.  show n  that 
Bliii:     '     ■  IS  concerned,  is  opposed  to  it 

iiieiiK  of  tlie   mild   steel  used 
■  ^  slreiif^tll  of  tbe  «  hole  uim  ti 

||»  l>'i  -J u.i'li  uf  yectioit.     Ill  all  t'- 

'  a  full -(•■■'I    1 -el  coiiiiter-lirtr,  IM  ' 
iiii'i-M    :i   heavy  Kiat leal   si  < 
^le«    uiis  allowed  to  drop  >v\)  m.  m^'wi  ml*  ioimI 
"i  by  ordinary  BV«l\caX  M.ra.\a,  luwi.  ^Xvuvika k\ 


MISCKhLANEOUS   KOTKS  ON   STKKL, 


403 


square  Inch.  The  krtipnr  of  Hip  hrnk«ii  parts  was  llien  pincol 
e  and  pin  under  tli«-  fnllowiii^  londs,  m  hilst  a  weight,  a«  olready 
a>>  droppod  on  It  from  various  hciglits  ot  a  diBtance  of  Atb 
steeve-nul  of  the  turn-buukle,  as  kUowu  below: 

ids  per  sq.  in 50,000       55,000       00,000       63,000        63.000 

ft.  in.       ft.  in.       ft.  in.       ft.  in,       ft.  in. 

II ai  26  30  40  50 

(lit  wDS  then  shifted  so  as  to  fall  dircUy  on  the  sleeve-nut,  niid  the 
liled  a8  fullows: 


dinen  In  lbs.  ptir  aqtiare  inch  65,350 

n. 

» 


flB,;«o 
ft. 

6 


fl«,Hon 
ft. 


t 

Been  llial  under  this  trial  the  bar  carried  morf  than  wIirm  nrigi- 
■  staticall.v.  showing  that  the  nidtiii^  of  the  bar  by  screwing  liuil 
;i«blv  Wfakf-iied  ii,<!  power  of  reniatini;  slmt-ks.— E)i(/'tf  .Vt'irs. 
le  CondnctlTitf  of  Steel,  — Lmiis  l°aui|)i'e<)oh  re|H)rts  in  Le 
t  the  louli.t  of  u s>-iie» of  i-X|R<rimeni.x  iiinde loaseertnin  tlie  rela- 
een  electric  resislauer  and  chemical  couitiositioiis  of  sleel.  TIih 
I  So.  IT,  3  nim.  diametRr,    The  remilt.s  nre  given  in  the  taWe  lieli'w; 


Car- 

Silicon. 

Sulphur. 

Phos- 
phorus, 

Manga- 
Deae. 

Total. 

Elicirlc 

Kealat 

ance. 

It- 

D.O0O 

Ohm«. 

0.0?0 

0.050 

0.030 

0.210 

0.410 

10T.7 

l).|(M) 

<).m~> 

0.050 

OOW 

0.2  JO 

O.l'iO 

133.0 

J.IIX) 

o.oao 

0.060 

0.010 

O.-JOO 

O.-IW 

i:)7.5 

O.iOtf 

o.oao 

o.or.n 

0  050 

O.SIO 

o.,v« 

140.8 

B.iao 

O.030 

O.OTO 

O.O&O 

o.a^o 

O.lWO 

142.7 

V.I  10 

o.oao 

0.060 

0.000 

0.350 

0.010 

144.5 

D.IOO 

o.oao 

0.070 

0.010 

o.tuo 

o.isa) 

M9.0 

tt.iai 

IM^M 

O.ffTO 

0  070 

O.ilM) 

O.iiSO 

150.S 

9.110 

o.ngo 

o.oeo 

o.ooo 

O.llK) 

0.750 

I5«.0 

0.140 

0.030 

O.OtiO 

o.oeo 

O..^40 

0.8B0 

178.0 

ninatinn  of  these  serleK  of  flRiiren  shons  tliat  tlie  jxirer  and  snft«r 
letter  i«  its  electric  oonduclivity,  and,  furthcrniore,  that  man|i:a- 

■  element  which  iiio>it  iidliienccs  the  coiidnctivily. 
Gravity  of  Soft  Steel.    (W.  Kent,  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.,  xlv. 

ciinens  of  hoikr-plate  of  C.  0.14.  I".  0.03  e»ve  nn  nveroK*!  Kp. 

naxiniiitii  varint ion  0.008.     The  pieces  were  first  planed  to  re- 

sible  rcaIc  iiidentntiotis.  (hen  filed  smooth,  then  cleaned  in 

drtc  acid,  and  then  boiled  in  dlntilied  water,  to  remove  all  traces 

lie  snrface. 

•  if  specific  gravity  tiins  olitnined  l)y  rnn-ful  experiment  on 

Vr»otii  ^.»iece«  of  Rteel  ai-e.  however,  loo  higii  for  nse  in  (ieterndninK 

t»  of  rolle<l  plateis  for  commercial  ptirjHises.    Ttie  actual  averaKe 

of  these  plates  is  always  a  Utile  lei;*  tlian  i«  shown  by  the  culiperK, 

it  uf  tile  nxide  of  iron  on  tin*  surface,  and  hecauRe  flic  surface  In 

:tly  smooth  and  reifnlar.    A  iiiiniberof  exiH'rimetits  on  ciiiiimercini 

.1  .'i.nMiariKon  of  other  nviilioritie.s.  leil  to  ihn  fleure  7.8,"i4  as  the 

;,'rnviiy  of  open-beiiitli  lioiler-plaie  stepl.    This  Hgiire  is 

■']  as  beini;  the  .-(nrne  ligiii-e  nilli  ciiange  of  position  of  the 

1 1  ^^l^ich  exiu'es.*;es  the  relalion  of  tlie  area  of  a  circle  to 

(I  square.   Taking-  theweiElit  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water 

•■rate  of  several  authorillesi,  this  llmire  gives  489,775 

■  ^  ■  ,  ■rihic  foot  of  steel,  or  the  even  flgiire,  4fl0  lbs.,  may  Iw 
oiiic-incut  llgiire,  and  accurate  within  the  liniita  of  tlie  error  of 

method  of  approxininling  tlie  weight  of  ir<in  plates  is  to  con- 
L>  weigh  40  lbs.  per  square  foot  one  iueli  thick.  Taking  this 
Iclliig  2J  girr.H  almost  exHcHv  the  weight  of  Bleei  boiler-plat<i 
►  <40  v  IS  >:  1.0-;  =  4H9.li  lbs  jwr  cubic  fool). 
•J  fatlureg  or  Beitmemer  Steel. -G.  H, 
eir  paper  cm  -The  Inspect  toll  of  Matuiials  of  f> 


404 


STEEL. 


■-.  A 


ibe  United  States  "  (Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  vol.  xix\  My:  Nunien 
could  be  cited  to  siiour  Ihe  iiiiri'ltnliilitj  nf  Bt^sueitit^r  Kteel  ffir  st 
pi>8es.  Oiii*  ijf  tin-  lufrtit  inarlii-il.  liimpiei'.  was  (lit<  fulliiwiuK:  j 
Wvifcbilli;  30  lli.u.  Ill  tllL-  foot.  iU  (evl  loii^,  on  bdu^  Ulilu«de 
broke  in  Iwo  iilioiit  0  ft-ei  from  one  end. 

Tlie  nniilysi'S  and  tensile  If^ts  muiiu  donot  sliow mi y  cnnne  fo 

The  cold  and  quench  benilidp  tests  of  bolh  llie  oriKioal  ^i-ia 
plreep,  and  of  pieces  cut  from  1hi=  tiniRlied  tnatefigV,  trave  ml 
Bulls;  cbe  coid-beading  tests  doaiag  down  oa  tliemseirei)  ' 
frai'tiire, 

NiiiiierouK  ntlier  cases  of  angles  and  pbue.ii  tlint  were  so  ban 
to  iireak  cifT  sluitl,  In  pnnclilnp.  or,  what  was  worse,  to  br«alc 
have  come  ntiilei' our  ooservnlJDn.  and  iiltliotipli  nmi<er.s  of 
clniin  that  ihlK  iic  ju»^t  us  likely  to  occur  in  0|>cn  beurib  as  in  1 
we  have  as  yet  nei^er  cteen  an  instaticu  of  failure  ut  thin,  kind  ifl 
Steel  having  a  composition  such  as  C  O/i'it.  Jin  0  TOt.  I'  n  .Hn-t. 

.1.  W.  Waiies.  in  a  patter  read  before  the  t'lieaiirn 
Atasociation  for  Uie  Advancement    of    Science,  in 
failures  of  steel,  states  tiiat  iiivestijcalion  shn\v>  \i 
in  steel  of  rme  cliis*.  viz.,  soft  steel  made  by  ii 

Segreeatlon  In  8t««l  IiieutM.    lA.  I ' 
— H.  .M.  l[o«e.  in  his  "  MeiaUnrtfy  of  Steel,"  ;:! 
with  the  remills  of  numerous  analyses,  bearing  upon  Ciie  pUcllO 
rg  (cut  ion. 

in  ISHl  Mr.  Sliibbs.  of  Mancbester.  showftti  tlie  lie»eroefne< 
anal.vses  made  upon  dilTerent  parts  of  an  inifot  of  laiye  »ecti"( 

A  test-piece  taken  "M  inches  friiui  the  head  of  the  ingot  7  .^  I 

f;ave  hv  analysis  very  different  results  from  those  of  a  test-] 
ncliO's  from  the  boltotn. 

C.  Hn.  gi.  8. 

Top    0,92         053.1  0.(M3  O.KI 

Bottom  0  37  0.498  0.006  0.l«5 

Windsor  Ricliards  says  he  had  often  oliserved  in  tesl-pi 
dilfefent.  points  of  one  plate  varifttion.s  of  O.ttVI  of  earhoo. 
Fpeciaily  prunotmced  in  an  ingot  In  its  central   |iorti<Mi,  and 
siiace  of  the  piping. 

It  is  must  oliservable  In  large  inpotis.  but  In  iilork 
limited  iliiiipiisioiis.  snl>jecte.l  to  the  influence  of  ^ 
caxtini;  within  thick  wallK  will  permit,  it  may  still 
An  ingot  of  .Martin  steel,  weighing  about  lOui)  lbs.. 
1 .10  fet't  and  a  section  of  lU.iM  incbe*  wjuare,  gave  tlw  follow: 

1.  Upiier  section:  C 

Border .• O.S-V} 

Centre 0.5.10 

2.  Liower  sectiou:  ('. 

Border 0.a» 

Centre. 0.S90 

8.  Middle  section:  ('. 

Border 0  aaO 

Centre. O.SdO 

Segregation  ifllesH  marked  in  ingotji  of  extrt\--«oft  nielal  ea- 
nimiVlK  of  considerable  thickness.    It  Is,  hov.  >  -    -     ■  "  '         ■ 
l<luin«  I  lie  difference  often  shown  b\'  the  ^e^ 
rrnm  different  portions  of  a  plate.     Twowimj 
of  a  lint  iugiit.  one  on  the  outside  and  the  other  lu  uk-  ctnMe,  , 
the  up|M:r  e<lge,  gave: 

C  S 

tVmre 0.14  O.OSS 

Exterior O.IJ  0.0S6 


s. 

p. 

0.(^10 

0.08S 

o.orr 

OiB7 

8. 

I'. 

OO'jS 

P.0l« 

0.090 

o.oaB 

s. 

p. 

00i"v 

O.Q» 

o.ota 

0.04S 

p. 

0.072 
O.09T 
Maiigntiese  is  the  element  most  uniformly  diaBeinlnated  in 

»li«el. 
Kor  cannon  of  large  calihre.  If  we  reject,  in  addition  to  Ik. 

saiiil  nil. I  cjillid  rhr  mn.i.iiUilli!  Isinking-headt.  one  flilHl  .if  tt 

of'i  "  a  tube  prucilcally 

bei'  naturally  remoi  ■ 

yH'/t-  iii»-d  for  sliio.  i»r  r  . 

'ityliesin  lUe  nV^«fi.\ivu\^of  a  nteiaj 
i«ifl  luettiV  ^^^ 


STEEL   0A8TIN0S.  405 


Iff  BBirrcifatlou  must  lip  MipprpsKoil  hy  rrdiic- 
toTlhppteninnlt  sutijcc't  tn  liqimliori. 
Vm»  of  Slool    for   Siriicliiral    Piirj)oi»«ii.    (G.  O. 

\   S    <'.  K.  IWCli.— Tlie  I'minsylvniiiii  Kullicuid  ('oni|iniiy 
>'■  -t<>el  ill  Aim'i'ictt  in  Inonnnitivo  biilli'1'8  in  tlicjriir 

I'  '  liiii'd  and  hiiltle  for  such  ii!;h.    llie  lli'st  |ilntt>9 

I  1  U-imoiiy  of  Kn.rtiX)  lo  flJ.lX'O  Iljs.  nriH  nii  i-liiiisniluii 

I  ills  vtere  not  (avornl)lt',  mid  tlit»  slt^-l  wmlcH  wt*r« 

I  nul  iif  Ibbb  It-liiujily  and  iiiiire  (liifilliiy.  Tin- 1<«- 
<                     1-  imliiced  to  a  tenacity  of  id.UOO  Ids.  or  lesi--.  mid 

II  ^  ''d  Ui  lHi{  or  niiir«.  Kvrn  with  i his,  tieUvwn  iho 
»<i  •'XjdoKioiiK  ficcurred  and  many  careful  oxniuinit- 
hi                 iMiiii' tbnlr  oaiitM?.    It  was  found  on  examining:  t\\n 

m  uic'iu  rteiv  jiiL'i|jietili  clianKvs  in  Llie  iiu'lul,  niiiny  I'larlca 
iiiiid  iKiinis  iii'Br  thi'm  weri-  cxuriHltid  wiili  rust,  nil  ctnist-d  by 
'toiiljs  iu  niuiiufactiiriiii;.  It  whs  t-vidr-iit;  tlint.  lilt!  iiiiiteiial 
if.  iilid  thfit  tl»i^  trc'BUiK'nt  innst  Vie  chonfcrNi.  In  the  bririunin^ 
|ili>-r,  I'liiff  untriiK't-r  of  the  Lloyds,  wialed  that  llitre  was  then 
kit  Htrniiif  r  in  possession  of  a  Ktccl  Imilcr;  a  yi'ar  iHtcr  llieie 

BIB7H  I-litfri*  wt^re  tint  Ave  lanje  Kii^fliKh  steainerR  Iniill  of  Ktefl, 
ll'ii- wf  I'e  116  liuiKliiii;.    Till' UKe  of  Ur^wntor  rttcol  in  hridne- 
I'i'lI  IIi>i  on  lliK  biJddi  Stale  ntilMfiyg  ill  l^tU-Ut.  Iheil  In  ¥j)g- 
ti  I  a  biiiliie  was  liiiilt  of  bfs.si'iniT  sli^cl  in  .Anstna. 

III  Ml-  liriiiRt^  WHS  In  AinerifH.  for  tlin  St.  Ijiuls  Areli 
>r  f  the  Kosl  Uiver  Bridj!*".    ThifM-  pave  ati  jmpelUK 

iisKui  ail  iiiJ,  and  hffore  IHMO  the  lilasKow  and  FlattKniuuili 
Bt!  Miiwonri  UiviT  were  also  built  of  iiiKOt  ni«tal  SH'«I  •"}"«- 
Ue<l  (or  th(*  f^i-xt  lime  Iu  the  DlaMgnw  Bridge.  Since  IKHO  the 
I  mild  iiteel  in  all  kinds  of  ODginvering  stmctures  Iiaa  steadily 

9TEBI.  CASTINGS. 

Dgineering  Congress.  Dopt.  of  Mnrine  Edjc'k-  Chicago,  1803.) 

Acan  Mej-l-fnundeli!  liad  uticcensfiilly  produt^d  a(K>nsid(»fabIe 
jIlTy  niid  difHuiilt  castings,  of  which  the  f  mllowing  ai^  the  most 

i  Ills.:    »lerup<iK(s  up  lo  5J.(IClO  lbs.;   BteiiiK  up    to 

'I  Hiei-s  lip  to  II.OIKI  lbs.:  shaft-struts  up  to  32,000  lbs.; 

ill  ■- ;  Kteru-|ii|ieH  up  to  HOro  Ib.s. 

\:-  ss  ill  these  classes  of  castings  since  ISflO  lias  ranp»M 

h  iriilt  forms  111  a),^  ill  the  siiiipkr  ones;  liie  tensile 

•  ■  .iXKl  to  7«,IKK)  lbs.,  eloneatiou  from  V,r.  lo  i.'5J.  The 
»■  d  is  tlint  of  a  piiide,  cast  in  .Tanuary,  lt«iW,  which 
r  i>?  utreiiKili  and  Ih.df  elongation. 

t-  - -i    of    which   any  tiling  is  gonerallv  known   were 

*  luuJi-  r.,1  the  Philadelphia  iS  Heftdinj;  R.  R.  in  July.  IHBT,  by 
Bnlchii  Stcil  WoriJs.  now  the  Midvule  St<  el  Co.  The>  nuinld« 
lit  :i  i.Hiiur.  i.r  i.'i.iiiiid  Hre-brick,  black-lead  cnicil>Ie-|'Ols 
|l  I  ■  1  with  a  black-lead  wash.  Tlie  Meel 
It  ■  >iit  ii.s  hard  AM  tOi»l  steel.  Tlie  surface 
ii  I  lilt  the  interior  was  very  much  honey- 
I.-  ilii  .1,1)  s  when  the  iik«  of  silicon  was  known  for 
f>                     iii:;iiu'>«,  which  was  alino>t  iinlverBal.  was  a  Kre*t 

It' I  idoplioli. 

|i  v;i--  I  '  \vH\p  tlie  ground  pots  out  of  the  moiildiim  miJtIinfa 
mild  with  lluely  (tiounii  tiiv-biick.    TliLswasa  eivnt  ira- 
lly  ill  \  ny  li'  nvy  cnsliiig-;;  but  this  iiii.vlure  still  chintr  ^M) 
ic  i-arativcly  simfilesh.-iites  could  lie  iiiiiile 

f  h  a  Tiiixiiiie  l>ecame  almost  asliard  as 

a  lo  the  proper  »i|iriiikaKe  of  ciustinRK, 

I  1  ^li."i|ie.    they  iiiid  so  c'eat  «  tendency  to 

D  111  niaunfacliire  alnioM  iinpossible.     By  ihiK 

[I  :,  iiiscovei'e<l.and  the  only  obstacle  in  Ihevrn 

h  iML-i  n  suitable  iiioijjdiue  nilxliire,    TluKu-asuU 

,  -  having  the  various  kinds  of  uiliCA  nan  ~ 

■t>  .. 

■'tie  aoiirctv  of  dffecls  In  ca.<itiiif(s  is  •  I 
Hp«f  ctui  lie  cusl  auecvesfully  it  they  are  ao  do 


106 


STEEU 


■401 

^V«ool  uniformly.  Kr.  Cramp  Koys  while  he  Is  not  yet  prepared  I 
^B  snytliln^  thai.  <;a»  he  ca.sl  siiccessfijllr  in  iron  can  be  cast  Id  I 
^B  tioiis  seem  to  piiint  thai  way  in  all  ensi's  n  here  It  is  imssihle  I 

'         H.  U.  Gantl  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xil.  TIO)  sayR :    Sle«*l  ccsliu 
xhrink  nincli  more  than  iron  ones,  but  with  le.ss  reRulnrity.    The! 

J      jthrinkae^  varies  with  th«  enmiwsition  and  the  heal  of  the  inet«l;1 

^L  the  metal  the  greater  the  shriukat;e;  anil,  as  wei^t  Htiioothrr  c»Rtln| 
^t  hoi  melal,  il  is  better  to  nialie  allowance  for  laree  !<hrillkf^;(^  AUd  I* 
^I  inetAl    as    hot    as    iios.sihle.      Allow     3/16    or    ^jj     in.     pf-r     ft.    in 
'       for  xhrlnka^,  and  Vji  in.  for  (ii>if*h  on  inHOhliied  surfaces.  >-v,  . 
east  "up."    Cope  aurfaees  wltioh  are  to  lie  niaehiiiett  hli' 
liard  uuRilntnt,  have  an  allowmioe  of  from  %  to  Vj  in.  for  : 
mjii^  of, metal  .^tlowly  riNing  in  a  nioulii  is  apt  to  l»eeonie  n 
ftice,  and  such  a  crust  i«  sure  to  be  full  of  hnijerfectious 
easiinKS  }.(i  iu.  on  drop  side  and  !4  in.  on  cope  sine  will  l.*-  -i 
xhouUI  have  Ip»^  than  V4  in.  flulxh  on  a  side  and  very  i 
as  uitieh  a»i  V^,  in.  on  a  side.     Hlow-holes  enn  be  entii  • 
inu'K  l>.v  the  adtlition  of  manganese  and  silicon  in^iit- 
Imth  iif  ilieise  cause  brittleness,  a.nd  it  Is  the  object  of  iIil  u^ 
iiialier  10  put  no  mure  mauKanese  and  silicon  in  hi»  »teel  ' 
cieiu  lo  make  it  sohd.    The  best  results  are  Briive<i  at  whi  i 
llie  eUKtinip^  ai-e  of  a  uuiform  thickness,  or  very  iieoiiy  so. 

The  folkiwini;  table  will  illu!!trate  the  efTect   of  annealing  oo 
Blreiigti)  and  ehiDKation  of  sleei  cautinirs  : 


I 

I 


Carbon. 

Unonnealed. 

Annealed. 

Ten-sile  strength. 

fHongation. 

Tensile  Strength. 

nooi 

.SSK 

.87 

C8.738 
85,540 
90,131 

sa.40% 

8.90 
S.35 

07,810 
106,419 

J 

The  iiroper  aimealliig  of  larpe  castings  takes  nearlT  a  w«*lc. 

The  proper  steel  for  roll  pinions,  hammer  dieR.  etc.,  steenia  to  betk 
laininK  ahiiut  .iJO>!  of  carbon.  Such  cantiiiKs,  projjerly  annealed,  bar 
well  and  seldom  broken.  .Miscellaneous  i^enri up  should  contain  cart 
t«6(()t,  Hears  JiirpT  in  dlnmeter  hrinjr  softest.  Heneral  machinerre 
sliould,  an  a  rule,  contain  lefw  than  AOf  of  cartKtn,  tliosii  ''.Yy'.>~ed  K 
Rliocks  contJilning  as  low  at  .aOi  of  carbon.    SucIich-;  ivb« 

Rtrenglli  of  fium  00,000  to  (W.OiXl  Hjs    per  m.  in.  and  :.i  vt« 

o  a  in.  loop  specimen.     Maihiuery  and  hull  castings  I ■  -■!»  I 

United  States  Navy,  as  well  as  carriages  for  naval  giuis.  contain  trom 
.ijuS  of  carbon. 

The   following  is  a  partial  list  of  castingti  in  which    Efcel 
r»pidly  taking  Uie  place  of  iron:  Hydraulicc.vli 
for  large  engines,  roughing  rolls,  rolling-mill    ; 
pinions,  gearing,  bammer-headB  and  dies,  rivei- 
car  couplers,  etc. 

For  description  of  methods  of  manufactur*  of  »t*v\  casllm;*  by  tli* 
mrr.  o|ien-heartli.  and  crucible  prooenses,  see  pajier  by  P.  O-  Mloaii 
A.  I.  M.  K.  xlv,  118.  ^ 

Spn^itlcaiions  for  ste«l  castings  i<»ned  by  the  V.  S.  Navy  I 
dihridrr'  (h  :     Stfcl  fnr  cnefinR-s  my^t  tie  mn  le  by  either  the  ftp 


nni-s  1  in.  sq.  shall  Iw  c 

'in  nrijln  of  90°.  nrrr  n  i 


NICKEL,  AND  OTHEK  "ALLOY"  STEELS.  407 


kOOO  lbs.,  nor  if  the  elongation  U  less  than  iSf,  nor  If  cast- 
pw-holes  and  sbrinlcnee  cracks.  Castings  weif^hiug  80  lt».  or 
»ie  cost  with  tlipin  a  strip  lo  be  used  as  a  l<»t-piece.  The  (11- 
Tils  strip  must  be  ?4  in.  s<j.  by  IS  in.  long. 

LNE8B,   NICKEL,  AND  OTHEB  "ALLOY'* 
STEELS. 

B«e  Steel.  (H.  M.  Huwe,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  toI.  xil.)— Man- 
au  alloy  of  iron  and  manganese,  incidentally,  and  probably 
f,  containing  e,  conaiderablti  proportion  of  carbon. 
.'C  of  umall  proiiortions  of  niauganese  on  the  hardness,  ftrengtb, 
ity  I'f  iron  in  jHobably  slight.  The  point  at  which  MinnguupBe 
bjlTe  a  predominant  effect  is  not  known:  it  niuy-l>e  Knnifwbere 
Ra»  the  propiirti..n  of  iiiungancBe  il6es  above 'J.SjS  the  stienglh 
V  dimiiiisli,  while  the  hardness  increases.  This  effect  naohta  ii 
^th  somewhere  about  6i  of  manganese.  When  the  propnrtion 
•nient  rises  beyond  0%  the  strength  and  ductilily  b'Tith  inereaiie 
iArdne>!s  diiniDisbes  slightly,  the  maxinunu  of  buthstieiiKMli  and 

i ached  with  about  H%  of  manganese.    With  this  proportion 

'  hard  ihftt  it  ia  very  diOlculc  to  cut  It  with  Hteel  IhoIk.    As 

rjiBngaiiese  rises  above  15%  tlie  ductility  fallM  off  abruptly. 
It  r  >'iiuiiuiiiK  nearly  constant  till  the  manganejje  passes  if*%,  when 
iiiiinishes  suddenly. 

ituiiiiiig  from  4%  to  fi.6t  of  manganese,  even  if  it  have  bulO,3TX  of 
rp|«jried  1o  be  so  exiremely  brittle  that  it  can  be  powdered  under 
inner  wlieu  cold  ;  yet  it  is  ductile  wben  hot. 
■se  Rteel  is  very  free  frotn  blowholex  ;  it  welds  with  great  di(B- 
oughueKS  is  increased  by  quenching  from  a  yellow  beat ;  tf.4  elec- 
nce  is  ennnnoUB.  and  verj'  constant  with  ebangjii^  temperature  ; 
Iberiiial  condiietlvity.  Its  remarkable  eoiiiblnatiun  of  girat  hard- 
i  cannot  be  materially  lessened  by  annealing,  and  gieui  tensile 
vith  atitouisliing  toughness  and  ductility,  at  once  creates  and 
njiefulnetts.  The  fact  that  manganese  steel  cannot  be  sfifleiied, 
■  -' liiis  go  hard  thai  it  can  be  machined  only  with  great  difll- 

iiriei'  to  its  usefulness. 

"luparative  results  of  abrasion  tests  of  manganese  and 
liKiic  teiHirteU  by  T,  T.  Morrell : 

FsESsuKE  Aqainst  a  Revoltido  HajudchkO'Stkei.  Shaft. 

Df  weight  of  manganese  steel 1.0 

hluLviempered  hard  tool  steel 0.4 

annealed  hard  tool  steel ,  7.5 

hardened  Otis  boiler-plate  steel 7.0 

annealed      ••  "  "   14.0 

Abhasion  ar  an  Eherv-Whcbl. 

f  weight  of  hard  maiiganesesteel  wheels I.OO 

softer  "  "      J. 19 

hardest  carbon-steel  wheels 1.88 

soft  '•  "      8.68 

>  of  manganese  steel  Keems  to  be  of  an  anomalous  kind,    Tlie 

\ntj  iiiiilir  somj  conditions  not  rigid.     It   is  very  bard  in  its 

It  ia  not  always  bard  In  11.'?  resistance  to  impact. 

s  readily  at  a  yellow  heat,  though  at  u  bright  while 

r  the  liauimer.    But  It  offers  greater  resistance  to 

I.,  it  i&  liorder  when  hot,  than  carbon  steel. 

tant  single  use  for  manganese-steel  Is  for  the  pins  which 

of  elevated  dredgers.     Here  abrasion  chiefly  ia  to  be 

'  important  use  Is  for  the  links  of  comniou  chain-elevators, 
erlal  for  stauip'Sboes,  for  horse-shoes,  for  the  knuckles  of  an 
IT -coupler,  manganese  steel  has  not  met  expectAtions. 
J  steel  has  been  regularly  adopted  fur-  the  blades  of  the  t^ycl'  ■  '• 
UBome  niBuganese-KtHel  wheeln  are  reported   to  have  rtin 

leacli  will ■■»  a  New  England  railroad. 

tel.— Tbr  tensile  sireiigih  and  duciiUlj 

by  the  ;  ■:i.'il  (he  liehavlur  of  uicWeli' 

hot  rests,  arv  m(;/esj*  of  t/ie  valuable  qualities  < 
HtUliou  of  a  few  per  cent  of  ulvki^l. 


I 


*  Forged  fi'iiju  C  in.  IncoC  to  %  In.  tlUini.,  wilb  conical  heads  I 

IShotV'iii^  tlie  efft?ct  of  vai'yiitpr  carbon. 

JKiilleildowii  from  H-lii.  lugot  to  IJ4-iD.  square  billet,  autltu 

i  Kollod  down  fi'oni  14  in.  ingot  to  1-iu.  round,  and  turned  to  i 

Nickel  stwl  liBH  shown  ILiplf  to  be  poH.««3{i«Kl  of  Home-  fxowdluil 

rfi|;>eitleK;  tln-sBare,  iv«i.>itaii«;e  to  cracking,  hlirh  ••lo.'^tlo  llrnlf 

puflty.     UesisUiiicH  to  on^ckin^;,  n  projicriy  to  wlijoli  tlii*  iiniiir 

»ility  lia.s  tiefti  glvrji.  ia  H):o\vn  more  rcinarkahly  na  Che  |i*»f''i*nfa 

_n<'rmrtfK.    Biir-^  of  a7ji  iiiiliel  illustrate  this  pro|)ertv 

|Wn.)s  nicked  14  lii.  deep  and  bent  double  on  ilsidf  wiii 

liiiu  llie  spllntci'infr  off,  as  it  were,  of  the  nicked  ["iri- 

nipi lire  t>r"  this  alrtd  would  l>e  iiupoAsihle  :  it  HetT:-    ' 

of  raulilde  with  the  tslrenelb  of  Ktecl.    With  ii 

steel   is  proclionlly   non  voiToililile  and    ii«n-ii] 

i-'liK'Lriiii;  Bhi>wn  by  the  lower  percentage*  of  nick.-i  i>  . 

any  tiiiils  of  nicltel-steel  armor. 

The  pluKiic  llinlt  rises  in  u  very  mnrlied  ile(!:re«  with  the  mtdiu 

of  niokel,  the  other  pliysical  properties  of  th«  »teul  r«maluli>K^ 

■  perhaps  Hli;;litly  iiicreused, 

III  Kiicli  places  islinfLs,  azles,  etc.)  where  failure  is  the  remilt  of  < 
r  tli>' iiK'liil  tills  liigher  elastic  limit  of  tiii-iifl  sle<d  n  i"  •  •■ 
leflnlteli  the  life  of   the  piece,  mid  nlthesBiii<-  liin.- 
L>ii(fline«K,  i^fTer  Kt*»'aler  resistnuce  tfi  the  Mitdden  Klnir 

llnwe  BtateK  that,  the  harduexfi  of  niclcel  Hteel  ■! 

r  iLickel  iinil  caiiion  joitilly,  nickel  up  to  a  cei 
he  Imrdiuws,  Iwyoud  this  le!t»eiiiiifr  it.    Thus  » 

liiil  O.Oi);!  of  carlHin  cannot  Iw  mneliiiied,  nilh  1,  -,  ,.  ^. 

l^orkeil  cold   readily,   pro\ided  the   f>i'opor(li>n  of  carbon 
'<>r><.irtion  of  nickel  riwes  hielier.  cold-working  bctHinies  le 
sily  whether  it  contain  imich  or  llllle  nickel. 
The  pieseiice  uf  niiiinriuiesi'  in  nickel  steel  is  most  IniportBDl, 
lat  wlihoiit  the  aid  of  umii^nnt^e  In  proiH^r  proponlons,  I' 
I  fi-,-..t ,,..  1,1  vKiiitd  not  Ih*  successful. 

f Klokel  Slepl.-Two  heats  of  open  hearth  (tr*!  1 
i  Itollinir  Mill  Co..  one  ordinary  steel  mad^wllh  1 
,.-.  iiTiri  K.'i  Hi...  f.-r.-...i,i,iii([nne8«,  the  olh«r  the  ■ 

11          '    -       •  I      Test*  of  six  plates  roBal  1 
III    I  '    ''     "      '  Ill  a.i  follown  : 

I'i  :.u.r«io  .E.L,  !K,Si»  10  S7.g(W  ;  alotMl  ' 


u^'iii  UKib,  uiibuci  iUBU  oiiii-uin — ala:uiuiuk  lu  ucuiuuiici^  lue  t:<<r- 
ifaTuinriium  to  AIjOj  equals  TTWOcal.;  tiiliecnj  toSIO,  Ik  staled  bkTSOO. 
tifin  <if  aliiiniiiiiin  niuyVieclasBttl  uIod^  ivitli  Ikan'f  silk'nn.sulpi.ur, 
riis.  arsciiio,  and  coppur,  as  Kivinp;  no  inereasi?  of  liar.lcfss  In  iron, 
ulislinolion  to  carbon,  mnnpanesi;,  chroniunji.  tiiitgNlvii,  niiii  nifUt-l. 
V.  uliilst  for  wnue  special  purpusfs  uluiuiiiuiM  may  In-  eiiipli'jrd  in 
nifacture  of  ir'tm.  nt  nny  rate  with  mir  presit^nt  KnowU'Jjd:e  nf  ilH 
e«,  ^lll^  u?<e  cnnnot  be  Inrge.  especlnlly  «lu'n  tiilciiig  Into  oousijera- 
fact  of  its  comiwiraiivfly  IhkIi  pi  ice.  Its  special  advantaKf  seems  lo 
t  ..,,...1.,,,..^  ii,  itself  ilie  nilvanlngeK  of  boih  silicon  and  inaugane&e; 
IS  con'ntnint;  tlit-i^o  imMuls  are  so  cheap  nnil  aluminum 
use  seems  lianlly  pnihable. 

.   .■-, lisciission  of  Mr.  MiKlflplrt's  pnper.  said:   Evpry  one  of  oiir 

!•  iiiiIicuI'mI  that  alunilnuiii  can  kill  tlie  mnxt  fiery  Nteel,  pruvidiUK, 
!"  Hint  it  is  ndclecl  in  siiftlcient  qiinuiily  to  eoinljjne  with  all  111"  oxy- 
.'li  liie  ••tt-il  coiitniiis.  The  iMi-tal  vrill  llien  be  alisoliitely  iletid,  olid 
r  liki>  (lend  melted  Hilieon  steel.  If  the  uliiiiiinniti  is  added  iiH  metal- 
num.  nnd  not  as  a  cuiripoiiiul,  nnd  if  the  additimi  jti  itiaile  jiisl  be- 
steel  iji  piist,  1/1(1^  is  ample  lo  obtain  perfect  sfjiiilily  in  tht>  sleel. 
me  Stcrl,  (K.  L  Garrison,  Juitr.  F.  I.,  Sept.  li^DI.)— Cliimnium 
»  tile  bnirlness  of  iron,  perhaps  also  the  tensile  strength  and  elastic 
f  It  Kss.-iisits  weldlbliitv. 

rliionie,  ac-orriinp  to  bertliier,  is  made  by  slronply  hentloK  the 
tides  of  Iron  and  climmiiim  in  iirasqned  crucibles,  adding  iKiudered 
i  if  the  ivxide  of  clironiiiiiii  is  tn  excess,  and  fluxes  lo  scorify  the 
imternnd  prevent  nxidntion.     Chrominm  doe.s  not  appear  to  give 

IK'wer  of  becotnitiK  harder  when  quenched  or  cliilled.   Howe  stales 

'■ ^ii^eiw  forRe  more  readily  than  I ungsEen  steels,  and  when  not 

'  of  chroitiiiim  nearly  as  well  ax  ordinary  carlion  steels  of 
■•/irbon.  On  the  whole  tlie  Btatiis  of  cliiome  steel  is  not 
.:.re  are  other  steel  alloys  eotnine  into  use.  which  are  so 
Her.  thai  it  woidd  wem  to  be  only  a  qneslioii  of  lime  when  it  will 
iivly  rmt  of  till'  race.  Howe  stales  tluitmaiiv  exiierienced  eheniisis 
ind  no  chromium,  or  but  tlie  merest  Maces,  in  ehionie  steel  sold  in 
ketx. 
Ijiiigley  iTiTiDS.  A.  S.  C  E.  ISWi  saj's:     rbronduiii.  like  iiiaii|;nnese, 

loiiilener  of  iron  even  in  the  absence  of  carbnn.  The  midition  of  Tf 
cliroinlMMi  lo  a  carbon  steel  will  inaiie  a  nietnl  which  pels  e^cem- 
inl.  Hitherto  its  priiicipal  employment  has  lieeii  in  the  pii'duction 
d  <j|i.,(  /uj.l  slnll.  I'ov.orfiil  niidecuIarslietbCsrcsultdnriiiBeooliBi.'. 
iieiitlv  bteak-siiuniHiieously  foonlbs  after  titer  are  made. 


m 


STEEL. 


o.r 


then,  when  the  percentage  or  tungsten  is  high,  it  han  m  be 
oarofiilly ;  Bud  in  order  lonroid  bi't^akini;  ii.  not  i)i>l\  I 
it  several  times  wliile  it  is  bein^;  Imiiiiiif  I'rMi,  Itnl  v  '•' 

the  desired  liliiipe  humiiiering'  iiiu.<<t  siill  iiecuulii 

rnerouH  blt^ws  until  it  beooiiiea  nearly  cold.    TlieD  unlv  cah  ii  i>< 
lli«ly. 

'I'uiiKistoii  !g  not  only  enijiloyed  to  produce  steel  of  an  i'itni..r.lli.nr 
nesH,  but  fiioi'e  especially  t-tj  oblAiu  a  Hteel  whieli,  with  a  irr 
allies  ;fi"eat  longhnesft,  rcaistanof,  and  ductility.    Steel  f. 
(ur  this  (lurpoHH.   cuntjiined  curttuu,  0.yi%;  Kiliuun,   U.*U 

IBpliorus  U.Ol^;  Kulpliiir,  O.OOTiit. 
echaitical  tests  made  by  SiyfTe  Rave  tlie  following  result*  : 
UrealtitiR  load  per  .'iquarc  inch  of  original  ai¥a,  pounds. . 
KtHluutiua  of  urea,  per  oent 
AreraK^  "lonf'ion  after  fracture,  per  cent  
ccoriliriK  to  analyst's  made  by  the  DncdeLuynps  of  f«ti  Sipecmiva 
(SOlDbrat^d  ( )nental  dauiatikiHl  steel,  eitrlit  c<jnlaiued  tungttten,  two  uf 
in  notable  aiiitniltieg  (0  r>lS%  to  1^),  while  in  all  of  thr  samples  aimlyud 
liickf^l  was  ai-HfOVered  ran^inj^  from  traees  to  nearly  ii. 

8teiii  &  .St'liwortz  of  Plnlii<1clpliin,  in  a  uirciilar  say  :    It  Is  ntjiliil  till 
tunesii^u  riteel  in  suitable  fur  the  manufacture  '■(  steel  moenetit,  kiikv  llW 
inius  it^  inoffnetiKin    lunger  ihau  ordinary  steel.     Mr.  Kiiiesd'-  '■  ■•  •■■"I 
luni^iiteu  up  to  0H%  flue  a  specialty.     Dr.  Heppe,  of  Leiijoitj.  I- 
nuiubet'  of  arliele:^  in  Oeriniin  publicatioiiK  nn  the  yutjjt^-t.     'I 
instructions  ar«  Kiven  concerning  the  use  of  tunesten:  I"  '-■'■•'■ 
cast  iron  possessing  great  liiirLlne-xs  an  addition  nf  one  I 
lialf  of  tuni^sieii  is  all  that  is  needed.     For  bar  iron  it  no- 
Ij!  U>i%.  but  slioulil  not  e.\cee<l  '.'t^jj.     For  puddled  steel  ' 
but  an  addition  beymiil  .Tiji  only  mcieaiii'S  the  lianliieaL  -^ 
tip  to  It^  only  for  spf-cial  lools,  C'diuiK*' die,«,  drills,  etc.    / 
have  proved  be.st,  and  for  axlex  ^  to  IJ^.    Cant  steel  to  u. 
l>een  luhled  neeil.s  a  hifcher  temperature  for  teinpering  tliMit  uitlin 
nod  should  be  hardenetl  only  between  yellow,  reti,  and  while.    CliW 
of  tungsten  steel  should  bo  drawn  Iwmeen  cherry-red  and  blue,  i 
well  on  Iron  anil  steel.    TeniperiiiB  is  Iwst  doue  in  a  mixture  of  : 
yellow  rosin,  3  parts  of  Uir,  and  '•'  parts  of  luUcw,  and  then  the  ; 
once  more  heiited  and  then  t^-rnpeivri  ns  usual  in  water  of  abtiut  U* 
IVllltworth  C'oniprnnncd  Steel.    iProc.  Inst.  M.  F...  MayJ 
107  ) -lu  this  system   u  grudiially  increasing  pressure  upt4)6ur9| 
gqiiai'O  inch  Is  applied  to  the  llidd  inRot,  and  wlihin  In-I' 
after  Hie  application  of  the  pressure  the  oduinn  ■  ■  IJ 

IV^  inch  per  foot  or  one  ciKhth  of  its  length;  the  pi 
several  lionra,  ibe  result  being  that  the  metal  iscoui,  :...-. 
onlid  nud  honiMneneous  nmlerlal,  free  from  blow-holes. 

In  large  gun-ring  ingots  duritig  oooling  the  carlKin  is  driven  \ 
the  centre  containing  O.H  carbon  and  the  outer  ring  0.3.    The  coDlml 
out  until  atest  shows  that  the  inside  of  the  ring  cotilolDii  (he  sMne| 
age  of  carbon  m  the  out.slde. 
^£ompregse<i  .><teel  is  made  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.  and  ths  { 
^^■el  Co.  for  armor-plate  and  for  gun  and  other  heavy  foneitiga. 

^V  f-BVCIBLE  STECl.. 

Selection  ofGraden  by  the  Eye,  and  Effect  of  Heat! 
lueut.     (.1.  W.  Laiigley,  .liner.  t'A.niuf.  Novemtier,  l-ini  i— In  IsTI 
Melcair  Jt  Parkin,  of  Pittsburgh,  selected  eight  sani; '        '    ' 
believed  to  form  a  set  of  graded  s|>eciniens,  the  • 
quantity  of  carbon  which  tney  were  Kuppose<i  to  ci  . 
lN>l\'d  from  one  to  eight.    On  analysis,  the  qiinntilk  •■>  i-  «  <» 
folluvv  ilie  iinler  of  the  numbers,  while  the  other  elentenufi 
hiir— did    not   do  so.     The  niptbml 


wilbiKl  I 


riillii 


Mie  Steel  is  nielled  in  blaok-lend  cruelliles  capable  of  holdluif 
^nU;  wb*^n  lliortunfldv  flulil  it  is  pnnred  inloea«t-iri»?i  ioti« 


I  loiiR  attfl  cvrtwUkW^  cx.«Tc>BBa, 


CRUCIBLE   STEEL. 


411 


difference  is  peroeived  lietireen  varying  samples  of  steel,  and 
Bee  is  now  knuwn  to  l>e  owiu^  alinoMt  wholly  to  Tariatioii.i  lu  the' 

3MiUiiied  cu.rl)(>[i,a!<  the  rullowjiii;  table  svlll  Mihw.    Twt'lve  sanx- 

by  tlie  eye  alone,  and  analj'Be»  of  drillings  taken  direct  fn>iq 

C  before  it  IiaU  been  lieated  or  hammered,  g^ave  results  as  belowr: 


Iron  by 
Diff. 

Carlton. 

Diff.  of 
Carbon. 

Silicon. 

Phos. 

Sulph, 

09.614 
99.455 

.303 
.480 

.019 

.047 
.OOS 

.018 

.188 

.016 

M.803 

.529 

.0S9 

.043 

.047 

.018 

ua.sr;o 

.(V49 

.1S!0 

.039 

.KIO 

.012 

9B.118 

.801 

.153 

0S9 

.im 

.010 

gg.oee 

.841 

.040 

.089 

.024 

.010 

99.044 

.887 

.036 

.057 

.014 

OIH 

98.040 

.871 

.004 

.06.1 

.024 

.012 

se.soo 

.9S6 

.0«4 

.050 

.070 

.016 

96  Ml 

1.005 

.0-50 

.068 

.034 

.1)13 

ge.ns 

1.036 

.05.3 

.120 

.004 

.000 

9B.8M 

1.0» 

.031 

.»«) 

.044 

.004 

Uie  carbon  is  iieen  to  (acreaae  in  quantity  in  the  onler  of  the  num- 
iher  eU-nienUs,  with  tb»  ext^-piion  of  total  iron,  bear  no  ivla- 
I  '.-rs  rdi  the  saiikple*t.  TU*  uieau  differeDoe  of  carlwii  l.s  .071. 
liie  dLscr-iininatinn  is  Itjss  pfrfeot. 

I'-e  of  the  fracture  by  wiiicli  lh«  ahovn  twcKc  seleclioi 
'    iiuly  be  seen  in  llm  cold  innol  before  any  openiliou,  excepi 
!••   of  cartiuK,  huB  Iweu  performed  upon  it.     As  snim  as  il  la' 
re-'l.  iln-  structure  chan^-.-i  in  a  remarkable  injiuner,  so  that  all  Irnoe 
iriinltive  condition  appears  lo  he  lost. 

hf'r  nii'itind  of  leiidcrlng  visible  to  tlie  eye  llie  niokH'iilnr  and  eheiiil 

I'.'b  K<>  on  in  stei'l  Is  by  the  process  (if  lianlenliit;  or  tempiT. 

-   metal    is  heateil   and   pliiteged  intu  water   it  acquires  aM 

liieiw.  but  a  loss  of  ductility.    If  the  heat  to  which  the  stu*! 

I  just  before  plunging  Is  to<i  high,  the  metal  acquires  Intense 

I  IS  so  brittl'j  as  to  Ije  worthless;  the  fracture  is  of  a  briKhl, 

ly  'liarncler.    In  this  state  it  is  said  tn  be  bnrued,  and  it 

red  to  its  former  strength  ami  ductility  by  annealinfjj 

iiclical  piirposif.  hut  in  jnst  this  state' it  again  show 

lire  correaprmdJiiK  wiUi  its  conieiit  In  cartton     Thi 

riifiji^eft  can  be  illustrated  by  pltmf^ing  a  bar  hithly  heatw] 

■  i  colli  at  the  other  into  water,  and  then  breakini;  il  off  ii 

1  liiifih,  when  the  frai-tures  will  be  fnind  to  ahow  appear^ 

if  the  tempprnture  to  which  the  sample  was  raised. 

iif  steel  is  influenced   not  oidy  Ijy  its  chemical  aiialy- 

•'■which  it  is  subjected,  as  is  shown  by  the  follotvInK 

it-reiied  tofU)"'  F.): 

■:■*  of  twelvf  tamplea  of  ileel  from  the~in'jol;  nUo  of  iti 

'art,  cuoA  har  being  overheated  at  one  fnd  and  colfl  at  </« 

>•..  XI  llti»Btiite  plunged  into  water,  and  then  broken  iuto  piece* 

luii  letiglh. 


I  ai^H 

teelB 
use 
hi, 
I  it 

ai^^lB 


1 

i 

^ 

4 

6 

6 

7       8 

9 

10 

n 

1 

1 

T.eu 

7.836 

7,811 

7.818 
7.814 
7.H23 
7.826 
7.M1 
7,844 

7.701 

7.811 
7  «.')!) 
7.810 
7.800 
7.824 

7.838 

7.ftM 

7.789 

7, Si  IS 
7,81S 
7.889 

7.819  7.818 

.  ...  7.752 

7.818  7.807 

I7.7H 

7.908 

d 

7.801 

7nfl( 

'"I 

m 

■ 

•  Order  of  samples  from  tMW. 


r 


412 


STEEL. 


I 


Eflertof  Heat  on  the  Grain  or  Steel.     ^  Tfi-t<: 
Steel,  p.  64'J.)— A  nimpli;  experiment  will  she-. 
lliKh-L'iirl)oii  steel  by  different  iiK-ikcMls  of  hni 
be  iiiekeil  ut  ut>oiit  U  nr  10  pliiceM,  and  uboui   -' 
specimen  ia  obtained  for  tJie  exfierinieiit.     Pliu"  one  end  of  J 
pnod  lire,  ho  that  llie  first  nicked  piece  ia  heated  to  whlt<:iie«,C 
of  the  bur,  UeiiiR  out  of  the  lire,  is  heated  up  less  uii  I  !■■<-  ' 
tlie  other  end.     As  sooii  as  the  first  piece  Is  at  a  g" 
cnurse  htiriis  a  liich  carlxm  steel,  anci  the  lenipfrui 
Kradiinlly  passes  ilowii  to  a  very  didl  red,  the  met;, 
the  lire  and  suddenly  phinift."d  id  cold  water,  in  wliicb   n  ~!i 
quite  cold.     It  should  then  be  taken  ont  and  carefully  tilled, 
tlon  with  n  Hie  ivill  show  that    the  first  piece  ha.s   ilu-  i^miU 
while  the  la.st  piece  is  the  softest,  the  intermediate  i 
from  one  couilition  to  the  other.     On  now  breakiUi- 
nick  it  will  be  seen  tlml  very  considerable  and  chm 
be«ii  produced  in  the  appearance  of  the  metal.    T)>' 
on«n  or  crystBlline  In  fmctiire:  the  siicceediuif  p.  >  dl 

cloiwr  in    the  Ki^in    until  one  piece    is   found  i"  •'I' 

tfveu  grain  and  velvet-like  appearance  which  isuo  inucii  p-i.tJ  1^ 
eiicefl  steel  usei*s.  The  tlrst  pieties  also,  which  have  lieeii  ttw  mofl 
eiied,  will  probably  be  cracked :  lliose  at  the  other  end  will  not  lir  W 
throutrh.  Hence  if  it  be  desired  to  make  the  steel  hard  »nd  tft 
temperature  used  must  be  hieh  enough  to  harden  the  tnetoJ  Xhi"! 
not  Kiilfleieut  to  open  lliejrrnin. 

4!bant£eB    In    I^ltlmate    StrenKtl*    and    T^  ,^';.i' 
HaniiiicrinsTt   Annealing,    and  Teniperi 
■J'luiis.  .V.  S.  C.  E.  IHUJ.  I— The  lullowbur  laid-  kivcn    . 
4m  some  round  steel   bars,  lUl  from  the  same  liif^t,  ^v  liich  \^<rrf '^ 
teutdle  gtreaees,  and  also  by  bending  till  fracture  took  place: 


Treatment. 

II 

Carbon. 

a 

s 

1 
s 
a 

iii 
111 

It 

^  fXi  U 

1^ 

ll 

1^ 

5 
^ 

^1 

1 

i 
a 
i 

Co]d-)ianimered  bar 
Bar  drawn  black.,.. 

Bar  annealed  

Bar    hardened   and 
drawn  black 

158 

7.'. 

175 

ao 

1.S6 
l.» 
1  31 

l.OS 

.<7 
.47 
.70 

.86 

.570 
.677 
.560 

.678 

W.41W 
114,700 
68,110 

15«,800 

141.H)I> 

80,410 

«ie,70l) 

!:: 

I0.O 

The  total  carbon  given  in  the  table  was  found  by  th»  ovior  MM,  I 
affected,  not  only  by  the  total  carbon,  but  by  the  oondttioa  at  I 

The  analysis  of  the  aleel  was : 

Silicon  213       Mansanesa . 

I'hosphoriu 02         Carbon    (true   total 

Sulphur.  009  coiulnistlon) 

HeattnE  Tool  Steel.  iMiller,  Metcalf  &  Partcin.  ie7;.)-tl 
three  distinct  slaves  or  times  of  beating:  First,  for  furvinr:  '^ 
hardening-,  third,  for  teiiqK-rinjy. 

'J'he  first  reipiliit."  fnr  a  pood  heat  for  fnrrftic  1i  n  cV'on  Tn-  i»ihI  (< 
fuel,  «oil,i,     ■  "  I    ■!  iilr  will  iivl         ■  ';» 

(Irr  Hlioiili  owl  give  n  :  |<* 

forved,     !  ';»«en  enon^Ii  -.■»* 

ait'l    ."  ..itjjiil.v  henri.li  riir.'iii;ii.  wiiin.ui  \>' 

OVII 

t^  •  "ft  In  the  fire  ntiy  loiicer  Than  Is  m- 


CRUCIBLE  &TEEL.  413 

d  most  economical  ot  wplding  Anxra  Is  flfun.  cniil>«  lioi-nz. 

)i«>  flrst  ihoi-oiichl.v  riiHlifil  nm)  ilicii  i;r'>iin(]  t<>  fln«-  |i'ii\clf r, 
•1  is  piupprly  lientpil.  il  shuiiM  bi-  furpi'it  to  Blin()f  iis  (|iili'kly 
I  just  rt->  (he  reii  heAt  is  It^rine  llie  imrt*  intiMxIfil  for  fiitiiiii; 
ns  sliouM  lie  retlned  by  rapiil,  liKlit  1>1owr,  eonliiiiiril  mdil 

(ears. 

Hill  ffngi)  of  heatiiiE.  for  hardpniTip,  grpal  core  should  1*  iis^tl : 

tCt    the   eilttllitt  <-dKf«  and  wOikinR  jKiriH  from  hc-ntini;  miiro 

9ie  Viody  of  rhp  piece;  nexr,  tlint  tlip  whole luiit  lo  lie  lianleiii-tl 

ilfornily  ilirouu'li,  wltJiout  ttny  part  het-oininpr  vi*llily   hniler 

r,     A  uniform  heat,  as  low  as  will  (five  the  i-et^uired  )iiii*rlnv«s, 

^  hanleninK. 

ftriaiiiiii  of  heat,  which  ia  fretLt  enoiigli  to  be  f^eu,  there  n-lll 
Hion  ill  craiii.  which  loiiy  be  r^eti  by  brejikiiii;  thp  piece;  mill 
m  variniioii  in  teiiiix'ratiire,  there  is  a  very  gnod  ehuiice  for  a 

len.     ^Iiiny  n  c'uHtly  tool  is  I'litiie^l  by  inattention  t<i  thlR  point. 

if  too  higli  liPat  Is  to  open  the  irraiu ;  to  make  the  sihi-I  coarse. 

to  InvKUlar  heat  is  to  cause  li-repiilar  ^raln,  irit-giilar  Hlrninii, 

i  the  |)iece  is  properly  heated  for  liaidetiliifr,  it  Rhoiild  tie 
I  ihoiTiiiphly  queticheil  in  plenty  of  the  coolihp  ineiliuiii.  Water, 
I*  the  ca.se  may  be. 

lee  of  iliH  eooliiifr  halh,  to  do  the  work  Quickly  and  iiDitornily 
|fy  neoestiary  lo  pooii  and  safe  work. 
I  laiiare  piece  safely  a  ninniiiR'  Klr>-niii  should  !"■  lined, 
m  haitli-ninK  la  caused  by  the  ii.<e  of  loo  Nniall  ImlliK. 
tf  alato'  "f  lieatlntf,  to  tfiniH-r,  Ihx  flre':  jiii|Hirtniit  refinisile  is 
feiity.    The  next  is  time;  ihe  more  slowly  ii    piece  i«   liroii);lit 
Miiper.  the  b^llfr  niul  wifiT  Is  the  oiipinlion. 
■IBlTe  toolK  are  to  be  made  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  try  small 
|rt«el  nt  dllTereiit  temperatures,  so  as  to  flmi  ont  how  low  ii  ln-iit 
|iece»uiry  harilnvsK.     Tlii"  loupst  h»-ttt  Ik  IIih  l.cui   for  any  Hteel, 
tv  ForK*»— The  Iroiible  tu  the  frTRe  Hri>  N  u-iinlly  UPieven 
Ituohij^li  livat.     Suppose  llie  filrce  lo  lie  fotj.'i-d  li:i-  lirni  put 

Et  fire,  and  forced  as  ipilcjily  lis  pnssihle  lo  a  hicli  yellow  heat, 
moMt  tip  in  Ihe  ccinllllaiiiiir  point.  If  ihls  he  done.  In  a  fpw 
Mitxhle  will  be  tpille  soft  and  f:n  a  nk'i-  eoiidilion  for  fotuine, 
Idle  parln  will  not  In-  more  lliiiti  rpii-lint.  Now  let.  rhe  piece  he 
■  the  hammer  mid  foiKcd,  and  the  soft  oiHsIiIh  will  yit-ld  so 
eadlly  that)  ilic  hard  Inside,  ilint  tlic  ontei  particles  will  be  torn 
le  the  inntde  »IM  ifiiialn  sound. 

e  ca!«e  to  he  levfi-sed  and  the  inside  to  tie  iimch  hotter  than  Ihe 
iK,  that  the  iunide  shall  he  in  a  Hlate  of  semi-fiiKinn.  while  the 
•d  and  firm.  Now  let  the  piece  be  fortfed.  luid  the  outside  will 
[  and  the  whole  piece  will  njipear  perfectly  go(H\  until  II  is 
Ihen  it  is  found  to  lie  hollow  in.'<iile. 

Be,  If  Ihe  fiiecc  had  heeti  healed  soft  all  IhroiiKh.or  if  it  hadbecn 
ml  DiroMBh.  it  would  have  forced  peifectly  sound, 
*^  a  high  heat  i*t  moiv  d*^siralile  to  save  heavy  labor  hut  in 
bere  a  due  ste«»l  Is  to  be  uned  for  ciiltiiij;  piirpoxes  it  lliui^t  Iw 
1  that  very  heavy  foicinc  r«-riii>-(4  i}ie  liarn  as  lliey  slouly  ci^ol. 
Bith  heati  such  refined  bars  iiidll  they  are  soft,  he  raises  Ihe 
them  foarse.  and  he  enniiol  get  tlieni  fine  nnain  miles*  he  has 
iiteain-hainnier  atcoiiiniiiiid  niid  kiiow8  how  lo  use  il  well. 
ItC-  iMIIIer.  Metcalf  Jt  Parkin. l—AnnealinE  or  >ofli-iiinjf  In 
I  by  hearint;  steel  to  a  red  heat  and  then  coolhif;  it  very  .'lowly, 
from  getting  hard  Qcaiii. 

tlie  decree  of  beat,  the  more  will  steel  he  softened,  until  llie 
irs«  IR  rcucbed.  when  the  steel  is  melted. 

f'lMow  that  the  higher  a  piece  of  steel  is  heatert  the  softer  H 
cooled,  no  iiintter  how  slowly  it  may  i»-  cooled:  ihlri  U  provcl 
ml  an  ingot  la  always  harder  tliau  a  rolled  or  iiHinniereil 

Uiere  i»  nothing;  (rained  by  heatinir  a  piece  of  steel  holler  llM 

Jt,  chen-y-retl;  on  the  contrary,  a  liiKher  lieiit  has  several  diS 

^trst.    If  carried  too  far,  if  may  leave  the  steel  Hcliiall.v  liiirde' 

f»0  heat  would  leave  it.     Si ml.   If  n  sealw  i«  niiwd 

Je  win  be  hai^b,  granular  iixhie  of  Iron,  and  will  spoyVl 
Jl     TbfrJ.  4  liigli  scaling  /tear  conMtiiied  (ov 


416 


MCCH  ASICS. 


If  anr  BBBbtrof  farer«beavpijeAalapefat,aoine  rn  ur.»  <!iH 
Mhwi  fn  •  ecmzmrr  dimrtloa.  Ihe<r  nmAam  is  e<i«  - 
tiMt  act  in  Qcie  dlTTCtian,  dimiatslMd  br  tke  •a  of  1 1 
potile  JirertioD ;  or.  ibe  resttlt»at  »<  cqaaJ  to  Ike  alfv- 

Parall«logTaai  or  F«rc««.— If  two  forces  ari 

mcxie-J  m  d(r«cti'>ii  aud  uiu-iuiur  by  adjaorat  atti- 
their  mult&nt  wiU  be  rppresentcd  bgr  that  diagonal  o^  itic  lu' 
■rhicb  pawrT  throui^  the  (n.inu    Tb 
88.  n  Lbe  mnltsut  u/  OQaod  r)f. 
PoItkob  er  Pare««.~U  8ci> 
ifiplied  at  a pomi  and  act  in  a  i  ' 
neaaltant  is  loupd  as  taOowM: 

Throosb  the  poial  draw  a  Iini>  rvpn 
first  (orve  :  thronyh  ihpezti>?iiiiiy  c 
a  line  representing  the  second  forw;  i 
throughout  the  urstem:  finaJlj'.  dniw  I 
the  stATliij^-point  totbuexIrHuilt;  oft 


Fib.  88, 
drawn,  and  thii  will  be  the  mniltaat  required. 


6Supprfie  the  body  A,  Fig.  89,  to  be  Mrgvd  in  the  dir 
nd  AS  by  forces  which  are  to  each  other  ns  ilie  ten 
iippoDC  these  forces  to  act  successiTelr  anr1  ili-  1..>]i 
to  I :  tlip  secoD'l  fiirce  .-12  Iht-n  acts  and  fii 
to*";  the  tliinl  force  wi-uld  then  carry  it  • 
to5'.    Ttie  liDC  J5' r»-pre«e(ila  in  magTiii 
all  the   foii'es  considered.      If  then-   i  iii 
b*eM  an  aiidiiiorjrtl  force.  Jr.  in  the  ci'  n  !■. 
tlie  l.i..!v  .\ouH  \f  returned  by  ibai  f.iLe 
t.  :'<<sJtion.    Hjipposiii^    the 

f  ■  ^ivrly,  but  If  tbey  had 

-ily  I  he  iKidj"  would  never  j/ 
|3bav<-  iii'<\-'l  tit  .111:  the  tendencie^i  to  mo- 
UoM  buldtioing  each  otlii-r. 

It  fDlli.ivs.  tliifrefore,  that  if  the  several 

f  Ml  tend  to  more  a  body  can  be 

ill  magnitude  and  direction 

!•  Tf  n  cl'jsed  polygon  taken  in 

t.or'l<':  ill  rt'Uuiin  at  rest ;  but  if 

\)f>  f.  I  ;'i-i;senteil  by  the  sideA  of 

the  budy  Mill  move  and  the  direction  will  lie  i 
by  nil-  s!iai..-iir  iitiM  which  closes  the  polygon. 

Xwliited  I^olyKOn.— The  rule  of  th»'|)oly(fnn  of  fori-en  hnU 
rlii'ii   III*"  riiift*  uie  iiix  ill  one  plane.     Inlliismne  the  Kiir^  A 
Mo.  foriM  11  tHi.*t»-d  polygon.  thHl  k.  one  »' 
Parallelnplpcdon  of  Forces.- 1- 
VpiVM-iili'il  liy  liiri.'«  utlKUi^of  '■  panilluU'ii: 

Killit.  tlit-ir  ntjiiltant  will  l>e  rejiresenteil    dv  iin-  ump'niiJ  or  iiiQ 
piiHMliiii  llint  pi«.s«u>s  tbroiiph  their  cormixin  point. 

Tbiiii  Oft,  Kie.  90,  is  the  rnsulijint  of  0<J,  OS.  ttod  UP. 
ikiit  of  (.jy'iiml  (>t^>.  nnd  OH  is  the  irsnllaDt  of  O^and  OS. 

moment  of  a  Force.— The  mo- 
nviit  of  ;i  f';rrr  (/;iinifliiiiK.s  t'alifd  Stat-  ^ 

I,.  A-**' 

til-' iiiri'.  11..1I  ,11  111.- liin.'i'.     nil-  iixed        ^--T 
Iniliit    U    valied    the    centre   of    mo-  \ 


rio.  M. 


OJflal 


/ 


"7! 


"10 


.y 


-yp 


f^«  Bd 


Fu.  n. 


ICAL   MOMENT,  EQUILIBKIUM,  KTC.    417 


b' 


nr  distance  is  ihu  lever-arni  ot  tho  force;  anJ  Uie 
asureg  the  tcDdency  of  the  fi>ife  to  jircnlucL'  rolutlou  abuiiL 

^  1  ill  jKiuntls  and  the  dlstani-e  iu  fuel,  tlie  iiioiueiit 

iH.    It  in  iiGcesflurj;'  10  oliBt-rvc  Ihe  (listjiictlim  tw- 

.1.  i^jai  moment  and  foot-pouudu  of  wurJ:  or  energy. 

tar,  Fig.  81( from Trautnine),  if  the  weiKbts  n  and  ?it  ivpre- 
|r  momento  alwut  Ilia  poiut  /  ale  rtsi>ecti?ely  n  X  «/  and 
tt  -  '  '  •  ^o  wL'ilclit  HI  a  pulllfi);  force  to  lialaiiue  Uie  weight 
(  11  Jm,  or  III/  or  M,  »,  y,  »iiii  <l  Ivfive  Xhv  amounts  of 

I  1 1  >'  iiioineiitit  are  «  >;  ft,  y  ',<  fli,  d  X  fli. 
AL-iiu^  on  iiie  Irver  are  in  eqiiitibriiini  it  mnainu  at  rest,  and 

eaoli  Bide  of  /  are  equal,  that  is,  u  x  "/=  "i  K  /o,  or  »  x-ft, 

X  */• 

the  raKullaiit  of  any  number  of  furcen  acting  together  io 
lis  equal  to  llie  algel>raic  Kuni  of  the  uioaieutis  of  the  forces 

vment.  Mabilltj'.—Tlie  »tatival  moment  of  a  body  Is 
Uk  weiKlit  liv  llio  <li«Uince  of  itj*  line  of  (crnvity  fruin  Mime 
|i  rotation,  'rite  lino  of  gravity  is  a  verti(!Hl  line  drawn  from 
fcviiy  thrnueli  the  body.  Tlie  Htabilily  of  a  biMly  i8  that  I'e- 
|U  UQleiit  alone  enables  itU>opiJOS4i  okhi'i'^''  fol'l^us  tending; 
t  lo  slide  it  along  its  foimdalion. 

kiiiet  turniiiK  on  an  ed^e  the  iiioincot  of  Ihe  forcpK  f'tiiiint;  Co 
pD  with  rf  fei*encH  to  tlnit  ed^e,  InuBt  bt^  less  Ilijui  th«  Hlati- 
Fhen  a  body  resta  on  an  iiiclinpd  plane,  the  line  of  gritvity 
Uls  toward  tlie  lower  ed^e  of  tlitt  bu<l3',  anil  the  cuuditiuii  of 
iiturned  bv  its  own  U'ei|»ht  is  that  Ilia  line  of  gravity  iiiiisL 
iidgo.  In  the  case  of  an  iuelined  tower  lesliiiK  on  a  plane 
Ion  bold*— the  line  of  Rravity  iniLst  full  wiiliiii  tlie  base.  The 
btllty  ai;ainMt  nlidin^  aton^  a  lioriscontal  plane  i»  iluii  the  hor- 
HDt  of  the  force  exerted  lending;  to  <'aii>u-  ii  to  Klide  !iball  be 
bduct  of  the  weight  of  the  body  into  the  cocflioient  of  fric- 
f  ba.<e  of  the  body  and  its  siippoi'tinft  plane.  Thi»  coefUcient 
BtauKent  ol'  liie  ai<i;ie  of  repo>;i',  or  the  innxinuiin  an^le  at 
irtinK  plane  mi^ht  he  raieed  from  the  liorlicuutal  before  Che 
In  to  Klide.    (Se»  Friulion.) 

Itjr  of  a  Daiu  against  overtnrninR  iib-jiit  Its  lower  edge 
[comparinK  iis  stnlieal  moment,  referred  to  that  edge  with 
feaauro  of  the  water  uKni"'^t  lt»  upper  aide.  Tlie  horizon  lal 
kiare  foot  at  tiie  boKoiu  of  the  dam  m  e(|iial  io  the  weight  of 
krof  one  lojuare  foot  In  aet-'tion,  and  of  a  biJKhl  eipial  to  tht< 
>ottom  t>elow  walerlevel ;  or,  if  U  i«  the  height,  the  pressure 
►r  square  foot  =  GiA  X  //llis.  At  the  watei  level  ine  pres- 
|.it  iiicreiwwa  unifornily  lo  the  bottom,  ku  thai.  Ilie  buiii  of  the 
lertioal  strip  one  foot  in  breadth  iiiny  be  repienented  by  the 
^wbo»ebi.«e  i«(j3.4  x/J  nndirhoso  altif lule  Ir  H,  or(ii3  4/i'-t-a. 
^Tit}'  of  a  triangle  being  ^  of  Kk  aJlilude,  the  lehultant  of 

II  pressures  may  be  taken  as  equirnlent  to  the  xtim  of  tbe 
I  at  iill.  and  Ibe  moment  fif  the  ttuiuof  liiu  pressures  is 
f  ii>  ■*■  0. 

i»«*»i.— If  two  forces  areiiarallel  and  a<;tin  thaname  direc- 
|int  l8  parallel  U^i  iHtlh.  and  lies  between  theiu,  aud  the  iiilen- 
lant  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  <he  iiueusities  of  the  two  forceH. 
[tbe  reaullant  o(  the  forceti  71  and  in  aota  vertically  down- 
I  equal  to  u  -f-  "■■ 

I  forcdSBOt  at.  the  exlremllief)  of  a  BtralKlit  h'ne  and  in  the 
pa  resultant  divides  the  line  joining  tbepoialK  nf  applieacloa 
■(«,  Inversely  aa  the  components.    Thus  In  Kig.  'Jl,  m  :  n  :: 

1 93.  P  ■■  <?  :■  S;V  '  '^■'^'-  N, ^q 

pf  two  parallel  forces  yT  ^  •« 

IB  directions  i!» parallel 

ioMl  both,  on  the  Kide  Bj,'       |C        «-D 

IStioii   of  the  greater,  /*  1 


418  ^^^r  MECHANICS. 


Thus  the  rMultant  of  the  two  forces  O  and  P.  Fig. 

K.    Of  any  two  pai 

N  restiltaot  ea«h  is  proportiooal 


}  panllet  bml 


Q< 9  tance  between  the  other  tiro;  ( 

FlRg.  02  and  93,  P  :  V  :  ff  : :  SA 

-»p         CoapI«s.-ir /'aixl  ^beo 

in  oppijfiitu  directions,  R  =  t  ' 

have  no  resultant.    Two  i 


/ 

* 

s* — 


I  I  fj  scictite  what  is  called  a  eo 

C  Tlie  tendency  of  a  coud 

Fig.  08.  rotation;  the  meanure  ot 

called   Me  morneni  0/  I    _ 

product  of  one  of  the  forces  by  the  dUtaiic«  between  the  tirQ 

Since  a  couple  has  no  single  resultant,  no  single  force 
couple.  To  prevent  the  rotation  of  a  body  act«d  on  by  n  coi 
tion  of  two  other  forces  is  required,  forruiai;  a  second  coup! 
<M,  P  and  i)  forming  a  couple,  may  be  balanced 
by  a  second  couple  formed  by  ff  and  6".  Tlie 
point,  of  application  of  either  if  or  S  may  be  a 
»lx("(i  piTot  or  axis. 


Moment  of  the  couple  PQ  -  P(e  +  6  +  q)  = 
iiotneiit  of  RS  =  B6,    Also,  P  +  R  =  Q  4  S. 
The  forcea  R  and  S  need  not  !)«  parmllel  to  P 


and  1^.  but  if  not,  tlien  tliair  components  parallel 
to  PQ  are  to  be  talcea  Instead  of  the  forces 
(h»»msHlves. 

Equlllbrlnm  tit  Forcea.— A  system  of 
forut-8  ftpplicd  at  pole  is  of  a  Kolid  iKHly  will  b« 
in  equilitirium  when  they  have  no  tendency  to 
pnxiuce  inotloD,  either  of  translation  or  of  rota- 
tion. 

The  conditions  of  equilibrium  are  :  1.  Tlie  algebraic  sii 
nenis  of  the  forces  in  ibe  direction  of  any  three  rect&ngula 
separately  oqusl  to  0. 

'i..  The  algebraic  sum  of  the  moments  of  the  forces,  viilkl 
thri*e  rectanifiilaraies,  iniixt  he  .«eparately  equal  toO. 

If  the  forces  lie  In  a  plane :  I .  The  olpfbraio  sum  of  the  ooq 
forces,  in  the  direction  of  any  two  rectang-ular  axes,  I 
equal  to  0. 

2.  Thealf^ebraio  sum  of  the  moments  of  the  forces,  wlU 
pniDt  in  the  plane,  must  be  equal  to  0. 

If  a  t>ody  is  re8traiiie<l  by  a  lixed  axis,  as  in  case  of  a  ptJIa 
axle,  the  forces  irill  be  in  a  equilibrium  when  ihe  alfrebralol 
mco'a  of  the  forcea  with  respect  to  the  axis  is  equal  to  0. 

CENTRE  OF  GBAVITV. 

The  centre  of  grftTity  of  a  l>ody,  or  of  a  system  of  l)odiea  1 
together,  is  that  point  about  which,  if  suspended,  nil 
>H)uilibrium.  that  is,  there  will  be  no  tendency  to  rou 
through  which  passes  the  resultant  of  the  efforts  of  ^  _ 
tlie  elementary  iMirtiele^  of  n  body.     In  bodies  of  e((ual  \ 
out,  Ihe  centre  of  gravity  is  ilie  centre  of  niagniutde. 

(The  centre  of  magniiiide  of  u  figure  is  a  point  such 
diriiletl  into  equal  pai'ts  the  distance  of  the  centre  of 
whole  Hgure  from  any  given  plane  is  the  mean  of  the  diala 
of  niagiiitudeof  tin-  several  eqiiul  paiis  from  llial  plane.) 

If  a  body  be  suspended  ai  its  centre  of  gravity,  it  will  \ 
all  positions.    If  It  he  suspended  at  a  point  out  of  its  c 
will  swing  into  a  position  such  that  ita  centre  of  gravity  Is  \ 
its  point  of  Hus|}«nsion. 

To  find  the  centre  of  gravity  of  any  plane  figure  mecluuii 
the  figure  by  any  point  near  li.«  edge,  and  marie  on  It  tit*] 
pjamb-liue  hung  from  that  point  ;  then  suspend  It  from  it 
^"d  again""-  '  •••action  Df  the  plumb-liue  in  like  raa 

•*t#  of '  -nrfuee  will  be  at  tbe  point  Of  ioti 

"BAT  'If' 

f  ■tty  of  n»s«\iLT  v\i 

lB0iiu-lr\MiL\  ceuvt«  v  lot  Vn 


UOVEKT  OF  IITEBTU.  419 


regular   ix>lyp;on,   circle,    circular   ring,   prism,  cjUnder, 

bid,  in{d<llR  frui<ttiiii«4  of  splieroiii,  etc, 

ie:  Un  a  line  Jrawn  from  any  angle  to  the  middle  of  the  op- 
la  di«Canc«  of  one  third  of  the  Hue  from  the  side;  or  at  the 
f  such  lilies  drawn  fruiu  any  two  aDgles, 

lium  or  trapezoid:  Draw  a  diaj?0Dal,  dividing  it  into  two  trl- 
»  a  line  joinln;?  their  centn^s  of  erttvlty.     Draw   the  other 

oalrinK  two  other  triangles,  and  a  line  Joining  their  centres.    The 

»  of  the  twi)  lines  is  the  cwntrt'  of  eravity  required. 

or  of  n  circle  :  On  the  rmlius  whifh  hlsects  Hio  arc,  'icr  -i-  3/  from 

c  beinK  the  chonl,  r  the  radijis,  and  I  the  arc. 

icirdi:  On  tlm  middle  radius,  .4^4-);'  from  the  centre, 

rfi-aiif ;  On  the  middle  radius,  .eO»Wr  from  the  cenire. 

irtti  of  a  circU  :  c'  -t-  lin  from  thB  centre,    c  =  chord,  a  =  area. 

itioUc sMr/tfce  :  In  the  axis,  3/5  of  its  length  fnun  the  vertex. 

i  pi  1 1  rt/(i);<t  {siirfncf) :  3/5  lenRth  of  the  aris  from  the  vertex,  and 

lui  bH.'^e  trimi  the  ails. 

<<»  pyinmid  ;  In  the  axis,  tij  of  its  lenRlh  from  the  basse. 

xboluid  :  In  the  ail.M,  94  of  Its  length  from  the  vortex. 

virr,  ur  re^futiii-  prism  ;  In  the  middle  point  of  the  axis. 

i(«4»t  o/<i  C'lUf  or  pyramid  :  Let  a  =  length  of  a  line  drawn  from 
"the  eune  when  complete  to  thecentreof  giavliyof  (he  base,  and 
of  it  between  the  vertex  and  the  top  of  the  fruHtiim;  then 
re  of  Kiavity  of  the  fmastum  from  centre  of  gravity  of  Its 
3«'* 


n'  +  an'  -4- a'') 

ittt,  fixed  one  at  each  end  of  a  straight  bar,  the  common 

rravjly  la  in  the  bar,  at  that  point  which  divides  the  cliNtance 
leir  rBSi>ective  eentrcn  of  gravity  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
n  this  sohitiiin  tlia  weight  of  the  bar  is  neglected.  But  it  may 
I  a  third  bod}\  and  allowed  for  as  in  the  following  dIn'CllouH  : 
•  than  two  bodies  CiMinecied  in  one  Kystein:  Kind  the  comtnon 
•avity  of  two  of  thetn  ;  and  find  the  cominnn  opiitre  of  these  two 
I  a  third  body,  and  so  on  to  the  last  body  of  the  group. 
iwthiul,  by  the  principle  of  moments;  To  find  the  centre  of 
1  system  of  bodie.s  or  a  bod^  coaatstiog  of  several  pnrt,s,  whnoe 
Ires  are  known.  If  the  lioches  are  in  a  plane,  refer  their  several 
two  rectjuieuliir  co-ordinate  axes.  Miilliply  each  weight  by  ilB 
>in  one  uf  die  axes,  add  the  prcHluuts,  and  divide  the  sum  by  the 
weights:  the  re.*;ult  is  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from 
Do  the  same  with  regard  to  the  other  axis.  If  liie  bodies  are 
.ne^  refer  ttiem  to  tbr^  planes  at  right  aiigleji  to  eacli  oilier,  and 
the  DieAU  distance  of  the  sum  of  the  weignts  from  each  of  the 

raOMENT  OF  INEBTIA. 

ent  of  inertia  of  the  weight  of  a  body  with  respect  to  an  axis  Ir 
Jc  sum  of  the  products  obtained  by  innUlplying  the  weight  of 
ilary  particle  by  the  square  of  its  dlst-ance  froin  the  axis,     If  iha 

ineitia  nilli  respect  to  any  axis  —  /,  the  weight  of  any  element 

=  ir,  and  its  diwtaiiee  fioiii  ihe  axU  =  r.  we  have  /  —  Sttpr'l. 
^^liC  of  itierfia  varieA,  in  the  same  body,  acconlin^  to  the  position 
Ills  the  least  possible  when  the  axis  pitsses  tliroiigli  the  centre 

To  find  the  mriirienl  t»f  iifertia  of  a  bod}*,  ivferreil  to  a  given 
the  lH>dy  into  small  parts  of  regular  figure.  Multiply  the  weight 
1  Ity  the  stpiare  of  the  distance  of  its  centre  of  gravity  from  the 
iiiin  of  the  products  Is  the  moment  of  inertia.    The  value  of  the 

:•••■■  thus  obtained  will  be  more  nearly  exact,  the  smaller  and 
"  parts  into  which  the  body  is  divided. 
riTU  or  RiaOLAK  Pouns.— Kod,  or  bar,  of  uniform  thlck- 
irBk"^-vi  lo  &u  axis  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  rod. 


I 


430 


Clrew»arpUie,»Tii  perpendkolar  t  , 


Ciicolu-  rin^.  mxts  perjieniUealar  I  ,_  „-/  t*-!-»^      ^,\ 


r  aod  r"  *rr  ih«  «st<>T{/>r  and  loiericr  tikdii  of  Uar  liiifc. 

r=  raJiu:         _       .  -  ;^li  of  tbe  crUadM-. 

tty  iii&kini;  rl  —  0  in  uiy  of  llie  aboT«  fill  iiiiitw  n  fcC  fl 
iioriin  fi'i'  o  fMimll*-)  htIo  thri-iiiph  the  centre  olgtrnttj. 


In. 


dixtiini'p  from  itie  c«ocre. 
tii^ruils,  p.  947. ; 


lumerickllr 
^nw  unity  fr 

-  ^-ne  rctelica 
J  >^BaafeiaeV 
^^  111* 
—  ^'1'-,  tit  "itx^uaumj' 
Ujee  Jtoment  of  Inertia. 


TIP.. 
Hi-- 
iiiti 

Wfl 

pin' 
vel 
thK 


CEXTBE  AJfD  BADICS  OP  CTVATMX. 

'nlrf  nf  ii'l'i'it.n.  ivi'li  rff.T-lirff  tO  an  azis.  b  •  |«*M  <3 

'  '-ated,  Hs  moowal  ot  ( 
-It.  the  point  Im 

^  fcMkm,! 
■i»av- 
If  B'  =  I 


bCHly,  i  -  2,>c<  >  —  iu  uiuiucut  ktL  Laerllu,  uuU  i;  =  iu  I 


/  =  Wk*  -  Si«i«;    it 


=  t«/-^=t 


The  mompnt  of  Inertia  =  the  weight  x  ff "fthe  rwllMirfO 

To  flmj  fh>;  ra-Jius  of  gynititm  divide  i  a  couiitaiaMH 

of  eijii.'il  siiinll  jjarts— tlie  nmr.!  iiunuT-  nearlj  eiaelB 

Hull,- tlifii  tftkt-  the  iiieaii  uf  nil  the  M|uint-,.,i   i  hp  dhstAlMMCf  ■ 
from  tlie  iivisfif  rev.tlulioii,  and  find  tlie  »4uare  niot  uf  th«  BMO  I 
f.)r,  If  the  iiionx-Dt  nf  Inertia  i<  known,  divl.ie  it  by  the  i»-?i{lit  i 
the  nqiinre  rout.    Fur  miliiifl  uf  Byration  uf  an  area,  as  a  cr 
Iteain,  divide  the  laoment  of  inertia  of  the  area  by  the  area  I 
square  ront. 

The  rudUiM  i»f  (nrallon  Is  the  leajtt  piioi- ' ' 
the  centre  (if  (truvity.    This  miiilinuin  r 
of  gyralUiu.    If  we  denot*  it  by  i  mid 
We  nave  for  the  live  coHea  givcu  under  llir  .len 
the  foiluwlne  v&liiog : 


•>—    iTiS 


(1>  Rod.aziiiperueD.to  I  t, , 


'/^  ^v?+-^ 


(S)  Olreular  plate,  azb  >»,_-, 
In  itH  plane,  J  «  =  g. 


r+*. 


(t)  CIreular  plate,  Aiif 
perpon.  to  plane, 


(4)  Circular  rini;,  axis  I  . 
p«rpnn.  to  plane,       f      ' 

I'm    (u  J 


I 


vi^ 

>F  OSCTLLATION   AND   OF   PETICUSSION".    431 


l*dll  orG)rrat1on  and  Sqnaren  of  Radii  of 
Oyration. 

ot  KyratioD  of  i!«ctions  of  columus,  see  poffe  349.) 


ror  Solid. 


.xiaat  its  bnse 

•■    iiiiil-heighl 

I  ajcis  at  end 

C    "    uiicl-leD^h.. 

n: 

«teiTed  to  axis  ia... 

mttth  I,  bnKe  b,  axis  | 

ilil-hreadtli ( 

je: 

A', ax  Is  inld-l(mgth . . 

"  tabe:  sides  6,  h,  I 

t.rjSiAmJi,ax.  diam. 
kmg.  h,  h\  axis  diara. 
rllnder:    le^riKth  },  I 

I  inid-lengtli. <, 

olid  wheel  of  tini- 1 
or  cylinder  of  any  }- 

to  axis  of  cyl ) 

nder,  or  tiat  ring: 
,  outer  aud  iiiuer 
loDgltudliial  axis; 
iengtb 

axig  itn  diameter.  . . 
■ia,  longitiid'l  axis.. 

I,  Axis  Itvcfiiti-e 

"     "   diom 

Bxi<;  iudiain 

orial  radius  r,  re-  I 

[i8<i. r 

rad.  of  base,  rev.  ( 

t 

te%  o,  6,  c;  revolv-  ( 

) 

lldii  S,  r,  revolving  { 
I 

rmdiug  r 

id.  of  base,  rev.  Ca  I 


Rad.  of  Oyratiou. 


.srr3/» 

.5773/ 
.*886( 

.5T7  f  fcS+eS 


.089  i'il'  +  i." 


.sag  {/W+h^ 

.408/1 


.r!SBIi 


./a+3/> 
r    h  +  'b 


%>■ 


M  »■',»+/.'» 


.289  Vi«-f  ai« 
.Wflr 


.889  ^'P  +  a(H'  +  l■i') 


.289  \f  +  tilf 


Hkitiniv  of  It. 
of  (lyrulion. 


1/1 4(» 

4(«  +  M 
i-' 

(ft'4.;i'9)-(-ii 
?.'  +  « 

13  ■  V»  4-  fr 
J4r»  =  /i>HHl« 

t/i»  +  'i'»)-«-lB 

«^  4 
Mr* 

fj       ;^  +  r» 

Is"*"        4~^ 
/»   ,   R» 


* 


r.+ 


s 


^r« 

8,.'5i-» 

2,31' 
hi  -t-  <•' 


3  fl'  - »« 
6  K>  -  t» 


0.3i« 


>ir  OSriLLATION  AND  OF   PKBCUSSIOIV. 

■cf  llatloni—If  a  body  osclllntt;  about  a  flxvd  liorizontni 
tbrougb  itM  centre  of  gravity,  there  in  a  point  in  (tie  llnt< 

autre  of  gravity  perpeniliciilar  to  tlie  axis   uhose  luolinn 

;  would  IHS  If  tho  wliole  iiia.'vs  were  civUected  at  iliat  point 

Ibrate  as  a  pendulum  about  tlie  llxed  axis.    This  point  is 

of  nj^cilliition. 
or  Onrlllatton,  or  distance  of  the  centre  of  ORclllnlion 

'  ■■■  ■■  inn  ^  the  isqiiare  of  the  radius  of  gyrntion  H-i 
•  ity  from  the  point  of  atispenHiou  or  axin  I  ■  ■ 
uspeiiEiun  are  C"nvpriible. 

r.  •■!  ui'iimm  thill  barorcjilndpr,  besiitq^ 

'« M  ao  axis,  the  centre  o/^oscfUatioi)  is  M 


{ 


I 

I 

I 


422 


MECHANICS. 


Ihe  rod  from  the  axis.    If  Ihe  poiiil  of  miKpeiiiiioii  ,_ 

ih«  end,  the  cenlra  of  rasclllalion  i»  sluo  ri  %  the  length  from  rlwD 
Ik,  it  iHat  che  ni her  end.  tii  bolb  vaio^s  ilie  oscillaliiui  nrill  be  ii«rtnf 
the  NBint'  timi*.  If  th«»  point  nf  sHspcnsimi  Is  ftf  Ilie  ceiitn?  of  grn 
length  of  the  equivalent  ^^ilIlple  peniliiliiiii  iir  itiflnUe,  and  thKrefore( 
of  vibrHtioii  iis  Infliiite. 

For  &  sphere  suspended  by  a  cord,  >■  =  raditiR,  h  =  dii<t»nc«< 
motion  frotn  the;  cvnti'e  of  Ihe  sphere,  h'  ^  diatAiice  of  centre  I 

from  centre  of  the  gphere,  i  zi  radius  of  o«cillatton  =  A  +  A' 

If  the  sphere  vibrate  about  an  axis  tan^nt  to  its  surface,  h  : 

+  S/Sr.    If  ft  =  lOr,  J  =  10r+  ^■ 

lyenRths  of  the  radius  of  oHciDation  of  a  few  reR-nlar  plane  III 
plates,  iiuspended  by  the  vertex  or  upperiuosi  puint. 

iRt.  When  the  vibrations  are  rtntwlso,  or  per(>endicii1nr  to  ill 
fljniro: 

In  an  l.soaoeles  triangle  the  radiua  of  oscillation  Is  equal  Uifii 
of  Ihe  trianfcle. 

Ill  a  ijiicie.  a.  of  the  diameter. 


In  a  narabiila,  5/7  of  the  height. 
M.  When  the  viliratio 


tiojTR  are  eilirewlBe,  or  in  the  plane  of  the  I 
In  aclrole  the  radius  <if  (jticillaiion  in  9i  of  the  d  la  metier. 
In  a  rectAngle  gogpended  lif  <'ne  ani;le,  %  of  the  diatT'^inal, 
In  a  pm-abola,  «u8peiided  by  tlie  vertex,  5/7  of  the  height,  ] 

parameter. 
In  B  parnbnla.  siiRpeiide<l  by  the  middle  of  the  bnstf,  4/!  of  Ita 

J4  I  lie  painmeter. 
Centre  of  P«rruaalon.— The  centre  of  percussion  nf  •  hndy 

luK  about  a  li.xed  u.tis  is  the  puint  at  which,  if  a  binu'  Is  slriu-k  bf  l! 

the  peivUH-iive  aclliin  in  the  same  as  if  ilie  whole  mass  of  the  boily  « 

cenlrated  at  the  poim,  Thlx  point  ix  i<lentical  with  tlie  centre  of  id 

THK  PENDfrLVm. 

A  body  of  any  form  siispemfed  from  ii  fixed  nxis  aboui  whicii  II ' 
liy  the  force  of  (fravity  \»  calieii  a  rompoun'f  pfurlnlnni.    Tin-  iJi 
concentrated  ai  the  i.-entre  of  osdllntion  .■iiiSppndi.fl  frtirn  ■' - — '  ■ 
l.>en«ion  liyft  KtiinK  nitliout  weiiiht,  (»  called  ii  miiiitir  }>rn 
valent  Khiiple  pendiduiii  has  the  same  weight  hh  the  vn 
Ihe  name  inoiiieiit  of  inertin,  referred  In  an  axix  imlssIii^ 
of  siwpeniil'iTi.  and  It  ot<cillHte«  In  the  same  line. 

Theonlinar|'  pendulum  of  a  given  length  vilii-ntes  In  equal  IM 
anntle  of  the  viljralionsdoea  not  exceed  J  ur  Silegne      ' 
aide  of  the  vertical.     This  pn)|H?rty  of  a  pemluhuii  i 

The  lime  of  vtbiailon  of  a  pendulum  varies  •lire,  i  |[| 

the  length,  ami  Inversely  a»  the  square  niot  of  the  ;i» 

ity  at  tlie  given  lalilUile  and  elevatiiMi  nlxive  Ibeeiii-th'H  suifn' 

If  r  =  the  lime  of  Tibralioii,  i 


A. 


length  of  Ihe  simple  peiidullj 
it 


eration  =  HiAIL  T=  w  t/  -;  since  *  UooimtanC,  Tk  -^.    At  I 
tlon  g  IB  constant  and  r<ic  \1,    If  I  bn  coDRiant,  then  for  I 


T«c  — .   If  jTiie  constant,  !}T*  =  »'/;   i  x  ff;   it  = 


From  I 


the  force  of  graritv  at  any  place  ina.v  be  deterininett  if  ihe  lro| 
Riinple  pendulum,  vibrating  Recniid»,  ni  iliut  plac»  Im  known.  At  1 
this  length  i*  MS.IOIT  incheH  =  .<l  3.v(s  ft  .  wlieoce  »  =  ttttb  fi.  A(  U 
length  it>  30.1303  Inches.  Al  the  equator  39:0131  or  au.OISK  Itiohm.  i 
to  dlireront  authorltie-<. 

Be  of  TlUratioa  of  a  pendulum  of  a  given  length  st  New  Tt 


Srrt,   ACCELERATtON,   FALLING   BODIES.      423 

IrthrAtlon  of  a  pendulum  may  l>e  varied  by  th«i  addition  nt  a 
IDint  above  Ihe  ceutrn  of  sii.spensinii,  wlifeli  coiititpract«  th^ 
»nd  leiiirllu'nH  Hie  iwriod  of  vlln-aliori.  By  varjiim  tlie  bfi^lll 
|r«iKht  the  time  iK  vai'Je<l 

rei);ht  nf  tlic  upper  bob  of  a  c«iitpoun<1  pcndiiliiiii.  vibialin^ 
tlic  n'<-ii.-ht  of  Ihe  lower  bob,  aod  the  distances  uf  the  weighta 
i  of  suspviuUou  are  Riven: 

(98.1  +  0)-  p. 
(33.1  +d)+cP 

pTit  of  tlie  lower  bob.  to  =  tliif  welg-ht  of  thp  upp<T  bob;  0  = 
tlie  lower  h<ih  and  d  =  the  distauee  of  ibe  ujjper  liob  fioiii 
sftennion,  in  indies 

itis  of  a  «eci>iiil  hoh.  short  pendulums  may  be  constructed  to 
Iv  ao  longer  peaduiutns. 
ic  or  rf  until  ihe  lower  weiehl  is  entirely  coiinierl  slaiiced, 


Bim 


mt.iiiii  iiiiiy  1)1^  ciiade  iiinidle. 
■■endDluin.— A  weifflit  suspended  liy  a  eard  nnd  rfrdlving 
spot'J  ill  till"  circuraferenee  of  a  circular  houz^mnl  plane 
1 1 ,  tli<-  di<<tance  of  the  plane  below  the  poisit  of  MiBpension  be- 
I  equilibrium  by  three  lorcei* — tiie  tension  in  ihe  cord.  Ihf  **eii» 
vhich  lenriH  to  increase  the  mdiiis  r.  and  the  fon-e  of  Rravity 
rard.  If  V  =  tlie  velocity  iu  feet  |ier  secotidl.  iii»*  i  entre  of 
Hrelght,  aH  It  describe«  the  ctrcurtiference.  ;/  =  S-  111.  and  r 
|0  iu  feet,  the  liiue  in  aecondD  uf  |)errornilnj;  one  L-evulutiun  is 


.=.»^  =  8.|/J;     )i  =  S  =  .«»«.. 


Bid,  h  =  .8148  fool  =  fl.rrs  ladiea. 
!  of  the  conical  peixiiiluni  is  used  in  the  Ckrdiusry  By-ball 
team-engineu.    (See  Governore.) 

CBNTRIPUGAL  FORCE, 

vine  in  a  curved  path  of  radius  —  B  in  feet  exerts  a  force, 
ifSaX  force,  f",  upon  the  nriii  or  cord  ivhicti  reKirHina  It  from 
ralKlit  line,  or  ••tiyln<;o/T  at  a  tanKeni-."  If  ir  =  weiulit  of 
iuU'Ib.  iV  —  niiinl>er  of  rev»'iuil'in«  per  rniinitc.  v—  linear 
centre  of  gravity  of  itie  body,  in  fe^^t  per  Gucond,  g  =  3'I.IS, 

TFiH         H-P»        Win^RX^WRX^        nnm.)nii->7W  itw 

pB  =  ^UHH  =    mm    =  "aisr  =  -""""Off  «^  "»* 

!r  of  revolulioni  per  Beeoml,  F  =  l.iiT6  WJTii', 
force  III  fly-wheels,  see  Kly-wheels.) 

nrVf  AC'CGIiEBATION,  FAIiMNG  RODIES. 

I  the  rate  of  inolioa,  or  the  distance  passed  over  liy  a  bo<iy  In 

In  feet  passed  over  in  (  seconds,  and  i;  =  velocity  In  feet  per 
reiocHy  IS  uiiifurni, 

•  •         A  * 

V=j;    .  =  r/:     f  =  ^. 

jr  T«rie«  uiiifonnly,  the  mean  velocity  v,  =    '"^   *.  in  whiuh 
y  at  tlw  beginning  and  t'|  the  Telocity  at  the  end  of  the  tJuie  t, 

.  =  H^'« (1) 

_  a  (s  the  change  In  velocity  wliicli  IhIcck  place  in  a  unit  of 
uccrleratlon  =«=  I  foot  per  geonnd  in  hub  —  ^  •-  iTi^f 
\ag  velocity,  tlie  acceleration  l.s  a  couscani  (\,\ 


-':    *^  =  *■'!+  "t;   tj  =  I',  -  of;    t  =  ^ 


KSCBAXICaL 


I 


U  il«e  tMMlr  tfArt  from  real,  V,  sQ;tlw« 

vt=~;     e»  =  Sp»;    o=»^;    Pi  ^  at;    r, -•{■•:    l«' 
OaaMUng  (t)  and  (3),  we  hay* 

If  r,  =  0. .  =  ^1. 

Bet«rded  JIf  otlon*— If  the  body  start  witli  a  i*luu<|  (t  i 
rwt,  rj  =  0;  (beik  «  =  ~t. 
la  any  caae.  if  (lie  cbaoge  in  Telociijr  is  v. 

Fur  a  body  atarting  from  or  ending  at  rest,  we  h»*«  tka  i 

FsllInK  Bodlew.-  In  the  C8<w  of  fnlllnir  bodM  ibe  i 

to  ({"'*">  1*3-10  f«-t  pt?rs«H'«iti'l  ill  oiii"  »«^-ijiiil.  =  y     ■T1iri>rft4 
acquirt^  at  tlie  end  uf   I  M*coii(tH,  or  final  velocity,  mqJ  h  =  I 
in  leot  pawed  over  iii  tli«  lutne  lime, 

o  s  0(    =  8a.l«   =   t'^.  =  8.08  ih  =  -Ji 

I.      O'*       i«»u<       "'  **  **. 

j/      -Sa-lB    ~y     {/    ""4  01  ~  tr' 

M  =  sp«oe  fallen  III.        ■       ■'     Tr'  *    *-'• 

Value  of  (».— Tli«  viilm-  of  j;  1  i 

Willi  ilweleral ion.     At  il<e  luaiii<l> 

till-  m-a-lcvBl,  Evpi-elt  jfivex  p  =  Si.llU  -  .tK<J  cus  :J  ii(  -  .lM.U-3  >-»{« 
f(<-l.    At  I'nris,  (at.  ifi'  .'.■)'  v.,  17  -  "-  n.T  .''ti   —  .TM8I  ft,  J 

Vnllieis  nf   V^,  calculated  l>y  an  pquatlnn  i^vr-Q  hy  C,  ft.  Pitnc.  HCW 

in  a  inMe  in  Smiili's  Hydmuliu*,  fr wlil<-li  wo  liiici*  Hit;  fallciwiaf:'.  J 

Lallliide  0«  10°  «»  30*  «>•  »!•        ■ 

Voliimf  VjT/..    Spoils      8.0118      ftOlW      8.0105      8.0M*      8.W0    li 

Tint  valii>-  of  f'^t;  ducreasea  about  .0U04  for  every  1000  fei*!  IseriaMid 
Viil Ion  nliove  the  sea  level  I 

Vur  all  ordinary  calculations  for  the  Uidicd  States,  0  l->  generally  tiM 
84  16,  onrt  f  ?3  at  8.02.  In  Ensrland  a  ^  W.I,  I'*?  =  H.iiss.  l>rac(lMll| 
lOK  values  of  y  for  tbe  Dnit«d  ijiateoi  accunJiuf;  to  Plvrcv,  are  : 

Latitude  49°  at  !wa-1eve]  g^tL\M 

i25°  10,000  feet  ahovn  the  Noa. u  ^  J.'IW 

From  (he  above  rnriiiuin  for  fallhi);  Iwidieu  wr  ohfnln  ihr  '■ 

Iliii'JMK  the  fli'gt  8i>ci>ntl  lliu  hndy  Kinrtjne  fruDi  a  olaie  nr 
Of  tliealr  ueKk-oltd)  falla  y -+- !>  =  lO.Ue  feet;  llie  sit-cinlivil  >    _ 

Bit  to  ft.  per  sec. ;  the  distance  falleo  In  two  seuonds  is  /t  =  -^  =  1(«(  >| 

l.ttfttnnd  the  noqtilred  velocity  Ui' =  p/  ~  01.33  ft.  The  OMvlrradd 
ilU'ieaxe  (If  volix'liv  in  i-ik-Ii  M-Oiml,  iscuiistanl.  nml  IsSllOfl.  |irr  «r.  ) 
ug  Die  c<)iii.llonH  tor  dinen-nl  tlnieM,  we  flnil  liir 

B«'ri>1»l«,  I  .,     1  I       »       4      J 

<«  •.•l.'i«ll..ji, «    S-MI      XI  I        I        It 

I'liieliy  iieqiilrrdatpndortlme,  v....  n.lO     X    1  t       S       4      > 

iiflituf  fall  iniiai!h  fwMJOud,  u...     .    iLl?     y    |  Si       T      I 

Iii-iVM  ofJM^^ ^^     V.    \       4       V      t«     S 


r,  ACCELERATION,   FALLIKQ   BODIES. 


etc.,  ot  A  body  (tvUlo(  (or 


1      1 


4     3     4 


^.igrapliically  Mie  velocity,  space, 

iTflrticallltioattlielMftlB    fc     « 

ftiidfi,  lli«'  hc'i'lziitilal  liuPH 

Uf  the  acmilrrd  vrlivitie* 

|ch  !t<>cuDu.    The  urea  of 

(le  at  Uie  top  rciirfHents 

in  tkrouft  ■    iu    ilie   first 

16.06  fei-t.niid  each  of  \Uc. 

is  an  equa.  space.    1'he 

gleg  between  ejich  pair  of 

repiTisents  the  height  of     9      5      0    S" 
Sond,  and  the  iiiiriib>t-r  of 
HI  ativ  hoi'IziHitaJ  Hue  and 
ola\  helgbt  fallen  diirhig  IQ     7     &    4" 

figures  under  h,  u.  and  v 
jt  are  to  be  niiiUiplml  by 
tli«  actual  velocliies  and  25     9    10    5' 
{iren  tliiieii. 

Dd  Linear  Velocity 
Ody.— Let  r  =  ruiliii»i  of  u   3fl    ]]    18    G" 
feet.  «  =  hutiibfer  of  revo- 
bte,  i;  =  Une.ar  velocity  of 
lircuiilfereDOu  in  feet  per  secoDd, 


KlO.  85. 


and  60o  k  velocity  in  feet 


2irru 
'    BO   ' 


60t'  =  S-rni. 


elly  la  a  term  use<l  to  deiinte  the  nngle  tlirmiKlJ  wlilc-li  any 
ly  lurns  Iu  a  secuiid,  or  ihe  nite  at  uhii'li  nay  point  in  it> 
iMiial  to  tinity  is  inovlhe.  expresswd  in  feel  pi-r  "nei-iiiiiJ.  The 
Telocity  IR  the  angle  wbich  at  a  dlKlancu  =  rndins  from  thn 

IHtl 
tided  by  an  arc  eqiud  to  the  radiu».    Tlila  unit  angle  =  — 

;    8v  X  B7.S°  =  360',  or  the  circuinfeieiice.    It  A  =  aDKular 

p  -       r      00  • 

^rroapondtne  to  a  Given  Acquired  Telocity. 


>i 

■& 

>^ 

>, 

*» 

*| 

*i 

1 

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O 

1 

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> 

CC 

1* 

K 

k 

K 

t* 

feet 

feet 

feet 

feet 

tuet. 

feet 

feet. 

feet 

I)  KI'C. 

p.HfC. 

p.  sec. 

p .  see; 

a.Oii 

M 

17.0 

.% 

47.0 

70 

8U.H 

97 

3.0^1 

86 

19.0 

r>o 

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87 

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in.|.s. 

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1   426 

MECHANICS.                   '^^W 

'    FrIHiie  Bodlea  i  VaIocIIjt  Acquired  by  m  Body  nR 
Given  Helelx. 

i 

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£ 

b 

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fmn 

aad  im 

illelojcrani  of  Velocltli 

jliiUoii  of  forofH  may  a\riO  > 

oioriHj 

n  givtiii  iutei-Tala  at  lUue. 

mt  0  bat 

B  d  force  applied  to  it  w^> 
ted  by  O^  per  aecond.a 

iVptVBea 

* 

^. 

VELOCITY,  ACCELERATION,  PALLING   BODIES.     4 


13H 


Klo.  00. 


r  force  which  ardOK  alnne  would  grire  It  a  ▼rl<wil}'  OP  per  luH^orHli, 

tiltuf  tilt*  two  forces  ootiii^  together  for  one  Bf^Miiiil  will  carry  it  to 

'  lifiiir  tbe  liiiittOHul  of  tlie  par«lleli>grttMi  nf  <><^  ftinJ  Of.  iinil  the 
fcaiicrfliidty.    If  the  two  cotiip.iUf  nl  veHiclliKs  are  iinlforir).  tim  ii^iilt. 
I »ai bn iinKorm  and  the  liDf  OH  will  b«  a  slraieht  linr;   l>iit  If  rilhir 
I  n-Kliv  is  a  vHryinu  ouc.  tinf  liuc  will  be  a  ourre.    tie.  W  shoim  tbe 
"UltAiii  thI  icititHj^  ftisii  the  |»aih  iravtTFed 
I irolr  »et<<d  0!i  by  two  foiLts.  mie  of 
iwouU  carry  It  at  a  uiiiforiii  »»•  locity 

Mnlerralh  1,  ■.'.  3.  B.  BOil  ihf  ntluT  of 
I  would  L'urry  it  by  an  arci'lerali-il  njrv. 
WW  tlie  intf rvaU  ir.  6,  c.  /'  in  tde  xaine 

At  Hw  end   oif  iht<  reKi«-cll»<-  iultr- 

iliod.vwill  be  found  ftl.  C,.  C,  Tj.  C. 

t  mean  velocltv  diiriiii;  •  acli  >ni«;rvnl 
.  wenljsj  by  tlie  distatni's  between 
Ipiiiils.  Such  a  eiirv«i  palU  is  trav- 
I  >>;a  tliot,  the  iiiiiiflliiiK   force   fnini 

1  giviric  it  a  uiiifiiriii  velot-ity  In  the 

too  the  giin  is  aimed,  and  gravity  i^iv- 
l  Au  scct^ierateii  veloL-ity  downward, 
Mhiifiijnnji'clile  ift  n  finralxilit.    Tlie 

IC' It  will  Lrarel  in  greatest  wliea  its  initial  direction  is  at  an  aiif^ln  4&* 
ItiKlioriioniHl. 

■»  Force  or  Acceleration. — 77iem(t/i«  of  alKwIy,  nr  tlietjuatiiity 
Uerli^jDiniiig,  ii^acuDstaiit  quantity,  while  (he  weli;litvarleHH<<cordini; 
•uriation  in  the  force  of  gravity  at  different  plaoeH.    If  <]  —  ilie  uoc«ler- 

pJnelO gravity, and  u>  =  weight,  Ihmi  the  mass  m  =  —  ,io=  tug.    Weight 

""M  tlie  resultant  of  the  forre  (rf  jfntvity  on  Ihe  partleleg  of  a  hody, 
JuuuHf  be  measured  by  a  pprinR  bnlnnVe,  "t  \iy  the  exieoslon  or 
^kJ     rod  of  metal  loaded  with  the  given  w  elKlit. 

'  Mt  bren   defined  as  tbtit  ulilch  rBiisesi,  nr  teiidn  lo  cause,  or  to 
tnolion.    It  may  al^o  be  di-fined  (Kennedy's  Meclmnii's  of  Ma- 

'  M  tbe  cause  of  acceleraiiun;  and  the  unit  of  foroe  sa  ihu  force 

'  to  produce  unit  ac<releration  in  a  unit  of  free  niasfi. 

*,^liinl,*  ilie  prwliict  of  the  niiiKs  by  the  acoelerfttion,  or/  =  \»fi. 
^Y  =  y\'f  ^v\'vn\f  tiKt\\i\r^'m  the  time  f,  ^/  =  mv\  f=  mti  +  f;  Ihe 

itJunt»in(junifonn. 
•KrcB  ri<<)iiired  to  produce  an  aco«leratiOD  of  g  Uhat  is,  3J.18  ft.  per 

"Wieoondls/ =  1113  =  — g  =  ur,  or  the  weiglit  of  Ihe  body.  Also, 


t      ' 


in   which   r. 


'Wthe  tjeglnning  of  the  time  t,  Bnd/=  mg  = 


s  tbe  rel(x;ily  nt  the  end,  and  t'l  the 

W  (»-  —  I'.l        w 

— s -=  — (i: 


f •  "r,  Ihu  force  required  to  Rive  anj*  acceleration  to  a  body  is  to  the 

♦  of  lh«  bod^r  aa  that  acceleration  is  lo  the  nceelerallon  produced  b; 

(Tbe  weiifht  w  is  the  weiKht  where  ij  i»  mensured.V 

TJ!— Teuiilon  in  a  curd  lifting  a  vvwiirlit.    A  weight  of  IPO  lh«.  is 

Ihally  by  a  cord  a.  dlptanie  i^f  .*!  feet  in  J  ^eeotnlfi,  tin-  velocity 

,  f  iocreasing  from  0  to  the  pfid  t,t  Ihe  lime.    IVIiat  Itn^inn  must  be 

*e(l  b  tbe  cord!    Mean  velooitv  =  r,  =  30  ft.  per  nee;  final  velocity 

'i=40;accele'T\tiona  =  —  =  -   —V\.    Forou /  =  ni 'i  =  ■ — =TriiX 
_  '  t        A  fJ      3-I0 

l^'l.lllis.    This  Is  the  force  required  to  praluce  Ihe  acceleration  only; 
Lj^H't  be  added  the  force  required  to  lift  the  weight  without  accelera- 
■  j5»r!(».1|i,s.,  niakiust  a  total  of  181.1  lbs. 
***Rttiit,inct  to  Accrterntioti  i«  the  subie  an  the  force  required  to  pi 

"de  accalerstloo  ^  —    — p-^. 

(/  r 

'^^ul^  for  Aeceleratfd  iWotlon.  — For  cases    ot  \n>\loTmVj 

'"■"UttJ m.,i)oa  atlier  thai,  iliose  of  iiiltin^  bodies,  we  have  iVto  tonaviSab 

g      t     •    "  'J'^  bo«ly  "tarts  from  rest,  «»  =»  'J*** 


-m 


mASii 


=  V,  aDd/=  -  j,  /</'  =•  wv. 

Vtituting  for  n  itK  kalue  3-.M0,  ire  ulitnia 


1IECHAK1CS. 


We  also  have  i  = 


TiaiL^ 


h 


/=- 


Ml  =  i-  =  — ^: 

tPT'          16.0e/»«  _    «rt 
64.34^  ~         to         ~    8    • 

...„^/§.i 

«.i6/  ~  4.01  y  / 

For  any  change  in  reloclly/-  ""C    bJ^T*"/* 


(Sre  also  Work  of  Acceleration,  under  Work.) 
f    notion  ou  Inclined  Plane*.— Tbe  velocity  nc<|iiii>Ni  hy«| 
drM.'<;udin^'  au  iucliu«<l  plane  by  lUv  forct.-  of  K'STliy 
t-qnal  lo  that  ncqiiired  by  a  bo(iy  falling  frii^ly  from  t  ■ 
'I'lie  I iities  of  descent  do^n  clilTeicot  iuclJne<l  plaue- 
^fui'V  tm  the  letitfih  of  the  plauvs. 

'I'lie  rules  for  uDiformly  acceleroted  motion  apply  to  Inclined  { 
1  llie  nnglc  of  tli(<  plane  with  the  liorizoDCal,  giu  u  =.  lite  ratio  i 

the  Iwrgtb  —  --.  and  the  c<^natant  accelerating  forcn  la  g  alo  Ot] 

•eliiolty  at  ilie  end  of  t  seconds  Is  r  =  gt  gin  o.    Tlie  distaooe  | 
1  seconds  isl  =  yi  gt*  sin  a.    The  time  of  deaiceat  Is 


nomETtTvm,  tis-viva. 

Itonientnm,  or  quantity  of  inoiion  hi  a  body,  bi  the  protfoetd 

TV 

by  ilie  Vfliicily  at  any  luslanl  —  iwr  =  --«. 

I    Since  tlie  movirs  torw  =  prodiici  of  Mia.<«  by  acotleroilou.  /; 

Ftlip  velocity  nc<|ulreil  in  I  seconds  =  r,  orri  =  1'  ^  ~  ~r  '  /'  =  ' 

thn  piiuhict  of  a  constant  force  iiiUi  the  time  In  which  It  acta « 
ivRlly  Ilie  nionientiim. 

Since/*  =  mv,  If  (  =  1  second  mu  r-  /,  whence  moii 
llnwl  ns  nnnierically  equivalent  to  Ilie  nuinln'rof  (h'm 
W"'|iii  nnivinp  imdy  in  1  second,  or  the  aunil>or  of  ji 
tetlnir during  I  »eciind  will  irlve  it  the  trlven  v~"locity. 

VI»"Vl¥a,  or  living  force,  is  a  term  used  by  eiirly  wrilern  onj 
Eto  ilei  uLc  (he  energy  stoivd  In  a  niuving  body.     8oui«  drfliicd  It  i 

JucI  of  the  maps  into  the  njunre  of  ibe  velocity,  nic',  - 

bnlf  «(  I  hlK  quantity  or  Wiir>,  orllie  same  as  wliat  is  now'knov 
Ilie  tnno  Is  now  pracilcally  obsolete,  its  place  being  takan 

■uvrxy. 

WOBK,    ENEBGV,    POWBR. 

Work  is  the  OvercoinliiR  of  re.<iistaiioe  Ihroiigfa  ii  certuin  ill»<^ 
mensuied  by  Ilie  pt<Mlin-t  uf  Elie  resiMiiin"''  intn  tli»- *it,v,  ,.  ihr 
JB  overcouie,    li  i^ 
tlie  distance  lhr<' 
'Tliii^  111  lifnii.  a  ;, 


hvagl. 


1 1. 


•iisure«,  is  lh«i  /rnt-l 
<ii>ui);  a  vi^^>isur«  or  welKllt 


WORK,   EKKRGV,   POWER.  i'.'D 

fp«!rfonB(fd  by  a  piHton  in  driving  a  fliiM  bofore  il,  or  by  a  Hui( 
piston  before  it,  may  be  exprcswd  in  eitlicr  of  lli«  rollowiq 
Basistauce  X  distance  travere&d 
=  iijlenRity  iif  pi-«isure  X  area  x  distance  traversed  ; 
=r  intensity  of  pressure  X  volume  traverswrl. 
irort  performed  in  liftini;  n  body  is  the  product  of  tlie  weight  nf  tl; 
Ito  the  beielit  throi](.'h  wlilcli  Us  cenlre  of  gravity  is  lifted.   , 
iiacbiiie  lifls  tlie  L»eiitres  of  pravity  of  several  l>rKiics  at  onet-  to  hrJKblC 
the  same  or  diUereiit.  tlie  wliole  quantity  of  worli  performed  in  itfi 
I  the  sum  of  tiie  Gevenil  protliiels  of  the  wi'ii.'litH  ami  lielt;lits  i  hiit| 
lautity  can  also  be  eoin[iiite<l   by  iniiltiplylniy;  llie  Miin   >>f  nil  lliQ 
»  into  the  height  through  which  their  coinuion  centre  of  gravity  ' 
(Rankine.) 

rer  is  the  mte  at  which  work  !g  done,  and  lit  expivstgeii  by  the  <)ii<l 
Ihe^  work  divided  by  the  time  in  which  It  is  done,  or  by  units  of  worl 
ond,  per  ndnule,  etc.,  a.s  foot-pounds  |ier  seeond.  The  nujxt  conitnoill 
I*>wer  i«  tl»e  /ior.sc-7ioti-er.  established  by  Jaine.»*  Walt  as  tlie  power' 
r  Ixmdon  drauijlit  fiorse  to  do  work  duHtiE  a  short  interval,  and  us« 
to  mmisure  the  power  of  his  steani-etieim-s.    This  tinit  is  as.OfrO  foo|< 
per  minute  =  550  foot-pounds  persieeond  =  1,0811,000  fout-puunds  pa 

ExpreiAlons  for  Force,  ^HTork,  Power,  «tc. 

untlainentnl  conceptlous  lu  Dyiinniics  are  ; 

•e,  Xlme,  Space,  represented  by  the  letters  F,  T,  S. 

lelty  =  space  divided  by  time,  V=  ^,  if  Fie  uniform. 

•It  =  product  of  force  Into  spacu  =  Fii  =r  >r  =  FVT.  ( F'unlfortn.) 

rmr  =  rate  of  work  =  work  divided  l>y  time  =  —  =  P  =  product  of 

ito  velocity  =  FV.  ■ 

r  ozerted  for  a  certain  time  prodtices  work;  PT  =  FS  =»  FVT  =  IV.  1 
rC  is  a  name  applied  to  a  force  whicli  acts  on  a  body  in  tlie  dlreclioir 

lOtloil. 

|atan«e  U  that  widoh  is  opposed  to  a  movinji^  force.  It  is  equal  and 
e  force. 

«e-power  HonrM,  an  expres.ston  for  work  measured  a«  the 
t  of  a  power  Into  the  time  during  which  it  {tct?  =  PT.  SonietilueB  it 
umniation  of  a  variable  power  for  a  given  time,  or  the  average  power 
ff*il  by  the  time. 

reft  or  stored   work,  is  tlie  capacity  for  performing  work.    It  is 

•ed  Uy  the  ."^ame  unit  an  work,  tlial  is,  in  foot-poundst.    It  may  boj 

poienfi'of.  as  in  the  eaiie  of  a  body  of  water  Klored   In  a  reservoir^, 

i  of  doinit  work  by  means  of  a  water-wheel,  or  achiiil.  sometime 

Wat'<«,  which  13  tlie  energy  of  a  movlne  body.    Potential  energy 

■ed  by  the  product  of  the  weiplit  of  the  stored  l>o<ly  into  the  distance 

h  which  it  i»  cupalil**  of  aetini.'.  or  by  Ihe  product  of  itie  pi  essure  il 

Into  the  distance  through  wliieb  that  pte,sstn-e  is  en.|udjle  of  acting,  j 

lal  energy  may  also  exist  as  storel  heat,  or  as  sinred  elu^inical  energy,  J 

'H'l.  eunpowiier,  ete.,  or  on  electrical  energy,  the  measure  of  thessl 

■  ',,  -^  -  fii,.  amount  ot  wovk  that  they  are  eapnbV  of  perforitiing. 

r  II  moviirgbody  is  I  he  work  which  il  is  I'Bpaliie  of  f>or  forming 

ling  reaistance  before  being  liroughl,  lo  rest,  and  is  equal  to 

must  be  done  oiv>n  it  to  bring  it  from  a  state  of  rest  to  its 

■f  actual  energy  is  the  product  of  the  wel^rht  r.f  the  body 
r-  i,.-.i;hi  from  which  it  must  fall  to  ac<)iilre  Its  acltial  velocity.  1ft'  = 
ueity  in  feet  per  second,  according  to  the  principle  of  failing  bodies. 

mi^t  due  to  the  velocity  =  — ,  and  if  le  =:  the  weight,  the  energy  = 

■A.  As  tbeqnontlty  —  Is  called  Ihe  mass  s  hi,  energy  id  equal  to  In 

■  s(]uareof  the  velocity  =  l^wn;'.  Since c|ni|^lslliecapa''li 
.ork,  the  units  of  work  and  energy  a(||^||H||B(,  Of  F8^ 

-      -  »  wh,    Knergy  exerted  =  work  done. 


t  is      , 
ba^ 

nef^H 
'  la^ 


430  MECHANICS. 

The  actual  eaergy  of  a,  rotatitiK  body  whose  an^lar  *ek 

moment  o{  inerila  Siii'  =  /  iii  -;.- ,  that  is,  the  product  of  tht 

2g 
loertia  into  the  height  due  to  the  velocity.  A,  of  a,  point  wboM  < 

the  axis  of  rotation  Is  unity;  or  It  is  equal  to  — — ,  in  which  ivi 

the  hoilv  and  v  Is  t)if  vplocity  of  the  centre  of  gyration. 

Work  or  Acecleratlon.  -The  work  done  in  ^vini;  accrlfn 
body  is  equal  lo  the  product  of  the  force  producin)?  the  BL-ct^len>Ui 
Che  regmtaiice  toacceleraiion,  into  the  distance  moved  in  n  given  tin 
force,  as  already  stated  equals  the  product  of  the  luass  into  the  ace* 

or/=  ma  s^ ^-r — -'•    U  the  distance  traversed  in  the  time  li 

ff       » 

,        ,       w  «,  —  «i 

woric  =  fM  = 2-T — a 

If        t 
ExjMptjtt.— <Vhat  worlc  is  required  to  move  a  body  welKhlne 
zonrally  a  di^^tance  of  80  ft.  iu  4  seconda,  the  velocity  uiilfortnt 
friction  neglected  f 
Mean  velocity  u,  =  20  ft.  per  second;  final  velueity  =  u,  =  Sir, 

Telocity  r,  =  0;  acceleration,  a  —  -*-j — '-  =  —  =  10;  force  = 

10=81.1  Ibs.jdist-anceBOft.;  work  =  /»  =  3t.l  X  SO  =  3488  foot: 
The  energy  stored  in  the  l>ody  moving  at  the  tlual  velocity, 
second  ia 

Hmv*  =  --«.  =  ^3^^^  =  i!*«  foot-pound., 

which  equals  the  work  of  acceleration, 

/••  -  !^  ?!.  -  !f.  !^  !^/  -  *  !f.,.  1 
■''-  g   t        g    t  'i'-'s  j,^" 

If  a  bodrof  the  welgfht  W  falls  from  a  heli^rht  H,  the  worlc  of 
Is  simply  WH,  or  the  same  as  the  work  required  to  raise  th< 
same  height. 

Work  of  Accelerated  Rotation.— T^t  A  —  an^dar 

solid  t>ody  rolatiiiK  about  an  Hxis,  timt  is.  the  velocity  of  a  p| 
radius  is  unity.  Then  the  velocity  nf  a  particle  whose  railinii  fl 
If  the  aiieidar  velocity  is  accelerated  from  A,  to  A«,  Ihe  lot 
velocity  of  the  particle  la  c,  —  u,  =  t(Ai  -  Jj),  and  the  work  of 
it  (s 

g^       i       -  a         a 

lo  which  IS  is  the  veifcht  of  the  particle. 
The  work  of  acceleration  of  tlie  whole  body  is 

I   t 

X  2ror». 

The  term  Sxr'  is  the  moment  of  inertia  of  th>*  l)0<lv 

"Force  oftbe  Blow"  of  a  Steam  Hammer  or  O 
Ills  Weight.— The  question  Ih  orit-ii  B!<l<ril:  "With  nliat 
fallinK  hammer  strike?"    The  question  cuunot  lie  auiswuied 
it  IS  hosed  upon  a  misconception  or  Ignorance  of  (\>'^'*'"'--"<<t, 
laws.    The  enero'.  or  capacity  of  doing  work,  of  h 
height  and  ImI  fall  cannot  he  expressed  in  pounds.  - 
pounds,  which  is  the  product  of  the  weielit  into  tli- 
It  fails,  or  the  product  of  Its  weight,  -t-  64. M  into  tli.- 
in  feet  per  second,  which  It  acquires  after  falling  i  i 

If  ^»  weight  of  the  body.  M  its  mass,  g  the  Bcctli ...M 

S  the  height  of  fall,  nnd  r  the  velocity  at  the  end  of  ili«  toll,  the  i 
the  body  just  Ijcf.ire  stril^ing,  is  t'S  -  X^Mv*  =  H'r'  ■*■  •io—  HV 
which  is  the  genrral  equation  of  eneiiry  <>f  a  mnviin-  i....iv      ii: 
energy  of  the  tKxJy"-'^  ■  '""^-Iget  of  «  force  Into  « 
does  when  it  atrltLt  .  manirc*lati»n  "f  n 

p/WMed  gOiiply  I  .•,JaU\e  oveicouiiUR  i'.    -  --J^ 

*  certain  dlstot  '(^IF^  *»  ^^  v<"'^^^^  ^^  ^^»*  *H^ 


WORK,    ENERGT,   POWiJB. 


431 


)  distance  tbrouKh  wbioh  it  l8  exerted.  If  a  hsmmer  weiebiOK 
110  ft.,  its  energy  is  1000  foot  poiiiulii.  Before  lieing  brougiit  '0 
I  do  1000  fooi^pouiids  of  wdtk  against  one  or  more  resistances, 
(various  kiniis.  aik-Ii  as  chat  due  to  motion  iitiparted  (o  tlic  body 
Uratlon  asaiiisi  frictloo.  or  ajrainst  resisuince  to  Blieaniie  or 
'ation,  una  cnisiiinK  ami  heating' of  botli  t\iv  fnlliri);  body  aautbe 
The  distance  ihrotiKli  which  these  resisting  forces  act  in  ^in- 
itonniiiate,  and  theveforv  the  average  of  the  resisting  furce«, 
smsflvi-s  pfnerally  varj'  with  the  diBtance,  is  also  iiideterniiiiate. 
et  of  HoiUem.—H  two  Inelastic  bodies  collide,  they  will  move  on 
IS  one  maAs,  with  a  common  velocity.  The  momentnni  of  tiie  com- 
Bb equal  to  the  Hum  of  th>>  niomenlB  of  the  (no  bodie«  before  im- 
Nt  and  nil  are  the  uia^tfes  of  the  two  bodies  aiij  c,  auJ  v,  their  re- 
"clties  before  impact,  and  v  their  coiiitnon  velocily  after  Impact, 

m,  +  ni. 


moye  fa  opposite  directions  i>  =-  '   '  ,      '-,  or,  the  Telocity 

*^'^  111,  +  tllm  ' 

ilastic  bodies  after  impact  is  equal  to  itie  ali;ehraic  sum  of  their 

before  impact,  divided  by  the  sum  of  their  irinsses. 

■eiasiic  bodies  of  equal  tiiomentn  impinge  directly  upon  one  an- 

Opposite  directions  they  will  be  brought  to  rest. 

Of  InelaaU c  Bodl'ea  Caasen  a  Lona  of  Enorer,  and 

equal  lu  the  sum  of  the  energies  due  to  the  velocities  Tost  and 

te  bodies,  respectively. 

>ioi,f,'  -  >i(mi  +  m,)«»  =  HHii(«i  -  ti)'  +  Hm,(t',  —  r)». 

V  is  the  velocity  lost  by  m,  and  u  -  Vj  the  velocity  gained  by  nt,. 
-Let  mj  =  10,  p>4  =  8,  w,  =  lij,  u,  =  15. 

collide  tbey  wiU  come  to  rest,  for  »  =  ^"'^  !!  7  f  ^  "  =  0. 

floes  is 

■  HSxiaS  -  H18XO  =  Ml(X12-0)'  +  J^<15-0)'  =  1690fUIbB. 
lues  of  the  energy  lost  ?    Ans.  It  is  used  doing  internal  work 
Ibeuis^elves,  chan^inc:  their  shape  and  heating  them. 
ffvdii  elualic  ln>iiies,  let  e  =  the  elasticity,   tlint  Ik,   the  ratio 
krce  of  restitution,  or  the  imernnl  force  teiidiag  to  restore  the 
^txly  after  it  lias  lieen  com  pressed,  liears  to  the  force  of  com  pres- 
et in  I  aiifi  m,  be  the  niassea,  t',  and  Vj  their  velocities  before  iiu- 
7,'f,'  their  velocities  after  impact:  then 


I 


,  _  m,t',  +  Bt,i>,    ,   mie(t).  -  t),) 


Sl««  are  perfectly  elastic,  their  relative  velocities  before  and  after 
>  tbe aame.    That  is :  v,'  —  v,'  =  i>,  —  v,. 

>  of  bodies,  the  sum  of  their  momenta  after  impact  is  tbe 

1  of  tbeir  momenta,  before  Impact. 

TO,Vi'  -)-  m)V,'  =  iiiit'i  4"  "'lUj. 

tration  of  these  and  other  laws  of  impact,  see  Smith's  Me* 

,  Welshacii's  Mechanics. 

»f  Becoll  of  Ona»,—(.Etio'g.  Jan.  £3,  ISM,  p.  79.) 

!  weight  of  the  gnu  and  carriage; 
he  liiaximiim  velocity  of  recoil; 
be  weif^lit  of  tile  projectile; 
be  muzzle  velocily  of  the  projectile. 
I  the  momentum  of  the  gun  and  carriage  is  eqar-'  ^er 

oiectile,  we  have  HT  =  icv,  or  F  =  itru  -t-  W 

oent  by  Prof.  W.  D.  Marks,  io  Nystrom's  M4 
at  thia  tonnula  ia  /a  error  Is  itself  erroueotu 


433 


M^X'HANICS. 


Taking  the  case  of  a  IQ-inch  gun  nring-  a  400-lb.  projectile  with  •  I 
velocity  of  140O  r«>et  per  gcH:oud,  the  weight  of  the  gua  and  cmtUi*) 
toaa  =  '19,iitW  Jbii.,  wu  lliid  Ibe  veluvity  of  recoil  = 

Now  the  energy  of  a  body  in  motion  is  Wr*  ■+-  ig. 
49,280  X  11* 


Tberefore  the  energy  of  recoil  = 
r  The  energy  of  the  projectile  U 


ax  33.2 
400X1400' 
8  X  33.8     '^ 


19,173,918  foot-peoDte. 


Conservation  of  Energy  .—No  form  of  enerjjy  can  e»w  1 

Jliced  except   l)j' iWe  exiwiiditure  of   some  other  fni-in,  nor  niintMht" 
ept  by  being  reproduceil  in  another  form.    CV'i 
norgy  In  the  universe,  like  the  sum  totjil  of  ii 
■  saniw,    (H,  Neweoinb)    Eni.Tify  cati  never  li. 
iriinsfoj'niHl,  eun   be  transferreJ   from  one    i.i.iiv    I'l  : 
alter  u'luil  ti'Hn^fonnations  are  tiiidergonG,  when  tKe  t«»trt. 
lerticn  of  a  Kiveii  ainounli  of  enerKy  are  summed  up  tli - 
KiK'tly  equal  to  the  amuunt  originally  expended  from  the  wjurm-.  ■ 
J  called  Ine  CVjuservatlon  of  Bnei^y,     (Cutterill  and  Slade.l 
A  heavy  body  suHtalni'd  at  an  elevated   positiim   lins  pnlmili 
When  it  falls,  jtisl  before  It  reaches  the  eartli' 
kinelio  energy,  due  to  its  velocity.    When  it  si; 
earth  u  eertuiu  distance  or  may  Ix'  crushed.     In  ■ 
by  which  the  energy  is  converted   into  heat,  whiiii 
into  the  earth  iir  into  the  ulmcrt![)htTe,  or  both.   Mcclim  '•>M 

are  nnitually  convertible.    Electric  energy  is  also  ci'ii 
mecbiiuical  energj,  and  elllier  kind  of  energy  may  be  ciivrnwij 

OtIllT. 

Source*  of  EncrRy,— The  principal  sources  of  energy  on  I 
l_«urfaoe  are  the   nmsoiilar  enorpy  of  men  and  animal*.  fni"eiiei 
rind,  of  Uowiug  water,  and  cf  fuel.    These  Bouroes  derive  ihetr  ' 
"torn  the  ray.s  of  the  sun.    Under  the  influence  of  the  snTi'i  m^*  rrgwil 
•ows  and  wood  is  foi  uied.     The  wood  may  bo  used  .i  ' 

Boiler,  it,s  carbon  beinp  burned  to  carbonic  acid.    Tb 
"oergy  escapes  in  l lie  chimney  and  by  radiation,  and 
B  potential  energy  in  the  steam.    In  ilio  steam-engine,  "t  ijjis  >'■<■>■• 
tlx  part,'* are  dissipated  In  heating  the  coniietming  water  and  ar»l 
he  reniainintr  one  tenth  of  the  original   heat  energj-  of  the  wood  lil 
'verted  into  uiechmiical  work  in  the  «team.engine,  wl.    ' 
drive  iiiBchinei  y.    This  work  is  llniilly,  by  friction  of  v 
tiibiy  after  trunsforniatinn   into  electric  currents,  Iim 
rliich  is  radiated  into  the  atmosphere.  Increasing  ii- 
M  the  potential  heat  energy  of  ihc  wood  is,  after  vai 
ouverted  into  heat,  whicli,  mhicllug  with  the  more 
BliHiv,  fippaii'iitly  IB  lost,    Hut  the  c«ilx>nlc  acid  gen. 

iliiii  of  the  w d  is,  again,  under  the  influence  of  the 

by  vegetation,  uml  more  wood  may  thus  be  formed  h:i .     . 
piiil  to  tlw  iM'ighiiil, 

>erpcliial  Motlou.— The  law  of  the  ooDBervatlon  of  i 
►  liieji  iMi  law  of  luechanies  is  more  firmly  e«tnbli«bed.  1^  nn  nl»4<'ltl 

>all  Hcheitiert  for  olitAimng  Ity  mechanicn' "^    '  ■        "    •  •• 

nmtion,"  or  a  luiichine  which  wdl  do  an  :. 
Huivnlent  of  the  energy,  xvhi.'lher  of  heat .  ■ 

tl'icify.  iir  nieehai>ii.'al  energy,  that  is  put  uo'i  n.     .-^ii<-ii  n  ii-»u<»] 
reiition  f>f  jtn  aduidonal  .^lore  of  energy  in  tiie  universe,  tall 
L)S.slble  t,v  Mtiv  iiufiwin  Hif*'iu'v. 

f*f«,  -r--,  -   ,,'•  -.   — -■  •■Tnc  Isa  frac'!  ■■  ' <  'iTtgt 

■rforriie*!,  \'  d  to  I 

V  of  ft  luni  ; 


I  pari  ot  itoe  vtt»r«Tt  »t*it\»<i  \a  " 


S  work  of  idviiif;  motion  lo  the  vvrael,  and  the  remainder  ia 
omlnf;  the  friction  of  tlje  ■imohtiicry  and  In  uiukliig  currents 
the  surromniliiK  «tti*;i". 

ANIidAIi  POWRR. 

•  nan  agaliiHl  Knou-n  Beslatanres.    (Kanlcine.) 


ANIMAL  POWER. 


433 


tf  Exertion. 


k  own  \r(;tghc   lip 

ldd«r 

weiglitgwitli  ropp. 
■Ing  the  rojie  tin- 

jjtitii  liy  hoiid 

WPIglltH     lip-BtaiPK 

fniiit;  UKlCMi'Icd  . . 
rcirlli    to    A 


up     I 
Sft  S 


in 


anil  ill  barrow  up 
]i  In  12,  H  horiz^ 
ft.  |i«ri)ec.  and  re- 

Bloadeil  

pulUnif  horizoD- 
taii  oroarj  


rank  or  wincH 


gmp 


lljt!. 


113 


40 
44 


14.) 


133 

X.S 
1S.5 
18.0 
'JO.O 
l!t.2 
16 


ft.  pt»i' 
sec. 


0.75 
O.SS 

0  13 

1,8 

0  K5 

2.0 
50 
8. a 
14.4 
8.5 
f 


T" 

3G0d 

(iiours 

ptir 

day). 


6 

e 

6 
10 

10 


T 
8 
Sinin. 
10 
8T 


ft.-)b(i. 

pi>r  se«. 


73.6 

ao 

IB.S 
7.8 

9.9 

58 
6'.'  5 
4S 
988 
3.3 
I 


SVT, 

ft. -lbs. 
per  doy. 


S,088,00O 

&t8.a(io 

652!,  TiO 
399.(JO0 
280,800 

350,400 
1,5S«,400 

i,'sBe,'o(»' 


i,tsa,ooo' 

480,000 


— R,   resistance;    V,  efTwliv«  velocity  =  dlKCanoe  ilii-oiitsit 
reome  -»-  tolnl  time  oocupieyl.  including  Ili«  time  of  iiioviDK 
7",  time  of  workiriK.  in  seconds  p«r  day:  T"  -*-  aeOO.Baiiio 
day;  BV,  offectlve  power.  In  foot-pound»  per  second; 

ice  of*  nan  In  Tranaportlai^  laoada 
HortxontaUjr.    (Hiiiii:iu<.'.> 


\  KxflrUoQ. 


iloaJed.transpoTt- 

u  welRlii 

A   t  In  awhld. 

lurti  unloaded. . 

bnrrow.  ditto.. 

Jlrttli  burden. .  . . 

tfiiay,  returning 


Itrden,  for  30  tec- 


1^ 


14C 

234 
in 

W 

140 

I  aw 
'1 


ft  •sec. 


sooo 

(boiii^ 

UH«r 

day). 


10 


10 

in 


con- 
veyed 
I  foot. 


709 

979 
2-iO 

0 


LVT, 
lbs.  con- 
veyed 
t  foot. 


53,200,000 
1.<I.1«.000 

T.iwn.oiio 
fi.imi.ooo 


j~-Li  load;  V,  effetrttvfi  relcHfUy.  ci.mi 
f,  /»  mitennjii  pnrdny;  'J"  -t-  3d<XI,  KniiK<  u 
•^rtifwjiil,  lo  Ills,  ctwvfyed  one  foot;  ^ 


434 


inscHAirics. 


In  the  first  line  only  of  each  of  the  two  tables  abore  I 
Dan  taken  into  aocouul  io  L'uinputine  the  work  dotw. 

Clark  says  that  the  arerage  uel  ilaily  nrork  of  an  orOiiit 

piiiiili,  a  ninch.  or  t 
taken  at  sano  fiKii -pou 
or  oueieiith  of  a  hoTR 
bour^aday;  but  fori 
[ram  four  to  Ave  tin 
be  exerted. 

Mr.  Glynn  says  th 
exti-t  a  force  uf  25  111 
of  n  crane  for  short  l 
for  cuniinnou;  work  I 
is  ail  that  shonM  het 
throiiKli  2S20  feet  1*1- 

nan-wheel.-  __ 
of  a  vciy  »'(licit-nr  iiiafT 
in^-ruacliine  w  hioh  ihe  1 
Berne,  Switzertaiul,  it)  1^ 
of  the  wliiwl  was  wki< 
three  men  to  walk  abr 
nine  men  could  W':>rk  in| 


Fio.  97. 
Work  of  a  Horse  msalitM 


a  Kno'trn  B«alataiii^ 


Kind  of  Ejcertion. 


J.  Canterine  and  irolltaf;.  draw- 
inf;  a  liKht  railway  carriage 
(thoroughbred) 

S.  Florse  drawing  cart  or  boat, 
walkini;  (draught-horse) 

3.  Horse  drawing  a.  gin  or  mill, 

walking        

4.  Ditto,  trotting 


JS. 

r. 

T. 
3600 

mIn.  82^ 
mean  30^ 
wax.  SO 

[n« 

4 

130 

3.6 

8 

100 
6$ 

so 

8 

EXPUANATION.—R,  resistance,  in  lbs.;  F,  velocity,  in  fe*t 
■♦•  3000,  hours  work  per  day;  FV,  work  per  second;  KVT,  w 

The  average  power  of  a  uniiight- horse,  as  pi  ven  in  liiieSof 
being  4*3  foot-i)oi)nds  f»er  second,  is  W-'/.'iSO  =  0.T85  <if  the  CO! 
assigned  by  W  att  to  the  ordinary  unit  of  the  rate  of  work  at 
It  is  the  mean  of  fteveral  results  of  experiment*),  and  may  li^ 
average  of  onllnary  performance  under  favorable  clrcuinsl 

Perfonnaiice  ofa  Hora«t  In  Tranaportlnf 

Horizontally.    (Kanklne.)  ^" 


Kind  of  Exertion. 


0.  Walking   with  cart,  always 
loade<i 

6.  TrotiiUK,  ditto 

7.  Walkiogwith  cart. going  load- 

eil.     reluming    empty;  V, 
mean  velocity  

8.  Carrying  burden,  walkliq;... 

9.  Ditto,  trotting 


JBOO 
7S0 


1600 

2?0 
180 


S8 

7. a 


8.0 
8.6 
7.8 


Expljlnatiox. — L,  load   in  Iba. ;  V,  velocity  In  feet 
workini.'  Ii..iir.;  tn-r  day:  LV,  tranitport  peraecond;  L 
<  f>>reaco  to  conveyance  on  common 

ler  as  reapecta  the  realataBoa  to  tn 
-._  !..:..  I"-  •»•**  •nachioe  a  bon*  worte 
ImHiOj; "  ng  &  s\.Ta\f,\A  Xt«c\l.    V« 


KLEMEXtS   OF  MACHIKKS. 


435 


tits  mar  be  resliied  with  a  horse-gin,  the  dfaiiieter  of  tKe  cir. 
'  I  which  the  hore^  walks  should  nyt  be  lew  than  about  forty 

Asaes.— Authorities  JifTer  considerably  as  (o  the  power 
nalK.  'Tlie  rollowinir  may  be  taken  as  an  approxiiuatlve  cotn- 

iMi  [hem  and  draueht-hopses  <RankineK 
.  the  same  as  that  of  average  draught-horse;  best  veloelly  and 
HhiniHOf  liorsc. 

-I/Md,  one  half  of  that  of  average  draught-b«nie;  best  Telocity, 
«•  Willi  hiirse;  work  one  half. 

-I/wd.  niie  quartpr  that  of  aTerage  dranght-Iioi'se;  best  velocity  the 
*firi;  orir  quart »*r. 

■etion  of  Dranebt  oflloraea  by  Ineroase  of  Grade 
■di.   \Bnyitirri-ingl{>'i.-'.ii(l.  Prize  EsMiys  on  Itoads,  ISSi!.}— Kxperl- 

•  English  roads  by  Gajflrter  it  Parnell: 
1  that  can  be  draw-n  on  a  level  100: 

1  In  100. 1  in  60.  1  in  40.  1  in  30.  1  In  »6.  I  in  SO.  1  In  10. 
(raw  only       BO.  81.         7i.         61.        51.         40,  85. 

■lance  orCarrlacea  on  Beads  ix  (according  to  Qen. 
^approxliuaiely  by  the  followiug  empirical  formula: 

R  =  ^[a  +  bill  -  3.88)]. 

BUla  R  =  total  resistance;  r  =  radius  of  wheel  In  inches;  W ss 
i=  Telocity  In  feet  per  second;  while  n  and  ft  are  constnnts, 
I  are:  For  good  broljeustoue  road,  a  =  .4  to  .SS,  6  =  .084  to  .086; 

Is.  «  =  .27,  b  =  .0684. 

at«s  that  on  gravel  the  resistance  is  about  double,  and  on 
I  the  resistance  on  good  broken-stone  roads. 

ELEMENTS  OF  RIAOHINES. 

|ect  of  a  Tjiachine  t»  usually  to  transform  tlie  work  or  mechanical 
lerted  at  the  point  where  the  machine  receives  its  tnotiou  into 
tlw  point  where  tlie  flnal  resistance 
■M.  The  specific  end  may  be  to 
Iw  character  or  dii-wtion  of  mo- 
roDi  circular  to  reclillm-ar,  or  vice 
efaange  the  vclnoity.  or  ut  overcome 
Mlstance  by  tlie  application  of  a 
In  all  cases  the  total  i^nergy 
I  the  total  work  dune,  ilie  latter 
►  overcoming  of  all  the  friclional 
7  the  machine  a.s  wrll  a-<  the  use- 
formed.  No  increase  of  [lower 
I  f  niMi  any  maehmp.  sinci-  this 
•  accordine  to  the  law  of  conser- 
mergy .  In  a  friciioiile»s  iiiacliiue  the 
r  the  force  exerted  at  ihe  driving- 
thr  Telocity  of  tJie  driviiijf.poiut, 
Uince  it  moves  in  a  given  inrcrval 

•  I  i  .1-  tilt-  pn^diict  iif  tlie  rcHislance 

.   tlitoiigli  wlicb  the  resist- 
in  llie  »^iiie  lime. 
I  'i>-  machines,  or  elemrnlary 
are  filucible  to  thr>?e  classes.  vi«., 
,  the  tiord,  end  the  Inclmetl  Plane, 
m»|— a  incliides  every  mncliine  con- 
T»ody  capable  ivf  revolving 
*1Vheel  and  Axle. 
Includes  every  maehino  in 
ismitted  by  means  of  liexi- 
ipes.  etc..  as  the  Pulley. 
«a  includes  every  machine  in 
surface  inclined  to  tin-  diit^- 
„  is  introduci-d.  as  the  Wfd|;e  and  the  Screw, 
(s  an  Infleid'le  rod  capable  of  motion  about  a  ftxe^  ™*at.  , 
1.    The  rod  mnj  be  firaluhl  or  bent  at  any  angle,  ' 
rvg»rtled,  at  Ont,  aa  without  weigh  t,  but  it«  welf 


1 

I 
I 


4'36 


MECHANICS. 


o\aM 
toiM 

m 


c<iusiiiured  lis  anoUier  force  applied  in  a  rerliual  dircolion  i 
griivity. 

TIk'  iiriiis  of  a  lyver  ure  tlie  porlluns  of  it  inlfl'Cvpted  liel  < 
Pt  and  riilcriiin,  C',  uiid  iM-tweeii  tliA  Wfl^^lil,  U*.  and  fulcrum^ 

Levers  aiv  Uisideil  inro  lliree  kluds  or  orders,  nocuidiliK  ' 
pui~iiiioi&  of  llie  upiilicd  force,  weiKliU  and  fiilciuiii. 

Ill  a  lever  uf  Vim  lirsi  onier,  ihe  fiilvrum  lii-s  bvlwefii  liie  pola| 
t)«e  force  ami  YVi-iBlit  net.     (Pi^f.  M.)  mi 

ill  u.  leieritf  the  second  order,  llie  »tii|;ht  actsal.  a  |>olill 
fuliTiiiii  iiiil  the  [loiiit  of  action  of  the  force.    (Fijf.  TO.i 

III  a  lever  of  Llie  Ihiiil  order,  tlie  point  of  acliou  of  tiie  fa 
UuiL  i.f  tile  iveiKlit  atid  the  fnieiuiii.     (KIr.  1()0.) 

Ill  hII  ca^es  ot  lerei'ii  the  relutlon  between  tlie  force  exerti 
/>,  and  liie  weii;iit  hfced,  or  icsistauL^e  ovorconie,  li',  is  esy 
equation  P  ',<  AC  ~  W  X  BC,  in  wliich  AC  ia  liie  lever-anii  (. 
is  the  lever-arm  of  H',  or  mouiem  of  tlie  force  =  the  uii>ui«nj 
anoe,    t^ee  Moment.) 

In  cn»es  in  which  liie  direction  of  the  foive  (or  of  the  rmiKlonci 
right  untjles  to  the  ni-iii  of  the  lever  on  which  it  acts,  tiif  •'  h-vMri 
leiiKtIi  of  6  perpeoditiilor  froni  llie  fulunini   (o  ilie  lii»-f '  •-"••- 
force  (or  of  llie  recistaiice).  W  :  I' ::  tlV  :  HC,  or,  the  raiif  • 
tlie  npplitMt  force  is  llie  iiivei'S**  ratio  uf  their  lev••I■-nnll^. 
Telocity  of  II',  and  !>  is  the  velocity  of  J\  iri  /':  :  l->  .  •  cr.i 

If  iSp  1.S  (he  distanue  ihroURli  which  the  apjiHud  (urc«  aolf,  ^ 
diitlaucti  the  weiKlil  i8  lilli-d  or  through  winch  Ihi*  rtwiMaocttjj 
WtP-.-.SpiSv.ii'X  h'lr  =  fXlif.  or  the  weit;hl  into  (lie  ili» 
etiiials  the  force  into  the  dlnlnuce  ihroiiKli  which  it  is  exer 

These  equations  are  general  for  all  elnohes  of  imicliintii 
leverK,  it  t>etii^  untlerstood  that  friction,  whicli  in  actual  tiiacl 
the  resiHtrtiiie.  is  nut  iil  present  considered. 

Tbc   Bent  Lever.— iu  Die  bent  lever  (see  FiK-  BI.  |>a««J 
arm  of  tlie  «  eight  m  it,  t/  iiiKiead  of  b/.    The  lever  is  ia  eqiiT 
It  X  "/=  "'  X  !■/,  Ijiit  it  is  to  Ije  observed  that  the  act  ion  ofi  " 
Im  very  different  from  that  of  a  strniKht  lever.     In  t"--  |■■.^•■ 
force  and  the  reiiistancc  act  in  llneji  parnllel  to  eac) 
lever-urniK  reniaiuD  conHtnut,  alihoiik'h  the  lever  ii 
lion  with  the  hpri/.onlal.     In  the  bent  lever,  liowv 
thins,  in  the  cut,  if  the  arm  Lif  is  depressiMl  to  a  horntoiit 
lance  v/  leiijftliens  nhili^  the  hoiiieoiilal  projection  of  uf 
becotnfiiK  zero  when  tlie  direction  vt  «/  becouii.'s  vertical 
approncbes  the  vertkvii,  the  weiicht  m   whicli  iiioy  be  II 
force  «    is  very  ({'"e»t,  but  the  dintance  throug-h  which 
•very  Kiiiall.     In  all  cases  the  ratio  of  tlie  welKlit  i/i  ■■■  ''•■•  • 
Vel'se  ratio  of  the  liorlzoiiial  projection  of  their  res] 
Tbe  nioviug  Sirut  (Kt);.  ton  i.s  siinilai'  l«  tl<' 

one  ol  the  arms  is  iiii^siu);,  and  tlutt  the  force  ui.. 

overcome  net  nl  ilii*  t 
siiiKle  arm.  The  re* 
P|  caiH  shown  Iti   the 

weiKlil    II',    bill    ill 
beuiK  moved,  U,  w  jug 
_  Illy  that  due    to  f 

"  lioi'ixMiiinl  plai 

posintf   force, 
twecn   llie    strut  i 
pliinn   cbunKee, 
ii'.si,.innce    to 
. I, „„....»     Wl... 

Fio,  lot. 


fftK»\l 


tat  is  an  f>ibow  or  Uuev-JoinI  i 
~    tM  broiiKht  into  a  straight  Iti^ 
III  0  ^^  VuiU  k  lot««  S»  lUtr'fiSJK^  >A  V 


EL-EMENTS  OP  MACHINES. 


437. 


I      It    i^  a  caw  of  two  roovinf;  struts  placed  pnd  to  <>n(1,  (he  movioif 

'li«i  at  their  point  of  junction,  in  a  (llrvollon  at  riglii  nn^les 

•  f  the  rMiistance,  the  other  end  of  one  of  the  struts  lesiinp 

■  .'    I    ntmtrneiit,  niKl  (hat  of  the  olhpr  ntjainst  thp  bi.dy  to  lie 

1/  11  =  the  apple  each  Dtnit  makes  with  the  BtralRht  line  joining  the 

about  which   their  oiitsr  ends  roUttv,  the  ratio  of  the*  restislanoa 

jlletl  force   is  Vi  ;  i»:;  oosa  :  2  sin  «  ;   2R  an  a  =  Pcosa.     The 


I 


Fio.  102. 


Fia.  103. 


when  the  angle  varies,  becoming  iofliiite  when  the  angle 

•  srro. 

to<rglo-jnint  Ib  used  where  great  reslstnnf^es  are  to  be  overcome 
1  very  snmll  i1i«tnnees.  as  in  ptone-cruBherstFig.  IM). 
Inclined  Plane,  n.«  a  mechanical  element,  Ik siippose<l  perfectly 
III  smooth,  unless  friction  be  coiiHiilrreil.     It  OKsi^its  iii  sust-alnlnj;  a 
>odv  hy  its  reaction.     This  reaction,  honerer,  lieing  normal  to  the 
^a41hot  entirely  conntornct  the  weight  of  the  body,  which  acts  vertf- 
jwnwftrd     Some  other  force  must  lliereforo 
le  to  act  u|xiu  the  body,  in  order  that  it  may 
alued. 

•  siiKtAiuin^  force  act  parallel  to  the  plane 
l>.  the  force  i.s  to  the  weight  iis  the  height  of 
ine  is  to  its  length,  measured  on  the  Incline, 
1  force  act  i>arallel  to  the  base  of  the  plane, 
ver  is  to  tlie  weight  as  the  height  is  to  the 

e  force  act  at  any  other  angle,  let  i'  =  the 

)f  the  plane  with  the  horizon,  and  e  =  the  Fio.  104. 

i(  the  direction  of  the  applied  force  with  the 

if  the  plane,    i'  s  ir  ::  sId  i  i  co.s  f ;   f  x  coa  «  =  tT  sin  t. 

I«m«  of  the  inclined  plane  may  be  solved  by  the  paralleloftram  of 

iiiiH  ■ 

•  IT  be  kept  at  rest  on  the  indine  by  the  force  P,  acting  iii 

illel  to  the  plane.     Draw  tlip  vertical  liiii*  tut  In  represent 

hh'  perjieiidiciilar  to  the  plane,  nnd  complete  the  pnrallelo- 

I  He  vertical  weight  hit  is  the  reRiiltunt  of  bb'.  the  measure  of 

V  the  plaiii'  to  the  weight,  and  Or,  the  force  of  gravity  tend- 

I      weight  down   the  plum.'.     The  force  retiiiiied  to  maintain 

^Khi  to  e(|uilihrititu  is  represented  by  this  force  w.     Thus  the  forx'a 
e  weight  are  in  the  ratio  of  he  to  Ixn.     Sitice  the  triangle  of  force"  nha  I 
jtat^  the  triangle  of  the  incline  ABC,  the  latter  may  be  substituted  | 
^^ker  In  determining  the  telatlve  magnitiiile  of  the' forces,  and 


rr 


be  :  ab  : :  BC  :  AB. 


t  Wedge  it)  a  pair  of  inclined  planeti  united  by  their  Ita^es.    In  the  | 
I  of  pressure  to  the  head  or  butt  eiul  of  the  wedge,  to  cause  it  to  t 
kreaUting  body,  the  applied  force  is  to  the  resistance  as  tha  | 
Tlie  wedge  is  to  its  length.    Let  f  be  the  thickne.^s,  /  the  length,  i 
DCe,  »nd  /*the  applied  force  or  pressure  on  llie  head  of  tho  j 

B,  friction  neglected,  P:  IT: :  f  :  I;  P=  ^  ;      W=  ^. 

prTf  '•  ?•!  inclined  plane  wrapped  nrnund  a  cylinder  in  siicli^ 
r  the  iilane  is  parallel  lo  the  iixln  of  the  CJ^liudo 
ii>on  trie  internal  Kurfnce  of  a  UuUo 
When  ton-e  ix  apt'Ufd  to  raise  a  i 
t>x  meaas  of  a  Bonw  aad  nut,  eitlier  tbe  aoB 


IMS  fix 


MECHANICS. 


ri>e  fixed,  the  otber  b«IoK:|povable.   The  forc«  is  cenerally  •[ 
of  a  wrench  or  lever-arin,  or  at  Ihe  qircunifpreuc*?  of  n  wheel 
of  the  wlieel  or  lever  ami,  and  p  =  piicli  >.>f  ilif  sci«w,  or  (llstaui 
Ihrtijulii,  thai  i»,  lh)*  lieiKlii  of  the  ineliiiKt  plan>- 
liloroiie  i-ev(>liili<in  i>f  llie  screw,  /' =  tliesp{illml 
t  for^'«,  iiini  H'—  the  reHisiaiioe  overcome.  Lhf  u,  neg- 
r  IwilidK  nssiKljinec  iliiB  to  trlclion.  -Vr  )>:  F  =  Wp  ; 
W  =  O.'JfVif'r  -i-  iJ.    The   ratio  of  f  to  11' is  thus 
IndependeDt  of  ibe  (lianH-'liT  of  the  screw.     In 
actual  screwK,  niticli  of  tlii^  ptm-tT  Lransiiiilted  is 
lust  througli  friction. 

tTho  Cam  is  a  revoK- 
/  '^     ^\  iiuriiifliiiril  (>lar»-.  It  may 

/       -^      \  be  fiiher  :iii  liiellneJ  plane 

^ — T \y ]~^ wfuppe*!  around  a  cylin- 
\              /  der  ill  siicli  a  «-a.v  that  (he 

N         y  helKlil  o*  tlie  plane  Is  ra- 

•'— "^  dial  to  the  (Jvfinder.  such 

Fio.  105,  as     Ihf    nnlfnary   liftine- 

cam,  tisfHl  in  slamp-inil» 
iVil 


!■  lO.  19^, 


cam,  tisfHl  HI  slamp-mil 
IVig.  105).  or  tt  may  be  an  inclined  plane  curved  edgew'se,  sprf  i 
plane  piii^Iel  to  ilBbiiseiKiK.  IM).    The  ivlaliou  of  th*  «ei(»li»ioJ 
lorce  is  caluulated  In  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  the  acnlf 


□w 


A..  B.  C. 

Fia.  lOT. 

Pnlleya  or  Bloflis.— P  =  fortv  applied,  or  pull  •  ir 
or  resistance.     In  the  uimple  pnlley  A  {Ytg.liyT)  On- 
rope  descpiKls  the  same  amonnt  that  the  weicht  18  li' 
In  B  and  t'the  point  f  moves  twice  lu  far  as  ili<- 
fure  W  —  '.'f.    In  K  and  C  there  is  one  niovai!-                    l , 
rope  ensfajre  with  it.     In  f*  there  are  three  kIu- 
each  with  two  plies  eiiRaped,  or  six  in  all.    Si\ 
foreshortened  by  the  same  ainnuiil  that  (he  ueiiiiil  k»  lirictf. 
/"moves  six  tiniiw  as  far  as  the  weicht,  i-MnscQiiently  ir  ..  6/' 
the  ratio  of  11' to  F  is  equal  to  the  nntnher  or  plie.s'  nf  the  ni|| 
Bhortened.  and  also  in  equal  to  the  niiiuber  of  plieK  thai  en^afl 
block.    If  the  lower  block  ha«  2  i$hea\ei<  and  the  iipjivr  S.  the  piif 
fci  fastened  to  a  houk  in  tlie  ti^p  of  the  lower  block,  and 
plieB  slioriened  inst(<ad  of  6.  and  \r  ~  RP,    If  I' =  veloc' 
Telmiily  of  P,  then  in  all  euses  Vl\'  =  vp,  whatever  the 
or  their  arrancment.     If  the  haiillii);  rope,  at  the  piilllu 
around  n  sheave  in  the  iipfM*r  orpiatinnary  hlook.  it  niake^ 
what  direction  the  roiw  i.s  led  from  this  block  io  i)ie  iKihitH 
on  Uie  tv\»*  l^  applieif :  huL  if  it  fli"Hl  passes  arotintl  the  liii 
|*ier>-'                       <>' pull  be  exerted  in  a  direi-tioii  parallel  to] 
'  til                         ur  a  line  Ji'ininit  the  cePitres  of  ihe  two  I 
'tfli'  ruuni  e(Tei-t.     If  llie  rope  pulls  on   the  I 

f'e.  IJjf   Uin-X  win  be  VM***'^  out  ol  \\ve\\\\e  Avk'fcvv  bet* 
Uie  api>er  block,  anil  the  eltect\v»  \m\V  ie\W  Vk  V«a  vt«nS 


r 


KLEMEirrS  OF  KAOHIKES. 


439 


:  the  raHo  of  the  cosine  of  the  anxle  the  pulling  rope  mokes 

rtifsl.  nr  lint"  of  action  of  the  resistanoo,  to  unity. 

ntial  Poller.    iFig.  ION.)— Two  pulleyK.  itand  C,  of  dilTurent 

-as. III.-  |)i.v«  nixjilt  H  fixed  ftXiK,  A.    An  end- 
lil>E<'LKH,  paKs^-s  ovi^r  Ixuti    pulleys.    Tiie 

■  (Miil.  vs  iui-  siiapod  so  as  tolioM  ilii'cnaiu  and 

li'iHi  sii(.|.iu(;.    One  of  tlio  higlu.s  or  loDps  in 

bain  biings.  OE.  parses  under  and  supports  the 

ocic  F.    Tlie  01I1.T  loop  or  blijlir,  HKL,  hangs 
i!i  called  tile  liuuiing  part.    It  is  evident  that 

f  of  Llie  li.'iiilitif;  part  la  equal  to  that  of  iho 

of  the  pulley  B. 

Itat  the'  velocity-ratio  may  be  exactly  uniform, 

r>r  the  sheave  F  should  be  an  exact  meou  be- 

adii  »f  B  and  C. 

that  the  point  B  of  the  cord  BD  moves  throue:b 

<ee  leugtU  =  AB,  durii>i;  the  same  titue  me 

the  oord  CE  will  move  downward  a  dlstani^e  = 

leogth  of  the  bit^lil    or    loop    BDEC  will   t>e 

yr  AB  -  AC,  wlilcli  will  caime  Urn  pulli^y  J*'  to 

iu  of  (bis  amount.    If /' =  tlii.<  piillinir  furco  on 

K,  and  W  liie  weight  lifted  at  F,  then  P  X 

^(AU  -AC). 

»t^thr<  length  of  chain  reqiiiml  foradifferenlial 

!  the  foiiOwiuK  sum:  Halt  the  circumferoiice  of 

lecireiiniferenceof  B  +  ba'f  tin-  i:lreunifei-ence 

Ice  ih«   greiilest  diittance  of  F  from  A  4-  the 

ll  of    lo.ip   HKL.      The   IkkI  quantity   i«  fixed 
niivenlence. 

»rentlal  'nrindlajra  (Fii;.  10$)  i»  identfcnl  in  principle 
with  llie  uitTeiential  pulley,  the  difference  in  con- 
struction heine  that  in  the  differoutial  windlass  the 
runniuK  lilCK-k  lianifs  in  the  bi(,'hi  of  a  roite  whose  two 
parlH  are  wouud  round,  and  lmvt»  their  ends  respec- 
tively inaile  fast  to  two  barrels  of  dlHerent  radii, 
which  rotate  as  one  piece  about  thu  axis  .4.  The  dif- 
ferential windlass  is  little  used  in  practice,  because 
of  the  great  lenirth  of  ri»tH!  whieli  it  ■■mpiires. 

The  DlU'ereiitlal  Scrctv  (Fig.  110)  is  a  com- 
pound sciew  uC  dilTrr.nl  pitches,  in  which  the 
thread.s  wind  the  same  way.  jV,  and  JV-  are  the  two 
uuts;  NpS],  the  lonRer-pitched  thread;  S,S,.  the 
fiborterpitched  thread:  in  the  ngure  holh  these 
threads  are  left-handed.  At  each  turn  of  the  screw 
the  nut  A",  advances  relatively  to  JV"  through  a  dis- 
tAnce  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  pitch.  The  use 
of  the  differential  screw  is  10  combine  the  alowness 

lue  to  a  flne  pilch  with  the  sirength  of  thread  which  can  be 
means  of  a  conrwe  pitch  (jnly. 

1  AUd  Axle,  or  WlndlnMSfrPsembleg  two  pulleys  on  one  axis. 

ruut  Uiuiuetei'H.    If  a  »  eiKht  lit!  lifted  by  meaita  ot  a  rope  woimd 
,  the  force  bein^  applied  at  the 


heel,  the  action  is  like  that  of  a 
ch  the  shorter  arm  is.  equal  to 
C  the  axle  plus  half  the  thiclc- 
rie,  and  the  lunger  arm  is 
jilts  of  the  wheel.  A  wheel 
erefore  soTuetiraes   cUissed 


SJ 


Fio.  110. 


lever.    U  P=  the  applied  force,  D  =  diameter  of  the  wheel, 
kt  lifted,  and  d  the  dismeler  of  the  axle  +  theiUamet«r  or 
_l  U'rf. 

B-MTlicel  Oearfnf;  is  a,  combination  of  two  or  more  wheels 
ig  1 1 1 1.  If  a  !-ei  iiK  of  wheels  and  pinions  gear  into  each  other. 
Hi.  fiictiuu  ne^rlected,  the  weiKhl  lifted,  or  resistance  over- 
force  applied  invei-sely  as  the  distances  through  which 
'en  lime.  If  ii,  7i\,  /i'^  Ik;  the  ratlii  .if  the  successive  wUeelii 
Iff  pltcli-liiie  of  the  teeili,  uud  1 ,  1 . ,  1  j  the  radii  ut  vbc  e« 
liooa,  e  the  applied  foive,  and  (y   the  weight  Utled,  1 


1 


I 

I 
1 

i 


4-10 


MEGHAXIOS. 


I 
I 


a  X  K,  X  ff,  =  ir  X  r  X  I'l  X  r,.  or  Uic  applied   force  fg  tol 
BM  ihe  pi-OLluci  iif  ilie  radii  ut  llie  pliiioim  is  to  the  pry.lnci  of 
IIjb  Hhuflsi  or,   ug  the  proiluct  vt   the  uiimlxM-s  exprrssliiit  llii 
enc.-l>  piniuu  is  tti  1)41  prwluct  cif  t)ie  mimlwrs  expressiinj  the  t 
wlieel. 

EndlesN  Screw,  or  Worm«jrear.    (Fig.  Jl2.)-TI<ig  ^^, 
niuiiiy  useU  to  couvoit  ttjoliuii  ax.  Iiigli  !»pteil  into  luotlun  at , 


FlQ 

Bpet'd.    Wlien  tile  Iih-ikIIb  fdpsciibps  a  complete  ciiciimfereii 
liue  of  tlie  coK-wli<"el  innves  tliroiigli  a  Ulslaiieo  eijiial   la  tlie  p! 
scrMW,  and  tliK  WflKlit   irix  lifted  a  Ol^tailiw  e((UaJ  tu  the  piteji  iif  tti* 
inuitlplied  by 'ii<»  rntfo  nf  tlie  dinnteier  iif  tlie  axle  u>  tlie  diiiiueter 

fiilclit'ircle  of  tli«  wLeBl.  Tlie  ratii>  «f  ilir  applied  toive  10  llie  \ 
ifteil  Ik  inversely  o-H  their  Veluc;ill«3.  frielloii  not  being  cuiisideretl ; I 
friftioii  in  th«^  wonn-geor  Is  usimlly  very  greiit,  auiouulint;  ndiiwlii 
tl)r«o  or  (our  tlniea  the  UKofiil  work  itune. 

If  V  "  tlit-^  ili-^ianre  lliro^igii  vvhivli  the  force  Pacts  in  a  gicct)  tidltf, 
seconti,  ami  I'  =  ilistunee  the  weight  W  is  lifted  in  Ihe  siiiiin  tliil 
radius  uf  Ihe  crank  or  ivheel  Ihrmigli  which  /'ads,  I  =  pitch uf  Uin  1 
and   also  of  the   teeth   on   the   eo^-wheel,    d  =  diameter  of  (hft 

and   D  =  diameter  of  the  pituh-lliie  of  the  cog-wheel,   v   = 

XT;  V  =  V  X  Id -*- R-SSSril.    Pi:  =  irt'-f- friction. 


STUESSES   in    framed    STBrCTUR 


I 


Framed  striicturfs  in  general  consist  of  one  or  more  triangles,  ti 
reason  that  the  triangle  is  the  one  pijlygonal  form  whoiw  shape  caul 
changeil  w  itli^Hit  liiRtortiiiK  one  of  its  KitleK.     Prol>lem.<;  in  st  1  -j 

frami'd  »trin:lines  rmiy  gen«*rally  lie  solved  either  by  tlie  a 
trlaii),'!^.  pnrftlt-ilii^ratii,  or  polygtiii  ol  furces,  by  the  priiK  1; 
or  by  tlie  nieihnd  of  motiieolR.     Wsliull  eIvb  a  few  exaiupleH.  ri-f,Tri 
student  totli?  ivorks  of  Burr.  Dubois,  Jcihusou,  and  uthers  for  more 
rate  tre^tTru^jit  fit  the  «nhjpt't. 

1.  ASIiuple  Crane,  trigw.  IWand  1:4.)— yl  lsaflxedm«st,B*bl 
boom.  I'  a  tie.aiiJ  /^ihe  loiul.  Hetttiired  the  straina  in  U  and  T.  Tli«l 
P,  coiisideri?i1  as  iM.'titig  at  llie  end  of  the  boom,  is  lieid  in  eiinllihril 
three  foroea:  first,  gravhy  acting do«invards;  second,  the  tension  In  1 
third,  the  ilirurf  of  B.  Let  the  length  (if  Ihe  line  ij  I'epreseiit  tlip  mag 
of  the  Jowuwnrd  fnree  ejiened  hy  llie  lond,  and  dra«-  a  pnrnHelneran 
■ides  fjf  parallel,  rospcclively.  to /J  and  7".  such  Ihftl  p  is  111. 
paralletogrnin.  Then  tiand  t  are  tliu  coniponeiils  dra«n 
n»  p,  p  being  the  reKullaiit.     Then  it  ihe  lenglh  p  repies*  1  , 

the  tension  in  (lie  tie,  and  b  is  Ihe  cnnipressiiiii  hi  the  brnciv  j 

Or.  more  simply.  'J".  B,  and  ihiiL  |i<irlliiij  of  the  ninst  included  betireei 

or .-/'  may  represent  a  triangle  of  fure.s,  and  the  forces  are  jirop<>rtJ< 

the  Ifiiglh  of  the  skies  iif  the  lv1tini;W \\\\ni.  \i,\\  tVw  height  of  the  eriM 

=  Ihffluail,  tlien  D  =  thecompres.s\on\nUw\«»K«,BkXyi."V  =  \\wvini*loi| 

to;  or  i/  i'  =  (lie  load  lu  pounaa,  ttie  VensXoxv  Vvi  T  m  P  it.  — ,  fciA.  '4 


STBKSSES  ly   FRAMED   STRUuTURKS. 


B 


441 


r 

V=:  PX  —.   Also,  If  a  =  lite  angle  tlie  inclined  member  makes 

Wli,  the  >;t.her  mei»ljvr  lufluft  hurizontal.  and  Uie  triangle  lieing 
Kli  thf.*u  Ihu  leoKth  of  the  iiiclaicd  tiiruiher  =  h<<i{Ebt  or  ihi?  Irl- 
L-ani  a.  ami  LheHlraiu  in  ihelncliUfil  mernlwr  =  Psecant  a.    Also, 

D  tht-  linriz<:)iiisl  nii'mbor  =  f  tan  n. 

lluu  by  llie  trisDgte  or  [<arulleluKraiii  nf  fi>i'c<^H.  mid  tlie  equations 

7*  =  f"  X  T/A',  anil  Conipiessiou  io  h  =  I' X  B/A',  tioid  trui'  i»v«<ii 
gl«  is  not  riglit-angled,  as  in  Fig.  115;  liUl  Ilie  Idgonuuieli-ical  riiiL- 


Fl-i.  114. 


Fio.  lis. 


'le. 

lid. 
I  ro 

tllH 


igivpn  dfi  not  liolil,  excflpt  in  Ihi-  caw  of  a  riplit  n: 
t  that  n,i  .1'  di-ci'Oftsi'B,  Dip  stmlu  in  IwilU  7' and  ti  r 
in>-  liifiiiitp  fifi  A'  npproaehps  zero.  If  the  tie  TIh  i  ■ 
)iif  if  pxt(>iidi-d  to  the  ground,  a.<<  shown  in  the  duld.'J  lii 
t  iviiiftins  Mit*  sfljiif. 
j-ert  Crane  «r  Derrlek.  (Fiir.  116  )— Thn  plrnin  fn  H  in,  as 
h.l\A'  bfUiK  lliat  niinion  of  the  vcrtieBllnciudcd  lx"lwe(?ii  JJoud 
r  7'ni»y  Ih»  ndaidiea  (o  A.  If,  however.  Ih<*  tie  7' is  attnch<H|  to  B 
extrvinity.  thtTP  nmy  bi»  in  addition  n  iiciidlUK  :<ttTilii  in  H  diif  to 
I  turn  aiioiit  the  iioinl  of  ttiinclnin'nt  of  Tasa  fiili'rnm. 

Tniay  in- calciilntpd  t>y  llip  nrlrici)d«oC  inomi-iits.  Tlin  mo« 
,  tliur  is,  iti;  weight  X  ll«  |H"r(ii"nriicnlar  diKianee  from  the 
I  of  iJoM  the  mnNt.  Tlif'  nioni<-ni  of  tlie  Kiralti  nn  Vis  the 
sti^in  into  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  lina  of  ita 


he  same  ptiint  of  rotnti.ni  of  B.  or  Td  The  strain  in  Tther^ 
-  if.  As  li  dt?area.*e«  tlm  ulrairi  on  T  incrras*-!",  tending  to  Infln- 
iroarhes  Z"ro. 

1  on  the  gitr-ropit  la  njun  ratfiilnted  i)V  ihe  method  of  niiii\MfRtB. 
■f  af  ihf  Jittiit  ahnin  ihf  Ijoltimi  iff  tfje  iniwt  O  iH.  ivs  tveture,  Pc. 
hnrU'-nrat  Ih^  strain  In  it  is  fniid  its  mompiit  is  Ff,  Rn<\  P  = 


kBOHAl^ItiS. 


I 


I 


Via.  117, 


in  O  ^  the  strain  In  ^  x 
cant  of  the  angle  betweei 
G.  As  G  is  made  more 
Terlical  g  (1e<Teaaes,  ai 
Kti-ain  JDcrpaBes.  becoml' 
niie  wlirn  ij  =  0. 

n.  SIiear-pole«i 

CuyH.  (KiK  117.)— Kroii 
Btrniii  ill  boili  niattl8=  . 
-«-  BC.  ReBiiItaut  strain 
(E«iys=  /'  X  -■!  W-»-  BC.  Th 
on  each  mast  (or  (riij  1  wll 
the  above,  miiltipiied  tp 
cant  of  lialf  the  aiielr  t£ 
(nr  t.'"3"B'  "lake  witli  enc 


T^vo  DlBgonsI  Braces  and  a  Tie-rod.    {fig-  llii.)— Supi 
braces  aru  astsd  tu  Kusiain  a  siiiKle  load  J'.    CoiiipresKive  stress  ■• 

4P  X  ^^  ;  ori  CA=}iPXjjj.    Tlila  is  true  only  if  CB  and  BO  anx 

lenfftli.  til  wiiich  caH«  %  of  f  is  siipimrted  bj  ench  abutoieat  Cam 
ther  are  unequal  iu  Icni^th  {Fiff  lift),  then, 
by  iliB  piiiu'i|)le  of  the  lever,  find  tJie  re- 
actions of  the  abutments  B,  and  ff,.  If  i* 
is  the  load  apjilieil  at  tlie  paint  B  on  th» 
Jever  C/>,  tlie  fulcrum  being  D,  then  K,  X 
CD  =  P  X  BD  and  If,yCD  =  PX  BC; 
K,  =  PX  BR  -(-  CO;  R,  =  P  X  BC+  CX>. 

The  Btraiu  on  AC=  B,  X  AC-t-AB,  and 
on  v«P=  A",  X  -•lD-i-.4B. 

The  strain  on  the  tie  =■  Ri  X  CB-*-AB 
=  StXBD-i-  AB. 

A 


Fra.  118. 


I 


When  CK=B;j.  B,=B,.    Tl 

on  CB  and  BD  is  the  same, 

the    braces  are    of   equal   le 

not,  and  is  equal  to  MPX  HC 

If  the  braces  support  a  unifo 

a.s  a  pair  of  rafters.  I  he  strflin 

by  such  a  loail  are  eipiivaJem 

caused  liv  one  half  of  the  low! 

Via.  119,  at  th<*  centre.    Tlie  hoi  izoata 

of  tlie  braces  against  each  otii 

appiT  equal'!  the  ten'^fte  f^traln  fn  the  tie. 

KtnK-poat  TruBi!  or  Bridge.    (Fig.  liO.)— If  th-  lr.nd  isdb 
over  tlie  nhnle  lin;^tli  of  (lie  tiiiss,  tlie  effet-t  is  the  Rami'  as  if  half 
werepiftcetl  at  the  centre,  the.iltn'rlialf  ln'ing  curried  by  the  abuunel 

P  =  one  half  the  load  on  the  truiis.  then  

tensinn  in  the  veniciil  tie  AB  =  F,  Com- 
pression in  eai'h  of  the  inclineii  bruces  = 
HP  X  .1 D  -i-  AB.  TOTsion  In  tlie.  He  CD 
=  HF  X  liD  -(-  .4  8.  Horizontal  thrust  of 
inclined  brace  AD  at  l>  =  Ihe  tension  in 
the  tie.  If  ir=  the  total  load  on  one  truss 
uniformly  distributed,  /  =  irs  length  and 
d  =  its  depth,  then  the  tetision  oci  the  hor> 

m 

izoDtal  tie  =  -j-T-. 

Inverted  Kln^'Poat  VruBa,    (Fig.  ISl.V-If  P  =  i>-  Imvl  •! 
B,  or  otie  half  of  a  uniformly  di^uiliuted  load,  then  comi'i'     i  "  ■'" 
(the  floor- beam  CD  no; 
to  .have  any  resistAm'e  i 
Tension  on  AC  or  AD  = 
Coinoi'HS'iiori  on  tV>  =  i.-/'   •    '■'(' 

■vide  vVi-  \^•T\?^^^  '»"Vo  >> 
\oail  may  Vy*  «.tv*.v\.. 


Fis.im 


'STRESSES   IN   FRAMED   STRUCTURES. 


443 


Slider  is  e(|ii&lly  ttivlded  betucen  the  aliutiiieiil8  and  suppmlLnl 
frectiy.  Tlie  two  parts  P,  ami  F,  only  arr  I'tmsltlereil  to  uffeut 
the  uieiiilifiii  «t  tlx'  trus.s.  Sirniii  In 
the  vcrilual  lit-rt  UK  aiul  Cf  each 
equals  Z',  or  P,.  Siniln  on  AB  and 
Cti  I'ncli  -  J',  X  I'll  +  (.•/«'.  strain 
on  ilic  tie  Ak  or  K^'nr  BZ)  =  f,  •. 
FD  -t-  <•>'.  Tlinuil  un  BV  =  tension 
on  £F. 

Kor  stability  to  reKW  heavy  un- 
equal I'-tt'ls  tbt>  qu'en-pi'Sl  truss 
sliMiilO  l.ave  illHgotini  I'liiies  rroiii 
Bra  Fhi.i]  frnin  fti.  R 

Inverted    Quee n-poat 

Truiw.    (Fig.   I%l. I  -  <  uini>i-ei>sii>ii 

..■1   /CW  .111.1    /.y  ,.aol«  =  /•,   ..!•    H,. 

CoiupivstiHiii  0(1  vlrt  Mr  /.'(.'  w  /'t*  = 

^  XAH^  fH.    'I"en-i<in  un  ,IE  or 

FO  =  /',  A  AK  ^  Kll      TiM.siou   on 

fiF=  L'oiii|ire-siiiM  Mil  ItC,     Kor  •■In. 

hiliCy  to  rpsint    iinfqimi   loa<1s,   tic* 

_       ,„  should  he  run  rioni  C  to  A' and  fiom 

HG    t.i.  Btj>  F. 

fmma  of  FivePamelB,  iFitc.  1'wM.i-Knii>  flTt lis nf  ilie  load  may 

I  couoHUU-ateii  m  ilie  iiuints  E,K,L  and  F,  the  otli<-i  nrib  being 

B  Q  H  C 


FIO.  1«4 


directly  by  (he  two  abiitmentB.  Pur  tlie  Ktr&lns  in  BJ  and  CD 
lay  br  considered  as  a  qiieen-pust  (riisE.  »  Uh  (he  U>ad<i  /',  ,  Pf 
wl  at  *rand  ihi'  loads  f, ,  l\  concenlinlMil  at  F.  Thpn,  conipre*- 
Dn  AB  =  (Pi  4-  /'jl  X  .-ill -I- fli,'.  The  alrain  on  CO  is  the  sarin"  if 
ind  panel  lenfjltis  are  equal.  ThP  tenade  Ptraln  on  BKor  ('F  = 
That  portion  oT  the  truss  Iwtwi'on  Ennd  Fmny  l>e  cousiJerwl  aa 
lueen-post  truss,  support  Inir  ih<^  hmils  [\  .  /'j  at  K  and  /...  Tlie 
5?  or  HF=  P,  K  KQ  -t-  OK.  The  diafjnnals  GL  and  KT1  rii-i-iTc  no 
«s  rlif  trass  U  unequally  loaded.  The  verllcals  GKaud  /<£.eaoh 
iiisiip  strain  equal  to  /',  or  /*,. 

itraiu  in  the  luMixonial  menibem:  BG  and  CH  rerplre  a  tliriist 
e  horiziiutal  component  of  thi'  thrust  In  AI!  -r  (V>.  —  (Pj  f-  Pj) 
1-  ABE,  or  (P,  +  P.l  X  ylB-t-  BK.  f.'ff  iet-eivas  Lhia  tljrust  and 
ickHi.  a  thnist  equal  lu  the  horlzoiiiHl  component  of  tlie  thrust  in 
or.  In  all,  ( P,  +  P,  +  i'li  X  .dS-t-  BE, 

on  in  AE or  /'OeqiiulH  the  thruHt  in  BO  or  HC,  and  the  tension 
and  i,/"' equals  the  thrust  in  GH. 

r 'Whipple  Trns*.  (Kie  l-2o)— In  Mils  trass  the  dianoniil*  Are 
e  veriieals!  ui-h  shuib  or  colniniin. 

bij  tlie  inetluxl  of  di'trilK'iion  of  'tiiiinn;  Consider  firat  the 
truss  havintf  six  bays  or  panels,  5/6  "f  ""■  lo""'  i^*  transmitted 
at  U.  and  1  11  lu  the  abcitiiient  O.  on  the  pi'liii'lple  of  thcteveT. 
;  must  lie  Iraiismicifil  tliroiiKli  JA  and  AH,  write  on  IbeBft 
ri/rv  S.    Thf  aiif  sixili  ia  rran.'./iiitfced  Hucceaslvely  UitourVv 
etc..  passineJtllfTuatrly  tjiioiiffli  a  lie  and  a  Blmt.    \Vv\t.B 
-,  Uf  lot^be  strut  (JO  incliif^ivf,  the  flgure  1.     Tlven  tonaVder 
'T^d^''A'^'*,Vr^"/'J  «  <-"^^0.     Write  on  KB,  BJ.  J  A. 
*  and  ou  A£>,  i/z,  i^E,  etc.  the  flgure  2.    The  \oa4 


I 

I 


444 


MBCHAXIC8. 


(ransinlt  8/6  tn  each  direction;   uiiie  8  on  «Bcb  of  the  men 
whioli  thlii  strttBs  poKReK,  and  bo  od  for  all  the  l(hsds,  wlien  tbe  1 
BevuTiil  iiieiulierg  will  appear  oa  on  ihuuiic.    Adding  them  up,*!*!)! 
fulluHlng  tuials: 

T«,«io„«„dla«o„au|^/  ^^  ff  ^J-^  «^  ^f  %«  \^  ^^  ff 

Oompre«Hou  on  ve.HcaU  j  -'^,f   f  J"   «f   ^^    ^3^   f"^  O 

Each  of  the  fiKurt-s  In  Ihe  first  Uof!  is  to  be  multiplied  by  'i/^fKtu 
aiiKJe  HAJ^  or  1/Si'  X  AJ-i-  AH,  to  obtain  the  teiiKliiii,  and  faoli  fi^l 
Inwer  line  is  to  bt-  ninliiplied  by  l/OPto  obtain  the  compi-ussion.  Tl 
onala  HB  aud  >''U  receire  no  strain. 


I 


It  is  common  to  build  this  tiiin.^  n-Uli  a  diagronal  stntt  at  HB  lnst«a 
post  HA  nmt  the  <liai;^tiHl  AJ  :  in  wblch  case  R/6  of  the  load  PH 
throiiKh  JH  aiKi  the  Bti  ut  iill,  wbich  latter  thL-n  receives  a  strain  — 
secant  of  HliJ. 

The  stitlina  in  the  iipprr  and  lower  horiaiiitol  inernlwrs  or  chords  I 
from  the  ends  to  tlio  LT>ntre.  ns  rIiowii  in  the  cuKe  of  the  Burrtru 
receives  a  tbrimt  eqitul  to  the  liorizoiitiil  compoiii'i.t  of  tlie  tension  II 
IVltf  X  tan  AJB.  Uc  tHrelvi's  the  siime  thrust  4-  "'e  horizoinal  eon 
of  tile  tension  In  BA'.nnd  so  on.  The  teiislun  In  the  lower  eli'inl  of  cm 
is  the  same  as  the  thrust  in  the  upper  chiTd  of  the  jiaint»  i-wuiel.  ift 
lalioi]  of  the  cliiiril  stiaiitH  by  Ibe  iiielhiui  of  inoinent.s.  »t^'  Ih-Iow  t 

The  iimxinium  thrust  or  teniilon  Is  nt  the  centre  of  th6  chondRsart 

'"  u  K  ■  '"  which  IV  18  Hit»  total  load  supported  by  the  truss,  I.  Is  tbl 

and  D  the  depth.  This  is  the  formula  for  maxiinum  stress  in  tttd 
of  a  IriiBS  of  any  fiinii  wiiniever. 

The  nbove  ealLnilatlon  is  based  on  the  ii>*i]in|itinn  that  all  Ihelowdl 
eiL'.,  are  eqniil.  If  tliej-  are  (iiieqiial  thi^  value  of  eiu-li  lias  to  lie  i>i{ 
nocoLint  in  diMtributinu  the  stmhis.  Thun  the  tension  in  AJ.  "Itli 
liinds.  insleail  of  beiiiR  IS  X  1/C  P  sccaiif  9  would  be  sec  B  X  i:t/(,P,+i 
a/li  P,  4-  a/6  p.  A-  1/8  P^.)  Each  jiam-I  t.md,  /-,  etc,  iiicludrg  llfcfnJ 
the  « i-i|;hi  of  iiie  li  nss 

General  Formula  for  Strains  In  Diagonals  and  Vcr 
—  Lei  II-  miiil  nnnile-t  of  iinni-ts.  a' =  nuinber  "f  iiny  vepiimi  cut 
fconi  the  nearest  end,  conntlfig  the  end  as  1,  r  =  rolling  load  for  eud 
P  --  tcUil  loud  fur  ea<;b  panel, 


Sirttki  oTi  vertical-!  = 


[(«- 


;»;)+(» -j!)«-(a-lH-ij--l)'lf  .  >U^ 


For  a  unlformlj  distributed  Innd,  leave  out  the  last  term, 

[r(i-l)-)-(a;-ljsj+Sit. 
Strain   on   principal  dia)i:oniilH=::  strain   on   verticals  X  i 
Kcenat.  of  the  nng-fe  the  diaKOnal  mRke*  wVl\\  X\\e  vertical. 
titrulr.  on  /he  coiiiiterhraces  :  The  nWttio  oi\  V\\e  to\»«\«>sr 
punpl  Is  0,  it  the  load  is  uniform.    On  l\\e  ai.^A.  4v\l,« 


L      l-hS      14-2+3 


etc.,  P  being  llw  toVa\  \«aa  \w  owe  1 


STRESSES   IN    FKAMKD   STRrCTUEES. 


445 


trmlnln  tlieCliorda    method  omomeiita.-Let  tlit  tniss  be 

brmly  loaded,  llie  t-'t.-'  load  iii'tlng  on  it  =  W.     Wcichl  supported  at 

end,  or  njacliim  of  the  ahutiiii^rit  =  TV '2.      L«M>)fth  ct   the  trui«  =  L. 

Kht  on  a  unit  of  It^ugtli  =  M'/L.     Uorizmila]  distauce  from  llin  IK-Hrevt 

menl  to  the  (mint  (miv  J/ in  Flit.  IVSiiii  the  ctiord  where  the  stmiii  its  to 
iHteniiiiittd  :=  X.     Knrlzr>ntal  strain  at  tliat  point  iteiislon  on  the  lower 

d,  cornpresfiiiin  io  tin  i!(.iiK»rt  =  H.  iJeplli  of  lii^  trus,«  =  /»,  hy  the 
hoil  of  inonn?iifs  '.ve  tultn  tlie  differoiicH  of  tlje  moiiie<ii>i.  ntioiil  tlie  point 

f  the  l-pHC'liuii  uf  llie  iiliiiliueul  aud  of  lliu  load  lielwefn  HDd  t|je  abut- 

U,  and  equate  ilint  'iflerencn  with  the  raoment  of  tlie  reaiiit&nL«.  or  of 
mtnUn  in  (be  horizontal  chord,  cousid»reU  with  refureuuH  Io  n  point  in 
opposite  choril,  alx>iit  which  the  truss  would  turn  It  the  ricst  chord  WMru 

red  at  if. 
ie  moment  of  tlie  reaction  of  tlip  abutment  is  Wx  "8.    The  inonieiit  of 

lomi  from  the  nbiitirieiil  to  M  is  irXxX  the  dislani-e  of  its  cent-oof 
rtty  from  M,  which  i&r/'i.  orinonieut  =  Wx^-t-'^iL.  MuiueirtoriliHsiireaH 

m  ehord  =  fl/>  =  ^  -  ^^,  wUetMSc  tl  =  ^,(x  -  ^\    If  x  =  0  or  Z^ 

.    If  X  =  L/a,  ft  =  — JJ-,  which  is  the  horizontal  strain  at  tlie  loiddlo 

chords,  Rg  before  given. 
he  Howe  Trniia.    (Fit;.  ISO.)— In  the  Howe  iniHS  the  dingonaU  are 
U,  and  Uiti  verticals  are  ties.    The  calculation  of  iitraias  luay  be  made 


Fio.  138. 

_  gftm^  method  a.«  described  nlmve  foi-  the  Pratt  trusn. 

le  Warren  fiirdcr.    (Fig.  li?.)— In  the  Waneu  Kiidsr,  or  trtaiifnilar 

,  there  me  no  veitloal  stmts,  and  tiio  diagonals  may  iraiistnlt  either 


Ion  or  compreswlon .     The  ulralns  in  the  dfaRonals  may  be  calculated  by 
metlipd  i>f  (iistrilxntion  of  ■strains  as  in  the  ruse  of  (he  reitnnL'nlnrlniss. 
the  princfplf  of  the  lever,  the  load  /',  lieiiij;  1/10  of  tlie  lenKth  of  Tlie 
from  the  iineof  the  neuietit  suppitrl  <i,  tranntnltH  0/10  of  it<  wel^,dit  to  a 
I  '10  to  g.     Write  0  on  tlio  riRlii  hand  of  the  .itriit  la.  to  n>vretu>ut  the        ' 
pfS'i'"!.  ,ind   I  on  fh(>  rl^lit  haiiil  at  t/j,  ir,  Sif,  etc.,  to  represent  com.- 
t  ■•""'o''i''^,  f-*  P'r.  toreiii-eseiit  tension    TUeUiaA  P, 

I-  '  /"  "lO'l  S  10  to  f/.    \<ri(e  T  on  eueh  iwtnnber  trom 

•,    '■  ;"J™ -,"*  J/.  I'lucinK  tin!  rikc«ire»  rtMi\-«>swv\>\-nB 
«B/*..'to//"'7-^wv^^/  f.?fh"'   "'*"  '"••'"''er,  atid   those    rs-pv^o^^"^^* 
oo  rtr  lau.     Hr.H-.'.'cl  l„  tbe  same  mnnner  with  nil  the  \oiu\ft,  \,\;lcO 


446 


MECMAXIC8. 


sum  up  the  Afnire*  on  each  side  or  otich  dlagoiia),  nod  write  the4 
of  encii  8iim  beni-atb,  and  on  tlie  side  of  thp  RreAt-er  suui,  to  sfaoT 
the  (titTerence  repi*eseiit>>  tfUBiou  or  L'onipre&wion.   I^ih  resiiltH  arel 
Comprcasion,  la.  S5:  2/i.  IR;  3c.  5:  Hd,  S;  4*.  15;  5;/.  "JS.     TenBion. 
S:  M,  6;  fie.  15.    Each  of  Ihwje  fiKiires  la  In  be  iiitiltiplipdhy  1/lfl 
thi?  loads  OS  Pi ,  and  l)y  the  secant  of  the  auKle  the  diagiouaU  i 
vertical  line. 

The  strains  in  the  horizontal  rliords  may  be  determined  by  the  t 
nminf'iits  ns  in  the  case  of  rrctaneiilar  trusses. 

Koof-lrilB».  — Solution   by   Method   of  Momenta. — ^The  < 
strains  In  Btrnetiires  liy  the  niethotl  of  smtlcal  momenta  coosiBlsl 
criiRs-section  o(   the  structure  at   a  point  where  there  ai«  not  r 
three  nieinhers  [Htrnts,  liraces.,  or  cliords). 

Tn  tlTiii  the  strain  (n  eillier  one  of  tliese  inemhem  take  the  moi 
the  Interspetion  of  the  other  two  as  an  axis  of  rotation.  The  i 
ninmentg  of  ihese  nieuibers  iniist  l>e  0  if  the  fitnieciire  k^  En  4« 
But  tlie  nionientg  of  the  two  nieinljers  that  pass  tlirouKh  the  poiol 
enoe  orniiw  ore  both  0,  hence  r.ue  equtttiuu  containing  ooeunkfl 
tity  cau  he  louDd  for  uavh  cross-HeclioD. 


In  the  tnjSH  shown  In  F^K.  158  take  a  eroM-sectioi  ■  . 
gtrain  in  the  tliree  nienihers  cut  by  it,  viz.,  CS,  K. 
exerted  In  liii-e^^tion  CK,  Y  =  force  exertetl  id  iln 
erte<l  in  i1Ir*L'lion  Fit. 

For  Jf  take  its  moment  about  the  tiitereecl ion  of  Fand  Zatpi 
F  take  its  moment  abont  the  intersection  of  Xand  .STat  .4  = 
im  nionient  ah4iitt  the  inltrsection  of  -Y  and  F  at  K=  Zx. 
i-s  15,  p  =  38  4.  ^o  =  ao,  CfJ  =  ao  ft.    Let  f,,  Py  />,.  /%  b«  ( 
shown,  and  'A^  Plbe  reaction  of  the  abutment  A. 

TlieHum  of  all  the  moments  taken  about  D  or  Aw  R  will 
BtrncturB  is  at  rest.    Then  -  Xx -{■  ^.TiP  x  SO  —  P,  >;  ia,S  -  /»,  ; 
37.5  =  n 

The -l-.siinin  are  for  moments  in  the  direction  of  th>- 
"clockwise  "  and  —  slcns  for  the  reverse  direction  or  . 

p  =  />,  =  A  -  p,.   -  18.0X4-  nsp  -  np  =  0;  -  i^ 

100P-i-18  6  =  S.3T6I'. 
-  Fjr  +  Pi  X  37.5  -1-  P,  X  25  f  P,  X  1S.5  =  0;  88.4r  =  7BP;  Ta 

=  I  9S3P. 
-Zz  +  3.5P  X  87.S  -  P,  X  S5  -  P,  X  IS.S  -  P,  X  0  =  0;    I5Z  = 

6.3SP. 
Ja  the  same  manner  the  force*  exe\'\e4  \n  \.Yie  «A\\ev  meinber'^ 
found  as  f.W/oiis:  KG  -  R.7SP-.  fJJ  =  B.mP-,  JA  ="».ViI-,  JH=>J 
i.SO^':  AH  =  rt.-'iP;  HF  =  T  MP. 

^  The  Fink  Koof-traHin.    '^^K- "l29.>-^2V*^»''^22Li.Sl 
brick  ( Van.  .V.  Mag.,  Aur.  1880)  RWea  ttieloV^owtoft "«««»»- 


i®  ^^  ^lUMKu  STKucruitjss,           44I 

•^  0  \  F;  ^ 

d 

^    ■■  fcu  ■  II  1  1^^ 

x1 

J 

i 

■ 

"L/D-iPD/Ll 
■s  -f-  L  - 

ic  ft.,  with  four  ■ 
onspBchat  the 
iiifinif  no  Hi  rain 
=  3*  ft.,  f>  =  18 
472,  S  -*■  D  =it, 
\  are  as  follows: 

=  25. W  tons 
1  =  3.S8  •• 
1  =     7.  IB    " 

~    4 

=    8 

=  11! 

t 

V 

£         V 

la.  I29(T. 
risoft  steel), 

MECHAXlca 


lip  the  fif^ires  on  each  side  nf  mhoIi  ilinkT 
of  each  siim  tieneatli,  ami  on  tlic  - 
the  difference  represent-,  tension 
Coinpreasion,  la.  i5;  'ib.  IS;  '6c.  i: 
6;  id.  &;  5e.  15,    Each  of  Ibese  ttKure><  L>  tu  lei 
the  Iniids  asi  f>, ,  and  by  the  secant  of  tiie  angle  1 
vertical  line. 

The  KtrainR  In  the  horizODtHi  clvf 
moments  ns  in  the  caise  of  rectuii^ 

ttoof-tmmm.—Soluliuii    by    M- 
strains  in  struetures  hy  the  nicthoil  uf  xutlcal  i 
crnss-section  of  the  sirucliire  ar  a  point  wl 
three  inerabers  (Ktruts,  braces,  or  chords). 

To  find  file  strain  in  either  one  of  Oieoe  iiieni<H 
the  intersectinu   of  tlie   other  two  a»  an  Biis  < 
moments  of  thi'sc  members  niiisi   \ie  0  If  Ihej 
But  the  nioiuent^  of  the  two  meinliet-i;  that  i 
ence  or  bxLs  are  both  0,  hence  one  equation  j 
ttty  cao  be  found  for  each  cross-section. 


yX 


\ 


12.5 


In  the  trow  shown  In  Fljt.  128  take  a  cpoi 
strain  in  the  threi-  inenibers  cut  by  it.  viz. 
exerted  in  illre<-tion  CK,  1'  =  force  exerted  I 
erted  in  direction  Fh. 

For  X  take  il«  uioirient  about  llie  Inti 
y  take  its  moment  about  tlie  inlerseiition 
flM  iiionient  about  the  intersection  of  JTa 
lt»U,  K  =  .18  t.  AD  =  SO,  CD  =  ail  ft.     Let 
shown,  and  SVJ  Plhe  reaction  of  the  abuti 

Tlie  sum  of  all  the  moiuents  taken  about  i 
sinicture  ittat  rest.    Then  -  Xx  +  ZAP 
Vi.t>  =  0. 

Tlie  +.  hI^k  are  for  moments  In  the  dli 
"clockwise  "  and  —  signs  for  the  reverse' 
P=  i;  =  P.  -  />„     -  180X+  ITS/'  -  TBPs 

ioop-4-i8«  =  s.srcp, 

-  I'jf  +  P.  X  87  S  +  P,  X  a  f  P,  X  12.5  =  0; 

=  ishsr 


P,  X  18.5  -  P,  Xl 


ip. 

-Zt  +  8.5P  X  Sr.S  -  P,  \  SB  ■ 

i.HiP. 

In  till'  sniii-'  innniier  the  forces  exerted  In  llie  i 
^  -  B.rSP:  OJ  =  8.07P:  J  A 

'P=  T-WP. 

•  t'trunm.    iFig.  I39.v— .in 
.VUK.  1««)  <5Vtb»  X^  Ya9&Q« 


K6 


-m 


Tlie  Falirenlipit  thernioiiieler  is  (te-neioUy  u»«l  In  EriKllsh^p**!!)^*  J| 
trios,  and  tliu  Ceu U'ltrade,  or  French  tberiiioiuuter.  In  t-otmtri^  rimi  in» 
nietHu  svKlem.    la  many  scieiilillc  MeAtiues  in  Eneli^) 
f;r:i<lH  tHn)porHtni-i*ff  nre  iilso  ust^d,  either  with  or  wit  I 
pijuivnlt-nls-    Tilt- ll^auuiur  thermometer  la  used  iu  Ru  j     i 

auil  Eb)-|iI.    tC'Inrk.) 

Ill  till?  Falirvulieil  ilicriuoiiieter  the  ftecxinR-point  of  nat/r  la  I 
and  llie  I  Mailing-point  of  water  at  in&an  atniojinln'Hc  |M-f<?iin»  i 
IfVfl,  IJ.7  lbs.  per  st^.  in.,  ia  taken  at  i\2°.  Ilie  ui 
Iwinl-H  beiiit!  divided  into  180".  In  the  Cent iitnide  ■■< 
ilie  rri.'<'ziiiK-p(>int.  i«i  taken  at'V°.  The  boiliiig'|K>ii  i 
noale,  and  S0»  in  I  ho  R6auuiur. 
1  FaliivMlielt  depree  =  5/9  das'.  CetiliRrade    =  4/9deK. 

1  t'eiiligrjide  desTee  =  fl/.^deif.  Fahrenheit    ^•I/ndeg.  i 

I  R^^iuiiiur  degitje  =  «■■)  defr.  Ftihrenhelt    =  5/1  dejt.  Oij 

Teiii|«'inliiie  Falireuhett  =  B.'5  X  lenip.  C.  +  33°  =  B/«  R.-fr^ 
Teriiiieiatiire  OntlKrnde  =  S/9  (l«mp.  F.  —  .^J*)     =  B/«  R. 

I'lVmiiKi  iitnie  Ueiiiiniiir     =  4  a  tptnij  C  =4/11  (P. 

.'nerrurlal  TlicrnioniFtor.     (liankine,  S.  E.,  p.  "^ 
jBJtpttUsiun  of  meicmy  wjili  rise  uf  leiuiieiaiiife  ini.Tea.senA5tl 
Sbeeomes  liigher  ;  from  wiiich  it  follows,  tl  at  if  a  then; 
dilatation  of  niercnry  Biniply  Mere  inude  to  apret-  witi 
•t  :)■;"  and  ■,'f.",  tlici  ineriMiilal  ihermoiiioter  wi>iild  flhu., 
than  the  air  theniiomel,er  betweeti  thuse  Btondard  pomiH,  on 
pei'atures  Ijeyond  tliein. 
For  example,  ttccoidinif  to  Reenonlt,  when  the  air  tliernion 

■  ao"  C.  {—  (it3",r"  F  ),  the  nieicijrinl   llieriiioineler  would  ma 
(JM.SS"  F.),  th«  error  of  the  Inner  beinc  i"  ejteena  IS.IB"  V.  la 
.\ctmLl  ineri'urittl  tliernioinelers  imlionie  inlervalB  of  tein|| 
tlonnl  Irj  the  dilTereiice  between  the  expannlon  of  inercnry  ( 

The  Inequalities  in   the  rate  of  expaiiHion  of   the   k'^^^  ^ 
ditfereid,  for  different  kliidn  of  (rla*s)  conect,  to  n  trenierc 

I  errors  arising  from  the  Inetiualitius  in  the  r  v       ' 
For  pruclieni  purposes  cunneoted  Willi 
iBoineter  made  of  eoninion  (flnxs  may  In-  < 
firith  the  alr-therinuiiieter  at  all  leiniKMatun-.s  not  e.Mi-eum^  ' 


'^1 


PYR031ETBT. 


Principles  Vmed.  In  Varloua  Pyroniete.r«.-ContM 

by  heat,  r«»  in  the  Wedgwood  pyroiiiet-^r  u»eil  liv  poKerB.    Mot  i 
Jha  contraction  varies  with  the  tinality  of  the  clay. 
^    KxpanKioii  of  air.  nx  in  i.lie  air-ihfsruioitietera,  \Mbor|;h*l  pjrron 
[ntr'aKd  Sti'inharL'is  pyroineter,  etc. 

t«|M''Cill<-  boat  of  aoliUii,  as  in  the  copper-biUI,  |il«llnuu)-b»il,  i 
pyrometers. 
HgiwtiYe  eipniislon  of  two  nmftali)  or  other  giibstances.twi 
■"  iiwirROiid  Hnlltley's  pyrometers,  elu. 

B-poinl.s  of  meliilR,  or  other  siilwlanws,  ns  in  approxtn 

!!■;  if  teinperatiire  by  nieUiiit:  pieees*  of  iluo.  lea.l,  >  t. 

M'lit  of  !^tren^ih  of  a  tlieriiio-eiectrio  oiirT»-i  ; 

'  iou  of  two  metals,  as  in  Ia-  f  'haieller'n  iiy  i . 

'•I't'trlc  ri'ftisiniice  of  plaiinnm,  n.i  In  llie  .'~ 

•^'('li  •   '  '•    i     1'  II  weij;l)e<l  qunnlitj' of  wa'er  inolj 

<  i<  I  <,>rTciui»rrnturci»uplo  800' 

liru  Ml  llie  Ulbt; abut e  Vkw  uvKkuUkvi ,    llaij«  I 


-^^!!!!!!^^gs»a®r,«*o«.,„ 


^^H 

4^0          l-BKfRRATt'RKS,  r  AlfBETniKfT  Jlfl 
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F. 

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ft,'..*! 

-■     ):i,S,9 

^^4^  tTH 

■ 

**     •! 

8S 

29.4 

I.M 

iw;  1 

1  1:13.4 

840  i:<.i 

H     *> 

-  «.'7 

80 

30. 

I.VJ  ' 

(X  7 

"'IS'    ■' 

-   .1  no. 

s&d  ifM 

^H 

-  •     «7l 

ao,« 

I.V) 

■    1  uo.o 

■ 

81.1 

I.M 

'■  1 .  i 

:!•   '''- 

^^^^^H 

^K 

St, 7 

IN. 

\.' 

'    :"  '. 

^^^^^H 

S2.8 

l&O 

W..9    ■tilXVti  f,\ 

«).4\'{a\\(*A 

.■aftU«* 

SV^^^I 

Di.H 

IB7 

\V»i  \«L&Wk1^H 

h 

^^^H 

■ 

■ 

■ 

PTUO^TETRY. 


or  Copper  Ball   Pyrometer.— A  weighed  piece  __ 

opper,  or  irmi  is  allowed  to  remain  In  the  furnace  or  heated 
it  has  attainwl  llie  temperiiture  of  its  siirronndinifs.  It  is  then 
ken  out  auii  Uroniied  iiilo  a  vessel  conltthiinj;  water  of  a  known 
temperature.  Toe  water  is  stlrreil  rapi{lly  and  its  maximum 
■  fnkeii.     Let  W  =  neistit.  of  the  water,  ic  the  wei^jht  of  the  bail, 

tinaJ  and  Tthe  flual  heat  of  the  water,  and  S  the  speciAn  heat  oi. 

**— 1  the  temperatiiro  of  fire  may  be  found  from  the  formula 


W(T-  0 


+  T. 


l)l&eAQ  speciflc  heat  of  platinum  between  Si"  and  iid'  F,  is  .03333  or 
nmt  uf  water,  and  it  inerensee  with  the  teiniK-rainre  about  .000305  for 

rf.    Korafullerdescrlption,  by  J.  C.  Hc«idley,.'«cTrans.  A.8.  M.  E., 
Oamparo  also  Henry  M.  Howe,  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.,  xvill.  raS. 
r  «M^.L,  .,..,■  <>,-irrection«  are  required  for  Tarlations  in  the  specific  heat  of 
f  the  metal  at  (lirfi'jent  temperatures,  for  loss  of  heat  by 
[iM  metal  during  iLe  i['ari8fer  from  the  furnace  to  the  water, 
•  'I '■!  IIS  during  the  heating  of  the  water;  also  for  the  heatr 
the  vessel  O'Milniuliif;  I  he  water. 
■k  may  be  u.se<l  insieml  uf  IhL'  metal  bull. 
riiermo-electrle  Pyroiueter.— Por  a  very  full 
liy  Joseph  Stnjthers,  Schuoi  of  Mines  QiKoierlji,  vol. 
nil  by  I'rof.  Roberts- Austen  l)efore  the  Iron  and  Steel 

vhich  this  pyrometer  Is  conslrueleil  In  the  lueasure- 
•  lectrleily  prodULjed  by  heatini^  a  coti|)lo  coinposei!  of 
and  llie  other  7>Iatiiuun  with  ]0%  rhudium— the  cur 


Detr. 


iu^  measured  by  a  (galvanometer. 

in  at  iJie  gas  w^biuli  surrouuds  the  couple  has  no  inau«<tice 

iiures  above  'HM'  F.  are  to  be  studied,  the  wires  niiisl  have 
1  on  and  must  be  of  good  length,  so  that  all  pans  of  a  fur- 
lied. 

furnace,  about  llUfcet  is  the  general  length.    The  wii-ea 

au  iron  tube,  ^  inch  luteriur  diameter  and  held  in  place  by 

:  taetriry  rlay  having  two  lioles  U-ired  through,  in  whieii  th« 

i     The  sliortness  of  time  (live  seconds!  allows  the  tempera- 

.lithijut  deteriorating  the  tube. 

thi-  nvrometer  In  lueiuKuring  furnace  temperatures  under 

'itions  show  that  the  ri:ading«of  Ihe  scale  uncorrected 

I",  of  the  Correct  leinperaiure,  and  in  the  luajority  of 

Ills  this  is  siifilcicnilv  accurate.    Lo  Cbntelfer's  py- 

,  yiieeii  &  Vn..  iif  I'hlladeljiliia. 

:■    or   Le    CIiBfoIier'B    Pyroinctci*,— W.  O.  RoherLs- 

-rtr.-lie.s  on  the  I'roptrlies  of  Alloys.  I'ruc.  Inst.  M,  E.  1899, 

rive  force  produced  by  hcuiiug  the  thermo- junction 

;ii-e  is  measured  l.iy  rhe  movement  <»f  the  Kpot  of  light 

ill  iiiilliiiii'tres.     A  forimila  for  converting  the  (ilvi- 

I'luetrii"  ilef^rees  is  toveii  t»y  M.  Ijt*.  C'lmteiier:  but 

•  (lie  by  healin);  rhe  thenuo-junction  to  teiuper- 

■  ly  carefully  delermlued  by  the  aid  of  the  ulr- 

,  to  plot  the  curio  from  tlif  diita  so  obtained.     Many 

Ids  have  been  established  by  concurrent  evidence  «f 

■1  now  very  generally  accepnid.    The  followiuj;  table 

of  iliese  : 


4 


Oeg.  F.  Deg.  C. 


C. 
""•■"-rt)oll9. 
■nells. 
■  IV  boils. 

- iiellK. 

ttiiipltur  boils. 
Alnniiniim  melts, 
••iiiiini  iX'ils. 

fcturea  Developed  In  Industrial  Fnrnaceita 
tiitex  that  liy  uieAiis  of  bis  pyrometer  he  Iuih  l^tscnv«(l 
ture*  which  otiair  in  iiwlling' Bled  and  in  olher  Vodi    " 


nm 

^5 

Silver  melts. 

1850 

1015 

I'otasslum  sul- 
phate molts. 

1913 

1045 

Oolil  inrfts. 

IKKI 

laM 

t'opper  melts. 
I'alladlum  melU, 

li73J 

1,^00 

*fir 

KTS 

riatinum  melts. 

r 


452 


HEAT. 


M,  I«  Oiatellpr  nnd^  tbe  inelltiiK  heat  of  wblt6  ca»t  iron  III 
Mnd  llmt  ijf  Rray  caal  imn  ia3l>»  ca-.'S"  K.).  Mild  stpel  nieKunlW 
F.).  i«-iiii.inlld  at  1J5,')°  iif\M'  K.).  ami  ImrJ  wlefl  al  IllO"  I'A'W  Y 
furiincp  fur  tmrd  pijroelnlri  at  th?  end  of  tli<>'  baking  Ii&h  a  h«iil' 
VUW  F,).  Tlie  bfiit  of  a  nonnnl  iiiuniidesceut  laiiii>  is  iwu'iStrt' 
it  niny  ti«i>lighp(l  to  beyotiil  '^lOO"  (381.:"'  F.i. 

Prof.  Kolwrts-Aiisleii  (Recent  Ailvniit'ea  in  Pyromelry.  Trtils.  A. 
Cblcttft"  Mcetliiir.  l^PSi  (fives  an  excellent  description 'of  modenl 
pyrouieters.    Tlie  following  are  suine  of  bis  temperature  del«rmliw 

OotJJ-»IBL.TlllO,  ROYAI.  MlBTT. 

Di'Kree*.      1 
OntiKrade. 
Temperature  of  BtainJai'd  alloy,  ptmrini:  into  moiiMs.  ..     IICO 
Tem]ierivlure  (if  KiiiiMlBril  alloy,  pouring;  into  m<iiiUis  (on 

n  previous  ocL'iisioii,  by  Ihernio-conpte) 1U7 

.\iini>al[»g  bltnks  for  coinage,  teiniicrrttine  of  cliamber..    880 

SlLVKB-MBLTISO,  HoVAL  MtSfT. 

Temperature  of  staudard  alloy,  pouring  into  mould WO 

Ten-ton  OPEN-niSAitTn  Fitrnace,  Woolwich  Arsesau 

Teiiiiwrature  of  nivel,  0.8*  carlKin,  poiirioe  luto  ladle 1045 

Temperature  of  steel,  0.3*  carlxin,  pouring  Inio  large 

nioulil IB90 

Kelieatiuc  furnace,  Woolwich  Arseual,  temperature  of 

interior 980 

Cupola  furnace,  taiiiperature  ot  No.  3,  cast-iron  pouring 

Into  laille WOO 

The  following  lietf  nniuatioDii  have  been  effected  by  M.  Le  Cbatal 

BKSiiRuiini  PBOCBas. 
SIx-tou   CoDTerter. 

OmtUmm 

A.  BiithorBlae ,  158D 

B.  Metal  ill  ladle,,, 1$40 

C.  Metal  in  itiirot  mould 1S80 

I),  InKut  Ii>  ■'eueHtini;  furnace IMO 

K.  Ingot uudei  the  Immiiier ...,  lOGO 

Opes-hcarth  FuR.yAcc  (Siemens). 
S<-mi-Mild  Steel. 

A.  Fuel  prfis  near  eaa  Keneiatoj* 7*0 

B.  Fuel  KBsenterinif  into  bottom  of  reKHneratorchamber    400 

C  Fuel  Kan  iBKuinjt  from  i-effenerftior  eliamber ISOO 

Air  issuing  from  regenerator  cliainber 1000 

CaiUNET  OABSa. 

Fumaoe in  perfect  coaditlon , 800 

Open.hrartb  FcntxACB. 

Bud  of  Ihft  nu-lliiie  of  pig  obarge .,.,.... ]4aO 

Coaipleliou  nf  cuuveriiun ISOO 

Molten  Stiiel, 
In  tbe  ladle — Commencement  of  (tasting ISM 

Knil  of  fnntJUK 1490 

In  the  moulds. ,. 1530 

For  very  mild  (soft)  steel  the  temperatures  are  higher  by  SOJttl 

BlKUEKS  C'RCi:inlJC  OR  PoT  FUKNAOK.        ^H 

Fitmace  ^^^"S 

/'"riclled  ball— End  of  operattw.     " 


lir-YoionM  y  to  the  air-voinintt  K,  can  be  raeaMirea  By  kma- 

It  this  prtwaiire  Ih  uf  course  ft  fuiicllQu  of  tbf  lompciniure  T, 
troduction  of  I'',  wi?  have  ttm  iwl»  swiuirat*'  air-vuliinie«,  Pal 
ure  T aiiiJ  [' '  at  llie  teiiiperatuie  I,  Iwlii  iiniler  rlie  nliiiospheric 
After  lb(-  forcing  in  of  V  into  llie  glolm,  wo  liuve.  on  Uic 
y  the  volume  Koi  lUo  temperature  T,  but  luider  the  pi'essure 

ihAir-pyrometpr  is  adapted  for  use  at  biiist-fiiriiacesi,  Hinelllii^- 
niiiK  and  tempering  furuoces,  etc.,  wliere  delerminarioiia  of 
from  0°  to  aifK*"  F.  /ii'B  required. 

Plre-«lay  Pyrometer,  (H.  M.  Howo,  Kug.  and  tUniitg 
7,  18B0.)  -PrufcNior  Segpr  uses  a  series  »>t  sleudiir  triaugular 
unidn,  abuui  '6  inrlies  lii^li  and  %  inch  wide  at  the  bad«.  aud 
e8«  fusible  than  tlie  next :  th«*ti  he  oills  "nonna!  pyramids" 
fel  ">.  When  tile  serifs  Is  piiU-'CiJ  iu  a  furnace  whose  temper- 
MiiW  raised,  one  after  another  will  bend  over  an  its  range  olf 
eacned  :  and  llic  teniperalnrtt  at  wliiih  It  Ikijs  bent,  or  "wept," 
!  apex  touches  the  hearth  of  thd  furnace  or  other  level  surlHcc 
'  gtandiue,  is  selecteii  as  a  point  on  Setter's  scale.  These  points 
irately  determlneil  by  some  nlisolute  uiethod,  or  they  may 
to  fHve  comparative  resiilr.s.  Unfortunalely,  ihepe  pyraiitldK 
Ications  when  the  tempHratnre  in  statlimmy  or  falling. 
ind  Noael'm  Pyroiuctric  Telescope.  (/iLud.  >— Meaure 
lyrouietriu  telf-scope  giver-  u.s  an  iiiiiiniliitto  deterniinatioii  of 
turu  ut  iucaudeiicoat  bodies,  and  is  therefoie  much  better 
iSes  wlieroo  great  number  of  observiitiojis  are  to  l>e  made,  and 
vbIs,  than  Seger's.  Such  cases  aiiue  m  the  careful  heating  of 
,llu  t«te:$cope,  carried  In  the  pocket  or  hung  from  the  neck,  cau 
reinnn  or  lieater  at  any  luoment. 

)D  the  fact  that  a  plate  uf  ((uariz.  cut  at  right  angles  to  the 
;he  plane  of  polarization  of  poliirixed  light  to  a  degree  nearly 
portional  to  the  square  of  the  leiifrth  of  the  waves  ;  ana, 
lie  fact  that  widle  a  body  at  dull  reduesH  merely  emita  red 
teoiperaiure  riats,  the  orange,  yellww,  grceu,  and  blue  wav«a 
ipptiar. 

ffc  a  plate  of  quartz  Is  placed  between  two  Nicol  pi  isms  at 
g^[_raj  otinonocbromatic  light  which  ^a.sties  the  Ilr.it,  or 


ftttd  tbd  Rtwltoii  to  obiAlned  by  aa  aepitator  sad  n'gatoted 

water  o(  constant  lielghr. 

The  tension  in  the  chamber  betn-een  the  apertures  Is 
niannnicter. 

The  Alr-tUermoniPler.    (Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter.  E» 
1Sl.*3.h— Air  is  a  perfect  tlivrmometric  substance,  and  if  a  | 
be  ci>ii9idervil,  the  product  of   Its   pressure   and  voltira 
absolute  teinperatiire  is   In   every  cage  constant.    If  tb 
reinalu  conwtarit,  the  temperature  will  vary  with  the  p 
pressure  remain  constant  the  temperature  vvill  vary  wUli  U 
the  fwmer  eondiiioii  is  more  e««(!y  oitaineii  aii-thermoraeti 
cousliuctetl  of  frinstaut  volume,  la  whicli  case  the  absolut 
will  vary  with  the  presjsure. 

If  W8  denote  presaiire  by  n  and  p',  the  correspondinj; 
mures  by  Toad  T',  we  bIiuiliq  have 


p  :  p'  ::  T  :  T'    and 


T 

T>  =  p'-. 
P 


The  absolute  temperature  Tta  to  be  considered  In  everj 
than  the  tliermonieter-readlng'  expreiuied  in  Fabrei)lielt  del 
form  of  the  above  equation,  if  the  pressure  ii  coi-responi 
absolute  lemirjeratui-e  T  be  known,  T'  can  be  tourwi.  Tlie  i 
coustauL  which  may  he  used  in  all  detenulnations  with  the! 
pressure  oh  Un*  inslruHU'iil  tsiu  be  expressed  in  inehei  of 
evidently  the  atuiusiilKTic  pretssure  b  as  shown  oy  a  bai 
nihiuA  an  a<iditluiial  amount  h  sbowu  by  a  manometer  aU 
thermometer. 

That  is,  in  general,  u  =  ft  x  A. 

The  temperature  of  3»  F.  is  fixed  na  the  point  of  nieltlnf 
cnse  r  =  460  X  32  =  lOS"  F.    Tills  temperature  can   be  pre 
rfiundinj;  the  bulb  hi  uieltiiip  Ice  and  leaving  several  miiiut 
temperature  of  the  <-ontlned  air  Bhall  acquire  that  of  the 
When  the  air  is  at  that  temperature,   note  the  readinc: 
tnnnnnneler  h,  and  that  of  a  barotueler;  the  sum  will  tie  tni 
responding  to  the  absolute  temperature  of  482°  ¥.    Tlii 
^  iostrumeut,  A'  =  482  -  p,  once  obtained,  cao  be  used  in  all 


{ 


NTITATITB  MEASUBEMEKT  OF   HEAT.  455 


tcid 

a 

-   148"1 

-  1(« 

_     39 

4-     9.5 

::  :::::::-:::^  u 

icid 

1« 

32 

4S 

i W 

, ll'J 

118 

100  to  1«0 

ViO 

d 

.  131  to  140 

.  136  to  144 

143  to  IM 

158 

194  10  808 

;i  tin,  S  bisiiiuUi  199 

am 

£89 

,  1  lead. 

as4 

of  iron,  slowly  heated  In  conttict  with  air,  assumes  the  fol- 
annexed  temperatures  (Olaudei): 

Cent.      FaJir.                                            Oetit.  Fahr. 

2S5           437          Indigo  at 888  630 

843           473          Blueat 293  GftO 

we          60»         Green  at 382  aaO 

377           881          "Oxide-gray" 400  752 

POTNT8  AT  ATMOSPSBBIC  PRESSURE. 

14.7  lbs.  per  square  iuch. 

nric lOO*  F.       Average  sea-water 213.2"  F, 

■■■■  J18  Saturated  brine 280 

140  Nitricacld W8 

140  Oil  of  turpentine ttS 

145  Phospborus 654 

150  Sulphur  BTO 

173  Sulphuric  add B90 

17<I  Linseed  oil &V7 

212  Mercury «?« 

oiots  of  liquids  increase  as  the  pressure  increases.    The  boil- 
ler  at  any  Riven  prefaure  is  the  same  as  the  temperature  of 
!am  of  the  same  pressure.    (SeeSteaui.) 

riNG-POINTS  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

ine  figures  are  givpn  by  Clarlc  (nii  the  nuthurily  of  Pouillet, 
Wilson),  except  those  marlced  *,  wliich  are  Klven  byJProf.  Hob- 

;n  his  description  of  the  Le  Cbatelier  pyrometer.  These  latter 
the  most  reliable  flares. 

'  F.       Alloy,  1  tin,  1  lead..    370  to    466<'  F. 

Tin   44Sto    446 

Cadmium 442 

Bismuth B04  to    507 

Lead aoeio    618* 

Zinc    8S0IO    779« 

Antimony 810  to  UfiO 

Alumluuni 1157* 

Mat^uenium ISOO 

Calcium Full  red  heat. 

Bronze 1693 

Silver 1783*  to  1873 

Potassium  sulphate 18511» 

Gold  1B13*  to  ftjJK 

Copper 1989*  to  I9»(i 

Cast  iron,  white...  liKU  to  tiOT£* 
gray  iOia  to  278B  '»1S» 

Bteel S373    to  25:).' 

"    hard a670»;  mild,  208.* 

WrouEhilroii 87*i    to  89K 

Palladiuui SfTA-i* 

Platluuin 3ai7* 

g-point  of  fusible  alloys,  see  Alloys. 

kel,  and  manganese,  fusible  in  highest  heat  of  a  forge.  Tung- 
Qmium,  not  fusible  in  forge,  but  soften  and  agglomerate.  Plati- 
llum,  fusible  only  before  the  oxyhydrogen  bluwptpe. 

NTITATIVE  KTEASUREmENT  OF  HEAT, 

Heat.— The  Brilitih  unit  of  heat,  or  British  tliermal  unit 
tluil  quaiitity  of  heat  whieh  is  required  to  raise  tht-  ieiii|>fiature 
t^Tater  1°  Falir.,  at  or  near  39°. 1  I'".,  the  teni  peralure  of  ia^kxV- 
KC  water. 

TthTiiml  unJ/.  or  calorie,  is  that  quantity  of  heal  ■w\>lc\v  \8  ve-  ■ 
ff  the  leinpt'raiure  iif]  kiloifmmme  of  pure  water  1°  Cent.,  at  ot  ■ 
•i/cJi  If  f<liiiiaIorir.  lo  Xf.j  F.  V 

larle  ^SUtm  Dritish  thermal  u;ii(s:  I  B.  T  U    =  2KI  ca\oTve. 

>"-     1^ sometimes  used  by  KuglLh  writers;  it  iTtUe  qMua- 


1 


456 


HEAT. 


I 


titr  of  beat  remiired  to  rais?  the  teniiwrntiir.^  <.f  i  Hi   ..r  «.iiit  I'  C 

culoi-le  =  !)/5  B.T.TJ.  =  n.4.'»")fl  calorie.     Tli- 

COj.lHSJifil  10  lieSOWfalririrs.  'niiiflK'liiv  i 

fop  pound  otjoj-les,  na  it  is  tin-  number  of  i 

1°  C.  by  tb«  coriiplt-le  i:oiiil  Uiitintl   nf   1   lo.    " 

iiilosrammes  of  ivuler  tlinl  can  be  niiAt><1  1>  C.  i 

of  carbon;  aHKUiiiiui;  iu  endi  (.'a.s«  Ihnt  all  the  li' 

to  the  water. 

Tlie  necliiaiUcal  £qalvalent  of  Heat  Is  ibn  number  of 

pounds  i:'f  lUHcliuTiical  eiiei>^y  e<|iiivuifiil  to  one  iJt-itUb   tliernml  nail, 
and  im'rhanlcnl  energy  being  intitiinlly  tonverlible.    Joule'K • 
ll$4^1-50,  gave  ibe  figure  7TS,  wbloh  is  kuowii  as  Joule's  e(4ulvAWiit.' 
cent  experiiuents  by  PraC.  Holland  i Pi  imi.  Am.  AcwI.  Aittamtl 
1880;  Hee  alHo  Wimd  ti  TUryminlt/iiamicni  give  liiglier  tlgunsai,  Aiid  f 
probable  avernpe  is  now  consiilered  to  lie  "78. 

1  beat-unit  Is  equivalent  to  TiS  ft.-lbs  of  energy.    1  ft.  Hi. 
teat-units.    1  horse  power  =  3.1.000  ft.-lbs.  per  iniiiui< 
Imur  =  ■12.416-f  per  minute  =  .TiMJlM  per  second.     1  II. 
=  H.54-1  heat'Units.    1  lb.  C.  per  II. I',  per  hour  =  SSUS  i-        i 
1.1749S6). 

Heat  of  Combaatlon  of  Vartoua  Subatances  In 


Hydrogen  to  liquid  water  at  0°  C — 

tosteatn  at  IflO*  C. 

Carbon  (wood  charooah  to  carbonic 
ucld,  CUg;  ordinary  tentperalurea. 

f.^rbon,  rtiainniid  to  Ct^f - 

hlucit  diamond  to  COj 

graphite  to  CO,  

Oai'bon  tocarljonie  oiride,  CO 

_  Carboiilo  oxide  to  CO,,  per  unit  of  CO 

■  CO  to  CO,  |>er  unit  of  C  =  SJ^i  X  8403 

Manib-gas,  SletUane,  CH«  to  wat«i' 
and  CO, , .. 

Oleflnnt    gM,    Ethylene,    C,H4    to 
water  and  CO, 

Betuole  gaa,  C^H,  to  water  and  CO, 


Hent-unitit. 


Cent. 


■eo8 

S8.73S 


8,080 
000 
8,187 
7,Ki9 
7.HB1 
7,00) 
2,473 
400 

4:u 

3S5 
5.0O7 

i;i,iao 

13.I0B 
IS.OGS 


»    ? 


Fahr. 


6M,()S9 

90,8.%4 

01,HI« 

SI,7I7 

14,M4 

14,^230 

14,C(7 

14,146 

14.130 

14  222 

4,lSi 

4,3» 

4.K6 

4,  SOS 

10,()»3 

23,010 

s^.r,04 


iii.feS   si.;iii 


Favre  and  ^ti«a 
Andnpw& 
Thomsen. 
F°avr«  and  i 

.\ndrewa. 
Bertlielot, 


FaTr«  and  ( 

Andrew*. 
ThotoHen. 
Favre  anilf 
Tltocuiien. 
.Andrews. 
Fav  re  and  I 


V  iidrew*. 
I'hontaeli. 


17. 8 17 1  Far  re  and  I 


In  humlDg  1  (K>und  of  hydrogen  with  B  pounds  of  oxr^ren  t,- 
o(  water,  the  units  of  beat  eTolved  are  62.IISJ  (Favi , 
rcMUlling  product  i*  not  co'iled  tu  the  initini  temi" 
pan  iif  the  h<'at  l»  rendered  lut'iit   in   the   steiini 
nf   xteani  at  <]'.■*    V.   is  1:40.1  lieal.unlla  alxnr' 
9  >;  II 10  1  =  Id.SI.'.  beiil-uiiitji.  which  dediictfd  : 
beat  livulve,!  i.y  tile  conibiiAilou  of  1  lb.  of  livdi . 


(For  heats  of 


(xa^ 


-Th«  tb^Tiiittt  capacity  of  a  body  is  thu  qiianltty 
Tlie  ratio  of  uit'  lieftt 


SPECIFIC   HEAT. 


Ding  "  of  CO]  to  CO  is  thus  a  cooling^  operation. 
[ot  various  fuels,  see  li'uel.} 

SPECIPICl  flKAT. 

mal  Cmpaelty. 

|rcqiTin»'i  to  riise  its  temperaturH  one  degree. 

iriptTfltui'O  nf  ftg-ivtMi  suliMtanpe  on«  ile^iee  tu  tl'at. 

ilK'rnture  of  wattr  oiib  de(;iv«  from  tlio  lemperaturti 

.1  is  commonly  cttUed  lln*  »it*cifiv  heat  oC  llie  sub- 

lers  objeot  to  tiie  lenii  as  beiu^  au  iiiaucuratt<  use  of  tlie 

iiid  "  lieat."   A  more  correct  name  would  be  "coefflcieiil 

IV." 

crnilaniloD    of  Specific   Heat.— J/ef/iod  hy    Mixluye.    The 
io*»(?  •£|ie<'ilt*.*  Jit'H[.  iH  to  lie  dot4>ruii(i«'d  is  rulited  Co  ii  kuowii  i»*iii|)era> 
li*  l)m-*ii  iiitntiTS4jtl  in  a  Iruiais  uf  liquid  uf  wliicli  tlie  weight,  s|M-cit1e 
•iiip«ratui'e  are  liiiuwn,    VVhi^n  l>oili  Uie  body  ami  Ihe   liquid 
^mmI  the  sAiiie  temperature,  (his  is  carefully  asceriulDed. 
(4|noiitity  of  linal  lost  by  the  body  is  the  siiuie  as  Ihf  qunntilr  of 
orbed  by  tlif  liquid. 

,  ami  (  l>e  ilie  siwelflc  heat,  weight,  and  lemptTftliiie  of  llie  hot 
c',  ir',  and  f  of  the  liquid.    Let  T  be  tlie  lempenituie  the  iiitz- 

,  by  the  definition  of  s{>eciftc  heat,  c  X  w  X  (/  -  Tl  =  heat  units  lost 
li'H  iMjrty.  and  c'  x  ir'  X  (.T  -  t')  =  lieatnnits  caiiied  liy  tlif  odd 
If  there  in  oo  beat  lost  by  radlatiou  orcouduuiioa,  ihi^e  musb^ 
(and 

mf  -  T>  =  c',B'(.r-n  or  '^  =  '-^i'^~2p- 

Specific  Heat*  oTVarloaK  Subataiiccn. 

ciflc  lieats  of  aiibstnnces,  as  given  by  different  authorilipa,  show 
it.-  Iii.i;  iif  «.Kr^"iii>'iit.  sspeciftlly  In  the  i?fiSH  .if  j^ases. 

tMH>,>iiv*-  tllr  nieali  ^j>.?fifiL'  hi-atstif  tlie  substances  rmmril 

:.,iuli.     iFnuii  KontKeiiH  Thertnodytiiiuiios,  p.  131  )    Tln-ae 

iveriigc  valu("B,  Inkeii  at  teiiiptTaturt'S  which  iiminlly  t'oine 

in  irchnical  api'McHiinii.     Tlit?  actual  syjwide  lii-al9  uf  all 

-i>lld  Of  liquid  uttttf,  iurreas<-  slowlv  us  the  Ijody  expands 

iiuie  rises.    It  18  probable  that  Ihe  sijcfiflc  heat  of  a  body 

Id  i4>  greater  than  wheu  tiolid.    Fur  iDftuy  bodies  tlais  has  been 

'  «X}ieriineut. 

SoUDS. 


'  oih) 


klioa. 


0.0508 
0.09S1 
0.(m4 

o.n8«i 

0.1M7 
0  l:.>08 
0.03U 
0.0*.4 

0  or>70 

OOfilli 


steel  (soft) 0.1185 

Steel  (hard)  0  IITS 

Zinc o.oeas 

Brass O.OftSB 

Ice O.SWO 

Sulphur 0.8096 

(.Ibarcoal 0.^410 

Alutnina 0.1970 

Pliosphonis 0.1887 


LiqmDB. 


I  (■MitcdO.... .».«.•.. 


I.OOOO 
O.OtDS! 
0.231(1 
0,0308 
0.0687 
;  acid 0.8830 


JJtjrcury , 0.0S3S 

Alcohul  (abaoluta) 0.7009 

Fusel  oil 0.5610 

Ijcnztne  0,4500 

Ether O.eOM 


4 


HEAT. 


Qabks. 
Constant  Preamre 

Air 0.8S7B1 

Oxygen 0.81751 

HTdroeen S.40MW 

Niiroeen... 0.MS80 

Superheated  Bteam 0.480S 

Carbuuie  acid 0.3]? 

Oleflant  Gas  iCH,) 0.4M 

Carbouie  oxide 0.3479 

Ammonia 0.503 

Ether     0.4:«7 

Alcohol 0.46M 

Acetic  a«.id 0.4I9S 

Chloroform 0.1B87 

In  addition  to  the  abore,  t^e  Ifollowiii^  are  giren  by  other 
I  (Selected  (rom  various  sources.) 

Netals. 

Platinum.  H'J'  tr,  44(;»  F 0333 

(increased  .000305  for  each  100°  F.) 

Ca<lmium 0S67 

Bran 0939 


Copper,  33' to  2ia»  F 0»4 

'•         82»to67S»F 1013 

Zinc 


32°toai2°F 0987 

sa»to6T3«r 1015      Wrought  iron. 

Nickel lOeS 

Aluminum,  0°  F.  to  melting* 

poiuttA.  E.  Hunt) 0.S18S 

Otbkr  8out>8. 


Wrought  iron  (PeUt  < 

"  8**to5tV 

Wrought  Iron  iJ.  C.  HoaOktif, 

A.8.  M.  E,  rl.  nil. 


Sl-  to   «0« 
32»  to  ««r. 

asotoiwn* 


Brickwork  and  masoni?.  atiout.  .30 

Marble 410 

Chalk ..  .815 

i  Qiiickliiiie 8IT 

'  Ms^t-sian  limestone .SIT 

Silica ]»1 

Corundum ..   .198 

Stoues  generallj StoSS 


Coal.. 
Coke. 

Graphite .« 

Sulphate  of  Uiue. 

Magnesia 

8o5» 

Quarts. 
Biver  I 


rPlne  (turpentine). . 
'Fir 


Woo  Da. 
.467  I  Oak.. 
.650      Pear. 


I 

I 


Li<ivii». 

Alcohol,  density  .W3 B«   |   OIWooll ..... 

Sulphuric  acid,  density  1.87  .     .  .835   |    Benzine 

1.30.  ..    .6«1      Turpentine,  deiudtjr  JK 
Hydrochloric  add (iOU      Bromine 

Gas  IS. 

AtOoortaat 

Sulphurous  acid , IBM 

Llglit  carburptted  hydrogen,  marsh  gaa  <CH|),  .SMt 
Blast-rurnnce  gaae« .iB!77 

8p«cMc  Bemt  or  Salt  SolntloB.    (IJcbuller.i 

Per  cent  salt  iu  KOlutiou S  10  15 

Specitlc  beat B806        .81)00        .8906 

8p«cllle  Heat  of  Alr.-RegnauU  glTca  for  Lbe  mean  i 

Between  — 30"  C.  and  i- 111*  C. 

0»C.    •■        100"  C 

<!«<'.      ■•  'JOIJ"  C    - 

for  thx  «pvclflc  heat  of  air  at  conMaM  ' 
ant  lias  never  tw*-!)  taun&\ow>)4«n««Ct 


[ 


EXPANSION   BY   HEAT. 


450 


-J  Uie  sn.  I 

folJowg  by  differeiil  wri((?rs  <Knf/(7,  July  13.  I8HO1: 
;  .nil  Beck,  1 .4085;  Szjilhniari,   ].*JV7:  J.   Macfarlane 

Ti  ••  are  obtained  from  the  veJiicily  of  Bound  in  air.   Tin? 

eriveil  'r<jin  theory.    Prof.  Wood  says:   The  value  of  the  ratio  fgr 
md  in  the  days  of  La  Place,  wan  1.41,  and  we  liavn  U.iiUT?  ^  1  <1 
le  Talim  used  by  Clansiiis,  Hanawn.  and  many  others.    Bill  this 
^finitely  Unown,    lianhine  in  lil<4  later  writing  uxed  I  4iW,  and 
•nt  work  gift's   t.40t,  whil«  Hoine  exjwrftuentB  gives  lesH  lliaii 
_    inorp  than  1,41.     Prr)f.  Wocl  uses  1.40fi. 
Beat  of  €■•««■.— Kxperimenta  by  Mallard  and  Frfi  Chotetier 
ilinuoiis  increase  In  the  specific  hear  nt  cousitaut  volume  of 
,nd  eren  of  the  perfect  ga^s,  with  rise  of  tenipeiatiire.     The 
lappreciable  at  100°  C  ,  but  incrt^a-ses  rapidly  at  the  lii(th  tetn- 
the  gaa-engiue   cylinder.     (Hoblnsoa's  dAS  an^l  XVtrolenrn 

leat  and  Ijatent  Heat  of  Fnslou  of  Iron  and 
teel.    (H,  H.  Campbell,  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.,  xii.  181.) 

o 

Alc*»ruiau.    Troilius. 

heatpigiron,      OtoiaoO'C 0.16 

1-200  to  1(«0»  C .0.21 

"  "  Otol.-iOO'C 

"  "         ISOOt/i  1800°C 


O.IB 
0.90 


bj  both  *el«  0/  dat'A  we  bave  ; 


Akermau.    Troilius. 

Ok  from  0  to  ISOO"  C .318  ,130  calories  per  kilo. 

f  probiiiile  value  is  about, 3iJ5  calories  per  kilo. 

4c  lieat,  steel  (prol>ably  Idgb  oariroui (Troiliua) 1175 

••      softiron '.....        "       UWl 

robable  value  solid  mil  Rteel 1I'J5 

"  "    luelWKl  rail  Bteel .ivt.'i 

Akerman.      Troilius. 
beat  of  fusion,  pie  iron,  calories  per  kilo..  46 

"  "      gra^pi^ 33 

"  "      white  pi(f  S3 

e  mar  asaurne  that  the  truth  is  about :  Steel,  20  ;  pig  iron,  90. 

BXPAN8ION  B¥  HEAT. 

,de  scale  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  air  per  degree  is 

^i;  that  is,  the  pressure  being  constant^  the  \'c»Ui(iie  i«f  a  jiei-feot 

1.  STtJ  of  ite  voliune  at  0'  C,  for  erery  increoniH  in  trinperalnro 

Ll  renheit  units  it  increases  1/4U1.3  =  .(XrJUW  of  l:»  vuluniit  at 

y  increase  of  1'  F. 

I  of  Cases  br  Heat  fk-oni  32°  to  212°  F.  (ReKnault.) 


[acrease  in  PresHure, 
Volume  ConstnnI . 
Pressure  at  82* 
F&lir.  =  1.0,  for 


460 


MEAT. 


Lineal  ExpnnNion  of  Solids  at  Ordinary  TeinperatnrM. 

iBi'UiHli  Uonid  of  Tradu;  rroniCL.AiiK.) 


^ 


Aluminum  (cast) 

Antiinouy  (cryrt.)  , 

Brass,  cnat 

•'       plate 

Bfick 

Bionaie  (Copper,  17;  Tin,  3^;  Zinc  1). 

Bisimiih 

Cenitrtit .  Fori  laud  (niixe<i),  pure 

Uoner«U) :  cement,  mortar,  and  pebbteii 

Copper 

Ebonite 

Glass,  Kii»;linli  fliut 

"      thermometer 

"      Iiftid 

OrBDltt!,  Kriiy,  di-y 

"        red,  dry .. ., 

Gold,  pure 

iKoiuni,  pure 

Iron,  wrought 

"     oast  

Lead 

Magnesium  

Marbles,  various  -j  f™™ 
Magonry,  brlett|jj^"'"- 


Mercury  (cubic  expansion) 

Nickel 

fewter 

Planter,  white 

Platinum  

Plailnum,  S5  percent  I 
Iridium,     15    "      "    f  ■  ■■ 

Porcelain _ 

Quartz,  parnili^l  to  major  axis,  t  0°  to 

411°  U 

Quartx,  perpendicular  to  major  axis. 

(0»loJO«  C 

Silver,  pure  

aiate 

Steel,  t»sl ,., 

■'     tempered 

St-iiie  (sandstone),  dry 

"  RauTille 

Tin 

Wedewoodware 

Wood,  pine 

Zinc 

Zinc,  Sf 
Tia.l  ( 


Tor 
r  Fahr. 


For 
1'  Cent. 


Length  =  l'  Length^l 

.(X)O0*Kl 
.00001129 
.00001  ;2v! 
.(XK101804 
.000005.W 
.00001774 
.0(KX)1TF* 
.00001070 
.OOOOmSO 
.0O0U109U 
.01KWT700 
.00000613 
.00000897 

.oooooru 

.000007WI 

.ooooot<a7 

.00OOM15 
.OOOOOMl 
.0(XH)ueG 
.00001001 

.ooougsas 


.00000808 
.00000780 

.(Kxnofiss 

.00000494 
.00009994 
.0OU0OS9S 
.00001139 

.oonooo-a 

.OOtXHMTS 
.00000453 
.00000300 

.00000434 


Cubical  expaaaioD,  or  expansioa  ot  -voXmto*  =  Wtiew  toxp«jiAR»^V  I 


I       Cubical 


.00000554 
.00001415 
.00000460 
.00000890 
.000171*71 
.00001S»1 
.00O0CO38 

.ooooieoo 
.ixnooeas 

.00000815 
.(M0008SO 

.0000078] 

.0(»oin9 

.0lJiNi|!»13 
.0(Xffl03S 
.(101.101144 
.00001240 

.ooi;K>n74 

.0*X»(Kt750 
.WXXKIKM 
.0000(1881 
.IKXWMM 
.0000-.:5Sli! 


.0W»\\%\ 


Uoef-  ' 
fiuient 

E.xpaii- 
siou    j 
from  I 
Si*  to 
aia°  F. 


.ooaaai 
.001  ias  .0010 

,U0lfi94 
.000550 
.001774 

.001755  .oota 

fWIOTO 
.001430 
.00I51M    .00171 

0(*7700' 
.UOOtlti 
.000897 
.000714 
.000789 
.OOOiW 
.001415 
.000641 
.001166 
.001001 


.0011 


oimH 


0003,Vt 
.001415 
.000400 

,OOC1«<90 

.0171171 

.001351  ,  .0011 

.00303», 

.OOlOOOi 

.000603 

.0006151 

.OOOMo' 

.000781     .... 


.001419 

.001 144 
.001340 
.0(11174 
OlXrtSO 
.003094 

.oootosi  I 

.ooo4Pe 

.ous5:a 


uOM 


•WnwRfiwil,  .oflwaii^. 


LATENT  HEATS  OF  FUSION.  40 1 


r 

^Ven*perflitnre— Absolute  Xoro.— The  absolute  zero  of  a 
MbUgkI  iroiii»H)Uvtic«  of  Oik  latr  of  ex|Hirisinn  by  be»t,  aHHUUimg 
Bible  to  continue  the  cooluig  uf  a  perfect  gas  until  Ita  vulumo  ia 
o  tiothine. 

m«  of  a  perfect  >ras  increases  l/iJT3  of  its  voliimt?  at  0°  C.  for 
lie  of  temiH-mtuiH  of  l"  0  ,  »»d  defifases  1,^5:1  of  itsvoluu)')  for 
lli«  of  teui|>eranijo  of  1°  L'.,  (lied  at  -  ^73"  C  llin  vnliiine  of  the 
!•  would  be  re<iuce.l  to  iiotliliiK.  This  point  —  873"  C.  or  4BI.2'" 
e  melliDK-poiiit  of  ice  on  tlieali- theriiionieter,  or4W.(l(P  F.  be- 
pr«!ict  Kas  tiiermnnveler  =  -  43B.i'  F.  (or  -  4*».6a»),  18  called  tha 
o;  ftfid  absolute  teui(>eralnrfe*sare  lernperatures  measured,  on 
ttliienlieit  or  ceiiiiKrmle  scale,  fi'oiu  this  zero.  Tlie  fieeisiDir 
,  Con enp<.iiid!<  to  JOl.'.""  K.  absolute.  If  pa  be  tlie  pressure  and 
le  of  a  Kfts  at  the  teini'eriilHre  of  3si°  F.  =  49].'4°  OE  the  absolute 
iiid  p  the  pressure,  and  u  tlia  volume  of  the  Bunie  ciuaallty  of 
lt>ei°  aljsolut«  teaiftei'HIiiie  T,  then 

pv   _    T^  _    I  +  ^50.-i        pv  _  Put'o 
Po*.  ~  T,  ~        4111. a      '       T    ~    Ta   ' 

rr>«i'i -i-  7t  f  or  air  is  Sil.87,  and  pv  =  MiTT,  calculated  as  fol- 
of  dry  air  at  Sg*  F.  at  the  eea-level  weleUa  0.080728  lb.    The 
pouud  is  V,  =    gauinn  -  IS-^"  cubic  feet,  Tbo  pressure  per 
|g81l6.albs. 

_    p.r.  _  3ii(i.axi8.gTr  _  Man  _ 

■    "77  ~        ivuia        -  i»ni3  -  ^■*^- 

■1.13  is  Ibe  number  of  degrees  that  the  absolute  zero  is  below 
Hint  of  ii'e.  by  ihe  uir  tlierinoineler.  On  the  absolute  acale, 
^h  would  be  indicated  liy  a  i)erreict  ens  tberinomet^T,  the  cal> 
■pproxltnately  Is  Ai>i  M,  wliich  would  make  /iv  =  lA'MT.  I'rof. 
iMiliierstbai  ■JT'll°C.,=  -  •ir)9.4°  F.,  is  tliB  most  protjable  value 
il«  zero.     See  fh'iit  in  h}itfj/.  lirit. 

or  l.lqnid8  from  33°  to  SI!!"  F.— Apparent  ex- 
:  (Clarke    Volume  at  -ai',  volume  at  3°j°  beiug  1: 

l.(M66       NItricaciil l.Jt 

I  witlisalt,..,  1.03  Olireaud  linseed  olla l.DS 

1.0188       Turpentine  and  ether 1.07 

Ml  Bydriiclilor.undsulpUuriuacids  1.08 

I  various  temperatures,  Bee  Water. 
irioiiH  ieiiiperatui'Q4,  nett  Aii'. 
HEATH  OV  Ft;SION  AND   EVAPORATION. 
_    \t  means  a  quantity  of  heat  which  lias  disappeared,  havlnif 
red  lopriwliice  some  eliatiee  other  than  elevation  of  Temperature, 
reversine   that  chaai^e,  the  (guaDlil.v  of  heiit  which   lias  dia- 
reproduced.    Maxwell  dPfliieK  it  as  the  quantity  of  bean  which 
imuuioated  to  a  body  in  a  Kiv>.'u  state  in  order  to  convert  it  into 
e  wltlioiit  elinnKluK  itti  temppraluie. 

Be«t  of  I'usloii.— When  a  body  paj»8es  from  the  solid  to  Ihe 
ltd  teiiipeiature  reiuaiiis  Btalloii.ary.  or  nearly  .siaiionary.  at  a 
lag  point  durinR  the  whole  operation  of  MiellinK;  and  tu  order 
il  operaiion  ro  on,  a  quantity  of  beat  uiust  be  tninsferreil  to  (he 
oelied,  beiOK  a  certain  .siiioiiiit  for  each  unit  of  »ei|fht  of  the 
Thi:<  quantity  iti  calleil  ilie  latent  lieat  of  fiiKion. 
body  paK>^>ri  fmm  the  liquid  to  the  solid  .."tate,  iia  temperntiire 
tk>nar>*  *.»r  jieHrly  Mtaticimiry  during  the  whole  u]>erathtn  of  freex- 
tity  of  beat  equal  to  Ihe  latent  heat  of  fuKiuu  !«  iiroiluced  in  the 
~    ":<>*i  into  the  atinoHphei-e  or  other  surrontiditii;  liodies. 

rare  examples  in  British  thermal  units  per  pound,  as  KlTeo 

lifeltinR  Latent  Heat 

Folntfi.  of  Fusion, 

Bi-diug  to  Person) 3i  148.06 

t«  148 

175 

».oe 

■i6.« 


iRte"*.  n»<ul  nf  evHporutlon  al  lliat  tenip^rutuf»'jsprotTiic«NT  I 
in  onler  tlmt  the  oiit'ralion  of  cnndeiiiiation  may  >.'u  on.  tha 
trnnsferi-eil  frsjiti  til''  hcxiy  coiHleiiscd  to  some  other  body. 

The  fotlowiDR  are  examples  of  thn  latent  lieat  of  evapoT 
themiu!  iiLlis,  of  one  pouud  of  eertalii  suhhlances,  wlien  (' 
vapor  is  one  atmosphere  of  14.7  lbs.  on  the  square  inc' 
SulKlanPM  BoililiKl)oiiil  under 

Water «18.0 

Alcohol m.S 

Ether 95.0  ]l 

Bisulphide  of  carbon 114.8  1| 

The  latent  lieat  of  evaporation  of  water  at  a  series  of  1 
tetirtiiig  from  a  few  dcKrees  below  its  freezing-point  up  to  I 
Ffthtenhi'it  has  l>een  cletennined  experimentally  by  M.  ~ 
Hiilt.s  iif  tli-^Ae.  (^xijorlmeiitj;  are  re[>res^nted  approzimateljrl 
ia  British  Lhernial  units  per  pound,  "  ^ 

I  nearly  -  1091.7  -  0.7(f  -  32»>  =  905.7-  0.1 

The  Total  Heat  of  Evaporation  is  the  eiii 
disftppenrsin  evaponiiinB  one  poumi  of  n  (riven  Buh 
perature  lor  latent  heut  of  evnporntionj  «nii  of  the  hea 
lemperature,  before  evaiwratlon,  from  some  tlxed  le 
temrteratiire  of  evaporation.    The  latter  pail;  of  the  total  tt 
8en?ilble  heat. 

Ill  the  case  of  water,  the  experimoats  of  M.  Repinult  sho" 
heat  of  Bteani  from  the  leiiiperature  of  meltinp  ic»  increita 
rate  on  the  tempttratiire  of  evaporation  rises.  The  followtil 
in  British  thermal  units  per  pound; 

h  =  1091.7  +  0.3051 »  -  !«•). 

Kor  the  total  beat,  latent  heat,  etc.,  of  sleain  at 
table  of  the  Properlies  of  Saturated  Str-ani.    For  taldfl. 
heat,  and  oilier  properties  nf  steams  of  etlier,  alcohol,  j 

chloride  of  carlvon.  bihI  bistikiliide  of  carbon,  «ee  Ront 

ies  (Dubois's  translation.)    For  ammonia  and  sulphur  dli 
Tberiuodyuamies;  also,  tables  under  Kefrigeratinp  MacbinO 


KVAPORATION  AND  : 


Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

70.8 

68.7 

Si). 8 

To.a 

U6.1 

&4.4 

74.6 

73.8 

74.7 

4.83 

4.06 

3.38 

2.05 

1.44 

i!.\6 

EVAPORATION.  463 


;or  Water  In  Beaervolr*.— Experimenta  at   the 

«olr,  KuoUoscer,  i<.  Y.,  in  ItiUl,  gave  the  followiug  results: 

July. 

Iture  «r  ail-in  ghode 70.5 

•■  water  1(1  reserTolr. 88.2 

It  of  air,  pt- r  cent  67.0 

binclieti  (luriiij;  niontb 6.&9 

lbt«  during  month 3  44 

lion  or  Water  from  Open  CIiannplB.  (Flrnn'ii 
lalK  ami  Fldw  of  Water.j— K.xpeiiiiieiHK  from  IXK]  to  IBHS  fa 
f,  Califonn'o.  shoned  an  evaporntiuii  from  a  pan  in  the  river 
lera^e  depth  uf  one  ri^litli  of  an  iui:h  pur  da^'  throughout  the 

ao  was  in  llie  air  tlie  average  evaporation  was  luaq  than  3/lS 
■  day.  The  avor«^e  for  the  niotitli  of  Augu-st  w«.m  1/3  ioeh  per 
tiarcb  and  April  1/12  of  nn  inch  per  day,  Expenmentii  In 
r  that  evaporation  rauKes  from  .Ots8  to  .Itl  of  on  incti  per  day 
tttiiuR  «e»g(m, 

Italy  the  evaporation  was  from  1/12  to  1/B  inch  iier  day,  wlifle 
under  the  influence  uf  hut  windit,  it  viae  froiu  1/6  to  1/3  inch 

Mson  in  Northera  India,  with  a  decidedly  hot  wind  blowing, 
yaporalion  wo-s  m  Jucli  per  day.  'Die  evaporailon  luurense.s 
pratiire  of  the  wiitfr. 

luD  by  the  multiple  SyMteTU.-.X  multiple  effect  is  a 
uratais  v<-8»<."ls  vnvh  liaving  a  i^u-iuri  cliainber,  so  connected 
at  the  sleain  or  vapor  produce<l  in  the  flral  vess^el  lieatu  the 
por  or  steam  piTHlured  in  theseconti  heatK  tiie  third,  and  so 
r  from  ihe  Inst  vessi-i  i«  couden.std  in  a  conilenser.  Three 
nerally  used,  in  wliicli  case  the  ajipiii'atiis  ia  called  a  Tiiple 
Iporatlnj^  in  a  triple  efTeei  the  vaenuin  is  graduated  90  that  die 
totncoristiinr  au>l  low  tenipcrnt.urf". 

>e  to  Boiling.— Brine.  (Itunkine  >— The  pre»eDce  in  a 
Ktance  dissolvei!  m  it  las  salt  in  water*  resists  ebullliion,  and 
perature  at  which  the  liquid  loiln,  inideraKiven  preBaui*;  but 
oJveil  B:ut>slanee  enters  into  the  composition  of  ifte  vap^>r,  the 
»>n  the  teMipt»rjiture  and  pnniBure  of  haturution  of  the  vapor 
ii;feil.  A  rpRlhiuDce  to  clmllitiau  in  also  ofTi^red  by  a  vessrl  of 
L'li  tttiructs  tlio  lii|ulil  las  when  wnii-r  in  its  iti  ii  tiisss  vessel), 
[  take  place  by  vtarts.  To  avoiil  the  errois  which  causes  of 
UC"  ill  the  Iiietu II lenient  of  huilliiK-poiuts,  il  is  advisable  lo 
Duineter,  not  in  the  li<|Uid,  hut  in  the  vapor,  which  shows  the 
Int,  freed  fioni  tliu  disturbiitg  <'fT>  ct  of  the  attractive  iialure 

The  lioihni^'poiijt  of  Katirrated  brine  uniler  nne  ntinnKphere 
nd  tlittt  of  weaUrr  brine  is  hiahir  than  the  boiiinK-puiiit  of 

J.a"  Fahr.,  for  each  l/3i  of  wilt  that  the  water  cimialua. 
Iter  i'nntain»  l./'tt;  and  the  brine  III  niaiine  boilers  is  not  suf- 
D  more  than  from  2  SJ  to  3  :13. 

I»r  KTaporatlon  Employed  in  tbc  nanuractnre 
E.  EliKeUiurdl.  (lirniist  l)miniiiit;a  iSull  Spiinps;  Kepyi  t  for 
'  heat— solar  evaporation.  ^'.  Direct  lire,  apiilled  lo  the  heal- 
tlie  vessels  contaming  hr.ne— kettle  ancl  jian  iitetluHts.  H.  The 
I3«teni— stenm-iiuus,  Ktea^l-keltle^,  elc.  4.  Use  of  stenni  and 
'.   the  aliuospherie  pressure  ovir  tlie  huiling  brine— vacuum 

vateil  iwlt  solution  boils,  it  Ik  iniiiiaterlal  wL<:'lher  It  is  done 
f  atmoeplieric  pie,ssure  at  :h!K°  V.,  or  under  four  atmospheres 
kture  of  .'i;IO°  F.,  or  in  a  vacuum  under  1/lOalinosphere,  the 
Jty-R  b«  a  flue-grained  sail. 

^uimiti'in  is  stated  to  be  as  follows:  By  the  kettle  method,  40 
I'  -d  fHir  Ion  of  fuel,  aiithrnclle  dust  liurned  mi  per- 

1  >u,  5.,')3  111*,  of  watiT  per  pound  of  coal.    Uy  the 
er  ton  of  fuel.     By  vacuum  pans,  single  elTecl,  80 
uutliiacite  Auml  t,AXM  Ibe,),     Willi  »  double  eSeet  oeArijr 
I  iiroduced. 


464 


HEAT. 


SoiabtUty  of  Conuuon  Salt  In  Pur*  Water.  (Aadi 

Temp,  of  brine,  r 82         80        88         104      HO 

100  uarU  water  digsolve parts. ...  SS. 63    35.60    36.03    80  82   87.011 
100  parts  brine  contain  sail iX.-/!    88. iW    SC-iQ    S6M    X7.« 

Aooording  to  Poggial.  JOO  parts  of  water  dissolve  at  aas.flC*  f .  *I 
of  salt,  or  m  jxtr  cent  of  brine,  'JS.T-ll).  (iny  I.usmlc  toimii  iliat  ut  t 
)00  parts  uf  pure  water  Would  dissolve  JO.IM  parta  of  call,  in  p«i 
l)i-iiie,  'J8.T64  [lai'tg. 

Tli«  8olul)ilJtv  of  i^alt  at  iai9*  F.  Is  only  S.!if  Kreatcr  Umu  at  tf.  I 
cannot,  as  in  tl»!  ca^if  of  alum,  B*>parale  Iha  salt  from  lli(<  h  jtlrr  b; 
a  saluratud  soluliuii  at  the  boiling  point  to  cool  to  a  lower  iciiipera 

Solnblltty  of  Sulphate  of  Llnte  In  Pure  UTater.  (M 

TeinperaliireF.  degrees.  33     64.5     89.0    lOO.i    105.8     1J7.4   1 

^'TnnrY'tlvL!;™'"'*^''"'^        «B     886     871     888       8T0       SB 
1  parr  gypsum  ( 

Pans  water  [o  dissolve  I  i        nas      j»a     jm     jm       titi       4U 
part  anhydrous  C'aSO.f       525     <88     'I™     «»      <<»      *'* 

In  salt  lirino  culphate  of  llnie  Is  much  more  soluble  than  in  pu 
In  the  cvuporation  of  sale  brine  llie  oocuinuliition  of  stilpbair  of  II 
to  stop  the  operation,  and  it  must  lie  removed  from  the  pans  to  tv 
of  fuel. 

Tlif  nveriiKe  Hirenffth  of  brine  in  the  SVw  York  salt  district*  It 
69. t8  <l('i:reps  of  Ilit*  hii]in<tin**ttM-. 

Strength  of  Salt  Brinea.— The  followine  inlile  Is  eoulea 
one  isiwn  in  U.  8.  Mineral  Resources  for  lt$w,  on  the  aiitlKiH 
Eiiglehardt, 

RHatlona  betnreen  Sa1lnoniei«r  Strt'n^th,  SpeclHeO 
.<«i»lld  CunteiitM,  etc.,  of  Brinea  ol  UiU'erent  Slrca 


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I3S.S 

EVAPORATIOK  468 


»n  of  Sugar  Solutions.*    (From  "  Heatlni;  and  Ood-^ 
.  by  Steum,"  by  JoliuK   HinJw>ii;  Thv  Eiwim/er,  Julie  IS, 
r  staef  H  (  r  llie  pri>cewi.  wbrii  rlie  liquor  is  or  low  detisiiy.  I)i6 
will  be  hiKh.  wiy  two  lo  Ihret?  tBi'ltisli)  |;allni)s  pt^r  squar 
rfac«  with  10  lbs.  ple»in  prfssnre.  but  w  ill  (rriidiially  full  t« 
f  aiiiouiit  Ui*  tht^  finfli  sta^H  is  Hpj»r»ijn'b*^ii,     AnageQerally 
Jniiig,  Mr.  Iluitsoii  takes  au  fvaporaUon  of  one  gallnii  per"" 
ire  foot  of  gross  healing  eiurlaou,  with  sU-ani  of  Uiu  prrs- 
H. 

the evoporsllre  July  of  a  vocuuni  nan  wlien  peifunning 

of  ConcDOCratlon,  during  Hhicli  nil  tliu  healing  8urfHi( 

he  gives  the  fullt>iA  ing; 

'AU. — i%  iri.  copppr  colls.   .128  nqiiare  feel,  of   mirfaoejj 

b».;  ti'inperatiire  in  pan.  Ml*"  to  US";  density  of  feed,  Jit 

Riitrstetl  lo  81°  Be«inii6. 

aporatinn  at  tbe  rjtie  of  'JOOl')  pallonsi  pel'  lioiir  =  3..S  gnlloiil 

irauKjni.-«iun,  tITU   uniUi  pur  cleKi'ee  of  difTerenen  of  tec' 

Evaporation  at  ihe  rate  of  1503  Rnlloiis  pcT  lioiir  =  2.8gal» 

ot;  tranMuis.^ifin.  266  units  per  oeKree. 

otal  lime  iiee<le>i  to  work  up  a  clinrKi!  of  niassectille  fruin 

density,  the  following  figures,  nbcuined  by  plolllni;  the 
rjce  nunilier  of  pans,  form  a  guide  t<i  praoticiil  worliing. 
of  the  coll  type,  h(.Hur?  with  and  si.>iMe  witixxit  jackets, 
;  iturfacv  pri^'liably  averagiutr,  and  out  tcreacly  difTering 
lot  per  gallon  eapuciiy,  uiid  the  steam  preKsiire  10  ll^s.  |ier 
b  plantation  and  refining  pans  are  uicluded,  tniikiDg 
Hjsar: 

^E  Density  of  Fe«4l  (dega.  BeaiimS). 
B  10°        15°         20°         35°        80° 
^n  per  galloD  luasso-  , 
6.183     8.8          2.26        1.5           .97, 

hours   required   per  ] 

.: 13.         9.  63^        6.         4.     I 

BevBponiilon  per  hour  I 

I  of  grosH  surface,  a8>  1 

, per  Kallnn  capacity..      2.04       10  1.39       1.3  .971 

hours    required    per  j 

8.6        B.6  3.8         S.T5      8.0    ] 

186    evaporation    per 

foot S.88       2.8  B.38      2.18       1,3 


Iteatintr  ■t«ani  needivl  is  rirai'lipally  the  same  In  vacuum 
rbe  aovnntagRS  proper  lo  the  VBeuiim  Ryst«ni  are  pri- 
I  tenip«raiunt  rif  liojiiiig,  and  iDcideniRlly  the  pnasibilily 
Mun  III  low  pressure. 

tugar  In  water,  each  pound  of  sugar  adds  to  the  volumo 
s  extent  of  .001  gallon  at  a  low  denhily  to  .0038  gallon  at 

r  Evaporating  by  lixbaiiHt  Steam  in  describrd 
In  Trniis.  A.  ^>.  M.  E..  vol.  viii  .A  piiii  i;'  ti"  «  11'  x  1'  fl", 
in  cooden.sine  pipes  of  aboiii.  250  sq.  n.  of  flurfuce,  evapo- 
er  hour  from  clear  water,  condensing  only  about  one  half 
tiled  by  a  plaiu  slide  valve  enirlne  of  U"  x  aj"  cylinder, 
IV  mlo.,  cutting  off  about  two  tliirda  stroke,  with  steam  at 
nre. 

A  keeping  the  pan-room  warm  and  letting  only  suffluient 
vapor  up  out  of  a  veatUator  adds  to  Us  efllciency,  oa  the 
ire  of  the  water  in  llie  pan  was  odly  about  IBS"  K. 
m  made  with  colls  of  pipe  in  a  sinnll  pan,  tlrsl  with  nft] 
h  one  having  straight  blmleg,  and  lastly  with  troughedl 
Mtive  results  being  about  the  prufwrlians  of  oue,  two,  aniki 

Iquors  whose  boiling  point  is  920°  F.,  or  much  aliove  thiitl 
lid  that  exliausl  Blenin  can  do  but  little  more  thau  brinK'l 
lioa  utreogth,  but  on  weak  liquoi's,  syrups,  gluex 
ifuL 

tm/rardMHi  Htm  Bagaame  as  Fuel,  luider 


466 


HEAT. 


Drying:  In  TavDum.— An  apparatus  for  drrlnKL 
iitaiic«8  ill  vacuum  is  de-icriljed  dy  Mr.  Ernil  PHSsbiirg  iu 
Btifi;rH.,  IRflO.    The  Iliree  essenhai  rfqiiipenjpiir.s  for  a  succ 
nomical  nroe»'S8  of  drjiugr  are:    I.  (.'Iii-np  evaporation 
S.  Quick  drying  at  a  low  tt'inperature;  3,  l,arg<?  capacity  < 
employed. 

The  reinoval  of  the  moisliue  can  be  effe<;te<l  in  eilhVr  of  t« 
b3'  slow  evaporalioii,  (ir  liy  qiiit'k  ei'apiiratloii— that  is,  Ijy  t)H 

aUtii}  Kvanniatinn— Tim  priticlj.ial  idea  ••arnril  into  pracill 
acting  by  slow  evajiomtlnii  ia  lo  briii»f  Oie  wet  xubslam.-^ 
conlaet  with   the   inner  surfiu.'ea  of  lite  appuratiiH,  \«hieh 
steam,  while  al  Ihesame  lime  u  current  of  hutftir  i«  also  i 
the  substaneea  for  curryiup  off  tlie  moisture.    Tlii'*  m'tlw 
heat,  because  the  )ho[-air  eiirreut  Ua.9  to  Jiiove  a 
oriler  to  shoitrn   the  drying'  process  as  much  n  ■n 

jtreat  qiibutity  of  healed  nh' paKi;ej4  thruiifh  aiiil '  -<.» 

rjer  of  iiuiistiue  hiii  aircaiincitiii  practice  lie  chart'. -i  i cv  .nd 
MiturntiDii;  anil  it  is  in  fact  considered  a  ^atisf act ory  result 
prcitHirtioji  he  attnini'd.  A  j:rettt  amount  of  heat  is  here  pr'nlip 
not  used;  while,  with  scarcely  half  the  cost  for  fuel,  n  1 

mnval  of  the  water  Is  obtained  by  heating  it  lo  the  boil 

Quick  hZvapOfittioti  hy  Boiling, — This  does  not  lake  } 
is  brouirhi  up  to  liie  boiling  jniint  and  kept  there,  iin 
aliin>Kplierii'  pres.'^ure.    The  vaiior  generated  then  ewa; 
are  eauily  evaporated   In  this  wo.v,  because  by  their  ni 
boiling;  the  heat  is  continuously  conveyed  from  the  healing  'm  w 
the  liquid,  but  It  is  different  with  solid  subslancey,  and  many  u 
ties  have  to  be  overcome,  oecniise  convection  of  the  heat  eeSat 
solidd.     The  siibslante  reiuaius   motiohle&x,  niid  cunsri(iM. 
greater  qua n lily  or    heat  in  re<pdre(l   tlian  with  liquids  for] 
same  recalls, 

Bvnyomtion  in  Vneuum  —All  llie  foregoing dlsadvantae 
the  boiliiiK-point  of  water  is  lowered,  that  Is,  It  the  evapon 
out  under  vacuum. 

This  plan  has  been  isuccesi-fHily  spplietl  fn  Mr.  rtUBibutK'^  " 
appsnilus,  which  is  desieued  to  evaporate  laricu  quonliliesj 
tiiined  ia  solid  substances. 

The  drying  [iF>paratns  consists  of  a  top  horizoiil^kl  cylimll 
by  a  charf;ii>)>  vi»«sel  at  one  end,  and  a  bottom  horizontal 
(lEsohar^iiig  vt'ssel  beneath  it  at  the  same  end.     B<-ilh  cyiiudQ 
ill  stearn-jai:ket.s  ht-ated  by  exhnust  stearti.     In  the  Ui 
volvini;  cast  iron  screw  «iili  hollow  blades,  which  is  a] 
steam.    The  bottom  cylinder  conlains  a  revnlvine^  drutivl 

of  one  larj^e  central  "tube  surrounded  by '?!     ' 

plates  at  both  ends;  this  ilrum  is  heated  b,^  I 
The  substance  to  be  dried  is  fed  Into  the  ch 
holes,  and  is  carried  along  the  top  cylinder  lj>  ,;.. 
cn(1,  where  it  drops  ihron^h  a  valve  into  the  tMritioiii  vy 
lifted  by  blades  iiitachcd  tothetlrum  and  travels  fo 
direction;  from  the  front  end  of  the  boituni  cylinder  ill 
In^  vessel  throuiih  another  valve,  havinc  bv  tbU  timej 
vapor  arUliiB  durtnif  the  process  is  carriesl  off  by  an  m, 
dome  and   air- valve   on  tue  top  of  the  upper  cyllmlee? 
H  throttle  vulve  on  the  top  of  the  tower  cylloder;  bolhttf  I 
HUfiplied  with  strainers. 

As  s*Kin  as  tlie  iliscbnri^ii^  vessel  is  fliied  witli  drietl  mall 
vonnecliii);  it  «ith  the  bottom  cylinder  is  shut,  and  llie  drie' 
nut  ivllliont  impairing  the  vneuum  In  the  ap|iaralus  Wlie 
vessel  requires  replenisliitiK.  the  iuicrmediate  volve  liem-eej 
■lers  Is  sliut,  and  the  chnricing  vessel  nile<l  "ilh  a  fresh  !*n|>py 
rial;  the  vacuum  still  remains  UDini|Milred  in  the  tHitlom  cy 
I,,  1...  .,.^i..i...,|  only  iQ  the  top  cylinder  after  tlie  charKlnc  ' 
cl 

iiiim  i|ie  lioillnE  |ioiut  of  llie  water  cuntailKsl  lltl 

.l,,ii  1)   iiv  l,,u    .1,1   1  lo»    1         11,..  .l.lT»i-.ii 


rales  aa  laau  ■»  \\t<)  \avv«  \*^ 


EADIATIOSr  OF  HEAT.  467 


tbere  its  any  moisture  to  he  removed  the  t»olid  BUbBtaace  \» 
?  tills  t»>iiiperature. 

™i  a  lirewi-ry  or  distiller}',  containing  from  75X  to  T8j(  of 
Ills  ilrjing  process  lii*!!  converted  in  Home  localities  from 
nibranw  into  a  viiliiahlc  foocl-stuff.  The  water  it  removed 
•lily,  no  previous  iiiei'iianical  presainn  l)eiii(?  resorted  to. 
niieas'K  brewery  in  Dubliti  two  of  tiiese  iiini;iilnes  are  eni- 
lof  these  I  lie  lop  cjlinrier  is  20'  4"  Ioiik  and  2'  fl"  diaiii.,  and 
Bg  luBiilo  it  malfes  7  ivvs.  per  min.;  the  botdim  cylinder  ia 
>'  4"  dinni..  and  the  drum  of  the  tubes  ihHkle  it  rnaken  A  rev». 
lr>inK  surfaces  of  the  two  cylinders  aniouiii  together  to  a 
lilt  1000  sci^t.,  of  which  aliQut  JOS  is  heated  byexhaiist  steam 
lioller.  There  is  only  one  aii-putnp,  which  is  made  torife 
e  machines;  it  is  horizoiiial.  and  ha^i  ocly  one  air  cylinder. 
BctinK,  17^  in.  diaili.  ami  )7^  in.  stroke;  and  it  iv  driven  at 
r  min.  As  the  result  of  about  eight  nionlhs'  experience,  the 
L*«  beeu  drying  the  wet  graius  from  about  SOO  cwi.  of  malt 
wrs. 

:iii(c,  3  cwt.  of  malt  (jave  4  cwt.  of  wet  Rmins,  and  ilie  latter 
riednraius;  SflOcwt.  of  iiialt  will  therefore  yield  about  670 
ns,  or  3*)  cwt.  per  niacliiiie.  The  qiiuntity  of  water  to  be 
1  the  wet  gi-ains  is  from  7.'i.i  tu  78S  of  their  total  weight,  or 
■t.  alcoi;etber,  lieliiK  '^30  cwt.  jier  niuchlue.  J 

BADIATION   OF   HEAT.  " 

teat  takes  place  between  bodius  at  all  distances  apart,  and 
for  the  r%dia[iou  of  lii{hl. 

I  proceeJ  in  straight  lines,  and  the  intensity  of  the  rays 
ly  CUB  80  arce  varies  inversely  oa  the  stiuai-e  of  their  distaiive 

it  hag  (■(■en  erroneously  interpieteil  liy  some  writers,  who 
rom  it  I  aat  a  boiler  placed  two  feet  aiiove  a  tire  would  re- 
in only  ',ne  fourth  aa  niuch  heat  as  if  it  wei-e  only  one  foot 
Oise  of  !ioiler  furnaces  tin?  side  walls  reflect  those  rays  that 
ui  Bni»l" — follow  ing  the  law  of  oj'lics,  tlnii  I  ha  an^lf  of  inci- 
p  llie  i>  iple  of  reneetion.  — wlrh  ihe  residt  rhnt  llie  iuteii.>;ily 
niKiv-  the  flre  Is  practically  llie  same  as  ai  one  foot  above, 
ine-f-,.irtli  as  much. 

iich  »  Jiotler  body  radiates  heal,  and  a  colder  hody  absorbs 
M^r.  ;he  state  of  the  surface^  of  the  bodies  at^  iveiluKon  tlieir 
rhr  rate  of  radiation  and  of  absorption  are  increaseil  by 
►tt^hoess  of  the  surfaces  of  the  bodies,  uimI  diluinl.shed  by 
(.oludi.  For  this  reason  the  covering  of  sleniii  pipes  and 
jsiuiHjthuud  of  a  light  color:  imcovered  pipes  mid  Bteam- 

lllould  be  poliyhed. 

}f  beat  rndiHlcil  by  a  Ixxly  is  also  a  measure  of  its  heat- 

',  under  the  same  clivumstancea.     When  a.  pulisbed  body  is 

of  heat,  it  absorbs  part  of  tlie  heat  and  rellects  the  rest, 
iwer  of  a  body  is  therefore  the  coniplenientof  ilsabairbing 
.ler  is  the  snine  as  its  ra<ii«LlriK  answer, 
idintlnir  and  letlectiuK  jKnver  of  different  bodies  has  been 
X penmen t,  as  shown  in  the  table  below,  but  as  far  iis  unuii 
rt  eoiicerned,  says  Prof.  Trowl»riil^elJohuson"s  C.vclopa'din, 
doubtful  whether  unylhliiK  further  than  Ihe  said  relative 
»n,   in  the  present  stale  of  our  knowledge,  be  depi'nded 

or  alMOhite  quantities  for  dilTerent  teiiH>ei'atiirus  lieiiij;  siill 

authorities  do  not  even  nitree  on  the  relative  radiating 
jeslle  plves  for  tin  plale,  gold,  silver,  and  copper  the  tlgiire 
couKiderably  from  the  figures  in  the  table  lielow,  Rivch  by 

tw  on  the  authority  of  LeBliei  De  La  rrovoslayo  and  D»- 


463 


HEA.T. 


II«l«tlTe  ftadialinif  and   Rcflcrllne   l*ow«r   o( 
Subufanceii. 


■k. 

I 

■bel 


Lampblack 

Water . 

■Cavbouati;  of  lead... 

filtlni^-paper 

'"■■>'>  j'^'i  iiiarWe. .. 

Onliriaiy  glasa 

Ice. .  

tiimi  lac 

Silver-leaf  on  glass.. 
Cnft  iron,  hrlg;ut.  pol- 

islipil 

JUercury,  about..  .. 
"7roiiKlit    iroD,    pol- 

IsUeu 


0^ 

M 

nBc 

.El 

as3  31 

,S  X  0 

=  ;P 

'O.Sl^ 

iJOn 

^< 

K 

ion 

n 

100 

0 

JOO 

0 

oa 

3 

93  to  98 

Tlo3 

90 

10 

85 

IS 

73 

as 

87 

78 

85 

75 

33 

»j 

S3 

77 

Zinc,  polished 

Steel,  polished 
PlatinutiK  polished.. 
"         1:1  libeel 

Tin 

Brass,      cost,    de«J 

pullshed 

Brass,     brigbt    pol- 

islied 

Copper,  vamislied  . 

'•       hamiitered . . 

Gold,  plated....     .. 

'■    oD  polished 

steel 

Bilver,    polished 

bright 


Bxperimeiil.s  of  Dr.  A.  M.  Major  Rive  the  following:    The  relalire  I 

loDS  from  a  cube  of  oast  iron,  having  faces  rough,  as  from  Uwfoil 

'aueil,  "  drawfiled,"  and  poliBhed,  and  from  thesame  surfaces  olMLl 

(Prof.  Tliurslon,  in  Traii.s.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  ivi.) : 


Surface. 


Bupth .... 

laned 

prawn  led. 

[>lished... 


It  here  apiwnrs  that  the  oiling  of  ginoolhly  polisihed  ciutliiigii,  ( 
der-head!*  of  siPani-cnttines,  infife  than  doubles  the  loss  of  heat  I 

I  while  it  flo«8  not  si-riously  affect  rough  oa-slliufs. 
I  CONDUCTION   AND  CONVKCTION  OF  HB4l 

'   Conduction  xa  th>^  transfer  of  heat  between  two  boiliea 
bcxly  whioli  t.  iiieli  eaeli  otlier.    Interiiol  coiiilu<!tion  tJikm  plac*  I 
pari.s  (if  one  continuon.s  bi>Uy,  and  external  cuDduciiou  tliiougil  \ 
Ot  coiitnet  of  a  pair  of  disliiicl  bodies. 
The   rate  at  which  ct>nilin?iloii,  whether  internal  or  tix 
beiiifC  proportional  to  the  an»a  of  the  section  or  surf ow 
lakeM  place,  may  \w  e.tpie^&ed  ui  lUei'iiial  iiuits  |)ur  &C|uait:  1 
liour 
Internal  Condnrtlon  varies  ivlth  the  hoif  cnndnctiv 

Ipend.'s  upon  the  imtiii'e  ><f  the  •.ulistriiice.  and  is  illri-iilt  iniiu-'iila 
nifference  lietween  the  temiieratuies  of  Uie  I" 
veraely  as  Its  thiclineas.    Trie  reciproeal  of  tli' 
wHlri-itttl  lltt'vmat  miAtntireot  OwtiithiiUktiC^.    If  >       , 
IT  the  thiclcness  of  the  layer  in  inuheii,  V  and  rthc  i«.<nkiK'jaiiui 
iKes,  and  q  tlio  quantity  In  thermal  uniUi  IraiwuillUHl  (ler  liwur  J 
2"  -  7" 
foot  of  area,    q=  .   (ilankiiie.) 

Pftclet  gives  the  foilowinL'  values  of  r  : 


Id,  platiiinni,  »i\ 


(yum  1   l,e«d 


0  OOIH 
0.«Mt> 


Marble. 
Uriok... 


DUCTIOK   AND  COKVECTION   OF  HEAT. 

live  II««(>coiidactln|E  Power  of  net«Ia 

(*  UBlv«rt  &  JoluuMU  ;  t  Wcidcuiaon  Ji  Fraoz  ) 
Silver  =  1000, 
■tw.  .SkF.  Metals.         *C,  &.T. 

f'aiimlnni 5T7 

_      _  Wrought  li^on 43ti 

V    of  Tin «J 

K. 840  ....        Steel 397 

Pluliuurn VM 

Uodium* 86S 

Dust  iron tSO 

Leait     ,. SW 

Aiiliiiioriy  : 
cd.-il  hori20tilAlly. .    915 
uiist  vertically.    . . .  IflS 
Blainutb 01 


•0.  A  J. 

..  inoi) 

...     381 


1.2W 


840 

»l& 
811 

err 

Hi 
BOB 

611 


;as 


my. 


606 


4tja 


■tw.  &  F. 
iifl 

145 
114 
84 


>8 


I  or  A  KoanKTALUc  Scbstakce  in  Cohdination  rm  thb 
CoKDPCTijJo  Power  of  a  Mktai., 
on  on  Iron  :  Iiillui>tice  of  ameuic  on  copper  : 

436  t'a.<t  copin?r 8!t 

897  Copper  with  1!<  of  arsenic 570 

tlS9  "        wllh  ..^«  of  arsenic gen 

"        with  .25?  of  ttrn«uic, ...  771 

S(eain>plpe  Covering*. 

hf  Prof.  Ordwav,  Truus  A.  S.  M.  E..  v,i3:  also  Circular  No.  87 
of  Boston  Mfrs.  Mutual  Fire  Ins.  Co.,  18U0.> 

I  thai  several  of  the  iuoombiisllhle  iiiftteHals  an?  nearljr 
J  coltoii,  and  ffathers,  with  which  they  amy  be  coui paretl 
»Wt».    The  iniUerlal'S   which  niny  be  considered  wholly 
Dger  of  iM'ing  curlii'iiized  or  lgnit«;d  by  slow  contact  witli 
tare  piiutnl  in  Ruinun  lypc.    Those  which  are  luure  or  less 
'  onUod  are  printed  in  liallcti. 

Table  I. 


Pounds  of 

Waier 

heated 

10"  F..  per 

hour. 

through 

1  Fquai-e 

foot. 


loch  thick. 
8io»  F. 


Heat  applied, 


feathert  . 
Iton.  11)001. 


tphlitck 

\d  liinijMnek,, 


III  mwil , 

iMll-im>«l 

alk  (Putriii  »Itile) 
r  of  Psrli. ..,,,,, 
ktofc.  


ila 

1 


8.1 
9.S 
10.4 
10.3 
0.8 
10.6 
11,9 
13. P 

as. 7 

18.4 
4S,6 
18.7 
15.4 
14.5 
15.7 
20.0 

ao.o 

49.0 
46.0 

es.i 


Solid 

Matter  in 

1  sq  naro 

foot  1  inch 

thick,  ttarts 

in  lUOO, 


fiO 
fiO 

im 

5fl 

5.3 

110 

S06 

2a 

£85 
60 
150 
6I> 
ll« 
268 
3C8 


-it 


914 
ftW 
PHO 

615 
»I4 
75« 
947 

881 

•in 

077 
715 
(HO 

940 

888 


470 


tabi.b  n. 


CoTering. 


21.  Best  slap-wool 

•J3.  PlI/(C7- <k 

43.  Bloltiiig-paper  ivound  tight 

a,  AJt^enfoii  pnner  if?uun(i  tight 

iS.  foifc «f ii/>«  fjound  on 

86.  StraiF  riij)f  icoiiud  »piralljf, 

27,  Lnom'  ritt;  rh  nff 

38.  Pustn  of  fosBil-incal  with  hair 

2fl.  Paslt*  of  fnsfiil-meal  with  Asbestos. 

ail.  Li'Ose  bilumlnous  cfial  ashes 

81.  Liiosu!  nnt)ira<:lte-coal  aslies 

3j,  Paste  of  clay  an<l  vegelablo  fibre  . 


I 
I 

I 


Pnifrgiior  Onhvay's  report  sa;s:    Careful  experiment.^  '  ^   "  V  — 
with  various  iion-cotidiiclorK,  <iaeh  iised  in  a  masi)  one  in'- 
a  flat  surfaoe  of  IrrMi  kept  lieau-d  by  steam  to  310*  Falir. 
amount  of  lieat  transiiiiited  ppr  hour  tbroiiRh  each  kind  oi  mmh  ■■..■, 
oiie  inch  thick,  reckoned  in  poumisof  water  heated  10°  Faiir.,  tbeuBIM 
beinit  one  square  foot  of  coverlnji;. 

Till.'  substance,'*  Kiveii  in  Table  II  were  actually  tried  as  co»iTtH 
two-inch  .strain. pi|i<>,  but  for  convenience  of  uonipariiion  tli«  resiM 
been  reduced  l>y  calculation  to  the  game  terms  as  in  Tat>le  1 

Luter  eiiM'riinents  have  <flven  re-snlLs  for  Btill  air  r  '  '   '     '  "^r  III 
those  of  Nop.  3,  4.  and  6.    In  fact  the  bulk  of  niattei 
tor.'j  Is  relatively  tuo  small  to  have  any  specific  eftc 
air  and  keep  it  stagnant.    These  suli.slnnceK  keep  tiie  iiii  fini  byl 
the  roughness  of  their  fibres  or  particles.    The  asbestos.  No.  IH,  ul< 
fibres,  which  ooiiM  not  prevent  llie  air  from  moving  abouL 

Later  trials  with  an  asbestos  of  exceedinRly  fine  fibre  hSTe  inadaij 
what  belter  showing,  but  asibe.tlos  is  really  one  of  the  poorest  no 
tors.     By  reaaou  of  its  flbrous  character  ic  may  be  used  adntn 
to  holii  together  other  incornbustibie  substances,  but  tlie  leas  tiM^ 
We  liBve  Hindu  trials  of  two  samples  of  a  "  niturnesia  coverlnR.'' 
of  carb'-innte  of  innKnesla  with  »  siiinll  percentnpe  of  pood  i 
One  transmitted  heat  which,  reduced  to  the  terms  of  Table  I,  \ 
to  I.l  Ills.:    the  ilenser  ore  Eave  90  Iba.    The  former  conti 
Of  solid  matter;  the  latter  898/1000. 

Any  suitable  substance  which  Is  used  to  prevent  the  eae* 
lieut  shonld  not  be  less  than  one  inch  thick. 

Any  coverinif  slioiiIJ  l>e  kept  wrfectlv  dry.  for  not  only  t»  ' 
carrier  of  heat,  Init  it  has  been  round  thiit  stiil  water  cooducltl 
elifht  tinieH  i<8  rai)icllv  na  Ktill  air. 

Heat-coaductlDg  Povrer  of  CorerlaK  in*lerl 

(J.  J.  Coleman,  B^g'g,  Sept.  5,  ISW,  p.  837.) 
Experiments  were  made  by  filling  a  10-in.  cube  wlUi  kas  i 

with  the  different  mHt4-rlals   to  be  tested,  and  ooUng  Um  i 

molted  |jer  hour  with  each  insulator. 
The  relntivo  results  were  as  follows  : 

.Silicate  cotton  (mlDcral  wool)...  100 

Hair  felt 117 

Cotton  wool IW 

Sheep'-*  wool  JSB 

lnriu!ur>ui  earth IS6 

Tlic  Rate  of  External  roodnnton  throiutb  the 

face  tpetw«-eti  a  solid  body  and  a  flniii  is  a|<proxIinatel]r  propc. 

"'Terence  of  temperature,  wheii  that  is  small;  but  when  thiC  I 

nsldfrabie  Uie  rate  of  conduction  inctetises  tastor  ituui  r 

t*t  diOeteaae.   (B&uklne.) 


Charcoal  , 

8a¥nlust  

Goa- works  breeie  -..nj 
Wood  and  air-8jiMia>. 


COilDUCTION  JlSD  CONVECTIOX   OF  HKAT.         471 

If  r,  88  before,  is  the  coefRcient  of  Interaal  thermal  resistance,  e  and  e'  the 
ilBcieDt  of  external  i-esiatancf  of  the  two  surfaces,  x  the  thii'kness  of  the 
>(e,  and  T  and  7*  the  teiiipeiaturrsof  the  two  fliiiil^  in  contact  with  tlie 

V  —  T 
ro  surfaces,  the  total  thermal  resistance  liq  =  — ^ — -— —  .   According  U> 

e  -f  «'  +  rj: 

^ctot,  e  +  e'  =  -^ =-;.  in  which  the  constants  A  and  B  have 

\e  folloirini;  values : 

fi  for  polistted  metallic  surfaces OOgS 

B  for  roiiffli  fnotallic  surfaces  and  for  non-metallic  nurfacea..     .0037 

A  for  polislieti  metals.  al>out 90 

it  for  Klassy  and  varnUhed  surfaces I.S4 

.4  for  dull  metallic  surfaces 1.58 

A  forlamp-l)lack 1.T8 

When  a  metal  plate  has  a  liquid  at  each  side  of  it,  it  appears  from  experl- 

lienu  by  Peelet  that  B  =  .0&8,  A  =  8.8. 

The  resultK  of  I'xpeiiments  on  the  evaporative  power  of  l)olier»  agree  very 

rell  frith  the  following  approximate  formula  for  the  tliernial  reaietance  i>( 

niler  piateg  and  tubes  : 

e  +  e-  =  jji^rfi' 
ibicb  gives  for  the  rate  of  oonduction,  per  square  foot  of  surface  per  <>our, 

3  =  — ^— • 

TI1I.S  fortnn'a  ia  proposed  by  Ranlttue  as  a  roui^h  approximation,  near 
louijh  ic  tlie  u  iitli  for  its  purjxjse.  The  value  of  a  lies  iietweeu  ICO  and  aOO. 
Convectiou,  or  carrying  of  heat,  mt^ans  the  transfer  and  cJIITiikIou  nf 
le  beat  in  a  fluid  moss  by  means  of  the  motion  of  the  iiarticles  of  that 
am. 
_The conduction,  properly  so  called,  of  heat  through  a  staRtiant  mass  of 
lid  is  very  xiow  in  liquids,  and  almost,  if  not  wlitilly,  iiiappreciaiile  in 
"  Sft.  It  is  only  by  tiie  continual  oirciilatjon  and  mixture  of  tlie  particles  of 
fluid  that  nnifnnnity  of  temperature  can  be  maintained  in  the  fluid 
a,  or  heat  trausferred  between  the  fluid  niaaa  and  a  solid  body. 
The  fret?  circulation  of  each  of  the  lluids  which  touch  the  side  of  a  so)l<l 
lite  i.'i  a  necessary  condition  nf  (he  correctness  of  Kanklne's  fonnnio"  for 
te  conduction  of  iieat  through  tliat  platf :  and  in  tliese  formulae  it  is  iiii- 
lied  that  the  circulation  of  each  of  tlie  fluids  by  currents  and  eddies  is  such 
no  prevent  any  considerable  difference  of  tempeialurB  betweeu  the  fluid 
krticles  in  contact  with  one  side  of  the  solid  plate  atid  those  at  consideruble 
hrtances  from  it. 

■When  heat  is  to  be  transferred  by  convection  from  one  fluiii  to  another, 
raueh  an  intervening  layer  of  metal,  the  matiuiis  of  t)ie  two  lliiiJ  miisnes 
Mold,  if  possllile,  be  in  opposite  directions,  in  order  that  tiio  botrest  par- 
of  each  fluid  may  be  iu  cDuunuiihiation  with  the  hottest  partii'les  of 
other,  and  tliat  the  minimum  riilTerence  of  (ctiipemtiin'  iictweeu  the 
ilacent  particles  of  the  two  fluids  may  be  the  gnwtent  possible. 
Thu-s,  in  the  surface  coDdensatioD  of  steam,  by  pflssirie  ir  Ihr.iuph  metal 
ties  immersed  in  a  current  of  cold  water  or  alt,  (he  uouiln^  lluld  .should  be 
(1**  to  inov4'  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  coinleiisiTi^?  stuaiii. 
TranHnilHslon  of  Heat»  tlirongb  Solid  Plat«a,  from 
"•ter  to  'WAter.  (Clark,  S.E.).— JI.  i'6olet  fuuml,  from  f.'iperinienta 
itde  witl>  plates  of  wrought  iron,  cast  iron,  eoiiper,  lead,  itinc,  und  tin, 
J*t  when  the  fluid  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  plate  wiis  not  clrcu- 
ted  by  artificial  means,  tlie  rate  of  conduction  was  the  wauie  for  different 
■  "i  and  for  plates  of  the  same  meWl  of  different  thicknesses.  But 
the  water  was  thoroughly  circulated  over  th«  itnifuces,  and  when 
were  perfectly  clean,  the  quantity  of  tran.finitted  heat  was  inversely 
""■  inal  to  the  thickne.iiB,  an. I  directly  as  the  differrnce  in  temperature 
o  faces  of  the  plate.  Wht-n  ih'e  rjienii  surface  became  du\V,\\v» 
transmissioo  ot  beat  ihntugti  all  tbe  iiietais  was  very  ui:&T\^  \.Vvu 

fWa^irg.  aars  Clark,  that  the  absorptlnn  ot  lieat  throueli  mpla\  rtB.t>.'S  V 

r^aon>  miuve-thaa  while  the  water  18  being  heated  up  to  tke  twWV 


HEAT. 


TranamlHBion  from  Steam  to  Heater.— M.  rM«t'< 
supported  by  llie  results  of  px|ierlnneots  made  In  18C"  by  Mr.  ( 
the  c'omliictiviiy  of  (Jiderent  metois.   Cylindncol  potn,  10  luchf 
aiVi  iiic'lieBdeep  iuside,  and  J^  iiioli,  I4  incli,  aud  -^y  iiicli  ilni'li 
horeU,  were  formwl  of  pure  copi^fr.  br»«s  IW  cf>pp<?r  5»cJ 
wruuiflit  iron,  and   rfnif lt«l  c«st  iron.     They   wi*r»;  iiiimor 
hntli,  whif  li  was  variutl  from  U-JO*  to  3*)°  F.    Water  at  -iW  \ 
Or-  pots,  whioli  were  kept  tilled.  It  was  ascertained  that  ih*;  1 
tion  was  In  the  direoi  ratio  of  tlie  difference  of  tlie  [••nipt-ratu 
Hillside  ol  the  pots;  that   is.  that  the  rate  of  evaporation  '.  _ 
ctifference  <if  l,eiiip<^ralui'<-8  wax  tlie  same  (oral!  ti*i>iperature»;i 
role  of  evaporalioBi  was  exactly  the  Kaine  for  difTerent  thlc 
metal.    1'hit  ri-spective  nii.f.s  of  conducllvity  of  the  several  i 
follows,  expressed  in  \vei|;ht  of  water  evupoi-ated  from  and  ajj 
t^nare  foot  t>f  the  interior  surface  of  the  pot.s   per  dejfree  of  1' 
temperature  per  hour,  logellier  with  the  equivalent  quautitlea  ( 
Water  at  819°.       Heat  uuiu. 

Copper     eesib.  1MS.5 

Brass 677"  8M.8 

WrouKhtiron 8S7  "  878.81 

Ostiron 8«  "  818.7 

Whitham,  "Steam  Enjriiie  Design."  P.  283,  also  Trans.  A,  S.  StJ 
itslnfc  these  data  in  d«rlvin?  a  formula  for  siirfaL-e  comlmn 
lllfiires  lliose  of  perfect  eonductivity,  and  multiplies  them  hy  1 
t',  wliivh  he  tjikPit  .It  O.S'ja,  to  obtain  the  efficiency  of  condem 
ordinnrv  o«e,  i  e  .  oiuued  witli  saline  and  );rea.sy  depOHils. 

TranamisBlon  of  Meat  iVom  Meam  to  Water 
Coils  of  Iron  Pipe.-  H.  O.  C.  Kopp  and  F.  J.  ."^leyBtiT  {Stn 
rtit,it;  Jail  ,  jSOt),  ({«ve  an  account  of  some  experiments  on  transr 
heat  throtigli  coils  of  pipe.  They  coUate  the  results  of  earlier  ei| 
as  f ullows,  for  coinpariaoo : 


V 

Steam  Con- 

Heat traos- 

_ 

i 

densed  per 

mitted  per 

H 

1 

Square  foot  per 
ileifree  differ- 

gonare  foot  per 
degree  dlffer- 

J 

V 

•^ 

euce  of  temper- 

enco of  temper- 

a 

ature  per  hour. 

ature  per  boar. 

^^^H 

s 

s 

3 

0 

^ 

■c 

i3 

i4 
h 

ill 

V    . 

974 

TAurens 

Copper  coUg... 
a  Copper  colU. 

.SOS 

.081 

SIS 

•' 

1.30 

nso 

Havrez.. 

Copper  coil... 

.SM 

1.26 

860 

liCO 

Perkins. 

Iron  coil 

» 

SIS 

Six 

Bo«..,. 

"      "   

Iron  tnbe ...  . 

.835 

.32 

S80 

vm.i 

Stea 

(• 

*'      "    *.... 

.196 

90; 

u 

tt      0 

.400 

.. 

SIO 

HavKE.. 

Out-iroD  boil- 

er   

.077          .106 

83 

lUll 

Fi          ■       ■veil  wo 

uld  appeiir  that 

the  em. 

•  on  m 

ttiiK                     i'|>er  coi 

Ih                                ll'MltM  ?IIf 

K.  pirtte  suifacrB 

ide  up  t.i  the  pre 

belri,. 

'Al  III 

d    (lll:i' 

ifl 

'g  tlie  cod  ti)  btcouie 
lore  beat  to  be  ti 


CONDrCTION   AND  CONVECTION  OF  HEAT. 


473 


Again,  in  accepting  the  mean  temperature  as  that  of  the  condensloe  ma- 
4lum,  the  assumption  (s  mndc  that  trie  rate  of  condeusalloa  is  In  direct  pro* 
portion  to  thp  tftiip«ratiire  of  the  coodensiiiK  »ati-r. 

In  oiiftr  I.,  correct  and  avoid  any  error  arltiiiit'  rrom  Ihfse  assiiinpllon* 
anJ  .  .:ion«,  experiments  were  undertaken.  In  which  all  the  coudi 

Uni  -  inl  during  each  test. 

Ti"  was  matiitnined  uniform  throughout  the  eoll.  and  provisioo 

<»a«  I'lnie  f'T  the  freo  oiitllnw  of  the  condeiiSKij  steniii.  In  order  to  nliljiin 
■I  all  times  the  full  efflclency  of  the  condenslni;  surface.  Tlie  condeiisliilT 
wster  was  coiitiiiualiy  stirred  to  secure  unifurniity  of  temperature.  whieB 
»£  reeiilat>^<l  l.y  itiejinK  of  a  «team-pipe  and  a  cold-water  pipe  euteriiif;  tlu^ 
Kinfc  In  which  the  coil  was  placed. 

Tile  following  Is  a  condensed  statement  of  tlie  results 

HliiT  Trxnsmittcd  I'BB  S<)r.\RE  Foot  op  Coolivo  Sl-bfacb,  p%k  DBOnEM 
or  DirrEAEKCE  or  Tehpsraturi.    iBritiah  Thermal  UntrF.) 


(nperature 

[OonUens- 

I  Water. 


90 
100 
liW 
140 
ISO 
IM 

n» 


l.in,  IrcmPipe; 

Sieam  ioslue, 

00  lbs.  Gallic 

Pressure. 


266 
a09 
878 

377 
28t 
399 
813 


1H  IQ  Pipe; 
Sleam  inside, 

10  llHI. 

Preiwure. 


138 
130 
187 
146 
158 
174 


la  in.  Pln«: 

Steam  inside, 

10  lbs. 

PresBure. 


900 

sao 
sao 

S67 
S71 

2T0 


\ii  hi.  Pipe; 

Sleani  inside, 

60lb«. 

Pressuru. 


876 
SOQ 

S40 
419 


"the  results  indicate  that  the  heat  irauittiiitted  par  de(;reu  of  dilTerence  of 
IflBpersture  in  general  incre«se>i  aa  the  leuiperaturu  of  the  contiennini; 
Mter  is  increased. 

The  amount  transmitted  is  much  larper  with  the  steam  on  tlie  nuiside  of 
Uieeoil  than  with  the  steam  Inside  the  coil.  Thia  may  be  explained  tii  part  by 
Uie  fact  that  the  oondengini;  water  when  inside  the  coil  Uowh  over  the  aur- 
tuce  of  i:otiiluctioii  very  ra]ii'lly.  and  Is  more  efficient  for  cooling  than  when 
OQDtained  in  a  tank  outMde  of  the  coil. 

This  result  is  in  accordance  with  that  found  by  Mr.  Thomns  Cratldock, 
»hich  indiejited  that  the  rate  of  pooling  by  rransmfRsion  of  tipat-  through 
ni(ftallio  -surfaces  was  altnoRt  wholly  (lei>enilent  on  the  rate  of  cii'CulutLuu  of 
"  }  eooling  mwliuni  over  tlio Riirface  to  lie  cimled. 

knxmlnwton  of  Heat  In  Condcuacr  Tube*.    tEiig'n,  Deo. 

fl875,  p.  141*.  I.— In  IHTI  B.  ('.  .S'iehol  made  t:xpi'i'iii)enl»  fur  deteiminiiit?  (lie 
J  at  which  heat  aas  trii.iismiueil  Uinjijirli  a  condenser  tube.    The  Te*iil(s 

ktto  iliow  that  tlie  amount  of  heat  liatismltted  through  the  wiilW  of  the 

'1  par  ••stimateil  degree  of  mean   difference  of  temperature   incrensed 
Merably  wiih  this  ilifferiMiCf.    For  example: 

Vertical  Tube. 


Dated  mean  diHereuce  of 
Dperutiiie  betweeti  inside  and 
tsTde  of  lube,  <le;iree«  Fahr.  . 
$it-Mnit<i  transmitted  )X!r  hour 
square  foot  "t  surface  per 
l^rtte  of  tnean  di<T.  of  temp 


Hoi'isoiital  Tube 


IJ8     ISIQ     15^.9        lU.tS     146. ii     150.4 


6li1 


737 


»a 


^■^■i     531        SCI 
"W  result-"!  seem  to  throw  doubt  upon  Jlr.  Ishprivond's  Blntement  Ihrit 
»te  of  evaporation  per  degree  of  difTerence  of  temperature  is  the  same 
fcall  temperuliii'es. 

ir.  Thonius  Cradiiock  found  that  water  wan  enonnoimly  more  elflclent 
I  olr  for  llie  al>i-traclioii  of  heal  ihioiirli  in*'l«llic  surfaces  In  the  proce"* 
'C'l'linK.      lie  pnivpil  that  the  rnle  of  cciolini^  by  IninsrtiliiHlnii  nf  lient 
Ihrounh  oietallic  surfaces  depends  upon  the  rale  of  cirnilalion  of  the  cm-l 
Intr  iredinm  liver  the  surface  to  Iw  coolwl      A   tube  filled  wHb  Yiot,  watev, 
ivtHiion  »t  cltM  rare  «(  ng  ft  per  second.  thtouKb  aVr,\ort  i 
.'  niinntt-  ns  it  iliil  in  nill  air  In  12  niimitPR     \\\  vj'aU'V,  n\i 
.rfvfOD<l.  as  jiititli  i^eat  »va«  ab.<iiBcletl  lu  halt  a miwrtttl 
t««w«,/e,/  /ur^btr  ,f.«.,il'"^  if  »aHat  rest  In  the  wali-r.    M.v.  C<^ 
tmaciua^,  furtber.  Hint  ./i«  vhvululion  of  the  cooliiig  ftviVd  becaw 


474 


HEAT. 


I  Oie  t«ro9[ 


greater  Impoitance  as  the  difference  of  temperature  on  I 
plalp  hecimic  ^•^s.     (Clark,  R  T.  P..  p.  -Irtl.) 

Heat  TraiiHiiilianlon  throngh  C««t-lron  Plk(«ik  I>1« 
Kltrlc  Acid,  lixiierjiuents  by  R.  V.  CariKiiiler  (Traii.s.  A.  8.  3 
1781  sliow  u  innrked  chang-e  In  the  condiicUni:  jHJwer  of  thp  pitl 
glt^um  lo  wuter),  due  to  prolonged  troaiiiiHnt  with  dilute  nitric  acid 

The  aetioic  of  the  nltrio  at'lil,  rjy  dissolrin|>,'  tlie  fret-  Iron  and  noti 
the  c&rliou,  foriiiHa  pi'Otectii)((  surface  to  the  iron,  which  ia  lBt| 
posed  of  carbon.    The  follawiug  is  a  suiiimary  of  results: 


Character  of  Plates,  each  plate  8.4  in. 
by  5,4  In.,  exposed  stirface  •J7  sq.  ft. 


Increase  In 
Tempera- 

ture  of 

3.1-JSIbs.  of 

Water 

each 

Minute. 


Cast    Iron— untreated    skin    on,   but 

clean,  free  from  ru.st 

Ca8l>  iron— nitric  acid,  if  sot.,  0  dnvs 

•'  '  1*801.,  IS  iloys. 

"  "  l;*8r.|..  JOdiiys. 

"  5*  sol.,  n  davn 

"  "  5){w.l  .  Kldoys. 

Plate  of  pine  wood,  some  dlinenHiona 

BS  the  plat*  of  cast  Iron 


13.90 
II. S 
9.7 
9.8 
9  A3 
10.« 

0.88 


Proporlion»t« 

Thermal  VnM 

Transmitted  foi 

encli  mjK'***'' 

Difference  Ot 

Teniperaiurv] 

Square  Fo  " 

Hour. 


IIS. 

07.7 

W.08 

T7.8 

87.0 

77.4 

1.9 


lurMI 

3 


The  effect  of  coTering  cast-iron  surfaces  with  rarnixh  bM  ] 
Bfttert  by  P.  M.  Chaidbi-r'iain.     He  siililected  the  plate  lo  the 
acid  for  a  few  h^tnrK,  and  then  applipu  a  non  foiifiui^tit)^  van 
face  only  was  trejiied.    Some  of  his  results  are  ais  folloivg: 

170.  Asfinislied— preasy. 

153.    "  K'sslied  with  benzine  and  dried. 

Iti9.  Oiled  with  lubrieallng  oil. 

163.  After  exposure  to  nitric  aeid  iilxtMn  bowv,  1 

seed  nil.) 
100   After  exposure  to  hydrochloric  acid  twelre  ho 

(linse«d  oil.) 

"^"  /  After  exposure  to  sulphuric  acid  1,  water  I, 
...    i    tben  oiled,  vamisbed,  and  allowed  to  dry  fo 

TranHinlMfilon   o<   float  tbroni^Ii  Solid  PIkt««J 
or  otbcr  Dry  €»»">e»  to  'Water,    (!■  rum  Clark  on  Uie  I 
—Till"  law  cif  till'  lian-iiiis^siiui  of  heat  frmii  liot  air  or  otheri 
through  metallic  plate.s.  ita.s  not  been  esnctly  determined 
The  eeneral  results  of  experiments  on  the  evaporollve  actio 
portions  of  the  healing  surfnc**  of  a  .sieiim  boiler  point  to  I 
that  tile  quatitlty  of  heat  traiiBiiitttpd  per  decree  difference  of 
i»  nmclioally  unifonii  for  rnrioiis  differences  of  temfwratiire. 

The  comriiuQiealloii  of  lieat  from  the  ma  to  the  phile  s 
accelerated  by  nieclianicjil  iiiipingetnent  of  the  gaseous  pr 
surface. 

Claric  -uiyB  that  when  the  surfaces  are  perfectly  clean.  I 
m!cci..|.  ..f"i,..qi  ii.r.i,  .1,  i>ifit).<4  of  metal  from  nir  or  gas  in  ' 
for  find  next  for  wrought  iron      but  • 

fa-  i,  the  rate  is  the  name  for  tbe<|lffefl 

\\ ..  .i  ..  ., :;iii'nce  '^f  <' "liictlvily  of  ; 

thielcm-.xH  of  ihi-  piaie  on  the   <  of  heat  ttf 

walJ-r.  Mr.  Napier  m-ide  exwrin  livll  b<jiler«( 

i)l»,--.l    i.v..r    ■.    r-.v.Mniii.-        Tl,.-    ,,    , '.    i„..l„.«    1^.4 

111'  '  "111*  of  iron.  -ijn 

|iii\  ih>'iii  1/30  LI  ka 

,  -  .w  ilryneas,  iu  li.t  .„..»„  .t*! 


DUCTIOK  AND  CONTECTION   OF    HEAT. 


4  75 


Iron  Vessel. 

19  minutes 
j»       " 
SO       " 
85.7    " 


Copper  Vessel. 
18. &  minutes 

«o.r5     •• 

44  " 


Iron  Bud  Copper 
Vessel. 


36.83  minutea. 


saela  of  iron  sides  1/30  Inch  thick,  one  having  a  J4-iiioli  copper 
its  otliHT  a  ^-i^cll  l(!ail  iMittoiii,  wtTe  tested  aKulnsL  tlie  h<ni 
»w!,  I  :in  incli  ttiiclc.  liquiii  quttiititii-s  of  «atiT  wore  evapo- 
►.  ""      uiniiltry  rt.ispe<rtivi-l_>-.     Tnkrtii  genei-ally,  Ih*?  results 

r  n   timr.  fliore  are  jiractlcnlly  Inu  sliRht  ilJlTerrnces 

.  ,  lead  in  evaporative  aclivlly,  aud  lliat  ilie  acliviiy 

I  [>y  ni>-  TLiiekaeHs  of  tlje  bottom. 

Hiiisun  foriiic-<l  a  lil<e  conclusion  from  the  results  of  Ills  obser- 
b  lioilertt  of  \6>}  horbe-powor  each,  mode  exauLly  alike,  ex- 
bad  Iron  fliip-tubea  and  tlie  other  copper  flnt'-liioeB.  No  dif- 
be detected  between  the  perforninucfs  of  these  twilers. 
|t»etween  tUe  results  of  (liflfereut  i?r|K?rtiiieiitfra  are  altrihnt- 
to  the  (lifTereuoe  of  coiiditlot)s  under  wliicii  the  heat  was 
Is  Iwtwecn  water  or  Btenin  and  water,  aud  between  gaseims 
bt«r.  On  one  point  tliH  divergence  ia  extreme:  th«  rate  <jt 
If  heat  [)er  dejcrre  of  dilTcrence  of  t«>niperaturu.  Wldist  from 
tot  heat  are  tran.<<m illed  from  water  to  water  ihrouxh  iron 
|iree  of  ditTerencf  per  Biiiiure  foot  per  linur,  the  ijnaiitity  of 
fed  between  water  and  air,  or  other  dry  gust,  ia  only  about 
||8,  according  as  the  aurroiindiuRHir  is  at  rest  or  in  movement. 
•  boil«r,  where  radiant  heat  was  broufcht  into  play,  IT  units 
Iransmilted  throiigli  tlie  plates  of  the  Are -bo-t  per  degree  of 
hiiperndire  per  square  fi'ol  per  hour. 

■Ion  of  H«at  throut;u  Plates  and  Tnbeit  from 
lot  Water  to  Air. — The  Iriinsfer  of  lieat  from  KtcAjii  or 
[a  plate  or  iuImi  into  the  Rnrrounding  air  ia  a  complex  opera- 
llie  iulenial  and  external  conductivity  of  the  metal,  the  t:idi- 
(  the  surface,  and  the  convection  of  heal  in  the  surroniidinK 
Bemed.  Since  the  quantity  of  tieat  i-aditiied  from  a  surface 
jconditiou  of  tlie  surface  and  witii  t>ie  siirroundin|^.i,  according 
[determined,  and  shicetho  heat  carried  aivay  by  convection 
I  rate  of  the  flow  of  tlie  air  over  the  surface,  it  i:!  evident  that 
(can  lie  laid  do«n  for  the  total  quantity  of  heut  ejnitled. 
K  is  condensed  from  nn  article  un  Loss  of  Heat  from  Bteaiii- 
iacoiiKiliiv,  Sept.  uiid  Oct.,  1892. 

l-pipe  iii  nidiating  heat  conetantly  off  into  opace,  but  at  (he 
icooilnif  also  by  convection.  Experimental  data  on  which  to 
Ids  of  the  heat  radiated  aud  otherwise  lost  by  steam- pipes  are 
buR  nor  satitifactory. 

kiieal  Treatise  on  Heat  a  number  of  results  are  Kivcn  for  the 
|i  radiated  l>y  different  hiibHtances  when  the  tempermure  of 
'  "r.  lower  than  the  leuiperature  of  the  radiating  boilv-  A 
-••'-1  is  given  ijelow.     It  is  said  to  be  bubuii  on  PAclel  8  ex- 

Itated  per  Hoitr.  psb  !^<^t;ARR  Foot  of  Subcace,  po« 

'  FaiiRenheit  Excess  is  Tkuperatuiik. 

OSfn    Sheet-iron,  ordinary 6608 

0410    Olasa .51MH 

E>U8hed Will     Cant  Iron,  new .   .M80 
Ited 0S58    ("oininoti  steara-pipe.  inferred..  .MOO 

0!K0    Cast  and  slieet  ii'uii,  ruslerl  ..  .  .G808 

1839    Wood,  bulldini^slcine,  and  brick    TSOS 

Dperature  of  the  air  Is  about  50»  or  60°  Falir,,  atiil  tiie  radlnt- 
1  more  than  about  30°  liolter  than  the  air,  we  may  calculate 
^f  a,  ^iveii  surface  by  avsuniing  the  amount  of  heul  Kiveii  oft 
1  lime  to  be  proportional  lo  the  iliffcrcncf  in  leiiijieintnri-  be- 
iind  the  iiir.  This  is  "  Newton's  law  of  ccMjling." 
!  -I  temperature  is  great,  N'ewton'H  law  d^X's  niit  l»dd 

I,  lunjifer  profwrlional  to  the  difference  iu  teinviera- 

,;,.  ,o,v.. luted  b.r  a  (.'i>mp/e.v  forinuln  establisl\ed  exv"  ' 
taod  Fvm.    Box  )mi>  computed  a  table  from  lUlM 
"*"T  its  appUcuttvn,  and  wUicU  ia  givuu  I    — 


HBAT. 


FAOI0B8  FOK  Rbouctiom  TO  DrLONo's  LAW  Or  : 


Differpiices  In  Tem- 

Temperature  of  the  Air  on  the  Fahr«l 

1 

perutury  between 

] 

Kailiatiiig  Body 

1 

m 

and  tbe  Air. 

aa= 

00' 

09° 

68* 

86« 

IM"  liS« 

140- 

IBS' 

1 

Deg.  Fahr. 

18 

1  ooi.oTli.ia 

1.161.26 

1.861.47 

1.5H 

1.7(1  !.■ 

86 

IMl.OSl.lO 

l,aM.3(i  1.40  1.5i 

l.tlS  1  Tfil.ft 

51 

i.or  i.iGi.so 

].li3il.3!5  1.4.'il.58 

i.7oi.«>;i.«i 

Ta 

l.iail. 30  1.25 

1  30,1.40 

i.sai.04ii.70|i.»ui!i.« 

80 

l.l(>ll.'<!5;1.31 

1.36,1.48 

1.6»1.71il.(«|l.Will 

lOB 

i.ai  1.31  i.a 

i.4aii.sa 

1.6S  1.7V  1  >'•  Jiifja 

lat 

1.36  1.3C,1. 4-2 

J.48|l,60 

1.72  1   -                      M 

144 

1.3111.42  1.48 

1.54  1.S5 

1.79  1                            « 

Mffi 

t.S7  1.481. M 

Mill  1  :.i  !  ,KK  >                       u 

180 

1.44  1.56,1.61 

I  A'                                                .« 

199 

1.5*)  1. 6211. «BI.^'                                                :< 

Sit) 

l.M  1.09:1  Ti'^  I  ^                                            -  « 

SM 

l.64il.77|l.'                                                           iW 

aea 

l.n  l.«5'i                                                               ■« 

K9 

l.rail.93i-'                                                               9 

S» 

1.89  8.03:-'                                                          .■<) 

«w 

1.981>.1S|;.'                                                          <'4 

SM 

3.07  a. as  ^•.                                                *4 

IMS 

2.17,a.34,a  1.  .      .                                                11 

MO 

S,iri*.«^.;H.  .  .                                      ,  JH 

878 

2.39a.57i-..>.'^  -  :      -                                             il 

896 

S.M,L'.TO!«.MI   :    .,  .;  , :.  ;   ... 

414 

a.lKiS.Wla.'./."'  .."'  ■•■  ■<■:    '  .'■!   ■., 

489 

a.7o,a.98j8.:Y.-a,^-^;,a.:V-T-r-i 

-^ 

Thu  loKg  of  heat  by  conwction  ap{>ears  to  bo  Iin1e|'«>ii<1eiil  ..ft 
the  Kui'foce,  that  i.s,  it  is  the  ^&n\e  for  iron,  stone,  i>  i  14 

ll  Is  ilifferent  for  l>oilie8  of  diffi'rent  sli(i|»,  howev- 

{Kisillon  of  (lie  bodj-.  Thus  a  voilical  bti-aui-viip*  \^ 
ly  coinvflioii  us  a  horlzcrtital  one  will:  foi-  the  air  ' 
of  tlie  verllciil  pipe  will  iim?  along  the  Bnifiiepof  M 

80IUU  extern,  fi'inn  tht)  ehilllLiK  aotjoit  of  the  surr  i  r  • 

similar  reason  llie  blutpo  of  a  body  has  an  Iniportjn  n 

IhoHo  liiiflkui  loslrif!  nioMt  hent  whose  fonns  ai »  su.  ,  il 

free  ttCi.'i-8S  to  trery  imrt   of  their  »urf«L-e.     The  i  'Uiu' 

Klv«a  (he  Ulimher  of  heal  units  that  horixoutal  e.vHiidei^  ..rL 
convection  p«?r  mjuiuo  foot  of  siirfiioe  pi-r  hour,  foroue  <]<riitv«| 
temperature  between  the  pipe  and  the  air. 

HkaT  Units  Lost   by  (Iosvcction  itroh    llnnizosTM.  Pipks,| 
Foot  or  StTsirACK  per  IIoi-r,  for  a  Tej<pebati'| 

DlFrKOENCE  09  1°  f'AJlB. 


Kxlernal 

External 

Extenua 

DiH  meter  of 

Heat  UnitB 

Diauieler 

Heat  Uoitt 

i'ilMI 

ill  luL-hm, 

LORl. 

of  Pipe 
III  inclitw, 

l..ost 

of  Pip* 
in  iiMSbM. 

0.7SS 

7 

0909 

n 

o.iwn 

» 

0.4«8 

M 

0.574 

9 

0.488 

8« 

0.514 

10 

0.4M 

48 

o.aa 

ue 

a47V 

•  * 

\t»  but  bukly  »tvi\  VVw  »,»',  VuvVtaAi 


n^ci 


UCTION   ANU   CONVECTIOH   OF   HEAT. 


477 


k  8faow  tliat  Lbia  ia  not  exnctlv  tru«,  and  w«  miiv  lierr  Alau 
*  •  Ubl«  of  faotora  for  correcting  chu  rasulta  oIumIiibJ.  by  winiple 


1 


'ACToaa  POB  Reduction  to  Dpiono's  Law 

OF  CONVKCTIOK. 

snoe 

Difference 

D[JT«'r'?tuje 

1  Hot 

in  Toiiip. 
lietwfvu  Hot 

in  Temp. 

FAClor. 

Factor. 

Iff  tv?6en 

Factor. 

H^ 

L 

Body  and 

Hot  Body 

■ 

1 

Air. 

aud  Air. 

P 

U.94 

iSO'Y. 

i.ea 

SIS-  F. 

1.87 

■ 

1.11 

168° 

l.OS 

3C0» 

i.go 

■ 

l.« 

Sift" 

1.68 

37S° 

].« 

■ 

1.30 

884' 

1.73 

3W!° 

1.94 

■ 

1.87 

iua° 

1.74 

iW 

1.06 

■ 

1.43 

sm° 

1.77 

4tSf 

1.98 

■ 

1.4» 

SS8' 

1.80 

460" 

a.oo 

■ 

1.53 

806» 

1.83 

468" 

8.03 

L 

1.58 

884* 

1.65 

.... 

.... 

r  TBS  Use  or  thk  Tadles.— Keaulred  tlie  total  \:>s»  of  beat  by 

I  mnd  coDTectlon,  pt>r  foot  of  lengtli  of  a  steam-pipe  3  11/S3 

neter,  steam  pressure  ih^  lbs.,  temperature  of  the  air  i<i  the 

(corrwpontliiig  to  80  lb».  raunls  807*;  temperature  differenca 

.  foot  leogtb  of  steam-pipe  =  8  11/88  X  3.1416  -»-  13  =  0.(il4  Bq. 

"Sdiated  per  hour  per  square  foot  per  deeres  of  illfference,  from 

too  loss  per  hour  by  Ni-nrtoii'a  law  =  289"  x  .614  fl.  x  ,64  =  fl3  3 
I*.  Same  rediicnd  (oi-onfor-ru  with  ruilong's  law  of  rmiintion:  fiiclor 
>l»  for  i«iiiiieratur»  diffePfiice  of  tfill"  and  temfwruture  of  air  68°  = 

'  —  ISl.i  heat  units,  lolul  I<>»k  l>y  radiation. 

per  Miini«  font  ppr  hour  from  a  'i  lI/3?-lnch  pipe!  by  In- 

lal)lt>,  3"  =  .TaS.  S"  =  .B-.'B,  ■•  I1/3J"  =  .«!«. 

fill  A  .0*)  X  5239"  =  101.7  iieiit  iinitH.   Srtiiif  iiidiiui'd  to  conform  with 

■kwof  coureciiun:     101.7  X  1.7J(froin  table)  =  \',r>.\>  lifiil  iiitllH  piT 

otal  loss  by  radiation  and  convpciii'ii  =  llil.a  +  175,0  =  SSt.l   Ileal. 

Ix)ss  ixT  deifrcf  of  dlfferenrt«  uf  tpmpeialinv  iwr  lliii-ar 

iiour  =  •Vi7.1  -t-  HiO  =  1.41H  hpal.  iiiilt.s  =  a.4«l  pi-r  sq.  ft. 
"I  •  I'll,  says  VVif  Locomotive,  thiit  the  rewilts  obtalmtt  liv  thin 
■jpilculaiioii  ai«  strictly  at.'curatc.  Tlie  experlmcntiii  ilnlft  nfe  not 
■b  nilow  us  til  ooiiipiitK  the  beal-loas  front  .■ileam-plpeH  wltti  any 
mn  of  itrnnemcnt;  yet  it  U  l.clit'vpd  thnt  thf  results  oliliiinpd  iih 
■bovtf  wdl  be  aufllc'ieiitly  noai'  tlie  truth  for  iimst  juirtinsra.  All 
■Jby  Prof.  OnUvay,  In  a  pipe  «  11  *J  in.  dlarn.  und*>r  the  above 
nrrans.  A.  S.  M.  E  ,  v.  73),  showed  n  coDdviisalloii  of  steam  of  181 
•  per  hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  lo.^  of  heat  of  3M.7  beat  uiiltn 
',  or  within  half  of  one  per  cent  of  that  given  by  the  above  (.•alciilii. 

tit  authorities,  the  qiiBntlly  of  beat  ulveii  off  bv  uteain 
■1-8  ia  ordinary  prnciice  of  lieatlnR  of  bull<(liijp<  by. 
I'  from  l.S  to  about  a  heat  units  per  lionr  per  wjuBf^ 

giee  uf  ililli>rent:e  of  leinpertttiire. 

m  figure  Ik  c«lL'i)Ittle<l  from  the  followlnt;  Klaleiiient  by  Kol» 
pis   pjiiier  on  ".^nierienn    Prnctiee    In    Wnrndni;    Bnil"lln(f» 
TtK'.  Iiisi.  IA  E.,  188S.  V..I.  lx.xi):    "  Kiich  Itx)  wj    ft.  of  iiullol 
I  Kive  off  3  Fahr.  beat  iitilt«  iier  miinile  f.-i-  eaoli  de»;ree  K.  of 
toiiiiwrttture  between  ilio  ratllntiiiK  surface  and  tlie  iilr  in  wh 

( S  1/3  heat  units  Im  given  by  the  Nasoii  .M.iniifni-i  ■  "" 

locue,  and  3  to  2  1/4  are  g-fven  bv  manv  recent ' 
UnMiy  miiiptrature  tllffereiice  in  low  pressmr 
ntf  F.,  J  lb.  sifuiii  (.oudenscd  from  Si' 


Baame  temperature  eires  tip  90S.?  heat  units.    A  loaa  of  S  liesli 
ft.  per  hour  per  decree  of  dilTerence,  under  these  conditionc,  !•] 
to  2  X  M2-4-9t»5  =  0.3  lb«.  of  steam  eoiidrnst*<l  per  hour  [wr  aq. 
surface.     (See  also  Heating  and  Ventilation,  i 

TransmlBaton  or  Heat  ttarongb  nrall*,  etc..  of] 

(Naaou  Munufaoluiiiit;  L'v.).    (Soe  uUu   Heating    iiiij  \>.-ii(JtaU 
has  Che  remarkable  property  of  ])as8iiig  tliroiigh  iiuxlerate  (Itieka 
HDd  ganea  without  appieciable  lost>.  so  that  air  is  not  wnnnntj 
heat,  but  hy  contact  with  surfiu.<es  that  have  uhaorbed  the  radii 

Powers  of  DirrEBO'T  Substances  fob  TRANSMrmxo  tfi 


Brifks,  rouKh 

Brii-ks,  M'hitewashe<l. 

Granite  or  slate. 

Sheet  iron 


I 


Window-glass )«» 

Oak  or  walnut 06 

Whitepine   80 

Pitch-pine 300 

Latii  ur  plaster TSto   100 

A  square  foot  of  glass  will  cool  1. 3TB  cubic  feel  of  nir  from 

ture  inside  to  that  outside  per  iniiuil^-,  and  outside  wall  surface  i 

estimated  at  one  fifth  r>f  the  rate  of  fcl^*^  in  ciKtIlne  e5Teci. 
Box,  ill  his  "  Practical  Treatise  on  llxnt,"  (fives  a  tnlile  nf  ibe( 

powers  of  litalerlals  prepured  from  the  experiuients  of  I'C-clet     U  ( 

quantity  of  heat  in  units  transmitted  pt^r  square  foot  per  hour  \ij  1 1 

inch  in  iliickness,  the  two  surfaces  difToriog  iu  temperature  1  <lr|^rei!: 

Finegrained  gray  marble ..      ..  S8.I 

L^oarsc-graiiied  white  marble .., 

Stone,  calcareous,  line 

Stone,  calcareous,  ordinary 

Baked  clay,  lirick work  .,.,. 

Brick-dust,  sifted 

Hood,  in  his  "  Warminf;  and  VentllatiDf;  of  BuUdio^,"  p.  '■ 

results  of  U.  Depretz,  which,  placiUK  the  conducting  power  uf  i 

give  ,4S3  as  the  value  for  flrebrick, 

THKBinODVNAmiCS. 

ThermodynamloB,  the  science  of  heat  con!^d<>rpd  ti?  a  fM 
^ener>r.v.  is  useful  11]  advniiood  studies  of  the  theory'  '  - 

Wgines,  refriperaliii^'  niaehines,  coinpressul  air.  etc 
nent  adoptea  by  the  standard  writers  i»  peverely  iir,. 
P«onslant  applieaiion  of  the  caluuhm.     The  sdnient  will  litui  ii 
thorough'  treated   In  the  recent  works  by  TtontKeu  iDuIhiIs'sI 
Wood,  and  Pfal)ody. 

Firat  Law  of  Themtodynamlca.— Heat  and  me 
are  nintnully  convrrlible  in  the  ratio  of  uiiont  778  fuol-^siiind 
"lernml  unit.  (Wooil.l  llest  is  the  livinic  force  or  vu  vlti 
molecular  molloiis  of  the  inolecnles  of  bodies,  und  this  ll»(i 
■tated  or  measured  hi  units  of  heat  or  In  foot -pounds,  aH 
BriiLsli  niea.Hures  beinp  equivalent  to  77:.'  |r7KJ  foot-ponudl 
Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vii.  727.1 

Second  Law  of  Tbermod^nanilca.— Thesecond  Uvl 
feient  writers  lM!en    stated  in  n  variety  of  ways,  nnd  nppnnTllv  ( 
»o  diverse  as  not  to  cover  a  coniiTiou  pi iuciple. 
It  is  impossible  for  a  sdf-aclin;;  inat-liine,  uuiii 
to  convert  heat  from  one  body  to  niiothrr  lit  a  h 

II  the  heat  absorbed  be  at  one  temperature,  and  (hnl  r^ji 

iWcr  tempemture.  then  will  the  heat  which  is  tmti-inoitcJJ 

die  entire  heat  absorlied  in  the  same  ra' 
,bsoliite  teiii|«rature  of  the  source  and  i' 
ratiire  of  the  gooroe.     In  otiipr  words,  I 
efflclelicv  of  111-  ■  ■'  luentan'  '■! 

The  livloK  forct  ->f  a  lio<lv  .  -  alwaytl 

the  obsolute  ii  J  .  .  the  hotly.  .:-.) 

<  K       ' '  I         T,  —  T- 
The  expression  ^—p,—     =        ,,. — '    may  tie  called  llwi  i>j«nn-_ 

W  the  fiecoitd Uw,— \\\p.\».»  ii\v!lcti  llinlu «MJ 
tich  dr*»  hiA  lievienA  wiVtiA  \»».vw».<A< 
whrl'lgc  J      (ij  au4  Tv  =  <ViMiMfc1  " 


PHYSICAL   PUOrEKTlES  OF  GA8K8.  i'S9 

t  the  heat  reueived,  Q^  and  T|  =  quanUty  and  abaolute  tem- 
»  heM  rejected. 

toD     '  _, — '  represents  the  efllclency  of  a  perfe<rt  heat  eog^ine 

i  all  its  lieat  at  tbe  absolute  temperature  T„  and  rejects  heat 
ature  7"a.  convening  into  work  the  difference  between  the 
.ve»l  niid  reji'ol^'d. 
Wliat  is  the  efficiency  of  a  perfect  heat  enuine  wlilch  receives 
'^.  Ithe  temperature  of  steam  of  'JOO  U)«.  ^au^e  preiiKiire>  and 
100°  F.  (temperature  of  a  condenser,  pressure  1  lb.  alx>ve 

rasine  this  efBelency  can  never  be  attoined,  for  the  difference 
jiiaiitity  of  beat  received  into  Ibe  cylluiler  and  thai  i-ejecled 
(user  in  nnt  all  coiiviTLed  into  work,  much  of  it.  liciiiK  Inst  by 
Icage.  etc.  In  the  steam  eneuie  the  phenomenon  of  cylinder 
also  tends  to  reduce  the  emcient?, 


lYSICAL  PEOPEBTIES  OP  GASES. 

matter  on  this  subject  Kill  be  found  under  Heat,  Air,  Gas,  and 

of  gas  is  enctoaed  in  a  vessel  it  ezerta  a  pressure  against  the 
pressure  is  unifiirm  on  ef  erj'  square  Inch  of  the  surface  of  the 
pt  any  point  in  the  fluid  niaHa  the  presisure  istlie  Haiue  in  every 

tsele  conCalniuioK  gases  the  increase  of  pressure  due  to  weight 
ted,  since  all  jtuses  are  very  livrlit;  but  where  Uquids  are  cou- 

Bcrease  iu  pressure  due  lo  tlieir  neipht  must  always  be  takeu 

. 
•iott  of  G&aca,  nariiotteia  I^anr,  -The  VLrlunie  of  a  gas 
I  iu  the  Slime  ratlu  as  ilie  pressure  upon  It  in  iucrea^etj. 
M|  by  experiment  fonnil  to  be  very  nearly  true  fur  all  i;ase(,  and 
^pSoyle^B  or  Mariutte's  law. 

P^ure  at  a  volume  i',  and  pi  =  pressure  at  &  volume  I'l,  p^i'i  = 
u 
-n;  vv  —  a  constant. 

Unt,  C,  varies  with  the  temperature,  everything  else  remaining 


by  a  pressure  of  seventydve  atmoBpherea  has  a  volume 
than  ttiat  computed  fn>iii  Boyle's  law,  liul  ihii)  Is  the  greofest 
lat  i*  fooud  below  160  ainiospherfs  pressure. 
I^faarlea.— The  vohinm  of  a  perfect  (tan  al.  a  constant  pressure 
liil  to  Its  ahiinhite  tempei-atnre.  If  r,  l)e  the  volume  of  a  gas 
I  Vi  the  volume  at  any  other  temperature,  /,,  tlien 

'or        »,  =  [!  +  0.0020a«(f,  -  82»j]Uo. 
also  chaUfne  frompg  top,, 

"■  -  %,V    491.2     '• 

laltlea  of  Gaaea  and  Vapora  are  simply  proportional  I 

Veiirht's 

ro'a  Law.-K<]unl  vulumeH  of  all  ^aaes,  luider  the  same  con-l 

tnijieiutuie  and  pressure,  contain  the  same  number  of  mole-i 

welRht  of  n  gas  In  pounds  jier  cubic  foot  at  SIJ"  F.,  multiply 
Ight  of  the  gas  by  .Ml,JB9.  Thus  1  cu.  ft,  marsh-gn»,CH» 


icularwei 

ja±4 


X  .00561/  =  M4T  lb. 


480  PHV&ICAL  PaOPERTlBS  OP  OK6S6. 


I 


I 


I  v«^^H 

1 


Wlieii  a  certain  volume  of  hydrogeu  oombitiM  with  one  half  Ub% 

iixvcf  D,  there  Is  produe«<l  au  amount  of  water  vapor  whl«fa  ' 
Faints  volume  as  tbat.  whiuli  wa«  oucupif  d  by  ilte  hydrogeo  gaa^ 
siiiiu-  lc)tii«Tatiirt«  Bnd  piciwiirp. 
SatiirBtlon-polMt  oT  Vapor*.— A  vaiu^r  thm 

lioniKiiiit  lii-lmvHs  liki- a  k«k  mul<-r  L'hanKf^s  uf  tfn 

lniL  if  il  lb  siifncif-'iiily  <.'»>iiiinei*j*<fii  or  coi'ltr*!,  it  rt-a'  ' 

Kins  to  t'ondeuK**:  it  tli«a  ih>  loiiper  oljt?ys  th*- 

]MPS«ure  cannot  be  ii.creiiseii  l)j  diiiiiui«Jiin(r  il 

it,  but,  remains  omstjiui,  except  when  ihe  (• 

ijtilv  ens  that  can  pievi-ni  n  liitnid  evniioialinj;  s.-.tu^^  to  i 

Aalton'a  liavv  orOaocoua  Fresaarea.-  Every  < 
of  Kas  incluscij  iu  a  vessel  CDnlriljutes  to  Uie  pressure  nj; . 
Hw  vessL-l  thu  sanio  nnionnt  lliat  it  would  have  exerted  hy  ly 
other  p:a-s  l>e<iii  present. 

mixtnrea  of  Vapora  and  Ga»«B.— Ilie  pressure 
lli«  inriM-iiirof  a  vessel  by  a  K<veu  quantity  of  a  perfect  ga«  i 
is  the  sii  III  of  ilie  presRura?  whieli  any  number  of  ports  into  «rhl 
tity  might  he  diviiled  would  exert  separately,  If  each  were  _ 
veksel  of  the  same  bulk  alone,  at  the  same  temperature.  Altho 
is  iu)t  exactly  inie  for  any  actual  gas,  it  1b  very  nearly  true  for  I 
ir  ti  ()S07!;8  lb.  ot  air  at  iiT  ¥..  being  enclosed  in  a  vessel  of  uO 
I'ftpacity.  exerts  a  pressure  of  one  atnioBphere  or  U.T  iMuiMla.  ODI 
inch  of  the  interior  of  the  vessel,  then  will  each  aiiditional  O.OACTS  i 
which  is  enclosed,  at  Si°,  iu  the  same  vessel,  produce  Twry  neail/  ( 
tioiial  atmosphere  of  pressure.  Tlie  same  law  is  applicable  to  mix 
KaseAof  differuMt  kinds.  For  example.  O.VJMJ  lb.  of  carlxinie-acid 
5s!°,  being  enclosed  in  a  vessel  of  one  cubic  fool  in  capacity,  ezertsai 
of  one  atiiinKphere;  consequently,  If  0.0807*8  lb.  of  air  and  O.IW 
carlionic  acid,  ml.xed,  bn  eiicloned  at  Ihe  temperature  of  3^°,  iD  •» 
one  cubic  fool  of  cnpBcity.  the  mixture  will  excri  a  pressiirr  of  tin 
pheres.  As  a  socona  example:  I^et  O.CKHCW  lb.  of  air,  at  !li*,  btttac 
a  vessel  of  one  cubic  foot ;  it  will  exert  a  pressure  of 
2I'J  +  459  2 
a8  +  4afl.g  =  '-^  atmospheree. 

LetO.OS797Ib.of  st«ans,  at  2I8°.  be  enclosed  in  a  vessel  of  otiecnNB 
will  exert  a  pressure  of  one  at inospherp.     Con-  •''"Wl 

and  O.iWTUT  111.  of  Kteam  t>e  mixwl  an<l  encloHe<!  '  ■  »i 

one  cubic  font,  the  mixture  will  exert  a  nressii  I  .  .nrl 

a  common  hut  eironeoun  jiiactlee,  in  i-lenienlaiy  ij -irUs  ii  MlijifiM 
(ivrlbe  this  law  as  constituun«  a  difference  lx>iweeii  mixed  aim  boONI 
f;aseii;  wheiva.^  it  is  obvioiiit  that  for  mixml  and  homoKeiieoua ksms 
of  pressure  is  exuclly  the  same,  vii.,  that  the  presauro  Of  the  wbi 
KitM-oiiH  miiss  is  Ihe  sum  of  the  pressures  of  all  ita  parta  Tbti  Itea 
taws  ol  mixture  of  cases  aud  vapors. 

A  wooiid  l«iv  is  th^t  the  prpBeuce  of  a  foreicn  easeous  cabsiaaM 
tact  with  tlie  surface  of  a  solid  or  liquid  does  not  affeet  tlM  C 
vapor  of  that  soliil  or  liquid  unless  there  ia  a  tendency  LO  C 
hinntioii  lietween   Ihe  two   sul)stancrg.  in  which  c<lse   the  dl 
voi'Oi  is  Nliuhlly  iueIva^:ed.     (Ranliine,  S.  E,  p  339.) 

Plonr  ofGaaea.  — By  the  principle  of  thet-nrnervatlon  of  • 
(>u  Mllll^Yn  that  the  veNH'ily  ivitn  whioli  a  f^ns  nil  '  'Tti 

avaciiiiKi  la  iiivers«-ly  proportional  to  tlieMiu 
oxyjji'u,  whieh  is  slxf»'en  times  as  heavy  a-.  In 
tile  Knme  cii-cumstances,  escajie  linn>ugh  an  opening  iwiiy 
as  till'  In  Her  chh. 

AbNorptlnii  of  Gaaen  hj  I.lqnMa.-Mflnv  rfti«  b?»1 

sr.ii..  ,  ,  ,-.     Diher  ll.,.  ■ 

'b'K  will  fur  ex  I 

K'l''  '  .^  rnlintie  Ol 

""I  ■  \iiiuill>-  '•!  .■xl^-'-ll 


:ii>t  is  iibsort>i;il  by  a  (riven  viiluniH  of  llq 

p!?1   tic  Hit'  ^-iiftmie  of  a  tims?  nf  i 


BSL'KE  OF  THE  ATMOSPHKRE. 


AIR. 

r.— Mr  is  R  nieH--batiical  mixture  of  the  gases  oxygen 

ri«0 and  T9.3  puna  N  by  TOliiine,  23  parts  O  and  77  pRrts 

^  pur«  air  at  sa"  F.  and  a  barometric  pressuri?  of  -HM  Inclies 
4.«9a3  lbs.  t>er  sq.  in.,  or  2116.3  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.,  Is  .i^07iH  lb.  per 
lume  of  1  U).  =  12.387  cu.  ft.     At  any  otiicr  tcmiH?ratiire  uiid 

Kure  Us  weight  in  Ilia,  per  cubic  foot  is  H'=    ','  ,  ,  -y . 

4.1U.V;  -\-  I 
rtit  of  the  barometer.  T=  temperature  Fahr..  and  1,*J.M  = 
r  459.2  e.  ft.  of  uir  al  '>°  K.  and  one  iiicli  barometric  pressmia. 
191  a  rif  iia  volume  at  3-.'*  I'',  fur  every  iiicr<»«!«>  of  1"  W., 
inversely  as  the  presMire. 

k  Density,  and  Pressure  of  Air  at  Various 

Tenip^Falarea.    (!'.  K.  Clark.) 


^me  at  Aliuoe. 
freiisure. 


Feet    Coraiiara- 
lb.        tive  Vol. 


« 
10 
II 

IS 
H 
15 


DO 


.881 
.SH8 

.958 

.977 

1.000 

l.OtS 

l.o;i4 

1.051 

i.ora 
1.00s 
i.iit 
i.iao 

1.119 
1.108 
1.187 

i.floe 
i.aaa 

1.804 

1.S88 

l.«87 


Deiiitity.  lbs. 
per  Cubic  Foot  at 
.4tiuu».  Pressure. 


.oe«33i 

•OWTid 

.oTiuas 

.077884 
,078097 
.07-J950 
.07-3565 

.ar-iiv) 

.07<)iHa 

.ociiTai 
.oe<«w 

.067361 

.oooj-n 

.OOMM 
.Otil088 
.WWCW9 
.00  MM 

.oawio 

.0d9:j1S 
.05»I3!1 


Precsure  at  Constau 
Vol  tune. 


Lha.  per 
Sq.  III. 


13.90 

13.S6 
U.llS 
14.31] 
14.70 
14.93 
1.5.21 
15.49 
15.77 
16.05 
16.31 
16.61 
16.69 
17.19 

ir.so 

17.76 
IS.Oi 

i8.r.8 

18.86 
18,83 


Compara- 
tlTB  Fres. 


.S81 

.ws 

.U5I* 
.977 
l.OOI) 
1.015 
1.0S4 
1.054 
1.078 
1.09e 
1.II1 
1.130 
1.140 
1.168 
1.187 
l.-JOC 
1.S9S 
].aS4 
1.S88 
1,387 


■anonieterconaist.H  of  a  lon^  vertical  kIr^  tube.  clo.>wd  At 

[open  al  the  lower  end.  containuii^  air,  provided  with  a  scale, 

a)oii)(  with  a  tbermotnet<^r.  in  a  transparent  liquid,  sucli  as 

ataiued  in  a  .<itrong  cylinder  of  ^lass,  which  coinmuniqatea 

In  which  the  pressure  is  to  be  ascertained.    I'he  scale  shows 

BLed  by  the  air  iu  the  tube. 

inie,  at  the  temperature  of  3'i'  Fahrenheit,  and  nie«n 
sphere,  p™:  let  «,  be  the  vnltime  of  ili«*  air  at  the  tem- 
r  the  al>solute  pressure  to  be  meAsured  pj  ;  then 


Pl  = 


(t  +  l'i».2'yptVt 
491. ■,"  t', 


the  Atmosphere  at  Different  A'  ' 

l^cl  the  nref!sur>.>  of  the  air  Is  14.7  poiiodg  p" 
!bov&  tna  nea-lerel  It  h  K.O;? pounds;  at 
-  mUe,  It.O^:  at  04  mile,  llAi;  at  1)4  I 


r 


482 


AIB. 


miles,  0.80  pounds  per  square  inch.    For  a  rough  approzio 
assume  that  tbe  pressure  decreases  Hi  pouiid  per  square 
feet  iif  aiwenl. 

It  IB  calculated  tlutt  nl  a  belf^ht  of  ahout  SV^  miles  ubovp  I 
weight  of  a  cubic  font  of  air  Is  only  one  half  what  it  is  at  the  »n 
eartii,  at  seven  milvs  onl}'  oue  fourth,  at  fourteon  niile-t  only  ofl 
&l  tweDt>'-one  miles  only  od9  sixLj'-foiirth,  and  at  a  height  of 
l^ve  miles  it  becomes  t>o  attenuated  as  to  have  do  appreciaMe  w 

The  pi-essut*  of  the  atmosphere  iDcreases  wiiU  the  depth  of  shifli 
to  about  one  inch  rise  in  the  barometer  for  each  900  fe>'t  increue  In 
this  mar  ^  takeu  as  a  rougb-aud-ready  rule  for  ascerialuiiig  liie  d 
shafts. 

Preaanre    of  the   Atmoaphere  p«r    Sqnftre    In^lt  •■ 
dqaare  Foot  at  Varloas  Readliiga  of  the  Bmrone 

RtM.K.— Haronieler  In  inches  x  .4(tOH  =  prt'ssure  per  square  itxAj  | 
per  square  inch  x  144  =  pressure  per  stquare  foot.  WM 


Barometer. 

Preasure 

Pressure 

Barometer. 

Pressure 

1 

per  Sq.  In. 

per  Bq.  Ft. 

per  Sq.  In. 

m 

In. 

lbs. 

lb«.» 

In. 

lbs. 

1 

38.00 

J8.T4 

1978 

ai.T5 

14.S0 

^  18.25 

13.88 

1996 

30.00 

M.74 

BSR.M 

13.98 

soia 

SO.JS 

14.»1 

■  «e  75 

14.11 

tnsi 

80.50 

14.96 

^89.00 

14.28 

!049 

80.76 

16.09 

as.15 

14.35 

-joee 

31.00 

W.3t 

S9.50 

14.47 

3063 

*  Decimals  omitted. 
For  lower  pressures  see  table  of  the  Properti<»«  of  Steatii. 
Barometric  Readlne*  correnpondlne  wtlti  Dfl 
Altitudes,  In  Prench  and  Engllan  neaanr«a« 


! 


Bead- 

Heading 

Reading 

1 

Alti- 
tude. 

ing  of 
Barom- 
eter. 

Altitude. 

of 
Barom- 
eter. 

Alti- 
tude, 

of 
Barom- 
eter. 

AlUtad|| 

meters. 

mm. 

feet. 

Inches. 

meters. 

Dim. 

fej 

n 

762 

0. 

30. 

1117 

«eo 

sntMU 

21 

780 

68.9 

».«3 

1W9 

660 

4163.11  ■ 

ViT 

750 

416.7 

89.S? 

1393 

640 

4568.3 

231 

740 

767.7 

S9.t» 

1519 

6S0 

4WB.1 

34J 

730 

lliK.l 

S8.T4 

1647 

•SO 

1M0S.« 

45S 

730 

1486.8 

28.39 

1777 

«to 

BilO.fl 

564 

710 

1850.4 

27.95 

1MM 

aoo 

694*. 

878 

700 

2i!.'4.5 

27.55 

2048 

no 

9m. 9 

793 

690 

2599.7 

27.16 

SI80 

660 

7152.4 

900 

680 

8962  1 

26.77 

2S18 

670 

7MB.I 

lO*? 

670 

33«9.6 

26.38 

S480 

BflO 

wn. 

Levelling  by  th«    Barometer   and    b>    TT.-'TTi 

(Traiilwtiie. >— Many   circuitistances  roinbine  to  re 
kind  of  levelling  unreliable  wliere  v:ieat  ai-curncv  i 
to  read   off  from  an  aneroid  M he  Icind  of  bn: 
engineering  purpoftesi  to  viithln  from  two  to  i 
Itasiae.    The  rnnisture  or  rtrvni'=-<  of  rhe  nir  .; 
Tt^Blt;  of  moiiii:' 
'and  Irregtil  . 

— let-  .r  i-\i-sMi'.\.  >.l    \.-M\v  'A«'  tr'-t       .><■ 

t  ahall  eiiitiraue  v^ves<!  ««i\kr«c»  <it.  «not. 


MOISTURE   IX  THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


tii  Flud  the 


IttOorenee  In  Altitude  or  Two  PI«eea.— Tak<_ 

■  s  op{>OHite  lo  the  two  boiling  tfinperatures,  or  to 

^.    Subtract  the  une  oppogite  the  lower  reudiiif; 

.  ;  •  r  readiiig.    The  rciiiainder  will  be  the  required 

I  iiixMuatJon.    To  correct  this,  add  together  the.  two 

^.  and  divide  (he  sum  liy  2,  for  their  mean.    From 

:.pr  temperature,  take  out  the  nitiiiber  under  this  mean. 

I'lcxiniate  height  jUbl  found  !>>'  this  ijunit>er. 

•■  water  wiJI  liuil  at  1°  less  of  teiii  pern  lure  for  an  average  of 

f  elevation  a Inive  sea-level,  up  to  B  height  of  ]^  a  mile.     At 

iiile,  1°  of  lioiliog  temperature  will  cnrrespono  to  about  SCO 

M,     In  the  tattle  the  mean  of    the   lemperaiures  at  the  two 

iiineii  to  be  JJi^F.,  at  which  no  correction  for  temperature 

aurj  ill  utiioK  the  table. 


Corrections  tor  TEicPKaAxuRE. 


leinp.  F.  in  shade.  0  !  I0°|  30=1  :«)°|  4I)»  1  50°  |  60'  I  TO"  |W)°    190°    f  \W 
S''LJiJL_  .0-«  I .!(54 ! .yrs 1 .9ll6|l.0l6ll. well. 0681 1.079!l.lO(ll|.l!'l|l.Ha 

ilatare  in  the  Atmosphere. — AtmoHpherlc  afr  aluays  contaiiu 
M  quiiuiity  or  piirljMiiicacid  gas  and  a  varying  quaotily  of  aqueoiia 
'.  I'ure  mountain  ntr  contains  about  3  to  -1  parts  of  curUoiiic  acid  In, 
A  properly  ventilated  room  tibould  eootalii  not  more  thun  six  purl 


no. 

ileeree  of  saturation  nr  relative  humidity  of  the  air  Ik  determined  hj 
teot  the  dry  and  wet  bulb  lli.-riiiorneter.  The  degree  of  salumlion  for 
iber  of  different  readings  of  the  thenuoriieier  in  given  in  (he  fiillo\vlii|i 

tlTDKUTIONS  or  THE   HVQROMKTKR  (DkY   AND   WkT   BhIjB),  FROM 

Mk.  Ri.AiaRER'B  Observations  at  Ubicenwich. 


t 


DUTereoce  of  Temperature  or  Degrees  of  Cold  In  the  Wet- 
bulb  Tlierinotueter. 


Wfilebta  of  Air,  Vapor  of  ITater,  and  Satarat«d  M 
or  Air  and  Vapor  at  Dlflereaf  Teinperalur**,  at 
tbe  Ordiuary  AtmoKplit-rlc  Prt-sKur*  of  99.M 
Indies  ol 'iilercury. 


?L 

MtxTCBES  or  Aia  BATi'iuTaB  «m  % 

1 

Weight  of  Cubic  Foot  of  the 

g^ 

ElUKtlc 

Force  of 
Che  Air  in 

Mixture  of  Air  and  Vapor, 

2S 

-M*^ 

^i-H 

Mixture 

! 

11 

ifaa 

If 

ofAirand 

Vapor, 
Inches  of 

Weight 

of  the 

Afr  lbs. 

Weight 
of  the 
Vapor, 

T.'lal    ' 

pa 
fix 

Mercury. 

pounds. 

' 

0" 

0864 

.044 

a.srr 

.0883 

.0OV.-.1 

i\^:m 

la 

.0SJ3 

.074 

Sg  849 

.0840 

.0- 

ti 

.UfS-l 

.iia 

89.808 

.0821 

.(>- 

S3 

.a«or 

.181 

«9.740 

.0808 

.0^.>^^,., 

42 

.Wfll 

.207 

29.0.'4 

.0784 

.000*40 

aS 

.inTB 

.388 

ao.fisa 

.0706 

.000027 

^«S 

.0701 

.558 

89.305 

.0747 

.00o«*i 

K?g 

.0747 

.785 

ao.rM 

.0727 

.0(1  ■ 

V>< 

.07:« 

l.OM 

«8.«a» 

.0706 

.Oij; 

»t2 

.07*0 

l.SOl 

a8.4'J0 

.0684 

.00:^..! 

loa 

.0707 

S!.036 

87.885 

.tK»9 

.ooa9»( 

.•imii 

119 

.(1004 

a73l 

27.100 

.(m\ 

.008JM4 

0«7Mt 

122 

.oflse 

3.6il 

30..%I0 

MM 

.003142 

.0«0N 

laa 

.0671 

4.754 

35.169 

.0564 

.00t!88» 

.o«mi 

142 

•oeiK) 

».166 

S3.7SS 

.0534 

.(XW473 

.OOWTS 

Ia3 

.0010 

7.M0 

2i.«ei 

.047? 

.uit»;i6 

102 

.0038 

10.099 

19. &S 

.04:23 

.OlMlft 

■OO^^I 

172 

.0(W8 

1<.7M 

17.  IM 

.0380 

.01068* 

.omI^I 

182 

.0618 

15.900 

13.901 

.ae8& 

.02063(1 

.04fliH 

102 

.001% 

19.8i8 

10.«» 

.0005 

.0a5l4« 

,04SMin 

S02 

.OOUO 

^4.450 

5.471 

.0109 

.080645 

'041401 

_S12 

.o:i9i 

W  931 

0.000 

.0000 

osoaso 

.osaan) 

Tlfe  w 

elglit  ill  1 

t)s.  of  th 

e  vapor  ir 

tlxtVI  with 

100  lbs.  of  putT!  kl 

given  te 

iiiperuiun 

i  auU  pn 

;.>isiire  is  g 

Iveu  by  the  (oriuula 

62.8  X 

«X»" 

■ 

where  K  s  elastic  force  of  tha  var>or  &t  the  given  temperalnr^H 

meruiiry;  p  =  abxoliile  pressure  In  inches  of  inerviiry,  s  Mi^H 

Spcclflc  lliiatof  Air  at  Con«tant  Volamt^  and  ai  ri 

Pre»»nre.— \'oluiiie  iif  1  lb.  of  air  at  3a*  K.  nnil  preisdureot  HTIta 
in,  =  J-'.3S7  cti.  ft.  =  B  ootnmD  1  »q.  (t.  ai-ea  y.  1S.38:  ft,  high.  RuMH 

ature  I*  r.  expands  it  j^,  or  to  13.411:3  ft.  bigh-A  riw  of  OiMi  fo 

Work  done  =  2116  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.  X  .02523  =  63.S7  foot^puUiiJa.  orfl 
O.06IM  beat  units. 

The  BfMiclflc  heat  of  air  at  con«t<int  pressure,  according  to  BM 
0.2  i"'  .  iiirludes  the  worlc  of  expansion,  or  .VOX  hrM  r  "" 

th'-  •  .    al  ocinritant  volume  =3  0.2875  -  .0688  =  a  168*. 

1( '  .iHc  hefti   at  constant  pressure  tc.  specific  licat  I 

Toliinie  =    '.■I,', -►  .ltW9  =  1..10<j,     (Si-.' ^Jp.-cili.-  I 

Plow  or  Air  tlironvta  OrlHcea.-Ti 
ptrteooDil  of  flow  Mf  any  fluid,   IkiuIiI.  or  u. 

'^igh  =  '  wbJoh  ft  =  the  "  head"  or  Uoulit  of  IlioJ 

|nlr*d  lite  prea&iiri)  of  tlie  Quid  at  Ui«  l«»«i  (^ 


•# 


f  flow  to  cuWc  twrt  V«»  *e««m&  \»  atcMKi 


FLOW   OP  AIR  IN   PIPES.  485 

I*  hf  the  arut  of  ih»  orifice,  in  square  Feet.  niultlpliLHl  \ty  a 
fl»n'."  nliicli  tnlies  inui  ntrrouiit  ilie  cmiinii'itun  ol'  ilic  vuiii 
nil,  Ihe  fri>'tioii  of  liin  orillcf ,  *>ic. 

JIB  llirodi;''  11'  "rlflee  or  tiliorl  liilte,  from  a  i-eKM-voir  ut  the 
.o  a  rfsrrvoir  of  Ihe  pressure Pj.  VVelsliudi  t;i>Hs  tin?  fulluw- 
the  c'<i«-fncieiit  of  flow, ohlaintd  fruui  Ijt.H  i'JC])f  liiiieiila. 

FlJ)W  OF  AlB  THHOIUU  xn  OhincE. 

Coefflcient  c  id  fomiiila  v  =  c  i  *;'<. 
I  Rftiinof  prt^siirespj-i-jj,  1.05    l.Oa     l.JS    l.Bn    1.89    S.IS 
"CVpefncient 5SS    .nS9     asc!    ,:*t    .;m    .7H8 

RBli()orpre«8ureg  1.05    l.tW    136     l.U"    SiU     .... 

Coefficieut !tt8     .S73    .031    .(i;8    .Tx-S.... 

Flow  np  Aia  TSiu>vaR  a  Suoat  Tube. 

(  Ratio  of  pressures  p,-i-j)j  1.05    110    1..30     

(Co*mcient 7:«)    .771    .830 .... 

u.  I  Ratio  of  pressures 1.41    1.69 

|i.  CCoefflcieiii 813    .ftS 

iRalioof  priasui^ ...1.34    l.SS    l.-W    l.fifi    S.U     .... 

i   fCoemoleut. »T9    .OBi;    .Otl.'.    .971     .978..., 

UATioNs  FOR  Flow  op  Am  from  a  Ukuksvoir  thhouoh  am 
MIFJCE.     ifeabody'a  TliBrmoilyiiamics  p.  IS-'i.) 

For  p,  >  8pa.     Q  =  0,880  F  - 


Pi  <3Pa.     G  -      .  ,,, 

■«  I 

f  Ihriiii^h  the  orlflce  In  lbs.  per  bpc,  F  =  nrca  of  orifltre  In  f^. 
lite  prvs.siire  in  reservoir  In  lljs.  per  fq.  In..  ;>«  —  prt-e»iire  of 
Pi  =  aliMilute  temperature,  Fahr..  of  olr  in  re»ei-voir. 
u  1  utiles,  and  Data,  p.  8B1 1  (Clven.  for  the  veVocitj  of  flow  of  air 
Iflce  due  to  small  difrcreneen  of  pressure, 


llfled,  

r  =  889  e i/  (l  +  .00803(<  -  sbV'; 

velocity  In  fept  per  woond ;  9;/  =  81.4;  h  =  height  of  the  column 
clies,  roensurin^  the  differenee  of  pre^wore;  i  =  the  tenipera- 
I  71  =  Imroinetric  pre^wun-  In  inclie."!  of  iiierciirj-.  "TH.ais  (lie 
I  itl"  i(ii<1er  a  prei-.ure  of  30.03  incli<w  of  niereury  when  tliat  of 
t)t  of  ■^ater  is  taken  iih  I. 

le  fonniilu  l)«-c<)nie8  V  =  HtBC  A/     ,  and  if  ji  =  39.9S  luche«F= 


of  rlltlix  f,  OCCurdltiK  to  WVisliacli,  is: 
nioolhplefe,  of  form   >if  ilie  uoutructei]  rein, 

lureit  of  from  33  10  I.l  aliiu*.|i|iei-es <7  =  .07  to  US 

»«  In  thin  pliiU-« C  =  .80  to  .V^J 

'eal  iuijiitli|ile>-es (^  =  .HI  to  ." 

tided  at  Ihe  inner  end Ti-    O8IO. 

(ting  inonthpieces  i;  ==  .no  to  ^ 

Air  In  Plpes.-Hawhaley  (Proc.  Inst.  C.  E^  xxxiU, 

foniiuta  for  (low  of  watei-  in  pipce  v  -  48  4/  —     may 

'or  flow  0/  air.    Ill  this  cane  II  -  height  In  fe«l<_ 
prodac«  the  fjresBure  cHuaing  (be  flow,  or  1)1^ 


AIR. 


for  •  gixen  flow;  t'  =  velocity  in  feet  per  aeoond,  D  =  liiiOnetrr  I 
lenKtli  III  feet. 

If  ibf  iifail   Is  «xpre«]ieit  lit  Indm  of  vratvr,  h.  the  ulr  belDC  t 
6'J*  F  ,  its  weight  per  cubic  {ont  at  ahiiaiipheric  prriwun'  =  .OTt'  " 

f^  =  «r^t^  .o  =  Bf-Sfc.    U  rf  =  diameter  in  liicben.  D  =  ~.  and  I 
becomes  it  =  IH  5 


eter  lu  inchc«  and  L 
The  quaotitj  in  cubic  feet  per  second  ia 


114 


_  g't 


Th"'  horse-power  required  to  drive  aJr  tliri>ii)(li  a  pipe  i«  t)M«  \ 
cubic  feet  per  second  inulliplled  l(jr  tiie  preswn-e  lit  iNuindK  |wr| 
and  divided  by  &S0.    Pre^wure  In  poundfi  per  square  foot  =  J*i 
wnter  column  x  5.I9S,  wlience  borso-power  = 


I 


I 


HP  =  91^ 

Qh     _ 

.     9'J^ 

H 

&S0         106  9        4t.Skt*'                          ^m 

If  Oie  bead  or  pressure  caiisinj;  the  flow  1.4  expresiml  in  |^>ouDd^^| 

inch  =  p,  then  h  =  ST.Tlp,  and  ihe  above  forniul»  become         H^B 

P    if/..=«^==.«i8^=.(«4ei^.        g 

ToIUin«  of  Air  Tranamllted  In  mbic  Fe^t  prr  11 

■ 

Plp«B  of  Various  Diaaieiera. 

■ 

For to^=  '',^^*«''<'  X  •»• 

I 

Actual  Diameter  of  Mi*  in  Iiiih«a. 

1 

"^H 

|l      1 

i      i 

4 

5 

e 

8 

10 

u 

le 

m 

I       .S«T 

1.81    S.«6 

a.-J4 

8.18 

11. 7H 

jO.IM 

»j.7a 

47.1a 

W.77 

MM 

s     .eu 

g.Oa  5.SB 

I0.4T 

16.3(1 

38.Mi 

41  a»   IB.4S 

94  25 

1«7& 

S^l 

8       .W» 

S.B3   8.fM 

157 

24.5 

35.3 

6J.fl 

l)6.< 

1(1.4 

S5I.8 

4      1.31 

5,84  11. TH 

aa.t 

ai.7 

47.1 

R3.8 

181 

188 

833 

aJ 

5     1.S4 

6.M  I4.T 

ws 

41 

»» 

104 

ll» 

as 

4t« 

al 

e     I.BS 

7.84  17.7 

81 ,4 

49.1 

70  7 

1J5 

IS« 

sn 

M*     W^M 

T    a.M 

f.I«  «D  0 

86.6 

67.-4 

8«.4 

146       *» 

880 

m   H 

"J     8.6* 

105    «3.5 

41. D 

6.V4 

M 

167      IflW 

877 

«70     I^H 

•     8.H 

nlB8B.S 

47 

73 

106 

INH       )H>t 

494 

m    ^H 

10    |S.«7 

111    «.4 

8J 

88 

118 

«»       3117 

471 

MH     ^1 

1*     AM 

13.7    83.S 

«8 

»8 

141 

I!S1       8U3 

Mia 

1006     ^H 

l»     *.»t 

lU.e    44  !t 

78 

142 

177 

314      401 

707 

lat    ^H 

18    n.m 

n5  Im 

IM 

H7 

BIS! 

377       S8» 

848 

,«     8" 

.«  ..     „r, 

lOS 

164 

ins 

419       6M 

V» 

Mi^^^^^l 

-1    : 

138 

IW 

»8 

«W       -IH^ 

list 

S^^^^^^^^^H 

h 

181 

104 

(M 

aes       818 

1178 

j^^^^^^H 

rt^ 

148      .8S9 

W 

S«       1l\6 

iai« 

j^^^^^^H 

•VI     'Mb     \S5»    \««     Wll     \<\^    val^ 

^^H 

1 

1 

FLOW  OP  Atk  IN  PIPES.  48/ 

nln  iiDi)  its  derivallrrs  the  iiiiiiierJcal  cnrltldrnlB  are 
ly  jiossiMe,  liovvf  V(>r.  Dint  Dii-y  onn  lit-  sociirale  ••Ji'<'|>l 
e  of  i.-.>ii<]ltinnE.  In  Ihr  cow  of  wnti-r  it  in  found  that 
"lion,  on  nhU'li  (lie  1o«h  uf  liend  ilfpt'ndK.  rBiies  niili  llm 
leler  of  the  f'ipv,  and  with  tiie  velocilj'.  hk  well  ax  with  th« 
Ui  interior  surface.  In  tb«  uas«  of  air  and  oilier  f^AM^  wt^ 
DO,  the  decreas«f  in  density  and  coiihconpiil  incrpnsp  In  voliiiiie 
due  to  the  pitJKreesive  kiss  o(  bead  ironi  one  end  of  I  he  pipe 

that  according  loJ  lie  expHriiiieut^  of  U'AiibumHonand  tliiiiteoC 
•ninlflsion  on  the  renititancR  of  air  throuKh  lonir  condiiltH  nr 
iiution  of  pr(>88un?  is  Tery  uearly  direclly  a»  ihf  U*iif^)i,  and 
(  tlia  velocity  and  inversely  oa  the  diameier.  The  re^ixianrp 
r  the  density. 

omenta  are  correct,  then  the  forinula3A  =  —3^    atid  li  =  ^  ' 

rativps  are  correct  in  form,  and  they  may  be  used  nheii  ibe 
Bcients  c  and  c'  are  obtained  by  experiment. 
i  fomis  of  the ahoire  fonntdii!  us  ooirecl.  and  let  C  be  a  vari- 
la  dependiofr  upon  tbe  IvtiKlti.  diameter,  and  cindltioii  of  Mir- 
p«'.  and  posslblj-  al«o  ujwn  Ilie  I'elocity,  the  leni|ieiaiure  and 
be  determined  by  fijtnie  fipirimeiils.  then  for  A  =  head  in 
r.  d  =  (liHMieter  in  inches,  i,  =  lencih  in  feet,  v  =  velocity  in 
■  Q  «=  quantity  In  cubit'  feel  per  second: 


Lv*  ,       Lifl 


'■V 


of  preiBture  jj  In  pounds  per  square  inch, 

si  -  6.2M  l^Ji; 


d» 


87.7]  C»p'  '        •,>r.71C<i' 

Cp    '        '*"     C*d*   ' 


¥ 


of  air,  see  Mine  Ventilation.) 

unccM  per  Square  Inch.— B.  F.  8turt»> 

tug  furuiiiltti  : 


_    VJgiOUOffp,  ,    _,  Li<» 


i'.WOO/), 


lo«s  of  prefwure  In  ounces  per  xquare  Inch,  r  =  relnclty  of  «lr 
tMid,  and  L  =  len^di  of  pipeJn  feel.  If  ji  l»  talct'D  In  |Mitin<lit 
It,  IheKe  formulee  rtNluce  to 

d  h  p 

1 1-1 
iced  from  the  commoD  formiila  (Welsboch's).  jizzf-^z^, 

1808. 

K  table  is  condensed  from  one  given  in  tlie  ciitaloicue  of  B^ 

lipany. 

lure  In  pipes  100  feel  long,  in  ounces  per  square  { 

Ita,  the  iow  la  proportJoooJ  to  tJie  iengto. 


I 


AIB. 


li 

13 

>• 

Diameter  of  Pipe  In  Inches. 

n 

1 

S 

s 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

« 

'«" 

! 

Los8  of  Freeaure  in  Ouucea, 

1 

1 

m 

iOa 

.800 

.133 

.100 

.OHO      ,067|   .-a'i7      OSO 

044 

4 

1 

nui 

l.BIKt 

.BOO 

.MS 

.400 

.aaffl      .a07l  .2i»    .SWii 

.178 

41 

IMM) 

3.6UU 

I.BOO 

i.aw 

.90(1 

.TSO      .600;   .614     .4S0 

400 

*m 

240) 

IK4U0 

a.aoci 

s.isa 

l.GOO 

l.SSO    I.0«7|   .»I4    .800 

.711 

.isn 

;iui»  111. 

3..i;j3 

2.6 

3.       ,  1.067  1   4>»l.e50 

Mil 

i.ouii  .( 

aiiOOM4.-i 

T.8 

4.8 

3  6 

2.88     3.4     '2.1t57|l.8 

l.« 

I   41     1  f 

«wo 

n.s 

6.. 553 

4.9 

S.92     a  287  a  8     \i  15 

■i  i:< 

49^ 



I;i.8 

8..Wil  0.4 

8.12     4.-.'G7  3.i;57|a.2 

i.Hii 

m 

... 

ao. 

13. -m  10.0 

fi.o     6.0fi7.^.7I4^.lI 

4  41' 

Diaiiieler  of  Pip«  in  Incliiw. 

14 

16 

18 

SO 

ast 

M 

SS 

ft! 

as 

«0 

i 

Lnss  of  Pressure  ii>  OiinctM. 

fifK) 

.0S» 

.080      .OM 

.030 

.018      .017    .014 

.ots 

oti 

.mo'  ( 

18O0 

■  lU 

.101)     .o«a 

.080 

.07S      .0117    .057 

.06(1 

oil 

lflO(l 

.117 

.?25      .200 

.1*1 

iiH    .lao  .i«) 

.11 J 

.H" 

S44)(l 

.iW 

.400      .-JM 

.»» 

.291      .967     .230 

.300 

.i:-^ 

mm 

1  ff.".l 

.Hoo    .mo 

.7tf» 

.l»5      .GOO    .fiU 

.4ft(l 

.401) 

!'.>' 

4-,'<»li 

1 .41)11 

1.325 

i.oai 

.USII 

.Mtl       .8171    .700 

.61'.; 

•Ml 

.V" 

4Mno 

I.HS 

l.flOO 

i.-ia.' 

l.-iHtl 

1.1(14    1.0U7    .914 

.rtm 

,711 

lillf 

fiOOO 

2.857 

a.54X) 

2.r.'i> 

2.000 

l.'<lSi:  1.667  1.421) 

i.iM 

1    111 

l.lHIO      1 

I 


BOect  of  Bends  In,  Pipes.    iNorwollc  Iron  Work*  Co. 

Kaiiius  of  •■lliKU  .  in  iliiiiii>'t(.'r  of  ivi|ii' =  n      8       a      ll*     lU      1 
Eijniviilt-iil  IvrtliR  of»lim>lil  iiipe,  diains 7.85 8.24 9.03  10  A;  t : Ti  17.SU 

Coiuprnitsed'air   Trananilsalon.    iFrank  Ri.JMr  u    4m. 
Mnrcti  »,  l^'.H  I— Till*  vohiiiie  ot  free  air  ii'tiiisinll.iH>l 
ilinictlv  as  tliB  niuiitxT  of  atitii»i)l)ori»s  lu  wlilcli   ; 
Thus,  I'f  theair-trHiisHiitt^d  lie  at  75  pounds  eauci--; 
phere*!,  the  irolame  of  frp«<  nir  will  l>e  si.v  tiiiie»  «l 
table(uai;e  486).    It  Is  generally  conslJere'l  Ihai  for  •■ 
the  velwlly  in  main  pipe*  slioiild  not  exceeil  'Ji)  f- 
Ktnnller  distributing:  pipes  Hie  velocliv  jilmiiM  i  - 

Tlie  losaof  pownr  In  the  transmission  of  cm 
n  8fi1ous  oni',  or  at  all  to  tn^  couiparwl  with  tli' 
tioii  ot  ooinpre-ssiiin  niitl  in  the  ifuxpan.<^i«ii 

The  formulas  for  lo.as  by  friction  are  all  ini- 
of  observed  facts  in  tliis  line  are  in  a  more  or  . 

OTldently  unreliable. 

A  Btntvinetii  of  the  friction  of  air  flowing  thronsh  a  plja 
aU  tlif  r.II'.vviiij.-  r;i.  tnrs;  Unit  of  tiiii.\  \oliniie  "f  nlr.  pr.- 


PLOW   OF   COMPRESSED    AIR    IN    PIPES. 


HT  or   Additional    PrettMure    lu    puiiiidH    |»er   cmj 
^Nalrvd  to  deliver  Air  at    75  Pounds   (iBUKC-pre««ttre 
HkrviiKh    Plpea    of   Varlou*   Sizes    and    I.pnt^ha.     (Fi'uuli 

'Tlitliilua.; 


] 

ire 
luk 

t 


1"  PlPiS- 


4"  Pipe. 


Length  III  fe<-r.. 


90    I    100        300        500      1,000 


Itita  of  pre 
iii  .J9 
.SMI  I.Oo-.; 
D  985  7.85 
X.SSMlT.Cfl 


iwure,  Ihrt.  i> 


1.4' 
.'i.tstW 


a.+r» 

9  81 


a}.  IE 

'9.9 


3)4"  Pip». 


500 

TiO 

1.000 

1.500 


Length  in  feet. 


300       300       400      1,000 1 8,000 


Loss 
.16 
.30 
.64 

1. 

1.4* 


of  pit" 

.■M 
.54 

1.5 
a.  10 


Ksure. 
.4 

.S 
1  li 
i.h 
3.0 


IbB.p.  sq.  iu. 


1.8 


i.e 

8.S 
6.4 

10. 

14 


I      .«6 

.lie     .336 

.Mil 

)      .2M 

.4I«    1.H5 

2.S4 

(      .MT 

1.7B      5.38 

8.97 

1  eft! 

S.»l    IS.  11 

i    3.&0 

7.18    

1  l-i 

4.49 


8"  Pipe. 


S  ;o«8 

i    .ei« 


1^^"  FlPK. 


.0:il 
.11- 
..VW 
1.23 

2.19 


1U3|     .li) 

.411       .OH.'. 

1  64  I  2.74 

g  69      C.Kl 

6.57    10. IW 


.31 
1.3' 

.'■.4H 


500 

1.000 

5m 

,11 

•w 

I.OOU 

.44 

.881 

1.500 

,W 

I.U8 

S,000 

1,70 

3.52 

2,500 

«  75 

6.5 

.41  .88 
1.76  I  3.53 
3.80  7.92 
7.04  114.08 

1.       I 


1.1 
4.4 

9.8 


6"  PlPB. 


I 


.019 

.Or« 

.114 

.10 

.078 

.I.'fi 

.457 

.761 

.171 

.818 

1.03 

1.71 

.401 

.61)9 

I.H.1 

3  04 

.476 

.«sa 

tM 

4.76 

886 

I.«7      4.11 

6.85 

1 .6-.' 
3   1 
tj  CW 
9  .'il 
l.'J.7J 


aw  1,000 


I..VX1 

:>..V10 
S.lKXI 


.TDM 
1.417, 

3  18  I 


1.000  I -1.000    4,000    5,000    10, 


.708    1.48 
l.SBD    3. -J 
3.8:1     S.li7 
4.44      8.89 
6.37  lis. 7 


1  77 
S.WI 
7.011 
11  1 
15.9 


^0^ 


3.64 

7.99 
14.17 


8"  PlPK. 


mnu 

05 

.ORB; 

.160 

rm 

.8 

m 

.666 

•a 

.45 

.75 

1  5 

.m 

.8 

t.» 

■iM 

.ess 

1  Jfl 

■1  m 

4.1(1 

I  a.i« 


Pip«_ 

.•■!(«, 

1.87 

J.X3 

,  6  -i 


.4161     .m 

1.06  I     S.-'J2 

8.75  I     7.4W 

6.66  I  18. .1 
10,4       40.8 


gh  Mr.  BJcbarrfd  rfo«i  no^  ^r/rp  flii.v  forrmila  ' 
oflttbofrt  tbKl  tor  any  givea  dJanier«r  tH 


WIKD. 


■re  In  Compreased  Air  Pipe-main,  at 
St.  «otb«rd  Tuanrl. 


1 

1 

lE.  Stockalper 

•1 

lb 

^1 

ii 

5^ 

Observed  Pre«suie«. 

■r 

V^^w 

w    1 

VrIuo 

If 

i 

■5 » 

1! 

1 1 

£2      hi 

Loss  of 
Pressurti. 

of  r' 
lu  fur- 
niulii 

Bt 

III 

T,S 

=  » 

f-sE  !•= 

Q-L 

Ui 

■S"S3 

•5  — 

£.Sa.,   !^S 

e-W 

> 

s 

tt 

P. 

t     1  o: 

. 

lbs. 

\. 

en.  ft 

den. 

Ills. 

feet. 

at 

at. 

per 
isq.m. 

% 

H 

8,584 

nofwi 

S.6C«I 

19.32 

5.C0 

D.a.1 

5.i.'B-J 

6.4 

610 

r.063 

.O0CO:j 

StifiO 

37.14 

5.24 

B.OO 

S.r.JK 

4.B 

riLs 

»] 

bSM 

.(10514 

I.T76 

l(i..K» 

4.83 

4.13 

8.aa4 

6.1 

5ia 

6.868 

.oo<6a 

I.TTB 

4.13 

... 

H 

5.362 

.(nMi^ 

1.4K3 

lS..-i8 

».8) 

3.U5 

!  T9:! 

50 

4m 

5.300 

.oiMsa 

1.46--) 

39.34 

S.1% 

3.54 

l.SIT 

3.0 

4-.'? 

f  the  pipe  7.6<  in  dluraeter  was  ]5,092  ft.,  ami  of  the  sinaller 
The  mean  teniperaiure  of  the  air  in  the  lurire  pipe  was  TO*  F. 
|i  pipe  80°  K. 

WIND. 

the  Wind.— Snieatoii  in  1759  puWishwl  n  table  of  the 
"^wmre  of  wind,  as  fnllowa: 

y  JLXD  Foacg  or  Wiyp,  ik  Fodsdb  psa  SqcAHn  Inch. 


J's'Cointiion    Appella- 
r  g  I        lion  of  the 
jfg^j    Foi-oo  of  Wind . 


npj'  I  Hardly  pt-rcpptl- 
I '(     ble. 

Mil  I"  ■'"*'  perceptjljle 
!0TB 

L]'i3  I  Oentle  pleasant 
L1T7  f    wlud. 


Flaasani  brisk 
galo. 


piT  aqtiBTA  foot  in  tlie  above  tahle  corrmfion<1   to 
&.■".  ill  wliich  y  is  the  velocity  in  miles  per  lioiir.     Kttg'^ 
tia^a  ihttl   the  formula  was  never  well  itilablWiMi,  » 
Oil  Siiirjti..ii'K  iinnie  nuii  ftir  Ifti'it  of  u  bftltr.     It  wai)  1 
use   ill   uindniill   prttctk-f     Tli»    li-en<l 
iToilnittli-ly  ooneol  only  for  .mii.|i  sui^k 
^  ..  s  it  often  gives  greatly  loo  Uu'tie  resu 

'  0UieL»  uru  liMk  uoui  pared  witli  Siueatou'i 

I  formula 

'  by  I'rof,  Mania 

Wblpple  aud  Vtaeg 


18,  14^ 

(be  fqosre  of  the 


s  per  koor  thne  f«(MBlBB  K>>«  for  Ik*  v*cw« 

ML44  fta..  ntpaeOwtitr,  Ike  pmiwii   varriac  ->- 

or  the  TdocttT.    UeoL  OrntT's  m»i  rimatl  I 

Um.  cUimliur  to  pn>re  that  P  =  /T  Immrmi  i>r  P  =  fV*.  I 


A- B.  WcW  (Tlie  WiadmiQ  M  •  Pnne  Motcr.  p.  •) 

3 


prepare  per  tq.  ft.  of  snifMX.  i>  =  ^^zr,  in  vbkb  d  =  dea^r 


per  en.  ft.  = 


■OlOTOp  -T  F1 . 


pbeiuir  Uie  liaiiiitiUfci 


foot  at  aoy  lerpl,  and  tempawttm  of  K*  P..  (  ao;-  absali 
Q  =  voluiiie  of  air  carried  titmg  per  aqnaK  foot  in  one  aoca 

of  the  wind  in  feet  per  sec,  7  ^  SllS.    Since  Q  =  r  ea  fi.  ] 

Uultipljini;  this  bj  a  coeAcieiit  0.9S  foood  bjr  exprrioaeBt. 


the  alioTe  ralae  of  d.  he  obtains  P  = 


0017ISI  y  p 


t  X33  16 


-  .oisra 


=  fllSJS  Iba. 
as 

p— ?!!__ 

fxW.16 


sq  ft.  or  aTerage  atmoqilieile  piiamn  1 
- ,  an  ezpresaioD  in  which  the 


C18T« 


wii 

I; 


with  the  temperature:  and  he  (rtvea  a  table  abnwtn?  th»  r 

vekieitjr  and  preaaurc  for  t«nip«-ratur««  from  V 

from  1  to  90  mtleti  per  hi>ur.    For  a  tt-mperature  < 

with  tboaein  Snieaton  s  tabit-,  fr>rO*  F.  they  are 

and  for  100*  10  pt-r  Lfmt  le««.     IVof    n.  Allrti  Hj«i»-ii.  tii 

18B0,  sarK  Ibat  •;xperiin«o(8  with  n-hirlin^  ann* .  bj 

wind,  and  on  loconiotlv«i  with  celociiies  ninniup  i!f%  5* 

re  invariably  shown   the   n^stance  tir   ■  -,  •-        •    "' 

=  .OOSSV,  in  which  F  -  nresnure  in  |K"r 
Telocity  in  rnik^  per  hour.  ih^  d-xii- 

le  acciimcy  of  the  first  two  fnf  -.f^-urM  ni^-ncer 

«  flrgt  factor  haa  been  vario  m.'d  fruni  OKI  to 

tennliied  as  low  as  .0014  —  h:!:  n). 

The  second  factor  has  been  diinM  lu  s-nn*  eip  ■' 
whirlinKanni  and  low  vel>>ciiie<  to  vary  wlih  ti  - 
but  this  entirely  di»a|?pears  wilh  lonjrer  sriiiv  •  - 
the  only  question  im>w  to  be  delerniitieii  i»  t)      -  <ii 

bapft  Home  of  the  be*t  ex|<erimenl«  for  del'-  i« 

France  In  18<36  hy  carrj-ine  Oat  lioardi;  on  i' ..  U 

"da  caee  was,  for  44.5  miles  per  hour,  J)  =   i^'/>  31  •.  J 

Mr.  Croaby^s  whirling  experiments  were  matle  uith  an  m 

Is  certain  that  mrwt  serious  effecf  from  rentrifncal  aclM 


,1  by  iislnir  such  a  fibort  arm,  and  rr 
fins  les«  than  UO  or  30  ft   Iitr  at  vei 
T*rof.  Kernol.df  >IellK)iirDef£rii(;/^'  - 
Bf>eriment«  at  llie  I-'r.rih  Bridge  ?hfi\'vi  •hhl    h  • 
'  »a  Isrue  as  railway  ciirriftKes.  hoife-s,  or  tn 
biids  "f  that  Mpon  Kiniill  surfaLi.-s  (if  '■uv  ur  l»i 
tat  oiiHerraiorief^Hnd  iilKothat  an  inerti.* 
pked.  may  cinise  some  furins  nf  anemoti  ' 
llRly  exeeediiiL'  the  uorreet   inttieaiion      > 
'showed  that  the  pre^tHJre  f-nrie<l  dir"'"'-   ■ 
•  early  InvenliKntoiv.  frciiii  the  iinie  nf  Sn 
tK]unre  of  ihe   velo  ity.     Ex  peri  mem - 
|l,(,  rr,,Mi   1  1..  1',  i.,ii^«  j,p|.  liniir  Bkrree>l  .i .... 
\ 's  results.   The  pre'^Knii 
1 1'  I  like  an  oidinari  earrii< 


t 


bxOK  of  I  w>  plaie-l£inWr&  r> 
irtiv-  V  «->f  the  i>ii*.««re  ou 
(dlalaticr  bet  wren  lU«-«Vi.'.. , 


w 


^ 


WINDMILLS.  495 


kli  A  1utll<-e  work  Id  whicb  (be  ares  of  the  opeolugs  vtm;  SSK 
r  ureof  M0;(  of  timt  upon  a  tilufe  of  the 

I  h-rs  atjil  coDcs  was  proven  tti  be  rtiiiiil 

•  .  and  that  ii|ion  nn  iicLnK"'><>l  P>''Ki»  (o 

Ih.iij  upuii  tiu*  I'lruimi'^cribinj^  cyllinler.  A  sphtre  w ok  Kui>- 
gif  of  36  <if  thai  iipnn  u  thin  circiiUr  plat«  of  fijuul  iliuiiirlcr. 
alcupKUvu  ibe  same  I'CiiuU  aa  the  Hphcrc;  whi'ni(>i  c<iiicaviiy 
the  wind  the  presKure  was  1.15  of  thni  on  a  flat  plate  of  eqii«l 
len  a  plane  siuriace  parallel  to  the  diri^lion  of  the  wliul  was 
■ioto  contact  with  a  cylinder  or  sphere,  the  pressure  on  tha 
k*  aa|[meiited  by  about  'Mil.  owini^  to  the  lateral  escape  of  the 
ted.  ^UB  it  i«  possible  for  the  sefurit3'  of  a  tower  or  chimney 
by  the  erection  of  n  Imiltiint;  nearly  loni-hinp  it  on  one  side. 
of  Wind  Reg^latcred  In  Storma.-  Mr.  Frizell  has 
Wblished  record--ol  ijreeiiwich  OijKeriaiory  from  1849 1>«  1860, 
at  the  bitirhest  presesiire  of  wind  lie  (iudN  recorded  Is'll  lli!<. 
there  are  numeroiii;  instances  in  whirh  it  wns  l^etweeii  SOand 
It.  Prof.  Henry  say*  that  on  Mount  Wa.shlnKtoii.  N.  H.,  a  ve- 
tiles  per  hour  hnn  been  observed,  and  at  Sew  York  City  00 
and  that  the  hig;hest  winds  oliserved  in  1870  were  of  TS  and  03 
respeclively. 

lody,  U.  8.  A.,  says,  In  substance,  that  the  New  ED^Iand  coast 
brmB  wbich  produce  a  pressure  of  ao  lbs,  per  ekj.  ft.  Eiigi- 
^.mf.  80,  18811. 

WINDtniLIiS. 

d  Efficiency  of  WlndmlllK.— Ranklne,  8.  E.,  p.  SIR. 
rinp:  Let  Q  —  volnnie  I'f  «ir  which  acts  oo  the  gall,  or  part 
4niu  feet  per  second,  v  =  velocity  of  the  wind'  lu  feet  per 
ctionaJ  area  of  the  cylinder,  or  annular  cylinder  of  wind, 
the  sail,  or  part  of  the  sail,  sweeps  in  one  revolniion.  c  =  a 
\  fiiDod  by  experience;  then  Q  =  cv».  Ranklne,  fi-oni  exiHjri- 
ren  by  8iiieat(ni,  and  fiiklnj;  r  to  include  an  allowani.e  for 
lur  a  wheel  with  four  sails,  proportioned  (n  the  bent  manner, 
I  =  weather  nnple  of  the  sail  at  any  rii.mnnce  from  the  axis, 
the  portion  of  tlie  sail  ounsidereJ  iuuke»  witli  its  plane  of 
lis  aoKle  Ki-adoally  dindnlsln-K  fiorn  i he  Inner  end  of  the  Ball 
the  velocity  of  the  f^nie  purtiou  of  the  sail,  and  £  =  the  efll- 
Hciency  in  ibe  ratio  of  the  useful  work  perfonned  lo  whole 
Ktreaiii  nt  wind  actiog  on  the  surface  a  of  the  wheel,  whicb 

V  being  tbe  weight  of  a  cubicfoot  of  air,    Kanktne'a  formtila 


^=o|^ainSJ-^(l_co,a.4+/)-/)}, 

*a 

ih  and  /  is  a  coefficient  of  frlcllau  found  from  Suieaton'l 
lankine  gives  tbe  following  from  UmeAton'g  data: 

lather-BMgle =  T»  19"  19* 

llo  of  speed  of  Kreatesl  elll- 


1 


4 


ciency,  for  a  given  weather- 
angle,  to  that  of  the  wind ==2.63  \.e&  I.4I 

Soieucy =0,24  0.20  0.81 

I  the  following  as  the  best  values  for  the  angle  ol  weather  at 
res  from  tlie  axis: 

Bixtlis  of  total  radius.  .1         S        3         4         5         S 
ele 18'      19"      18°      16»      Vi%' 

liS)  shows  that  Smeaton  did  not  term  these  the  IjestangU 
)  tliey  "  answer  as  well  as  any,"  possibly  any  that  were  in  f 
me.     WuItT  says  that  ihi-y  '•  cannot  in  the  iiBlvtre  ot  VW'bVI 
gJmhje  angrlea."  .WiK/zeiitatical  consiUerationa,  heMk5S,<io<^ 


bat  the  nnkle  of  iiDpiiLntf  depends  on  the  re\a.Uve  Nd'^\V 


.  I     :. J.— n-^-.^Kiarger  asVV^ 

I  s  angles  do  not  fultir  tlils  coDdlUou.    " 


w 


r>oo 


A  IB. 


8.  The  (Treat  cold  wliich  rcvnilts  when  air  expands  npiln-rt 
forliidK  expaniiive  workiuR,  wliicli  is  eqiiivaleilt  lo  -  '    'I 

zaii'in  of  a  high  cleKrpe  of  efficiency  hi  ihp  U!«e  of  c-. 

4.  Kiiolion  uf  the  nir  in  ihe  jiipf'S.  U-akfi^o.  (1e«<l  -\ 
ffi't^il  by  Ihf.  vBlven,  InsiinU'ieiie.v  of  valvtJ-nivB.  inriii.r 
Kloreiily  nlieiiilaiiL-o.  niP  pII  inore  or  less  serious  cnnsii" 

The  tii>t  •.'aiiH*' of  loss  nf  woi-li,  namely,  the  heat  devul 
nion.  iseiilhely  unavoiilahle.  The  whole  of  the  iiirohai 
the  cnriiiirensoViilston  i<|M?n(ls  upon  the  air  is  convert  e<1  ll 
is  dtoiputeil  l>y  oondui'tloii  am)  ra<liation,  and  itH  inerhl 
work  lost.  The  compressed  air,  liavliiffapaiii  reaclnMl  thel 
with  the  surrounding  ntmogphere,  expands  and  doe«  work  ii 
intrinsic  crioi'Bj-. 

The  intrinsic  eueipy  of  a  lluld  is  the  energy  which  It  h>  co 
InK  a);aiiisl  a,  piston  In  chnn^iiif;  from  a  );iven  Ktnte  as  lo  tei 
ToUnne,  to  a  tntal  privation  of  hent  and  indertnlte  exjwii!i|i>Q 

VuliiiiiRN,  ]TIe»u  PrcNKures  per  Stroke,  Teniperat 
ill  tlip  UperMltuii  of  AIr-vouipr«itaioii  n-oni  I  A( 
aud  UU'  li'abr.    vl'"-  Kivhards.  .-1j/i.  Mad,..  Uiirch  M,  \tar 


< 

j 

^1 

^5 

'■5 

3  1 

=  "-  ? 

cull » 

11 

s 

=  1 
d 

e 

i 

i 

a. 

A  al  A     '  t 

or'  «  ll 

a 

< 
i 
1 

8 
1 

> 

S 

H 

1 

5 

>•;>    is" 

1 

4 
I 

5 

6 

7 

s 

»|-   tj 

0 

0 

11 

00' 

8*1 

«.i:" 

1 

i.fleH 

.flStW 

.95 

.06 

.075 

71 

M   «  ■ 

8 

1 .  lac. 

.H803 

.01 

l.HT 

1.91 

W.I 

BO   7   I 

3 

l.Wt 

.mv< 

.K76 

a.ra 

•i  R 

ss.w 

OS   7.1 

1        w^ 

i 

l.WS 

.THOl 

.01 

8.S3 

«  67 

1* 

KW    7.- 

5 

i.m 

r^oj 

.«! 

4.3 

4  5 

IlKl 

MV,    8 

1(1 

1  UH 

.KKii 

.tut 

7.IS2 

8.27 

145 

no'  Hi 

15 

-'.(W 

.toe 

.im 

lO.S'ni.M 

178 

115    »<  -^ 

'!  J^H 

SO 

■1.36 

.4437 

.&ts 

14.t;-.'Mt.4 

807 

ISO    fl 

'iT^^H 

as 

i.1 

.8703 

.494 

14.Bflh7.0l 

'.•S4 

,...    .. 

ai 

S.Ol 

.tJStt 

.45.18 

1(1. .14  l'.l.4 

•jr,-.' 

i 

'.K> 

.i.."lMl 

.2957 

.43 

17.92'v'l.(l 

■M 

; 

to 

a. Til 

.•J«87t.)i»3 

l!».3a;3:t.tW 

.SO-,' 

in;  !■■. 

'^T^^H 

t."i 

I.WJI 

.attiv 

.s- 

20.57hj.'i.Sft 

■131 

145  10- 

:>o 

i.lOl 

.HT-i 

.;!.*i 

31.(5Il|i7.3il 

M» 

1.50  11 

Bli 

1.741 

.S!09 

331 

M.7Gi.'».ll 

.V.7 

IrtOll 

vi^H 

fit) 

3. OKI 

.iik;m 

.sut 

a3.7HW.T5 

1(7.5 

170  IS  : 

6S 

9.4S9 

.I»44 

.iXIl 

81  75';B,S4 

«,«« 

IH0I8  V, 

•9^^^l 

TO 

».7<H 

.ITS.-. 

1W8 

M.07S3.M 

405 

ll»  18.1*:. 

.V.  i-^ 

•  M-^ 

;^ 

0.102 

.1030 

.9719 

M.ftKse.ar 

la) 

IXM  14.61 

!oteo 

"•™ 

Coliiniii  S  Klves  tlie  roluuie  of  nIr  after  eotiipression  to  the  | 
and  afl**r  It  in  cofih**!  lo  lis  Initial  temperature.     After  cninpr 
Its  h--'  • —  .  -,..;  n..  ^,|j  this  column  may  he  taken  to  repnt> 
of  -^.-lioii  available  for  the  purpoM  fortrb 

!)►•. 

I   ■  ■■ K v<iliime  of  air  more  nearly  a»  tiie  i 

ileal  with  It.     in  any  eoiiipreK.<ior  the  air  Will  hew  8«.ini«] 
ciimprvKslon      The  slower  the  ronipre^Kor  liin<  the 
'  volume. 

liie  tnenii  elTi- 
>  stroke  of 

lltvmperait.i.      ..,,.,.,,;..   ,,„, 
'  to  l)«  k«pl,  itt  xV«<«  \n  cc>iKvmn\cal  1 


COMPRESSED   AIR. 


JOl 


I  tlip  m«"(iii  ffTecH»e  reHiitanoe  to  be  overcome  by  tliejiln- 

•MvciMjliiiR  of  the  air.    Thf  actual  nirnn  vttrv 

lit  Ii'sstliaii  ns  given  in  MiiH  coliintii:  but  fur 

:  i"t\jiilr*^ft  for  C(l>ei'utin(^uir-coini)r>-s.snr  cylinders 

-J  ituH  uuliiiiiii  niny  h«  taliuii  and  acerlain  percentage  iirliled— 

fct — and  the  result  will  represenl  verj- cl<>s>*ly  the  pt>«er  rcqiiirej 

ressor. 

[pressures  given  Iwine  for  coinpresaion  (runi  one  alnuwphere 
7  wiU  not  be  correct  for  computations  in  L'ani|>nnn(l  cotnpreHKluu 
Jieriniiiul  pressure. 

le  to  Kxresn  or  Preasure  eaiiMcd  by  Heallne  In 
inprei»»loil-C'>'Illl«lcr,— It  Hit-  air  ilnrinK  riini|irt^-iiin  wme 
cnnsiaiit  lempt-rntun/.  tlin  coinpression-curve  of  an  iiiilii-at<ir-<lia 
en  from  tbe  cs'liniler  iviniUi  be  an  Isollierrnal  curve,  and  would  fol- 
l«vr  o(  Bofle  and  Uarrtotte^  yv  =  a,  constant,  or  p,v,  =  j>gt'o  .  or 

',  pt  aod  I'o  beinf;  the  pressure  and  volume  at  the  beginning  of 

lion,  ond  PiV,  the  pressure  and  volume  at  the  end,  or  at  any  Inter- 
line. But  as  tile  air  is  iie^ied  dnriug  lompressioii  the  pressure 
futei'  tlmn  I  lie  volume  decreases,  cans. ng  Ibeworlt  required  for 
I  preisure  to  be  liioreaseil.  If  none  of  the  heat  were  Bl).sli'B(;tP<l 
too  or  by  iujection  oC  water,  the  curve  of  the  diagram  would  be  an 

curve,  with  the  equation  J),  =  ;io(-p^  Cooling  the  »irdur-^ 

■ion.  or  e-iuipi-esusine  it  in  two  cyliinlers,  called  conipoimding, 
tile  air  a«it  passes  from  oorejlmder  tii  tlje  other,  reduces  the 
f  tl)K  eipmlioii,  and  reiUu**  the  quanlity  of  work  necessary  to 
1  -toil.    t\T.  (ittuse  (.-l«i.  Jfr/r/...  Oct.  20,  IStl'J),  desiMlh. 

•  •  H)pp  air  C'-«nipre.-i8i)rs  in  Paris,  say P  :  The  greatest 
.  iTeKsing  hi  u  aiucle  cylinder  wcus  33  per  cent  of  that 
'  pK^siiin-.  in  cards  taken  from  the  'iOlW  H.P.  ccnnpouiid  coni- 
nai  De  I>n  rime.  I'aris.  the  saving  r  ealixed  is  85  per  cent  of  the 

DOiint.  Of  ihisamoutit  onl,y  8  per  cent  isi  due  to  cooling  dur- 
lion,  so  that  the  increase  of  econoniy  in  the  compound  com- 
»inly  due  to  cooling  the  air  tietweeu  ihe  two  Ktoges  of  compres- 
|preaa!un-.--urve  with  exponent  1.J3  is  Ihe  tx'st  result  that  iva* 
compression  in  a  sln^'le  cylinder  mid  ccK^IIng  with  a  very  fino 
li-urve  With  exponent  l.i.'i  is  that  which  mu.st  be  realized  in  a 
ler  U3  equal  the  pi-esent  economy  of  tbe  compounii  comj)i*es>sor 

lOare. 

Wer      required     to  Horse-poTrer      rcqnirrd      to 


mnd    deliver  one 
^ot    of   Free  Air  p.i 

t;i*i;'M  ptcs>iiro  with  no 
iiiiiig  tiie  com- 
•  ii'Sf-]iowei'  re- 
uir  ti'  boumin- 
loiinLiiK     temperature 
the  conipiesiou. 


rompreas  and  deliver  one 
cubic    I'oot    of    CompreAHcd 

Air  per  iiiuiiileat  a  given  pit-i^siire 
with  iKi  L'ooliiig  of  uie  ail  during 
Ihe  coihpieiiSioDi  hIw>  ilie  iKjrse- 
potter  required,  siipposiug  ilie  air  to 
he  iiiaiDiaivfd  ut  cotislniii  tem|>erB 
ture  during  the  conipreKsloii. 


Air  not 

Air  constant 

(iaiige- 

Air  nnt 

Air  cnnstHUt 

cooled. 

leniperatiM-e. 

prcsaure. 

cooled. 

temperature. 

.(ItM 

.1)1  HH 

.■i 

.OiRM 

.ooai 

.tmi 

.o;m 

10 

.OBiW 

.0559 

.OOdS 

.OS&I 

»} 

.1163 

.y.m 

OMO 

.OTIS 

30 

.35T8 

.3168 

.lOM 

.084S 

40 

.3M2 

.8138 

.IIUS 

.IXMB 

SO 

.5361 

.'1166 

.1318 

.ioa6 

GO 

.0818 

.5206 

.1478 

.iiao 

TO 

.6508 

.6456 

.!.■»« 

.IliB 

BO 

1.080S 

.7700 

.)7lO 

.litll 

90 

1.3177 

.8979 

.1815 

.1.318 

ItW 

1.4171 

i.oaoi 

I 


twer  given  above  Is  the  iheorellcal  power,  no  allowance  belnS 
le  compressor  or  other  losses,  which  may  amouoLto 


tlon 


T                                                                   ' 

502                                           AIR. 

Table  for  AdlalMttlc  Comprcnatoii  or  Ezpanal 

(Proc.  Inst.  M.E.,  Jan.  1881.  p.  laS.) 

Absolute  Pressure. 

Absolute  Temperature. 

1           r^ 

Ratio  of 

Ratio  of 

Ratio  of 

Ratio  of 

Ratio  of 

Greater 

L«!S8  to 

Greater 

Lesi  to 

Qreatef 

to  Lent, 

Greater. 

tn  I^esR. 

«Peater. 

to  Lent. 

iBxpan- 

(Oompres- 

(Expan- 

(Contpres- 

(Coinprea 

8ion.) 

slon.) 

iilon.) 

filnn.) 

oioii.) 

1.3 

.838 

1.0S4 

948 

1.188 

1.4 

.rij 

1.1(W 

.007 

1  270 

l.« 

.625 

1.146 

.873 

1.306 

1.8 

.556 

l.lHti 

.843 

1. 618 

2.0 

.500 

i.ssa 

.818 

i.eao 

a.3 

.■J&l 

1.257 

.796 

1.7M 

S.4 

.417 

1.289 

.776 

i.mt 

2.6 

.3R^ 

1.318 

.758 

1.971 

2.8 

.857 

1.318 

.74* 

a.orr 

S.O 

.:*a 

1.375 

.727 

S.IKS 

9.S 

.81!? 

1.401 

.714 

a.fflM 

3,4 

.1MM 

l.J'J6 

.701 

3.381 

3.6 

.278 

1.450 

.ceo 

3.4K1 

a.B 

.203 

1.478 

.679 

S.SHO 

4.0 

.ffiO 

1 .495 

,609 

9.676 

4.2 

.■J3« 

1.516 

660 

2.770 

4.i 

.227 

1.537 

.651 

8. MB 

4.S 

.217 

1.557 

.642 

9.965 

t.e 

.2(16 

1.676 

.«3S 

8.0M 

6.0 

.200 

l.nOB 

.627 

8,135 

6.0 

.107 

1.681 

.595 

ssao 

7.0 

.US 

1.758 

.560 

3.981 

8.0 

.136 

1.838 

.547 

4  8^7 

9.0 

.111 

1.8B1 

.530 

4.7M1 

10.0 

.100 

1.950 

.513 

5.1SU 

i                                                                                                                 < 

Itlran  EflrM'tlTP  Prennureit  for  the  Comprenolni 

of   tli<-    Strokr    when    rniii|iri'MsliiK    mikI    dclj 

I'rniti  Olio  AliiioHpliere  to  jclTeii  (iaue<>-proHna 

Kle  Cylinder.    <K.  Htoliiira:'.  Am.  Mach.,  iMx.  14.  Itsim.t 

Qauge-       Adiabntic 

ItiOttiertDMl 
Jompressioii 

(iauRe- 

Adialiatic 

pmBKiire.  ConipressioD 

prf  s.-<Hre.  C 

ouiprvaaioa 

1 

.U 

.43 

45 

13^ 

8 

.06 

.06 

60 

15,06 

8 

1.41 

1.4 

55 

15  98 

4 

1.86 

1.84 

60 

18.89 

S 

s.a« 

a.ia 

OS 

17.88 

10 

4  96 

4.14 

70 

18.7* 

^L  » 

fr.OO 

5.77 

75 

19  54 

W^ 

7.M 

1.9 

W 

aos 

9.05 

8.40 

8.% 

SI. a 

^"^  so 

10.  sa 

9M 

90 

92 

1           a.'i 

11. w 

lO.'i^ 

95 

«8.rr 

}                   40 

1* « 

11,7 

100 

ta.n 

1                                         >.'  prwiKiirr  for  c<ii>ipic<«inn  onl}- la  alw^ 

y^ 

l.pess 

ur<j  for  llii'  » 

'liiile  work 

1 

COMPRESSED  AIR. 


IB  and  Terminal  Prr*«ure«  of  Conipreiiii<>d   Air  a»ei 
(spanalvely  for  Ciauee-prosures  ft-oni  60  to  100  Ibx. 

iKrauk  Richunls,  Am.  Much  ,  April  13,  IKVd.) 


till 

p. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100.       1 

i 

sJllJ 

= .  i 

4  L.  3 

IJ 

c  -  5 

i  i 

i  il.  S 

.1.1 

n..|!gj' 

i  i'l'm 

^H 

E<-? 

:^^l 

E^t 

^.'^■^■. 

=  <'t 

iMi<f 

'*          an     i. 
«     ^.6    lO.HS 

5. 

t-     i. 

H      (^ 

aa  04 

He          &  H      0. 

:a.74 

/v.or 

83.B9  2^.48 

14.01    44  19      1,83 

« 

at. 9    13.7? 

34.73 

.0 

40  «1 

a.  44 

4IJ.4I! 

4  27      .-ana!     8.11 

^ 

*.'.t.J 

.!« 

3S.4I 

3.09 

44  IIB 

5  a-j 

50.96 

7..^5 

:u.M     9.48 

3!l  66 

i.a'j 

40.  IS 

4..'58 

46.04 

6  66 

.'ijj.ia 

8.95 

59  l« 

11.23 

Ik 

a,').  85 

8.  a'. 

42  oa 

n.ai 

40.41 

7.8ij 

5«.a 

11.39 

62  98 

13.89 

■ 

ir.93 

S  64 

41.99 

S.:«) 

52.03 

11.11 

S9.II 

13.88 

66.16 

16.64 

1 

41.75 

10.71 

4tf  31 

12.01 

5C.  9 

l."*,*) 

64  45 

19.11 

72.02 

22.36 

1 

45. M     IJ.26 

M.18 

17 

61.18 

ai  81 

69.19 

24  r;6 

77.21 

28.33 

1 

W.75I  ai  53 

50.51 

39.4 

C8.iM 

31.97 

77.05 

36.14 

8fl.82;  41  01 

t 

51.92    -iLbH 

eo.«4 

28.  »5 

69.76 

.14  01 

7S.69 

39.  Hi 

87.61    44.32 

M.r.r   -/r.oi 

158  8.^ 

.•H.03 

71 .99 

.HNt* 

61.14 

44  m 

90.321  49.97 

30  3D 

tl4  2.'. 

30  44 

7:J  .W 

4S.49 

»i  3 

48,9-t 

02.22    64.59 

15.01 

60.05 

41. 8R 

T5..W 

48.35 

85.12 

W).02 

94. 6«    61.69 

'     iO.'t* 

67.5 

47. OS 

77. a 

54  as 

86.91 

61.09 

96  61    08.99 

i 

.W.|.'>!  47.14 

IM)..18 

.^5  4a 

78  Oa 

HS.tll 

S8.81 

72. 

9S.7      80.28 

t   I  .10.461  it.K 

59. 2T 

70  ill 

66  89 

89.241  7.'j,r.2 

99.17   87.82 

»  Jif^Ksurps  in  Mip  tnhitt  arr  all  pnitpe-i)i-eK.mii'es  euof  (ji  ILokp  iji  italics, 
JiHri-  »l>s,>Itite  prcRSiiies  (iihovr  a  VHOiiiiini. 

tmUglit-Ilne  Atr«K;onipre*iiorB,  Inicemoll-Sereeant 
Bork-drlll  Co. 


Length 

or 

Stroke, 

No.  of 

Hevolii- 

tlOIIti 

incbes. 

minute. 

10 

175 

10 

175 

IS 

160 

IS 

100 

18 

luo 

12 

100 

M 

155 

U 

l&S 

18 

120 

18 

121) 

34 

94 

St 

94 

8) 

75 

30 

75 

f  TtH"  xsnie  »lj!«?>i  HIT?  made  to  hi-  drivt'ii  by  lielt  or  gearing. 

MBora  at  Hlsll  Altitudes.— Cubic  feet  of  compresKed  ai|J 
i  b;  iiir«omi>rwuu)r§  at  hi^ti  altiliiOvH,  expruKsed  as  a  pvrcseiitaga  Oi 
rdeliver*»*l  at  tni?  «**R- level. 


iMi«  above  Sea- 
lefel.  feel. 


I 


yittwvtt  pfircBUt..  1 100/  y?  I  04  I  at  I 


St«R4«r<l  Alr«eoinprcji»oni  ilrlvcii  ky  Meftw. 

( Noi-walk  Iron  Works  0>.) 
In  Ihe  following  list  the  large  nir-oylinrler  gSrt*  the  ckp^rliT  i4 
lilne.    For  actual  capacity,  tillowaiice  of  10  per  c«-ni   tnaj  be  i 
(eoutiugencies.    Tbe  small  piston  only  encountera  lli«  pr»«urec 

[>inpreisBiuii. 


u 


8    !    «H 

B 
8 
10 


Doublo-compoand  <'oinpreMior«i. 

iNonvalk  Imii  Work»  Co  I 


Steam-' 


VOill 

8 

m     ' 

* 

i» 

^' 

1.W 

i 

)«) 

3 

JIU 

a 

110 

n 

W 

t 

Ml 

mountain  or  Blirb-allltndA  Coin|ir«MiorB. 

( Norwnlk  Iron  Works  Co. ) 


All' 
(■- 


4:jji.;;:i,iiy4.i4,i;ao.;u 

iUl.iJ 

.s;i5.44 

8;1.78     4l>.Bfl      3S.-19 

S-^.51     16.4;i 

iMfl.osI   s^.Q-    r,a  2a 

Sr.t!-' 

•J7.,50 

■JTO.-H    1-J4.65     88. VS 

5fl.i!8 

41. 'ii 

373. JO    iJl  64|   is;. 70 

1(10.04 

Tli.-.'S 

WrJ.iw   ■::''.!  ir.   iii-.'.w 

115.08 

98.02 

B01.-,'>                     1.95 

101.60 

116  33 

NTi  1                        J. Ml 

.84.  K 

171.78 

IS.  00 
il  'i 
Si.  hi 
."■*  01 
78.0:! 
03.rJ3 

US  4e 


•S,  Siiii;!.-;  U,  !iiij)1l-x. 


B^al  RcHulta  wltli  Coiuprefuied  Atr.-dmipieased-nit 
ttt  f/t*'  ^li  iiUii  Mini's,  hint  itonnltiin,  iU /V/i.—TheKH  iii{nt>«  nr**  ihi'tfll 
[(III  iliw  falln  wliiHi  jHipidy  llie  pnwer.    Tlieri'  aic  fniir  tiiilidii-s 

if  IfiiXl  ti.ii-jk'.piiH'er  imd  ihrcft  nf  (tOiJ  liniat' jiiinpi-  «-m-)i.     Tli«i| 

lit  IW  Kalir.     EUlOli  1.111'liiiie  riiiiH  H  puii'of  coniiiiesMOrt 
iH  'i4  inoht>8  ill  illnmeler.     The  jiowcr  in  npfilie<l  ut  ili«l 
lies,  riiiiiiiiig  pumps,  lioisl,^,   etc.,  and  direut  in  iijclc*^ 

,  mode  In  IS&^eart^  1  IW.37  liorse-pnwer  at  the compiHNHorH.  and  390.17 
,3\\r'r  ri«  th*'  Sinn  f-f  th'*  liot^e-puwer  of  the  enj^iiieH  at  the   iiiliieSr'^ 

I  K^iii-i'Hti'd  wfts  rncovered  at  tiip  mines. 
it,'f  ttnd  Ihe  lrt>s  of  i^nei'^y  in  hf«l,  but  luH 

iMi'ssor.s.     (1''.  A.  I'ocixik,  Trims.  .A.  I.  M.  K., 

6<uind«*n«  (Jour.  F.  I.  ]803>  aay s:  "  Tliere  i»  not  u  properly  desffOM'  _ 
iLui'i]  nir  InxtaUtttion  in  ope-mlion  to-day  ihM  loses  over  ."ij  hy  traiw^j 
Til**  qiKwlioii  is  nlt'>Kt"ther  one  of  the  size  of  iiipi-;  nnd 
••nfMiKli.  Ihi?  fricilrMi  iiisK  is  a  «niiili  item.    The  iartesl  coiiw 
1-  plinit  in  jViii.-rii'n  ih  timtiit  tlie  Chapin  MinuRiii  Miohigiii'^ 
■'■  .ii»-i1  at  yuinneKfC  Falls,  and  liammitted  three  mil  ^ 
inlcal  plniit,  but  the  loss  of  pressure  na  shown  In  ii' 
.iid  this  is  the  lo»h  wlileh  may  be  laid  strictly  tu  ii.ui: 

irl.xw  lit  power  iD  coiiiniiin  practice,  whei-e  coinpre«s«l  airisiiiie<l  IS 
autliloerr  in  uiiiies  and  luiiueK  J.I  about  70?.    I  refer/ 
"n  AmcmtaD  j)ir-tMmiires:Hfr!i  arf  iistrl,  and  where 
1 4u-  mmiicli  t»  Iff  iln  heal  of  conipreNNfori  and  il  \ 


mttny  iudustries  becomes  possible,  while  incaaea  where  It  toi 
liHve  a  uonsiaiiC  supply  of  cold  air  economy  ceases  to  be  •  : 
flisl  im|K)iuinc«. 
Tlie  following  table  shows  the  results  of  tests  of  a  small  rotary  ( 
I  for  liriviDg^gewtng-niacliines,  uni)  Indicating  about  a  tentb  of  k  I ' 

TalAlS  OF  A  ShaIX  BOTARY  RlSDlNOCB  E.NOIXC 

Numbers  of  trials L 

luiiial  airpresiturc,  ll»i.  pc-r  nq.  in •>..  ..  M 

iDitial  tt^nifiprnture,  deg.  Fahr tJ* 

Fl.-lbs.  pur  sec,  ineaMurud  ou  tbe  brake 

Ri'volutiuDs  per  njinute 

ConsumplioD  of  air  per  1  borse-pon-er  per  hour. . .  .  : . 

Tliu  following  table  tdiows  the  resulm  obtained  vrilh  a  oo» 
power  variable  expansive  RiedinKer  rotary  engine.     Tlie**  irtaL 
the  best  praoiiue  Inat  lias  Iwen  ulitained  up  to  ibe  prt-swal  tinui( 
volumes  of  air  were  in  all  cases  tnktin  at  atiitospberii;  preaiurv: 

Trials  np  a  .ij-HoiisK-roweB  RtSDixoER  Kotary  Enat 

Numbers  of  trials I.  II.         IILl 

Initial  pressure  of  air,  lbs.  per  sq.  in M  01)  T       8o| 

'•     temperature  of  air,  deg.  Fabr IBS  350 

Final  "  ..  T7  (iS 

Revnlntlons  per  tiiinul(> 83S  3Sd         Xld 

Kt. -lbs.  per  second,  measured  on  brake..  371  4T7         3!%i 
CuiiHumptlon  of  air  per  horse-power  per 

hour  883  TOJ 

Trials  made  with  an  old  single-cylinder  SO-horse- power  Fan 
gine,  inJiuntin^  7;!  liorse -power,  fiave  a  consumption  i>f  iilr  i 
iwnveras  low  as  itH  cu.  ft.  per  hour.    Tlie  temperature  of  «<lli 
kiC  K.,  and  uf  rxliRust  W  F. 

Prof.  Klllolt  Kiv<-s  the  followiu(t  as  typical  results  of  efflciency  ttri 

systems  iif  ooinpressors  and  air-motors :  | 

Biliiple  conipresRor  and  simple  motor,  efBciency  M 

Compound  compressor  and  simple  motor.    "  ..  « 

"  '■  "    compoiuid  motor,  eftlcleucy 11 

Triple  compressor  and  triple  motor,  ■'         |l 

The  eflBciency  Is  the  ratio  of  llie  Intllcnted  horse-power  In  lin-  inntM 
(leiu  to  tliH  indicated  liorst'  power  in  the  stram-cylinders  of 
The  prcs.«uri' ntwuined  Is  (I  niino>ipheres  altsoliiie,  and  tb>- 
lo  lljofle  found  In  Paris  over  a  di.'^lance  I'f  ■)  miles. 

tiuuiiuary  of  liOlrloncIeK  of  Compreaaed-alr  TrauBaUl 
at  Paris,  bctnecii  the  Central  Jiialluia  at  St,  farifi*! 
a  10-liurHC-potv<-r  notor  WorkloK  witb  t*re««ar4 
duced  to  '!>.■>  AtnioNpliercM. 

(The  lliiiiies  lii'low  currespouil  to  ineuu  residi.'*  of  two  et|H>iliii<'iiue*l 
tHi.  Iiimtecl.)  1 

1  indic.'iliMl  horse-power  at  central  station  gives  0.815  IndlcnInI  hmti 
I  ill  eoinpre.tsors.  ami  onrresponds  to  the  compi-eittlou  of  Stti  tniMc  IHf 
.jwi-  lionrfioiu  atmospheric  pn'.-^sure  toSatmot'phenaialjSi.iluie  jTli) 
[of  (his  ail  ■.'•  iiliiMii  '.'J  piiiui'Is.) 

O.fWi  If  id  leafed  li'ir.se-piuver  !"  i-.  ,iniiri'i.,<ntu  ilpllrers  as  nM*-^'*  ""  **' 
[O.W  Indlonled  hiirw-imwcr  it  iin  after  It  i 

T  pi'rntine  lo  th>"  iioiniiii  tein;-  *. 

I      Tlie  full  of  pressure  in  mull.  ,•.  -i  :..,  slailon  so  < 

Imetri-i')  wdiices  llie  poKsiblldy  of  work  from  O.yi  to  0.8l 
fjHtwer, 

Till"  riMMIi*'!'  full  ttT  ltr^"^--Hr(>  thri.tn'Ii  f  lio  nvlni-iiif  fnl  v.-  f 


iijie  it  eiiu-rs  Uie  iiiului  lu  m 
'  1  the  mofur  Is  ho«  ever,  incri- 

!  tkU  Is,  l\leretoT^,  ,rii.=  V  »k 

WiWt 


COMPRESSED   AIK. 

kdditloual  beafr  Ib  supplied  by  tbe comlnisKon  of  about. O.30 

»r  lndicii(«d  hrti's^power  pfr  hour,  auil  if  this  be  takeu  lut<> 

lii()icnt«(l  cffliieiicj  uf  the  whole  process  becomi-s  UA' 

H  work  •tiM'iil  111  driving  the  ingtor  ItBelf  reduces 

I  0111  0.«9  to  iliii. 

■h-  ni.rk  spi^nt  in  driving  the  motor  Itself  reduce 

I. >J  to  0,1 1. 

IS  as  ft>llii«s  ; 


-  (.1  nj -!- 0  SIS  =  P.fii. 

11  llirouKh  mains  O.Sl  -«-O.Ba  =  0.90. 

.Irtf  0.5I>-:- 11.51  =  O.W».  

ifbui<.-uc>  of  thw  mains  Riid  lelnciHi:  viilrx  |u>tvvr>i>n  Rand 

is  tlius  0.B8  y  ().&^  =  0  90.     If  tin-  it-diictlon  ha<i  hwn  in  4. 

eres.  the  cori-egpondiiic  efHcleiiulea  would  have  ti«»fn  <i  OT. 

ticUvely. 

(Bcy  of  motor  0  .39  h-  0..W  =  O.TH. 

ifiicy  of  whole  procep*  with  fold  nir  0.39.    Apparent  Imlt- 

t  whole  pro<:es^  with  licntiil  air  O.Si.  '  ~ 

>Bflci«;no.T  of  whnle  proces-s  with  heatt^l  (ilrO.47. 

riencj"  of  motor,  cold.  0.8T. 

riency  of  motor,  hot.  D.HI. 

iiipressed  a'.r  in  fans  is  used  for  drivins  motors,  hut  the 

Be  is  of  the  most  vari^-d  kind.   A  list  of  motors  driveu  from 

on  shows  *i3  iiistallaiiiiiis.  neiiily  all   niotm-s  working  at 

»er  to 50  liorse-iiower,  und  the  i^reat  iiiiijoi  ity  of  them  more 

»ay  from  tlie  slalion.    The  new  station  iit  Qimi  do  In  Uari* 

an  the  one  at  St.  Kaigt-'au.    F.xpfi-iiiu'iits  on  the  Hiedier 

kt  Paris,  made  in  Decenibyr.  1891,  to  dclernilue  the  raiio 

^ted  work  done  by  the  air-pistoDH  and  the  indicated  u  orlc 

idera,  showed  a  ratio  of  rt.Hli97.    Thecoinpri-ssorsaredriveu 

>ansion  Corliss  eiiKln'^j  or  2000  hoisi-puwer  each, 

■ted  by  4:i>uipre»Beil  Alr.~The  Lou  Age.  March  3, 

!  shops  or  the  WiKnjit.'i.Swiuli  and  Signal  (.'o.  East  .Si.  Louis, 

A  of  which  are  operated  tiy  coinpres?ie<l  air,  each  of  the 

tit8  own  nir  enKinc.  and  the  smnlliM-  tools  beiiip  belled 
b  by  au  air  euKinu.  Power  in  supplied  by  a  cuitipound 
|B5  horse-power.  The  air  engines  arc  of  the  Kriebel 
pb  N  horse. powpr 
Otttal  TranHinlMHion.— .\  iiapcr  by  A.  Falkenaii, 
'liiliid>-lpliiii.  April  ]f'JI,  eniilled  lhe"FirKt  United  t^tiiteii 
Syatmii,"'  >fives:i  d'-scription  of  tlie«ysteiii  used  in  Xjomlon 
lat  reccni-ly  introduced  in  Philadetpiiia  lielwe«.rn  the  fimin 
,  Kuhfiiatio'n.  In  London  the  liibe:^  are  J^  and  3  inch  lead 
.t-lron  pIpi-B  for  protection.  The  carrier.^  used  in  a^-liich 
r,  the  remnlQinp  <j>ace  beint;  taken  up  bv 
ird  ("innly.  First,  vneiinni  ulnne  was  used; 
111'.  The  tuiies  used  in  Ihi*  C  "onliiiental  cities 
riiiij;lii  iron,  tiie  PHria  tubes  beinj;  S^a  inches  diiimeter. 
•ns  are  de-ipatched  In  trains  of  sii  to  ten,  propelled  by  a 
rlelphia  the  size  of  tube  adopted  Ia  tit.^  inche.s,  the  tubes 
m  l>ored  to  !<iEe.  The  lenRths  of  the  miti-oiiiir  and  return 
K  each.  The  pre8!;iire  at  the  main  station  is  7  lbs.,  at  the 
„  and  01  the  end  of  the  return  pipe  atliiospherlc  pressure, 
has  two  alreylludem  18  x  H  In.  Eaeh  carrier  holds  about 
100  to  150  are  taken  as  an  averaee,  Ki^ht  carriers  niny  he 
uiiiut«^.  eiviuR  a  delivery  of  4H.iK>0  to  7-J,(KK)  letters  per  hour. 
I  tru!ismis-ion  i..;  iiliout  .'>7  iit>C'nid<. 

CoinpresKed«alr  Tramway  at  Brrue, 
iuy'O  -Vor*,  April  JU,  IH'.IM  ) — The  Mekarskl  Hysteiu  has 
'Bnie,  Switzerland,  on  a  line  about  t«vo  miles  lonj;.  with 
tond  •'j.**.  A  Kpecisl  feBture  nf  the  MekarskI  sy^lera  !• 
,  to  niuiiilnin  ii  at  a  conslaiu  leniperalure,  by  pngglnK 
_id  waler  at  SIW  K.  The  nir  thus  becoines  saturated 
Mbnmiuently  partly  condeiiseB.  its  latent  heat  bein 
Bdin;r  Hir.    The  presnure  iu  the  ear  resorv 


•Mitt^  like  an  ordliMrj-  steam  trftmwwy 


43 


AIR. 


would  be  useless  to  make  the  vaoe«  of  the  tan  of  a  ereaif 
Inlet  of>eniiig can  freely  supply.     Ontheproj' 
of  thr  vnnf  and  the  dianH'ter  of  the  Inlet  t>| 
pf>riam  points,  tI/,.,  quantity  and  iltnsily  ot 

In  thf  H-inirh   hladii  the  tip  lia?  r  velcMJity  i  (J   ijimn 
heel;  and,  liy  the  laws  of  centrifugal  fdree,  ilie  iiir  will 
(imr»s  prentcrat  the  tip  of  the  blade*  than  thai  nt  Ilif  It^-*- 
enter  ou  tin-  heel  w  itb  a  density  higher  than  that  • 
ill)  passat;e   alonf;  the  vane  it  hecoinen    eoinprj' 
centrifuKal  fon»e,     Tlie  grt^aLer  the  l^n^lh  nf  Ih*'  ■ 
the  diffeii'iici' of  the  centrifiinnl  force  between  th<'  hetd 
lilaile;  irunseqiientlv  the  prvnirr  the  deiisity  of  the  air. 

RHastmitiK  troin  tlietie  experiments,  Mr.  Buckle  reoomiiienii'  I  i 
I'lvnoe  ihe  following  jiropoitioii«  for  the  cnnstructioii  •■(  i 

1.  Let  the  width  of  the  VHne«  he  one  fourth  of  the  .h 
dlainet<-r  of  the  inlet  openiiigx  in  the  sides  of  Ihi^  fanrhi 
diainelei'  of  the  fan:  H.  ].,('(  the  length  of  the  vaneii  he  o'le  loui 
ilianieter  of  the  fan. 

In  adopting  this  mode  of  eonstrucllon,  the  area  ofihe  IntetJ 
the  Kiiles  of  the  fan-eliej*t  will  he  the  saiDd  as  Ihe  eirxrumfer 
of  Ihe   bl'ide,  niiiltiplied  hy  its  width;    or  the  same  ate»l 
ileserllieil  by  the  heel  of  the  l>lade. 

Beat  Proportion*  of  Fan*.    <Buckle.) 

ll'aiCBSl'RlC  FSOU  3  OtLSCES  TO  6  OITKCES  t>Kn  IHII'AUB  rSCBi 

TO  10.1  iircHKB  or  Water. 


I>lametor 

Tutes. 

Width. 

Lenirth. 

ft.  ins. 

0    a 

0  lOii 

1  0 

ft.    lo«. 

D       0 
i      0 
4      0 

ft.  his. 

0     I) 

Diameter 
of  Inlet 
Open- 
ings. 


ft.  ins. 

1  fi 

1  V 

•2  0 


Diameter 
of  Fan. 


ft.  Ills. 


rKKsscBB  rnoM  fi  oiiscies  to  0  ofNrtF.K  pkr  a<jt'*Bc  mm,  M 
oa  MA  iM'HEs  TO  IS.ti  iNeiies  of  WATim.   ^ 

.1      0      I  0     T        10 

3  n         0     (lU    1      lU 

4  0        0     S^    1     3)1 

1      « 

1     a 

1       6 

4    e 

•■>    (1 

6      0 

1  » 

il 

The  dimensions  of  thr"  above tablen  nr(>  ni'i  i 
lull  as  Bijproxinialiuiis  oljlained  from  Ihe  i"  ■ 

Kxpenineiits  werunlso  made  with  referei"  - 
Ihe  liaiiKit  or  outlet  i>l|ie.  By  a  Nllde  tlie  widtii  oi  i 
was  »iii1e.l  from  12  to  i  inehtn<.  The  ohjeet  r.f  ili 
openlliff  111  the  qiini'tity  of  air  required,  and  Ihe 
neoe'i'uiiy  lo  diivH  Ihe  fnn.  It  was  found  that  the 
provide*!  W(^  piodiice  snfflcieut  blast,  the  less  noi 
fun;  and  by  mnliinir  tlie  lopv  nf  this  openinir  level 
the  eoluuo'i  of  air  ha*  little  ..r  no  renetioii  on  ilie  ' 

Tbo  mimlH-r  of  blades  ninv  he  •tor  6,  The  ens.- 
an  rtHilttTe'lii-iil  ?iptT-nl,  vtdeeincr  the  Kpnce  betwtH.;. 
be-' '  '    ■  '  r  .111  (lie  oriKin  til  tile  op. 

■  from  experiment*  are  . 

'■  ..^': 

I  lean  Ml  iihnielieal  spiral  to  !h«  exieo 


1 


FAKS   XSV   BLOWEHS.  5 

Chan  the  velocitF  du«  to  tbe  air  at  tli«  prowure  required,  uy 

>  fans  inoiinled  on  one  sliaft/  would  be  more  useful  limn 
Lich  au  ai'rauBement  tuice  llie  ar<a  of  inlet  oi>«Dtiigl 
'  <i  with  a  KitiKlB  \\'i<le  fan.     Such  an  arrani^eiiiptil,  m  ^ 
cainonally  half  the  full  quantity  of  air  la  required, 
put  out  i>f  Ki'iir,  thus  savlni?  jjowei'. 
(•sure  duo  to  Velocity  of  tlie  P«n*Madea.— "  My  increa 
!  iiunil>er  uf  rovolutious  o£  iha  fan  iIih  ht-ad  or  prrssuri-  is  iucreftse 
•  be>OK  that  tlie  total  liead  prixlufci  if  equal  <in  centrifugal  fanH)  i 
the   height  due  to  the  velocity  of  the  exiremitleB  of  the  bUdes,  f 

-  «[)proximat»slyiii  procticu"  (W.  P.  Trowbridge,  Traos.  A.  S.  M. ! 

5.1  Thts  law  Is  analogous  to  that  of  Itie  pressure  of  a  jet  strl !{!»«■  a 
•urface.  T.  Hawksley.  Proc.  lost.  M.  E..  1682,  vol.  Irix..  says:  "Tim 
nv  of  a  fluid  striking  a  plane  surface  perpendicularly  mid  thcti  cseap- 
rl^bl.  angled  to  il«  mlginal  path  ia  that  due  to  twice  tbe  helg^lit  h  due 
ileeitv." 

.  .i.„....^.„;r,n  of  thia  question,  abowfne  that  it  is  (in  error  to  take  tli 
lal  to  a  ufiluniu  of  air  of  th«  height  li  =  v'  -i-  Sg,  see  Wolff 

,a ,  n.  ■•  From  the  experiments  it  further  apjjears  that  the  velocfM 
,  ol  the  fan  Is  equal  to  nine  tenths  of  the  velocity  a  hmly  woiilH 
ifollitiK  the  heiitht  of  a  homoKcncouH  coluiuu  of  air  equivalent  tn 
I).  K  t'lark  (R.  T.  &  D  .  p.  Wl),  puraphnifintr  Bufkle,  appur 
'  It  further  appears  llial  the  pressure  ireDerate<l  a*^  the  cireufn 
Ipoe  ninth  Rreater  thaji  that  which  Is  due  to  the  ueliial  circiinifer' 
'   3ty   3f  the  fan.''     The  two  Btatementa,  Ui.iwever,  are  not  " 

J  for  If  I-  =  0.0  t  '^7?,  H  =  ,  ^,*''  „    =  1-384 .r    ind  not  1)  .'''.         i 

ke  the  pr<*Kure  as  that  equal  to  a  head  or  column  of  air  of  twltj.^ 

tdue  the  velocitv,  UK  isc<iriectly  sLnled  by  Tn'iwbriflKe  the  iiani.5 

enietits  of  Bi'ickle  utid  Olarlc— vhitb  would  iodicau!  thai  tbj 

U  ifTealev  than  the  theoretical— are  explained,   and   liie 

and 


1 


^boooinm  H  =  M7 


•J 


1.278  t  iiH  =  0.9  fSyff,  in   which   // 

Ikrarf  of  a  column  producing  the  presstire,  which  is  equal  to  twice  t! 

IMical  lie«d  due  the  velocity  of  a  fallUi^  tiody  (or  h  = '^),  rnuitipl 

fctc-*fflcicnt  .017.  The  dlfti-reure  between  1  and  this  coi-fflcient 
!■»  till-  loss  of  pressure  due  to  friction,  to  the  fact  that  the  Inner  p<ii_^ 
•  of  the  blade  hav  e  a  smaller  velocity  than  the  outer  edire,  and  proba\Af> 
fber  causes  The  coellluient  l.'-JTS  means  that  'he  tip  or  the  Iilade  must 
ttt.  a  ve|f>c1ty  1.^*1  timea  that  fheoreticallj  reqiiired  to  produce  the 
Jfl. 

»  eonvprt  the  head  H  expresHcd  in  feet  to  pressm-n  tn  Ite.  per  «i.  In. 

llpiT  It  bv  the  weijrht  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  at  the  pressure  and  tempcni- 

,  „f  Ml..  .,ir  ►•xpelJad  from  the  fan  cabout  .l«  lb.  unuuliyj  and  divije  by 

iliis  Ijy  16  to  obtain  pressure  iu  ounces  per  sq.  in.  or  hv  2  tM'i 

■i  of  mercury,  or  by  'JT  71  to  obtain   prnssiire  in  Incliea  of 

TiildnfC  <*  as  tbe  weiBht  of  a  cubic  foot  of  uir, 


r 


p  Jbs.  iwrnq,  in.  =  ,000<J106tii' : 

p,  wmcen  per  sq.  In.  =  .00017()«t»; 
)»,  inches  of  mercury  =  .<K»(W189u'; 
p,  inches  of  water      ^  .000ilt64i'': 


•  =  810  I  p  nearly; 
=    HO  I  ;>^       " 
-  SWO  I  p,      " 
=   fio  >>>,     " 


IP 

^Bv  =  vrfocity  of  lips  of  Idades  In  feet  per  second. 

^Bthe  above  formula  by  the  experiment   of  Bucklu  with  tbe  vad 

■mlonK.  mujted  above,  we  Uave  p  =  .OOWICWOl'"  =  9..'i(i  oz.    The  r 

Brot  irn  ve  ()  1  OZ- 

■Uny;  tf  liy  the  ex|>criment  of  H    I.  Snell,  Riven  bwlow.  In  which  tS 

FIf'"  1  \va.<s  about  ISO  ft.  |iei'  second,  we  obtain  .'iW5  oimo( 

Di-  I  (fn\'e  from 'J.SS  to  3  ,'i»  oiinoes  accordinir  to  the  amount 

.  irue.    Ttie  numerical  ioel11i"ienti»  of  the  ulvive  Vovn\\i\iB 
I  uii  nin'Wle'n  statrmeot  tbai  the  veloi  iiy  of  the  lips  ot  V\ve  ta 
'  reorng  of  the  rplocfty  a  body  nould  aocitiire  ' 


s.«o 

4.IM 

^ 

6.UW 

7.8Te 

1. 

»,u^ 

t 

9,ir.3 

3. 

n.sn 

a 

is.roi 

7. 

I 


Mr.  Snell  b&»  not  fouDd  hdv  practfcol  difference  betireeB  tbe  < 
ot  hlowers  with  curved  l  la<JiHi  aud  tbow  with  filruiicbt  radial  one* 

letom  tb«(e  (ncppJinwiits   sms  Mr.  Snell,  it  appears  tbat  we  oiaj  «zf< 
f  oei»e  bark  (i5<  to  T.'i'S  of  thi-  powrr  eip<»nde<l,  uud  no  morv. 

Tbe  erirrtt  auunirii  of  poi-. er  oftf  n  u^ed  lo  run  a  fan  Is  not  dtM  to  tt 
llf«U,  bur.  Ui  the  iiiptbod  of  Beleciine,  erectiDt^,  and  plploi;  ll.  , 

(tor  iijiinion's  (.11  tbe  relacive  iiieritji  of  faus  and  iK>s|iiw  rvitAnrMs 
aw  discus,siiin  of  Mr   Sr.eirs  pdjier.  Trans   A   S.  M    K 

Cottipamllvc  Efll<>Ienry  or  Fanaand  ¥•• 
(H.  JI.  lli>«c.  Triiii.>i   A.  l.M.  10..  x.  4W  >— hxiwriii..'! 
(Bak«<rj  hlnwere  u  nrkintr  nt  iiiniU'rBlelj"  lo«"  prp-  - 
that  tliey  work  inoru  efflcionlly  at  i\  utTrn  pi- 
VDliinips  (J  <".,  wlic'ii  workiiip  nt^arly  up  lo  llu  i 
wliPn  ilfliverlnic  comparatively  titiiall  vr)liiiin»s 
utioim  ill  the  tjiiaiitity  and  ptf-^ure  if  bInKt  r.  ■ 
Iiik1"*m(^  HftU'ieiicy  n-oithl  beohtuiiiiHl  by  having  .- 
■li'iriiiK  tixMi)  up  to  tbeir  full  capHcily,  and  nr».-i 
by  ftlliMiiiiT  ibe  uiiiulKT  of  blnwi'pt  ill  work,  ii 
vi'ry  Inrge  blowers  niiJ  n?KUlatiiiK  tbe  aio'-nnt  . 
blowers. 

Thi^re  apiwam  to  be  Utile  dUTerMice  betwwin  tbB  rftlcienry  i^faaa  i 
Uakef   liliiwrrii  nht^n   each  work*  iimltr  f,'iToralil«  o»nillt|.>n«  ■•  ri 


)  qiiundiy  of  work,  and  wlwii  each  i^ 
l-or  a  I'iveii  speed  of  fan,  any  din 
'  I'rt'iLM'N  tlie  t'of^Hitniptloit  of  ptM\<*t  .: 
I  >'(  llie  hlHMt. ;  bill  It  incirotws  thr  i'rii.r.ii 
f  r  a  iflvrii  pnwfnire  of  lilu>t.     Wberi  i 
Iroriiinl     wiz**     for     nuv     ;'lvt«ii    fun.    Iw 
dlKlii 


■ler. 

I  e  xiiEp  of  Ihf  tJaal-OClM 

iin»'  Tfnif  rnlx^uith^Wl 

.<•  unit  M  t 

n-diicfrti 


.Inv 


PfM  ill  J 


lurnt  of  fuiif  bavi>  br«n  due  to  too  loir  cptwJ.  to  («• 
I't-r  fa>t<*<\V«iK  o1  V>rUv<^T  <o  the  bvlla  bving  ummM| 

plea  ot  the  nt»c\iViit, 


I 


FANS    AND    BLOWERS. 


it  tg  probably  eBfentlal  to  bigh  efflt-lency  tn  pr 
1  resicb  int  least  if  the  fans  nre  of  ilifTfreut  sla 
I  of  positire  blowrrK  may  deliver  Into  Ihe  ]>am| 
i  I'lHcieuoy. 


Capacity  or  Fans  and  Blo^'erM. 


Dliowing  tables  sbon- ilie  (;iiutaiite<^  alr-nip^ly  ami  nlr-removal 
forms  of  blowers  nii«l  i-xluuist  fuDs.    'i'lie  tJKuretf  civeu  are  oflelli 
d  In  pracllc>>,  especially  wlieu  llit<  lilowerK  and  fci.iis  are  driven  aT, 
■peeda  tbon  staled.    The  iiillnK».  partiotilnrly  of  the  bkiwers,  are  ' 
hose  (reiiernlly  given  in  catnlogu^'H,  hut  ll  wnK  ibe  deklre  to  present 
Harvstire  aod  assured  practice,    (A.  K.  Wnlfl  on  Ventilation. ) 

rr  OT  AlB    aUFPUED  TO  BUIIJIISOB  BX    BLOWBRa   OF  VARIOUS  SlBSa. 


Ordlf'ary 


aeo 

«75 
£30 

soo 


Uoi'se- 


Capactiy 
cu.  ft. 

newer    P*""  '"'"■ 
Blower     P'"<^'*S'»f 
per  wj.  ill 


9.4 
18.5 
18.4 
24 


10.6!i5 
IV.OOO 
SSfllH 
4U',700 

4U.iKiO 


Diam- 
eter of 
WlieH 
in   feet. 


10 

ia 

11 
15 


Ordinary 

Hors«. 

Number 

power 

of  Revs. 

to  Drive 

per  juln. 

Blower. 

175 

99 

lao 

85.8 

130 

49  6 

no 

m 

too 

i  1 

Capacity 

cu,  ft. 

per  niin. 
a^aliti^t   ftj 

PresHurel 
of  1  oiincal 
|)er  ft(|.  Ill, 


56,800 

:o,Hto 

l(W,Ol*) 

i3»,ajo 

160.000 


■teal 


jtance  exceeds  tlie  preivtuiH  of  one  uiince  per  eqnare  inch,  of 
the  capacity  of  ihe  lilower  will  bp  co'TespotHlltitrly  lUcit-nsed, 
jreased,  and  allowance  for  ihi-t  must  be  niRde  when  llie  dlslrih- 
ere  aniall,  of  execssive  length,  and  contain  many  coiitractious 


I 


IT  or  Aia  MOTBD  BT  xn  Approtkd  Form  or  Exhiust  Fav,  tbb. 
kjr  Dtacmjtttoma  DiaECTLV  fkok  boou  into  the  atmospbere.  J 


Ordinary 
Kuraber 
or  Revs. 
per  min. 


Dinni- 

eterof 
Wlieel 

in  feet. 


o.so 

0.75 
1,00 
S.50 


5.000 
8.000 
l-J.OOO 

so.ooo 


4.0 
6.0 
6.0 
7.0 


Ordinary 
Nmiiber 

of  Revs, 
per  min. 

HopKe-  1 

power 

to  Drive 

Fan. 

475 

8B0 
800 
!290 

a.M) 
4,50 
7.00 
9.00 

Capacity 
In  en.  ft, 
per  nvlo. 


88.000 

Bo.oeo 

8U,<X)0 


Dacity  of  exhaust  fans  here  stated,  and  ilm  horee-nower  to  drive 
^  f,,,-  frr-e  •"xliAiist  rrnm  room  int u  annnKpliere.    The  capaiihv  de- 
•  ••power  Increases  materially  an  the  resistunce,  i  esultin^ 
•  ■Hte  and  bonds  of  ductfi.  enters  as  a  fnctor.     The  ^lllTeP-  I 
■e  two  tabiM  in  ilie  main  caiiKe  of  varintion  in  the  rft-J 
,  •  fan  refen-ed  to  in  the  second  table  cniild  not  tm  usedj 
wjce  as  uue  ounce  per  square  ineb,  the  rated  le^^lstaoc 


518 


AIR. 


CENTRIFUGAK.  FANS. 

Preasures,  Teloclties,  Volame  of  Air,    Hot 
Required,  etc.    (B.  F.  bturtfvaut  L'o.j 


I,  S  5  fe  aj  o 
3%  j:  *  2  u 


I 

S 
8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

la 

18 

14 

15 

IB 

17 

18 

le 
ao 


3584.80 

3557.(10 

44«'.0O 

6175.00 

7338.84 

9000  iS 

10421.58 

11876.00 

12817.08 

188TS.7S! 

14861.16 

15706.00 

10083.51 

17533.50 

18350  34 

19138.36 

10900.68 

!»640  48 

31360.00 

33060.80 

22745.40 

38415.00 

S4070.80 


17.944 

35.400 

31.1'J4 

35.93 

50. g« 

63.54 

73.. 37 

81.08 

8D.0I 

0fl.S4 

103.30 

100.69 

115. S6 

121.76 

127.43 

133.00 

138. iX) 

143.34 

148.33 

ijvs.ae 

157.96 
163  00 
167.10 


u  ».  « 

CO  * 


«  2  r  = 

25  =  e 


=  •  t -?  f  -; .  Si 

eo-o  ^---^  T" 

ST-  6iB  a  ' 
-  »  c  rtj;  . 

<  J  5  -  2  ; 

^:S  Oi  t" 
J  *  c  c  t  - 


0.001 3ai 

0.003403 

0.OO5659 

0.0096 

0.0378 

0.0513 

0.0T89 

0.1100 

0.1466 

0.1839 

0.2361 

0.9693 

0.3160 

0.3653 

0.4170 

0.471  !J 

0.5277 

0.5864 

0.0473 

0.:i03 

0.7T54 

0.8430 

0  SUB 


14603.76 
TSSS  70 
4880.11 

86«<.a» 

18SS.00 
1233.30 
910.37 
7a3.Sfl 
611  10 
533.81 
458  48 
407.43 
360.09 
.133.40 
306.56 
883.06 
XI  .91 
244.44 
339.17 
315.77 

aw,  71 
im.oe 

183.83 


: 


•Always  give  th«s  winJ  a  good  wiile  op^niDg  into  Uie  fur 
we  by  thin  table  bow  much  more  wind  can  be  dlacbar^nl  wlik^ 
low  iupKsurt-  thmi  nt  liiRh. 

Ttii.>s  tnlile  stiott«  Llie  KTPttt  adTantaee  of  large  tiiyor**,  laf; 
blower,  and  sli'W  specil  »lien  «he  nature  of  tht"  work  will  jmIh 

t  Number  of  rorg««  driven  with  1.3  H.  P.  with  Startev«ii(  1 

Caiiliion  lu  Reeard  to  Use  of  Pan  mod  Rloivfl 

Miinj  •'iiKiuf I  ra  rep'irt  ihat  man u far- 'r"-    -»i.i... 

of  ihrlr  fans  And  uniltrj-wiinuilo  ibv  1 

In  simii-  caiU'a  the  coniplaintx   may  I 

•od  cruoke^l  pipes,  fUipiiiDg  of  belts,  iio i,.  >  ..^...^ 


F 

■  CENTRIFUGAL 

FANS. 

519 

Pana,  and  Steam-collii  combined  for  the 

r  Synem  of  Ileatlne>    <UulTalo  ]<orKe  Co.) 

[ 

c  £  a> 
^  d  a 

2  EC      .CO 

llll 

3 

If-- 

J4 

B 

itii 

1--- 

gas 

|x<S 

8,740 

1,300 

49  >c    ^ 

3,1 

1,000 

13 

11,000 

1,525 

fit  X     45 

4 

1,200 

IS 

J5.*0 

i,n» 

sa  X   SO 

4.5 

1,01)0 

i» 

1D.90O 

8,a)0 

5i!  X   ao 

« 

2.000 

25 

SK.yoo 

2,4fi0 

so  X     74 

i'.soo 

30 

88,500 

2,700 

02  X     84 

9.1 

.\ooo 

85 

99,300 

S,300 

eo  X    94 

11 

.<i,liOO 

*i 

40.»1 

8.900 

79  X  104 

13.5 

4,000 

48 

B7.;90 

4.S0O 

Ki  X  111 

15 

4,500 

M 

81,  IM 

^,auo 

87  X  m 

SO 

5.000 

62 

10l;!9Q 

6,0U0 

92  X  J48 

aa 

0,000 

K 

It  steel  PreaHnro-bioiver,  applied  to 
Cupola  Furnaceii. 


8I0O 
1816 


5 
(, 
7 
8 
10 
li! 
14 
14 
16 
16 


at 

II 


O.f) 

1 

1.6 
3 

r..i 

16. 
22 

as! 

48. 


Power  Saved  by  Redncine 
the  Speed  and  Pressure  of 

Blast. 


[C 


»4& 

aooo 

S900 

a.'iso 

2380 

moo 


S  O.Ff^lOO 

8  1 

7  a. 

8  I  4. 
10 

12  13. 

12  16 


IMi}  ,  14    28  4  1800 
17W  I  14    SO.nifiOO 


6  J750 
J7C0 

aao 

2150 
lOUU 


.4  * 


0.6 
1.1 
8. 

a.8 

S3 
9.4 
12.7 
».S 
81.7 


ich  of  blosi  is  sufficient  for  one  forge-flre,  or  00  stiuare 
^ila  fiirnac^s, 
lit  rt-giilatt-d  «o  as  to  give  the  pressure  of  blast  slated  lu 

I  incli. 

ri-  inches  of  blast  "  refers  to  the  area  of  a  proper  fOiapfid 
linrKiDK  iilast  into  the  open  air. 

ipai-iljr  |ier  liour  In  pounds  of  iron  is  made  up  from  nn 
n  a  few  of  llic  b«8t  cupolas  found,  and  Ik  reliablei  in  cii»ea 
■  ai-e  well  consinieied  aud  driven  with  the  (treatest  force 
Ltie  t.al>le. 

steel  pregaure-blower  a»  applied  to  forKe-flrea,  and  for 
ler  patterns  of  blowers  aud  exIiausterH,  see  catalogue  of 
Co. 
hooDoemiBg  Cupolas,  see  Foundry  Fraottce.) 

Blaat-plpca  for  Preaaiireablowera  for  Cupola 
nacea  and  Foreea.    (B.  K.  Sturtevunt  Co.) 

able  luu  been  constructed  on  this  baRiH,  tiauif  Iv  :  A" 
)  of  ^  oz.  in  Ui«  pracfssiif  Iraasni  jsxion  tlirougu  ar 
S)  a«  a  atandArd.  tin'  Increanpd  rriction  due  to  \ei 
oowpaitated  tor  by  an  en/argeriieni  of  the  pipe 


to  keep  Ihe  loss  Btlll  ftt  iioz.    The  qiinntlil'"' ''■■■- •-  •' 

of  each  division  IntHeoie  tbe  cjipacily  of  : 

under  prt'ssiires  of  i.  S,  I'J,  and  IIJ  o»i      Tin: 

cubic  fl.  of  ulr,  at  b  (-z  |>ressiire.  tliroiiKli  ."    1....1   i. 

of  )^S  01  jiresBure.    If  ii  i«  desired  to  force  liieairJWOtt. 

Joss  oy  friction,  the  pipe  mast  be  eulargetl  to  ITJ-i  in.  iK 


Blawib  No.  1. 


1^^ 


860 
GI5 
635 
740 


Loogtha  of  DliU!t-pipe  In  Feet, 


50        100       130       iiUO        SOO 


Diameter  in  tocbes. 


^  US 

ill 

HI  SI 


^ 
fi 


9 


i 


BliOWiiB  Ko.  3. 


504 

7«l 


]03« 


S»6 


9 


V.4 


^4 


11 
11« 


Bt/>WER  No.  3. 


ISO 

lOSO 

i?ro 

14«0 


9 

mi 

1£ 


9^i 

n 

ii« 

12H 


BLo^nn  No.  4. 


looe 

1443 

17TS 
90T3 


low 

"J? 


in« 
im 


Blover  No.  9. 


BuiwKii  Ko.  • 


1878 

2C78 
»tOS 

ad48 


Leogtbg  of  BU^ 

H)       100       iflj 
Diameter  sn 


109^ 

13U 
1<« 


ill 


Blowu  No.  T 


8708 
■1573 

sitiie 


12 

I3» 

13?<) 

iSTi 

^^^l 

IT* 

lU 

.^ 

Bunrm 


3318 

I3L1 

i.iu 

4738 
S843 

1^ 

lOH 

flsus 

m 

aolj 

Burwxa  j 


48S0 
<»J>iO 
76-JO 
(«H0 


14«  I  17  »••«  i 

17         -• 


BU'wn  Ko.: 


CENTRIFUGAL   FANS. 


521 


jtl  VenCllatora  for  mines.-  Of  dlfTrivbt  appliiinoen  for 
nes  vurious  forms  of  ceiitrlfiical  mafhinesliiivitijtj'ioveil  ilieir 
l»e  now  :.laiost  compleWly  replaoe.)  all  oihori.  Most  if  not  all 
llnPS  In  UHe  in  this  country  are  of  tbiscUisK.  lu'lnjji'lllier  ojien- 
1JD8,  or  closed,  with  ohmmey  nod  spiral  casiui;.  of  a  more  i>r  less 
it«il  typp  The  tijforv  (if  siiob  uiiichiues  bus  bi-fu  (leiiion?lrttted 
el  Murjtiie  iu  "  Theories  and  Pructic«i  of  fentrifuKul  Veulilotluif 
iransluced  by  A.  L  Stevenson,  nnd  is  (lisciijuseU  iu  a  paper  by  E. 
•is.  Trans.  A.  I   IL  E.  xx.  03V.  From  this  paper  the  following  for- 

I  In  eq.  ft.  of  an  orifice  In  n  tlilii  plate,  of  such  area  that  its  re- 

taoce   to  the  paf-sa^e  of  a  given  quautity  of  air  eqiiulti  the 

Bitftoncu  of  tbe  iiiiii«; 
I  in  a  thin  iiluli!  of  euch  area  that  its  pesistaDce  to  the  pas- 

„j  of  a  iriveu  <iu;iritily  of  air  etivuits  ttiat  of  the  machine; 

jtitv  of  air  (lati^iiitr  in  (•ulnc  feei  per  minute; 

city  of  air  passiOK  through  u  m  feet  |XT  set-'ond; 

r»it"y  of  oir  pnssiiis  through  •!  in  feet  per  seoond; 
e«d  iu  feet  ulr  eoluiuu  to  produce  velocity  V; 
leAd  in  feet  aircoluuin  tu  prixluce  velocity  Vg. 

Q  —  o.eear;  v  =  i  ^:   q  =  aesa  fi^; 

d  :=  ^         =  equivalent  orlflce  of  mine; 

O.IU  V^l 

water-S'auge  in  inched  uud  quantity  In  thouaand!!  of  feet  ]}er 


c 


\'W,f.i. 


\ 


—  M  /       V —  —  raiiWalent  orJOce  of  mftchine. 


l,l»'/lBUi/ 


>reticBl  depres.«lou  whioli  con  be  produced  by  any  centrifugal  ven- 
iniiiiiM  tb»t  dite  to  its  tangential  speed.    The  formula 


tf  = 


Z! 

«!7' 


ri*  th«»  •»<i«*ntlal  Rpeed.  Fthe  vplocity  of  exit  of  tire  air  from  the 

.»■  ■   '-'-i  1ms,  anrl  H  (he  depregsion   meaaureil  In  feet  of  Alr- 

■  n  for  the  theoreiicnl  depression  which  ean  be  pro- 

:  ventilator;  this  renches  a  nmxinuim  when  the  air 

,t  Br>t-t-(l,  ihal  Ik.  r  =  0.  and  U  -  T*  -*-  'i<l. 

lepieawioii  vrhk'hi'ati  iie  prochice<l  by  any  nncovere<l 

ill-  hi-lkrhi  due  to  lis  tnDKeiit;»il  speed,  and  one  tinlf- 

■II    ijin    ur    |,ioduced    liy  a  covered   veniilaior   with   expanding 

aa  th«  condition  of  th»  mine  remains  constant: 
lume  produced  by  any  ventilator  varies  directly  as  the  spe«d  of  • 

irwuir.n  produced  by  any  Tentilator  varies  as  the  square  of  the 

iiisrential  speed  with  decreased  resistance  the  quantity  of 
I  111'  (i>-preKslon  dlnilnf.sht'S. 

iljlf  "liovtr. ft  few  results,  selected  from  Mr.  Norri='s  paper, 
.f  ofllLiency  which  may  be  expected  under  dlfTerent  olr- 
-ills  of  these  aod  other  tluiB,  with  diagrams  of  the  results 
r  \u\z  i-iaper. 


AIR. 


Experiments  on  Mlne-'rentlUUlnic  Fans. 


O- 


1  — 

5  D 

M* 

■s^ 

loT 

ri 

-'1 

£■= 

c« 

St 

h^ 

^* 

5" 

S4 

6517 

236,684 

100 

oesa 

336,  Bea 

111 

8B7S 

347,888 

lai 

7727 

394,100 

lOO 

e-isn 

ie«,88a 

130 

6167 

874,876 

B9 

3708 

80,58? 

BS 

A.JIM 

82,i)69 

«> 

ai40 

4»,6i; 

70 

0499 

137.700 

50 

2749 

147,i;32 

e» 

«m 

205.701 

K 

6'J78 

200,600 

aoo 

7540 

rj3,ie8 

£00 

7540 

180,809 

aoo 

7510 

209,15(1 

10 

T6S 

88, sea 

80 

1B70 

57, ISO 

88 

19BS 

e«,6jo 

ao 

2355 

73,080 

a& 

2747 

94.  two 

40 

aiAO 

]  IS,  000 

60 

3ftJ5 

isa.700 

» 

4710 

173,600 

70 

54a5 

i'03,280 

so 

B'fflO 

228,820 

c  q 


S818 
33BS 
SISO 
SS04 
1889 
8114 
1010 
1000 

rj40 

1825 
2844 
2082 
3 1  SI 

904 
104S 
S890 
885(1 
3665 
il36 
S«H.S 

s«oo 

3654 

S893 
29(M 
2779 


8t.H0 

aoio 

3040 

isao 
isai 

1520 

i!iao 

80»B 

anao 

15-J3 

15*3 

ISiS 

7+6 

740 

746 

3033 

atNS 

S02S 

aois 

80-^3 
3022 

9m 

SOiiJ 
3023 


fii 

~r° 

% 

5i^ 

Ss 

¥-0 
ii  -.1 

a,  s 

3S^ 

&: 

o*** 

42M 

l.HO 

5^03 

a.  50 

5003 

8  90 

5100 

8.U0 

30O7 

1.40 

3366 

s.no 

1610 

1.20 

1503 

a.  15 

1580 

0.87 

2ri07 

2.55 

5356 

O.-iO 

5151 

1.00 

B*i7a 

2.15 

1767 

3.35 

atss 

3  05 

2774 

2.80 

SSBO 

0,10 

SSST 

0.20 

S3B9 

0.29 

S103 

0.4O 

&4:ffi 

0.5O 

»,wr 

0.70 

8381 

0.90 

8886 

1.35 

8718 

1.80 

S540 

S.86 

1^  M     ■ 


e  u 
It 


!1 

IT 

e 

8 


67.13i 
13a. 70 
175.17 
223.. W 

41. or 

ft6.63 

11.27 

27. 8C 

6.8»> 

.W  35 

11.00 

83.43 

101.  .W 

70. -W 

86.80 

92.51) 

0.451 

1.80| 

2.90; 

4.60 

7.40 

12.30 

16.80 

36,90 

57.70 

78.90, 


8n.  )«  t.'i  B 


4&9870.MI 
120.64  w.ir 
102.79  «8. 
129.07  67. 
150.*  61. 

l.SOISS. 

3.70  41. 

CIO  w. 


Tjp*  of  Fan.  Diam. 

A.  OiiibQl,  douljle 20  ft. 

B.  Same,  oulj' lefthand  running.  20 
O.  Gulbal ao 

D.  Guibal «S 

E.  OulbBl.  double iTii 

V.  Capeir 1« 

Q.  Qujbal 85 


Width.    No.  Inlets.     DiuB. 


« 
« 

8 

4 

10 

8 


An  ezanajnatlon  of  the  detafled  results  of  each  test  in  Mr.  Nd 
sbuves  a  mass  of  contradictions  from  nhich  it  is  exceedingly  dtfflo 
any  satlafactory  cnDcJusiODS.  The  follriwing,  he  states,  appear  \ 
or  lesB  warruntwl  bv  MO-me  of  the  flRures  ; 

1.  luJiHfncf  of  the  Conditi'm  of  tlif  Aiitpnyt  on  the  Fan.- 
varrinK  tjquivalent  oriflceg  give  aJr  per  100  feet  periphery-o 
-nitkln  limits  as  foUows,  the  quaotitj  depending  on  the 
mine : 


Equivalent 
Orlflce. 

Under  80  ro.  f 
SOiaSO 
80  to  40 
40  to  SO 

fiOtoOO 


Cu.  Ft.  Air  per 

I  (10  ft.  PeripbeJT- 

speea. 

.  1100  to  1700 
1300  to  1800 
l.WO  to2500 
2800  to  8500 
2700  to  4800 


Aver- 
age. 

1300 
1600 
2100 
2700 
3300 


Eqnivalent 
Orlflce. 

60to  70 
TOto  80 
80to  90 
90  to  100 

100  to  114 


Tbe  InAiieBcei  of  the  mine  tvn  Ihe  ^-tRcVems?  ol  VXm  tvxi  4,<w^iKit  _ 
rery  clear.    £igbt  fans,  willi  equivaXeuX  orttewk  Qs«t  ^  w^jbr 


Cu.  Ft 
100  ft.  t'eriphery- 
speeo. 

aaooto5]oo 

4000  to  4700 

soootosao^ 

B200to4^H 


1 


CBNTRIPUOAL   FANS.  523 

^W< ;  four,  with  sninller  equivtlent  mine-oriflc6s.  Rive  about 
■| ;  wliile,  on  the  conlrai-y ,  six  fan«.  with  equivalent  oriBoe*  of 

set.  give  lower  enicieucies,  as  do  Ceu  faiiii,  all  drawinf;  from 

kequivaleot  oriSces. 

■'" — ,  on  ibe  whole,  ioTKe airways  tend  to  atsiat  somewhat 
jlency. 

'flke  Piameirr  of  thf  Fan.— This  seems  to  be  practicaUv'  nil, 

UK  Of  lartre  fans  being  la  their  j^reater  width  and  tlie  lower 
fot  the  eBgines. 
f  the  Wiiith  of  u  Fan. — This  appears  to  bo  nnall  as  reearda 
.the  machine  ;  but  the  wider  lans  are,  as  n  rule,  Fxhaustlaf; 

'  Sliapf.  of  BJdrffji.— This  appears,  within  reasonable  limits, 
^'  iii7.  Thus,  six  faas  with  tips  of  bla<lt<s  curved  forward, 
(flat  blades,  and  one  with  blades  cun'e<l  twck  to  a  tanfpent 
bfereuce,  all  RiTe  very  high  cSBciencicn-  over  VOjt. 
m  the  Slinpr  of  the  Spiinl  rns/MJj  -This  appears  to  b«  con- 
■  shapes  of  spiral  cosing  lu  use  (all  iulo  two  dasaes,  the  nrsl 
ITKe  spiral,  liei;la[iiu«  at  or  a«ar  the  point  of  cut  off,  and  the 
kr  casiuK  reaching  around  three  quarters  of  the  circumrereaoe 
B  a  short  spiral  reaching  to  the  evasfe  cbimDey. 
Ube  ^rst  fortu  of  casi^  appear  to  give  tn  aliuost  every  case 

pre  a  spiral  belonging  to  the  first  claas,  but  very  much  con- 
bly  medium  efflcieacies.  It  seems  probable  that  the  proper 
f-eaeing  would  lie  one  of  such  form  f nat  the  air  between  each 
Bonld  eonHtantly  and  freely  dischnrtfe  iuto  the  space  between 
■tng,  the  whole  being  Bwe(it  along  to  ihe  nv(«>cairoijey.  This 
Tn  spiral  beKin'iin^  near  the  point  of  cut-off,  enlarKinj;  by 
kiaiDg  mcreiuents  to  allow  for  the  tUowinK  of  the  air  cautied  by 
Wnat  the  casing,  and  reaching  the  cbimuey  tvllh  an  area  such 
Bid  make  its  exit  with  its  then  existing  cjwed— somewhat  less 
pery-speed  of  the  fan. 

fc/  Ilie  Sliiitlrr.  —This  certainlv  appears  to  he  an  ailrantage,  as 
b%a  can  be  repnlnted  to  suit  the  rnryinptiuantitj-  of  air  given 
p  in  this  way  re-entries  cau  be  prevtuted  It.  is  riot  uncommon 
less  faiK  into  the  cliiuineys  of  uliifh  bitj*  of  paper  may  bo 
n  are  drawn  into  the  fan,  make  the  ciroult,  and  ai-e  again 
Riis  peculiarity  has  not  been  noticed  with  fans  r,ravlde<]  with 

I  0/  th"  Speeil  "t  fchich  a  Fun  in  Run.— It  Is  uotii^ealile  that 
Sails  giving  hish  eftltriency  were  nmning  ot  a  mtlier  high 
city.    The  best  speed  seems  to  tic  between  5000  aud  601X1  feet 

tear  to  reach  a  maximum  efficiency  at  Bomewhere  ahnutthe 
bd  to  decrease  rapidly  in  efQcieucy  when  this  mai.iuium  point 

■ 

I  of  Mr.  Norris's  paper,  Mr.  A.  II.  Storrs  says:  From  the  "  cu- 

lolution  "  and  ■'  cubical  contents  of  fnn  blades,'  as  given  In  tlie 

that  the  enclosed  fans  empty  tlipmwives  from  one  half  to 

lution,  while  tlie  Qjpeu  fans  are  etnntii.sl  from  one  and  tbree- 

Irly  three  times.    This  for  fans  of  both  types,  on  minen  eover- 

[range  of  equivalent  odflces.    One  operi  tan,  on  a  very  large 

bptied  oeurly  foui'  times,  while  a  clo«w]  fan,  on    a  KtlH  larger 

Blows  one  and  oue-hutf  times.    For  the  iipen  fans  the  "cubic 

;  motion  "  1<  greater,  in  proportion  tn  ihe  fau  width  and  «"quiT- 

liau  for  the  eneloBed  type.    Notwithstandiue  iliis  nppareutly 

lOf  the  open  fans,  tliey  show  very  lou-  efflcifiicies. 

ICr  the  very  lar^o  cnpueity  of  centrifugal  fans  to  pass  air,  if 

lof  the  mine  are  made  fiivorahle.  a  l*>-ft.  diani.  fan,  4  ft.  6  In. 

^Intions,  pa^ised  3fiih(miicij.  ft.  por  miu.,  and  another,  of  same 

^ghllv  wider  .lud  with  larger  intake  circles,  passed  U)0,(XX>cu. 

Ekauge  Jn  botli  lunliuiceB  beiiig  about  '/sj  in. 
Bb.vh  :  The  effleirncy  renoried  ia  some  oases  by  Mr.  Norrto  is 
Save  ever  been  ii.bl*^  lu  ueteriiiine  by  experiment.     My  own  ex- 
rde<l  lu  the  I'eimsy  Ivania  Mine  Inspectors'  Reports  from  VSCH      J 
show  more  tiuui  O0.i  to  SSji.  J 

i 


I 

^B    Kxpcrtmenta   made  wltli  a  Blackinaa  Disk 

^V  dluni ,  by  deo.  A,  SuU-r,  tu  detoruiinp  the  volumes  of  air  delir 
^m  »ariou»  conditions,  und  tlic  power  required;  with  calciilatfoiii)  of  i 
B  and  raiii)  of  Itierease  of  power  to  Increase  of  velocity,  by  G.  H. 
1^   (Trans.  A.  a  M.  E.,  vil.  MVj: 


yaijtre  of  the  Kxperitnents.—T\T9t9fix\es:   Dratriag  air  throagfaWi 
48-1d.  diatn.  pipe  on  inlet  Ki<1i>  of  tlie  fan. 

Second  Series:  Furciug  air  through  80  ft.  of  48-in.  dlam.  pipe  on  onlU 
of  the  fan. 

Thinl  PeriB-s:  DrawiuK  air  tlirouRh  30  ft.  of  iS-in.  pipe  on  (nlet  side  f 
fan— the  pipe  beinic  obstTuc(.ed  liy  a  diaphragm  of  cneeee-cloth 

Fourth  Berk'u:  Fort'lng  air  through  80  ft.  of  ■<8-ln.  pip*-  on  outlet  fi<l«( 
— tlie  pi[>e  bc'iuc  olwtructed  by  a  dlaphraKm  of  chtese  eloth. 

Mr,  Baltcoclt  saya  concxTninc  these  experiments  :    The  first  four  O 
meuis  nre  evideiitly  the  Btibl«cc  of  some  error,  hocanse  the  i  fti.i..ruv  i»l 
as  to  prove  un  an  aver.ige  (Imt  tlie  fan  was  a,  Fource  of  jp.  ■ 
overcome  nil  liwses  and  n^"ln  drive  the  engine  besides.    Tin 
lens  questionable,  but  ritiJl  the  I'flloiency  In  the  8r.>?t  two  iv  i 
thanmieht  be  expeoleti.    In  the  third  and  (oui1h  w^ri' 
cheese  cloth  in  th"  pipe  n?<.lnees  the  effleieucy  Uirs->lv 

In  lbisca.^e  the  value  has  l)e*?n  calculated  from  (lie  tu  ;_...  _  , _     J 

water  pre»ure.  rather  than  the  artiml  velocity  of  the  uir.  j 

This  recuril.  orexperinienlM  made  wilh  the  (fislt  fan  .showi;  that  Uiltlj^ 
fan  is  not  adapted  for  use  where  tliero  is  any  ninterini  lesisfjin.-.'  i..  iM 
of  the  air.     In  the  ceutrlfngal  fan  the  power  lilted  Is  m-nrl^   ; 
the  amount  of  air  moved  under  n  piveii  head,  while  in  (hjs  f  ■' 

quired  for  the  snnie  number  of  revolution'*  of  the  fun  in,  t. 
rlally  with  t'.ie  r«-ait-tnnee.  iiotwftlujtnndinK  the  quantii  ■  ' 

same  Wf/'P  cori.'ideial)\y  reduced     \n  fact,  (rom  the  " 
aoO  fourth  /-eriea  of  lefts,  it  wmiiA  hvvw^t  \\\&x,  W*  \  ' 

BparTr  tie  same  for  a  (liven  press-ore,  •wYicxXvct  mot*'  iisj 

It  Would  seem  tbat  the  luaitv  advontaee,  \5  awy  ■  «'  '  '"* 

trifuffBl  fan  for  slight  reKist&ncps  cc.t\&\a\«  \^-^<6-(.'"  „.\^.v\vaTsi,aw,1 
fuHa7eaoetbedA,  xvhile  with  ceHt.TWup,8.\ta.t»B.toV*.ui^«iVV«i»,cnM 
quaatitjr  of  air  Uie  opening  ia  mucli  aDttn.\Wit.  ■ 


DISK  PAX3. 


525 


I- 


I  ^  txiliiinns  8  and  9  of  tbe  tahkt  tUat  th«  power  utm]  ia> 
I  fiiilly  than  Uie  cuhe  of  the  VHli<rii<-  n.<i  Ux  c^iitridiirnl 
;  erimeutB do  not  alr^«^e  witb  tvich  <>ii-(.>r,  but  a  Kfuei'al 
i<.->l  a-s  about  the  cube  root  of  Oit;  «!«•,. LLh  jxjwer. 

(  of  Air  removed  by  Kxhanat  Dlitk-wrbcel  per 
Uliaate.    (Buffalo  forge  Co.) 


r 

Diameter  of  Wheel, 

'  84  IniJi. 

aOIncb.  86  Inch. 

« Inch, 

48  Inch. 

54  Inch.  COIncb. 

lalncl). 

Amoutit  of  Air  In  coble  fe«t  pur  minute. 

4.345 
8.40S 

8.08(i 
ll.OOS 
13.641 
16,813 
19,110 
83.053 
li5,liT 
a8,8-35 
81,RI9 
84,310 
8C.W0 

8,0SB 
9,tG4 
13,410 
]5,H-J-i 
19.40K 
«3.U7 
87.018 

ai.iij 

3a,7-v'7 
44,-'77 
4H.n93 
53.»58 

:8,SRr 
la.sssi 

17.4.V 
->7.8i7 

s;.iw 

4a.B32 
49,4fl7 
&&.152 
60,401 

14  DW 

fiO-X 

..      1.684 
.-      «,OT4 

..    «,8ra 

..     •,770 
..     X,J»7 

»,6.VJ 

.       4,H8 

4.6TJ 

9,0S0 
8,.'«8 
4.013 
4.008 
6,(B6 

e,5ia 

7.446 
8.488 
e.4S« 

8.504 
4,541 
5,550 
6,631 
T.755 
8,95U 
10,'JIO 
11,490 
18,818 
14,«» 

i.%,rr6 

s,oor 

7,079 
6,681 
10,233 

11,915 
13,907 
15.1S9 
17,381 
19,815 
SI. 875 

23,iao 

siia<i7 
aii.iiLVJ 

4«.1»30 
AB.3H0 
67.B85 
76,900 

—    .. 



Icney  ot  Disk  Fans,— Prof.  A.  B.  W.  K(«nn«>(1y  (rndustries.  Jan. 
iniule  a  -itti'io^  of  tenu  on  two  disk  futin,  2  and  3  ft.  diametrr.  kiiowii 
Verity  8ilfiit  Alr-proiwller.  Tlte  principal  rcsuUa  and  cundusioiis 
lensed  below. 

h  ca««  the  eflflclpnc.v  of  tlio  fan,  lliat  Ib.  flu'  quantity  of  air  delivered 
ctlve  horsepower,  increases  very  rnpiidly  a-»  Tin*  speed  diminishes, 
lower  speeds  are  much  more  eeouoiiiical  Uiaii  higher  ouen.  On  tlio 
ind,  Bslliu  quantity  nf  air  delivered  p«r  revolution  is  very  nearly 
t.  tlie  actual  ust'fid  work  done  by  tli<;  fan  inereasen  almost  diructly 
opecd.  C'Mn^iarin^  the  larK'e  and  Kinnll  fans  with  nltoiit  the  Ranm 
ery,  the  former  (nmnlnc  at  a  much  lnwer  8fK>e<l,  of  coiii-He)lt>]iiuch 
fr  eC'io«inlcal.  Comparing  the  two  fans  running  at  tlie  itarae  !ti>«ed, 
•,  tlif  Mualler  fan  la  very  nuicb  the  nipre  econ'  iiilcal.    The  delivery 

ii  inn  of  fan  l3  very  nearly  directly  proportional  to  the  arek 

:ii-ler. 

■i-ed  f>er  mlnnte  by  the  8-ft.  fan  is  nearly  IS.Bff  cubic  feet 
;  111'-  iiuinl>er  of  levoliiiioiis  made  by  the  fan  iH-r  iidniite).  Ki>r  tlie 
I  the  quontiiy  Is  .'j.7B  cubic  feet.  For  either  of  thp«e  or  any  other 
fans  of  wbicli  the  area  is  A  fwjiiare  feel,  the  delivery  will  lie  nlxint 
•uUlc  ItmX.  Of  course  any  change  in  the  ultcli  of  the  bitides  nilglit 
change  the«e  flares. 

et  H.P.  taken  up  la  not  fnr  from  proportional  to  the  wquare  of  the 
■of  reviihilions  iiliove  100  per  minute.    Thu*  for  the  9f!-.  fsn  the  uet 

'^Z- «"' '"  •- '" '" '-  "•'  ■"• "  x^S" 


I 


enoininntors  of  these  two  fraction!)  are  verj'  nearly  propnrtlonal  In- 
to the  Mjuam  of  the  fan  areas  or  the  fourth  power  of  tfiu  fan  diiini- 
The  net  H  P.  required  to  drive  a  fan  of  diameter  D  feet  or  ai-ea  A 
feet,  at  a  npeed  of  R  revolutions  per  niinuco,  will  therefore  be  ap- 

"^'     ir.im.oH)  10.400 boo  ' 


526 


ArR. 


Speed  of  fun,  reToIutitins  ppr  minute. 

Net  H.P.  UMlilve  fan  auJ  licit  

Cubic  fert  of  nir  p<?r  iiiinnte 

Mean  velixHly  of  air  In  :i-l't.  flue,  teal 

periiiiuiite 

Mean   veiocHy  of  nir  in  due,  same 

diameter  as  fan 

Cu.flof  air  periniu.jiei-efrectivB  H.P. 
Motlnii  (^iven  loairfxr  rev.  of  fan,  ft. 
Culi-tu  feet  of  air  per  rt^v.  of  fan 


lYopeller, 
•2  ft.  (Ham. 


T.V) 
0.4S 
4,183 

S93 


6T0 
0.33 
8,830 

543 


j,880  i.aao 

8.9S0  11,970 
1.77  1.81 
5.58     .1.tI6 


sr? 

0.287 
3,410 

1,085 

1S.0OO; 

1.S8, 

6.00 


PruprlW. 
3  ft.  dioiii. 


B7« 
1.02 
7,400 

i.CMK 


7,230 
12.8 


4SII 

o.sn 

5,900 


io.oni 
l.n 

12.6 


POSITIVE   BOTABT    BI^OIVISKS.  (P.  H.  &  F.  H.  Bo«<i 

^        I  2  8 

IH       S  5  8 

250    225  200  175 

to      to  to  til 

aOO    S7S  WO  *!S 

6      10  16  34 

to      to  to  to 

8      14  30  so 

...    a75  a75  aoo 

to  to  (o 

.   .     875  3-25  800 

...       18  24  SO 

to  to  to 

...      24  80  SO 

...     IW  SW  8 

to  to  to 

...      2  8  4^ 


Siiie  number ),1 

Cubic  feet  per  revolution. . ..       ^ 

Revolutions      per     minute, J  ,. 
Siiiitli  tires j  ^ 

Fiiralilies   blast    for  Smith  ^     ^ 
(Ires 

Revolutions  per  minute  for 
citpola,  tnelt lii^  Iron 


Size   of  oiipola, 
side  lining.. . 


tnclies,   In- 


Will  melt  iron  per  hour,  tons 


Horse-iiower  reqiilrert. 


1       'i    m    Si4 


4 

6 

18 

33 

ISO 

145 

to 

to 

£00 

175 

a 

47 

to 

to 

43 

«7 

1R5 

170 

to 

to 

275 

250 

86 

43 

to 

to 

43 

50 

*H 

8 

to 

to 

7 

IS 

"H 

17« 

w 


The  aroonntof  iron  melted  is  based  nn  30.000  cubic  feel  of  olrper 
Iro!*.  The  linrse-power  l.<  for  innxlimim  *ipee<i  and  a  pressure  of  JiJ 
ordinary  cupola  pressure.    (See  also  youndry  Practice.) 

UtiOWING-ENGINKS. 

Blant-rurnare   Bloivins-enKinea  of  tbe  T«rlabl«  Ps] 
Talve  Cnt"OirT>pe.    iPliilada.  EuBineering  Works.) 


Diameter 

Diameter 

Rliop 
WeigliLs. 

Revolu- 

of 

of 

stroke. 

tions, 

Steam- 

Blnwluff- 

approTl 

oidinarj' 

cylinder. 

oy  Under, 

mate. 

speed. 

iu. 

in. 

in. 

pounds. 

!ffl 

se 

86 

80.000 

60 

38 

66 

48 

DO.OOO 

50 

S3 

7S 

48 

1013.000 

50 

3fl 

73 

48 

130.000 

50 

,       80 

84 

48 

140.000 

50 

36 

84 

60 

16.5,000 

40 

I      49 

84 

48 

itis.odo 

.V) 

1      *■- 

84 

60 

IBC.OflO 

40 

1      43 

my 

48 

170.000 

hO 

48 

90 

60 

ISS.OOO 

40 

48 

m; 

48 

ano.noo 

SO 

48 

m 

(W 

280.000 

40 

Displace- 
ment of 
Piston  per 
minute  at 
ordinary 
speed. 


cubic  feet. 
8.550 
9,500 
Jl,30e 
11,308 
1.5.S93 
15.898 
15.3M 

i.t.ms 

IT.TDO 
17.700 

ao.ooo 
ao.ooo 


Bl 

Si:  re  lOT 

ularWi 


i 


The  hlowinn-enginen  of  l\\f  cov\n\TS  &■»«  VisuftW'S  ^^fvs  ^'u.Vcrvilot 
by  reimoii  ot  wlre-ilrawliig  TaU'e-eear,  ClTiA  tKoet\«.\\-j  oV  TNsivtjatn 
The  IhUlt  Is  peiliaps  tlie  greatest  anii  V\\ei  \>»ftv.  twswa.vi*A  A -^ 
e'ifrlne  defects.     AUno^i  any  expenae  to  tacrt^w*  ^*.^,J!§^a,'l., 
eagiaes  to  warranted.    (A.  L.  HoUey.  trau&.  K. V^. ^.,^o\-V. . v^ 


STEAM-JET   BLOWER  AND   EXHAUSTER. 


527 


.  Matlons  of  power,  c-B|>acit]r.  etc.,  of  bloTrlnR-vnitlnes  are  the  saiiia 
rfor  air-eoiupr«?BSors  Tliey  are  built  wltliont  »uy  pirnviBJon  for 
the  sir  during  coniprestiiou.  About  400  feet  per  niliime  i»  tlie  ukiihI 
peed  for  I'ecent  forms  of  engines,  but  with  positiTe  nir-ralves,  wliich 
eu  introduced  to  some  extent,  tliis  speed  may  b"-  liicrea^<ed  The 
y  of  the  eriyiue,  that  is,  tiie  ratio  "f  tlie  l.H.P.  of  the  air  cylinder  to 
the  steatn  cylinder,  is  usually  talceu  at  OO  per  cent,  tlie  lusses  by 
leakage,  etc.,  being  talcen  at  10  per  cent 

STKAin-JET  BLOWER  AND  BXHAUSTER. 

irer  and  exhauster  is  made  by  L.  Sebutte  &  Co..  Ptiiiadelphia.  on 
ciple  of  the  ateaui-jet  ejector.    The  following  Is  a  table  of  capacities: 


1 


Quantity  of 
Air  per  hour 

in 
cubic  feet. 

Diameter  of 
Pipe»  in  inches- 

Size 
No. 

Steam. 

Air. 

1,000 
2,000 
4,000 
6,000 
1S.O0O 
18,000 
84.000 

.8 

8 

1 

e 

7 
B 

g 

10 

ri,,.„,i,vr.f       Diameter  of 
In 


of 

Ml 
cubic  feet. 


i».000 
3fl.00a 
4^.000 
48.000 
5t,t)00 
M,(Xltl 


Steam. 


S 

s 


Air. 


Imlssible  racuum  and  counter  presKure,  for  which  tli^t  apparatus  ia 

!(ed,  is  up  to  a  rarefacriou  of  SU  inches  of  mercury,  aud  a  counter- 

!  up  to  one  sixth  of  the  xteuui-pressure. 

,ble  of  capacities  Ls  based  on  a  Rteampresiiui'e  of  aUout  60  ll>!<..  and 

ir-pre«sure  of  about  8  lbs.     Willi  an  Increase  of  Kteatn-pres^ure  or 

>of  couiit«r-preg»iire  the  capacity  will  largely  increase. 

er  «ieam-jet  blower  is  used  fur  boiler-Hi ing.  ventilation,  and  similar 

I  where  a  low  cuiinter-preii.aure  or  rarefaction  meeta  the  rc(iulre- 

ilitinegas  given  in  the  following  table  of  capacities  are  under  the 
Ion  of  a  ateam-pressure  of  45  lbs.  and  a  eounter-presBure  of,  say, 
of  water : 


Cubic 
eetof 
Air 
iUvered 
ir  hour. 

Diameter 

of 
Steam- 
pipe  iu 
lDcbe«, 

Diameter  In 
Inches  of— 

Sljie 
No, 

Cubic 
feet  of 
Mr  de- 
livered 
per  liniir 

Dinm. 

of 
Steam- 
pipe  In 
laches. 

IHatiioter  hi 

iufhtSK  of — 

Inlet 

Dl»ch. 

Inlet 

Dlwli. 

a^ooo 

l:i,000 
30,000 
(lO.OOO 
35,000 

1  * 

4    - 

5 

6 
11 
14 

» 
4 

U 
8 
10 

4 

6 
S 
10 

£50,000 

600.000 

l,(lfl0,0(XI 

i,0«0,«)0 

1 

m 

17 
H 
Si 
ii 

14 

30 

a? 

iiS 

I 


Steam'Jet  m*  a  mteana  for  Toiitllatlon.— Between  1810 
the  Bteani-)et  was  employed  In  a  coiisiilerablH  extent  for  venlllat' 
lisii  coilif-rie.*,  and  in  186Ja  comiiiltUv  of  the  House  of  Cotninoiis 
[chat  it  was  the  most  powerful  and  at  ilio  saitie  time  the  clieBiieHt 
for  the  venlllation  of  mines;  liut  eipeiiments  made  sliortly  alter- 
roved  that  thi^  opinion  was  erroDeotis.  aud  that  furnace  ventilatloTt 
Iban  half  ati  expeiitdve,  and  in  conHeqiience  the  Jet  was  soon  abaa- 
t  a  iii-rnianert  Wfthorl  of  reiililation. 

!.r  o(  ihfsf  t^speriutfiM^  see  C\ilUefTf  Engineer,  Feti.  VWO. 
&  aouifiimcn  «t/raat(i^oii.sly  used  as'  a  su\)9l\lvvle,  toi 

■ws  or  a.  /ao  atari jHifi-  for  rennirs,  or  after  au  expWa\otv, 
'^^^1^"°'  '^  **^'  ^'""^'  '>'•  to  the  civse  ot  tbetatvVvVtTs 


I 


BEATIXQ  A^I>   VBNTILATIOK. 


HEATDTG   AND   VENTILATION. 

,     Veatilatlon,    (A..  B.Vf o\tl,  Stevtni  Tndicator   Xpri\,\8K}-'n»\ 

[nlar  iiiipivsHluii  iliat  tlio  Impure  air  fallK  to  the  bnttoin  of  a  crowded  d 

fifct  erroneous.,     TIiwb  Is  a  constant  inttiKlIn^  of  the  fresh  air  adnilttedl 

'thf  inijiiire  air  due  to  the  l&w  of  il>fTu>>inii  of  gasvs.  lo  dUTerenceof  Ivil 

'  atiire,  etc.    The  piiiceKs  of  ventihuion  is  one  of  dil  .tiou  of  the  Inipuif* 

by  the  fresh,  and  a  room  in  propriiy  veiiiilatt^  in  the  opinion  of  ihttby) 

ist8  wlien  the  dilution  In  kiicIi  that  the  carbvnti.'  acid  in  the  a\r  do««  not 

ce«d  from  6  to  fi  parts  by  volume  in  10,000.     Pure  fountry  air  coutaiuill 

4  pans  Cil.j  in  10,000,  and  badly-ventllate<l  quartern  as  htgh  as  80 parti. 

All  oitlinary  nittD  exhales  O.ij  of  a  culilc  foot  of  (.'O,  per  hour.    N«w  1 

ga''  given  out.  U.'h  at  a  cubte  foot  ot  OOg  for  eaeh  cubic  foot  of  tSuH 

[Au  ordinary  lamp  gives  out  I  en.  ft.  of  CO,  per  hour.     An  ordlBaryc* 

'i;ive3  out  0.3  cii.  ft.  per  hour.     Oiiii  ordiiiHr.y  gaslight  equals  In  tIiH 

effeot  about  5H  men,  an  ordiuniy  lamp  1*4  iiien,  and  an  ordinary  ctM 

man.  { 

To  determine  the  quantity  of  air  to  be  eupplled  to  (he  Inmates  of  M 

lighted  room,  to  dilute  the  air  to  a  desired  standard  of  purity,  we  csocl 

Jish  equations  as  follows:  | 

Let  o  =  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  to  he  gupptlert  per  hour; 

r  =  cwtilc  feel  of  CO,  in  eaeli  m.OOCfeii.  ft.  of  the  entering  air: 
H  =  cubic  feet  of  CO-j  which  each  10,000  cu.  ft.  of  the  air  lo  the  ( 

fiiay  enntainr  for  proper  hetklth  eondltionsi; 
n  =  number  of  persona  in  the  room; 
.0  =  cubic  feet  ot  CO,  exhaled  by  one  tnan  per  hour. 

Then  +  .6)1  equals  cubio  feet  of  COj  cotnmitnlcated  to  I 

Ing  one  hour. 

This  value  illvlded  by  v  and  multiplied  by  10,000  gives  the  m 
CO,  tu  10,000  parts  of  the  air  In  the  room,  and  thia  should  eqtuil  i 
dord  ot  purity  desired.    Therefore 


'<>H-^  +  -«"]      „r«-m!L 


^= ^^T^ "'"  = 

6000 

If  we  place  f  at  4  ood  R  at  0,  v  =  „ — r  n  =  30OO», 

0  —  4 


B-r 


or  the  quantity  of  air  to  be  anpplietl  per  person  is30iW  cubic  feet  per  ha 
If  the  ovitiriiial  air  in  the  room  In  of  the  purity  of  external  air.  and  tbtt 
contents  of  the  motti  is  equal  tio  lOO  eu.  ft.  per  inmate,  only  SOOO  -  100s< 
en.  ft.  of  fresh  air  from  ivlthoiit  will  Imve  to  be  Hupplled  the  flrst  M 
keen  the  air  within  tht;  standard  purity  of  B  jmrts  of  CO,  in  10,000.  t 
cubic  conleiits  of  the  room  eq^unlii  2110  eu.  ft  per  inmate,  only  3(X)i)  -SOOi^ 
CII.  ft.  will  have  to  be  supplied  the  nrst  hour  to  kevp  the  air  irDhil 
Ktandard  pvn'ily.  and  90  on. 

Again,  if  we  only  desire  to  innintain  a  standard  of  purity  of  8  t 
carboulc  add  iti  10,000,  equation  d)  gives  as  the  required  air-8upp(yi 

^B         V  =  -jT — ;:»  =  IMXbt,  or  IGOO  en.  fl:.  of  f reab  air  i>er  inmate  per  lioiirj 

C^ibic  feet  of  air  contatnlni;  4  fiarta  of  carbonie  aeld  In  tO,000 1 
perBOa  per  hour  to  keep  the  air  in  room  at  the  comi>oaitioo  of 

6  7  8  0  10  15         80    {f'*"fo'^'*"' 

XXV      SOOO       ISOO       1300       1000       6«       Xre     eublcfeei. 

//  fije  orlgioal  atr  In  the  room  \a  ot  puvWi  ot  exVeTOB^  ».\wsw^>Bni»Jj| 

orcarbpiifo  acid  in  10,000),  the  amount  ot  tot  n.<i  W  ™VV)>jA  ^«^ 

for ghea  cubic  spaces  ner  Inmaie^  J.^  ^'^''S  ,»j!!^t^t^S;ivS 

eioeeded  At  the  e^  of  the  hour  Is  ofeisAne*  tTomO»t«\«>-«vB*-<M 


TENTILATIOK. 


539 


iWc  Feet 
of 


Anidi 


tidual. 


Proportion  of  Carboiiio  Acid  In  10,0011  I'mtsof  the  Air,  not  (o 
Iw  Exceed«l  nl.  End  of  Hour. 


40 


Cubic  Feet  of  Air,  of  L'omposii ion  4  Tarts  of  Carbonic  Acid  lit 
10,000,  to  b«  Bupplkd  tbe  Fii^Kt  Hour. 


3900 
8W0 
2700 

aeoo 

210U 
3%X) 
8U00 
2100 
iiOOO 
ISOO 
1000 
300 


1900 
1800 
ITOO 

IIIOL) 
IMM 
IWO 
l.tlW 

rjuo 

1100 
lUOO 
BOO 

None 


1400 
1800 

]-;oo 
linn 

KKK) 
ItlX) 
KlHI 
TilU 
(HU 
&IIO 

None 


1100 
1000 

too 

8>I0 
TOO 
tlOO 

rioo 

400 

3U0 

300 

None 


tHW 

TOO 
B4I0 
500 
400 
300 
»<0 
100 
Nona 


■itn 
s».\ 

iir. 

45 

Noue 


87.^ 
None 


It  i<  exceptionni  that  nvBtcinalic  venlllaiion  supplies  tbe  SOOO  ciililo  fi>et 
Hnmste  per  hour,  nliicli  iidi'qimte  h>-«lth  consiileiatioiiB  deinaiid.  I^rife 
UltoriumK  in  wliicli  ih«  ciiiiic  muu-v.  p«t  fndiviflual  !g  gri-al,  und  In  vvhleli 
I Mmoeipliere  is  thtiroiiKlilv  trvHh  beforo  t)m  rounis  cius  occupied,  anil  (he 
fenpancy  is  of  two  or  (breflKiiira'  iluration,  tbe  s}>teinatic  uir-Kuriply  may 
IreducMl,  aud  -JUOO  to  'JiOO  ciibii;  feet  i>er  Ininate  por  hour  is  a  »aiJ.staeiory 
ktvaocs. 

Hospiisis  where,  <ifi  aecoiiiit  of  unlipalthy  excretiong  of  various  kinds,  the 
Mllutlon  must  ho  lurge-sr,  an  «ii-.Hiii>ply  of  f mm  4000  lo  BOOO cubic  feet  per 
Mate  per  biiiir  sl..iiild  be  provid<»d,  nnd  this  is  nelually  secured  in  somn 
tpltats.  A  rt*i>»°i  dAt«d  March  15.  IH8'i.  by  n  coniniittsioii  appointed  to 
kmlite  the  public  schools  of  ilio  Dirtrlct  of  C'oluinlila.  «ayR  : 
^tu  facli  clii'Ui.i  ooj  n  mil  le-u  tiiHii  15  Hquare  lf>-t  of  tloor-Kpacr  mIioiiM  be 
lotted  to  eacii  pupil.     In  each  class-room  the  H-inrlow-.ipace  kIiouIfI  not  be 

Jilhiin  one  fourtli  the  ftooi-sp.ice,  anil  iht?  distance  of  desk  most  remote 
m  the  wiiKlow  should  not  be  mure  than  one  and  aliaVf  iImips  llie  helKht  of 
p  t<>p  of  the  wbiOrtW  from  ibe  fl'>'^r.     The  bei;^lit  of  the  idHKii  room  suotdd 

F!r  Bxreed  14  f«fi'l.  The  provlsionti  for  ventilation  kIiouM  be  sucli  a*  to 
ride  for  each  pTson  in  a  ci«'«-riiom  not  li-ss  tbiin  .lO  cul>ic  fi'i-l  of  fn^«h 
per  minute  (1«W  per  hoiti).  which  ntiionnt  niuft  lie  inirndiicBd  and 
imuirhly  distribiii'M  withonl- creating  unpleasant  ilrsiichtn.  or chubIuk  any 
)  partfi  of  the  room  lo  dllTwr  !••  teni|«>ratiire  more  than  l!"  Fabr.,  or  the 
iXmunn  temperature  In  exo-e  I  T0°  Fnlir." 

VhHn  the  air  enters  ai  or  near  the  floor,  it  is  desirable  that  the  velwlly  of 
»t  ulionld  not  eX'-e.- 1  'i  feet  per  second.  Bhicli  means  tnrcer  sines  of 
^er  op<Miioira  and  flue*  than  are  iismilly  oblrhmble,  nnd  nuieb  liipher 
ncities  of  inlet  than  two  feet  per  secomi  are  Ihe  STile  in  practice.  The 
iicily  of  current  into  vetit-flu<'s  c.»n  safuly  bi'  ah  liigh  08  0  or  even  10  feet 
rsecond.  without  beinp:  disagreeably  iieri'cptilile. 

iJ>8  entrance  of  fresh  air  Into  n  nwun  is  i-olticittpiit  nirli.  nr  dependent  on, 
!  removal  of  an  equal  amount  of  air  from  the  loom,  Tbe  orditiarj'  meana 
femoral  is  the  vertical  vent-duet,  ri.iins  tn  t  lie  topof  tlie  bnildliiir.  8"We- 
!►»  reliance  for  the  proilucliot»  of  the  ciuTetit  in  this  veiitdiict  is  placed 
tiy  on  the  difference  of  tenip»'P«ture  of  (be  air  in  the  room  and  that  of 
exlernal  afmoHph*«re;  sometimes  a  Kteam  coU  Is  places!  within  the  flue 
It*  britfom  to  heat  the  nir  H-ithiii  the  duct;  sonu'timen  Rleam  v^^»e» 
j„.j  .,»..,„.  ,;,a  up  eb&ilm-t  prrfoiiiiiog  tbe  .tamefuiictlona-,  OTft\ea.Ttt 
■  rt-xfinuHt  tana,  drireii  lir  ateain  or  electric  power,  swi^. 
■'.-  soroef/Hiea  the  beating  of  the  air  In  Itae  flvte\a«kO- 

c-f^u^  *  dual  L,  oao«Hi  bjr  tbe  difference  of  we\gVtt  ot  «W! 


530 


HEATING  AND   VENTILATION. 


heated  air  in  the  duct,  and  a  column  of  equal  height  and  cro«»MO(k 
of  n-elght  of  the  extartial  air. 

Let  <i  =  density,  or  weight  In  pounds,  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  exten 

LiF't  (1,  =  densj'lT,  or  welKlit  in  pounds,  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  Iti 
wfthio  the  iluuc. 

I>et  h  =  Tertlt-al  helpht,  in  feet,  of  the  veut-duct. 

Hiii  —  ilil  =  the  pressure,  Iti  pounds  per  Kqiiai'e  foot,  with  whfadi  I 
forced  into  and  out  of  the  venl-iluL't. 

TlilH  pressure  can  bv  expressed  in  height  of  a  column  of  tlie  alrol 
willtln   [he  vetiUdiier.  nricl  evidently  the  height  of   such  column  i 


pre888ure  would  fae^ 


il. 


Or,  if  t  =  absolute  teniperatute  of  external  air,  and  <,  =  al»oluta 
al  ure  of  the  air  in  vent-duct  In  Ibe  furm,  tlien  the  preiisure  equal* 


hit,  -  t), 
t      ■ 


The  theoretical  velocit.v,  In  feet  per  second,  with  which 
travels  through  the  veut-duct  under  this  pressure  is 


'¥ 


V'(/. 


=  8,02  , 


1 


The  actual  velocliy  will  I>b  cr*n«iderobly  le.xs  than  thia,  on  acconn 
due  til  fiiciion.  This  friction  will  vary  with  the  fonu  and  cros* 
area  of  llie  vent  duct  and  its  conneclionK.  and  willi  the  depree  of 
ne88  of  its  inierior  siirfnce.  On  this  act-ounl.  &■*  ivi-II  as  to  prevenl 
cf  air  tlirouRh  crevices  in  the  wall,  tin  iinintt  of  venKlues  is  d^-siral 

The  In.ss  by  friction  miiy  be  estininleil  at  Hpnitmltnaiely  5W,  and  s 
(or  the  aclual  velocity  of  the  air  as  It  How  s  ihrough  tiie  veuc-doct ; 


'  =  l|/«»* 


(f.  -  0 


,  or,  approximately,  v  = 


\ 


If  n=  velocity  of  air  in  vent-duct.  In  feet  per  minute,  and  theaxi 
lie  at  !W°  Fahr..  since  the  absolute  teinpermure  on  Fahrenlielt  seal 
Ihenuomelrlc  teinperature  plus  4afl.4, 


V  =  iiOi 


from  which  has  lieen  compnted  the  foIlowInK  table  : 

QnaTitily  of  Air,  In   rnbJc   Peel,  Dlacharsed  per 
llirniigh    a  Veiiltlatln^   Duet,  of  \%'hlrli    tbe    Cra 
tioiial  Area  iw  line  ^iqiiarc  Foot  (the  Ijxtcrual  Tel 
tiire  or  Air  bclue;  32'  Faltr.). 


Hei|;ht  of 

Vi-nl-duct  in 

fi-et. 


Excesa  of  Temperature  ot  Air  lit  Vent-duct  ataow 
Estemol  Air. 


10 

80 

.10 
8& 
40 

46 

50 


6« 


iH 
IW 
IS1 
183 
I4S 
\{A 
ICS 

in 


10" 


lOfi 
133 

ir.3 

171 

1H8 

■Jl" 
230 

a« 


15«       20"       2S»       SO*       80*     N0< 


les 

\m 

210 
830 
24S 

297 


158 

IH) 

■in 

'M-i 

Silo 


171 
UIO 
2« 
»TI 
8fl7 
«ll 


230 

an: 

825 
37.1 


£42 

a»7 

3S3 

419 
4&3 
4M 


.  »U,U ii.lyinc  the  figures  in  above  <*^^«  ^^.^^v^^i^oi  ^wSS 
cliargeJ per  hour  i»r  square  loot  ol  croa^witVoT^  oV  iw».v«»r 


MIITB-VENTILATION. 


'tional  area  of  vent-diicis  we  can  And  the  total  dlschar^;  or 
ilred  air-reinovnl,  we  can  propotiloD  tlie  rrussHX^llonat  area  of 
Sts  rfqtjired. 

■eial  Cooling  of  Atr  for  Vontliatlon.  i  Kngineerinif 
(lly  7,  ITO,'.  I— A  imiiiij  iif  coal  iiswd  to  make  Ktcaiii  for  a  fairly  em- 
ifrlifrrntinsiiiac'hlntf  can  produce  an  actual  cooling- off  wt  equal  to 
gduced  by  th«  mt-ltlug  of  16  to  46  IImi.  of  ice.  tlie  amount  raryinar 
( cooditions  of  workinK-  Or,  855  beai-unllK  |>f r  lb.  of  cool  eonverted 
tk  In  the  refrif^erating  plant  (at  the  rat4^  of  3  lbs.  coal  per  horse- 
lour)  will  abstract  a475  to  fiMS  heatunlts  of  heat  from  Ihe  refriger- 
ly.  If  we  uUow  aXW  ou.  ft.  of  fresh  air  per  licjur  per  perrton  ax  suffl- 
r  fair  ventilaiioa,  with  the  air  at  an  Inlllol  leiii(H?ratnn!  of  H0°  F.,  ita 
per  cubic  foot  will  be  .0738  lb.:  hence  the  hotnly  Hiippty  |>er  person 
gh  aOOO  X  .OraU  Ib.  =  lir.a  lUs.  To  ami  this  ]()<•.  Ilie  sjieciflc  heat  of 
|;0.S38.  will  require  the  abHtractloo  of  MT..!  x  0.-J38  x  10  -  :3&0  heat- 
r  person  per  hour. 

g  ttoe  flKurex  given  for  the  refrieeratiu^  effect  per  pound  of  coul  im 
laied,  and  the  required  abstraction  of  SHO  beat-unit!'  per  perwin  p4>r 
have  a  satisfBotory  cooliiip  effect,  the  refrlReralion  olitaiued  from  a 
f  eoal  will  produce  this  cooling  effect  for 227.5  -i-  S-VI  =  OJn  hours  w:ll)i 
tefHciffil  HorkiiiR,  or  (VMS -j- .l-'iO  =  18.7  iKiurs  with  the  most  L'llkleut 
'.  Wit  li  ice  at  $5  per  urn,  Mr.  VVnlff  computes  the  cost  of  cool  iiiif  wiih 
lout  $.}  per  hour  per  thouisand  peraoDS,  and  concludes  that  tliist is  too 
re  forans'  general  use.  With  mechanical  rcfrifrerntion,  howecer,  if 
me  10  hours'  cooling  per  person  (wr  pound  of  coal  as  a  fair  practiiai 
in  retrular  work,  w«  have  an  expense  of  only  15  cts.  per  thousand 
per  hour,  cool  being  estiitiated  at  ^  per  sbori  ton.  TliU  is  for  fuel 
Dd  the  various  items  of  oil.  attendance,  interest,  and  depreciation  on 
,t,  etc.,  must  be  coi)8idered  lu  luakinf;  up  the  actual  total  cunt  of 
leal  refrieemtioii. 

lT«ulUation— Friction  of  Air  In  Fudereround  Pa»> 
I — Id  veniilatuit;  a  jiiine  or  otimr  utidur^ruuim  pannuf^e  the  resi.slance 
Bfoonie  is  according  lo  nii>«t  writers  on  thifi  uubjeft,  prnportional  to 
ot  of  the  frictlonul  Hurface  exposed ;  that  is,  to  the  product  In  of  the 
(  the  gau^nay  by  its  peilineter,  to  the  den.sliv  of  the  iiir  in  circnla- 
Jhe  sqiukre  of  its  averaife  speed,  i',  and  lastly  to  a  coL'fllcieiit  k,  whose 
bI  value  varies  according  to  the  nature  ot  the  Bides  of  the  gangway 
lirefnilaritiefi  of  its  course. 
irmula  for  the  losa  ot  head,  neglecting  the  variation  In  density  as 

tant,  Is  p  =  ,  in  which  ;:i  =  loss  of  pressure  in  pounds  per  imuare 

nqnare  feet  of  rubbinjf-Rurface  expoiied  to  the  air,  v  the  velocity  of 
i  feet  per  minute,  ft  the  area  of  the  na5.sage  in  square  feet,  and  k  the 
at  of  friction.  W,  Fairley.  In  Colliri-y  KHuiuee);  Oct.  and  Nov. 
es  the  foUouini;  formnla>'for  nil  the  quantities  involved,  usIiiR  Ihe 
talion  as  the  above,  with  these  additions  :  It  =  hi»r»e-power  of  ven- 
i  =  length  of  air-chnniicl;  n  -  perimeter  of  air-channel;  q  =  quan- 
(Ir  drtiulaling  in  cubic  feet  jwr  luitiuie;  ii  =  unli-s  of  work,  in  foot- 
plied  lo  circulate  the  air:  w  =  water-gauge  la  laches,    Then, 


I 


kfv'       "  _  "J 

(I        "ptT  =  iJti~  V 

qp    _  B8gig 
83,000  ~  88,000 ' 

p  B.9tt» 


pa      u      y    kt       Y   ^* 


U  v> 


kt      k* 


IT" 


14.  ie< 


'5*1 


To  And  the  quantity  of  tit  willi  a  Riven  bors«SK>wer  aik 
an  Tine: 

h  X  8S,000  X  8 

«  = P • 

The  »ftliii»  of  k,  the  coeinelent  ot  friction,  as  stnted,  vax 
the  iiaturi'  cf  lln"  sliles  of  tlio  gangwHr.     Widely  divergent 
f(lreii  bv  ilKtiMWit  Authuiltli-R  (hum  CnlUtry  Engineer,  No*^ 
netier-aily  Hcct-i'ti'd  one  uiKil  rcreiilly  boitiK  prolmbly  ihnt  0 
.OOOflOOfr.'ir,  wliti'li  is  th<>  [ircwnri"  per  .oqiiare  foot  In  decimal 
i»M'h  K<|iiBiv  foot  of  nihliliiK-siiiraL-i?  nnd  a  vWocity  of  one  fl 
Mr  Fiiirli-y.  in  liis  "'  Tlieoiy  uml  Priielir.'e  of  Veiilllaiing  Coal 
value  If.is  tiiaii  halfof  Ati<iiiwin"s.t>i'  .tKXKVWoi;  and  rwentej 
Murj(ue  bliixv  iliut  I'v^n  iliin  viihii>  is  lif^ii  iinilur  most  condtl 
remi)t«  are  (fivnn  In  IdH  jmiii-r  on  Kx|>p!irnwital  InveKligHtioi 
Head  of  Air  ciliTeiiUi  In  Under>»ruiMid  Wurkines,  Trans,  i 
vol.  xxiii.  03.    Hill  coenici^Dta  are  given  in  the  followiDK  tabi 
lu  twelve  ezperimuula: 

Ooefl 

Hei 

Frem 

[Rtraiirtit,  normal  «ection (lOiJO 

Rock.        I  Strali;lit,  DOnna)  stwlloii , 

gangways.    1  Strait^hl,  Inrge  s<-ction 

[Siraif^lit.  iioi-iual  Hfction , 

f  Straight,  iinrnial  sectiOB 

Brfck-llned    |  Htraii()it.,  normal  section 


•"to  WfUElV  fWt  m  fflp^  ITwMit  OriftCCt 


Q g 


ST  Vl^'       ^  = 


0.37 


10  =  o.iscg  X 


(f/- 


Dlumn  or  fhe  Head  of  Afr  Dne  to  Difl°erences 

iture,  etc.    (Falrlny.) 

jve  column  in  tvvl; 

kperature  of  upcast; 

|(ot  of  Cine  cubic  foot  of  the  flowing  air; 

iperature  of  ilowncast; 

cbot  downcast. 


r-t 


or 


6.S  X  to. 


p=fy.il; 


■      5.8 


ieter  of  a  ro(iiid  airway  lo  (>«!<«  the  same  amount  of  air  as  a 

*tlie  length  oiul  power  remaining  lUv  Kaiiie: 

meter  of  round  airway,  A  =  nrt'ii  uf  square  airway;  0=  perl- 

V  ^'  X  it  1«I6 
:|e  aJrway.    Then  V—if    .■^s5^»  x  o 

Irt) «tnptoyml  to  ventilate  a  mine,  ehch  nf  which  when  worlted 
MtlCM  a  fennin  nnantiiy,  which  may  i>e  iiiiJIoited  by  A  and  H 
Utyof  air  that  will  pasawln^n  the  two  fans  are  worked  logaiber 

(■  IP.     (For  mItiP-ventilnlinB  fans,  nee  )>a(?f  Ml.) 

Efllrlenry  or  Fanit  and    Heated  t'litmneya  lor 

B.  -W.  v.  IV.iwlirliij;.',  I  runs.  A.  S.  H.  K.  vii.  .'iSl,  gives  ii  tlit'O- 
n  of  llie  relative  amounts  nf  iit^ai  ox|ieDiied  lo  remuce  s  Ki^'eii 
pure  air  by  a  fan  and  by  a  cliiinney.  A-wuminK  tiie  tol«I  tlll- 
|l  lo  be  only  1  'JS,  wldcli  is  made  up  of  iin  eflloieni-y  of  I/Hl  for 
10  for  the  fan  ilKelf,  HUd  ft,  ll»  fur  t'tnoteucy  a*  iv«uitlii  fiifllun, 
esan  i-xpendimreof  lit^at  to  driT«  it  of  only  l/iSof  LlietDUiiuiit 
rei]iiired  to  (>ro<iu<re  the  kuiiic  veiitiliilloii  liy  a  cliiinney  IIK)  ft. 
ildiiiiicr  SOU  ft.  hi^h  the  fan  will  be  7  U  tiiiips  more  effloient. 
pf  moderate  ventilation  of  rooms  or  buildinint  vbere  llie  air 


•to.,  ia  ekksuUted  jm  foUowa :  i 

S  =  amount  of  tmnsniilliiig  surface  in  square  r»*t; 
/  =  temperHtuie  K.  uifiiie,  f,  =  tempfraiure  outside; 
K  —  n  coofflciem  iviirewntin;.  for  varioiisi  materials  com', 
file  ItiHM  l>y  tmiihuiissioi)  por  square  fuot  of  surface 
mal  units  per  hour,  for  each  degree  of  difference 
on  ihe  two  sides  of  th«  material : 
Q  =  total  hrattranxmUsJoii  =  SK(t  -  t,). 
'rhiKi|uaiitily  of  heat  is  also  (lie  amount  that  miijifc  be 
room  ill  iii'dfr  to  nialfe  Kond  Ui«  lews  by  trnitKini«^ioii,  t>ut  £ 
tJiif  stMli ional  heat  to  \>e  conveyed  on  account  of  the  cliaugt 
pises  of  ventilation.  Tliecoefllcients  A'piven  belnw  are  thoil 
law  hy  the  Herman  Oofernnienl  in  the  design  nf  (lie  heatinf 
|>Ml)lic  Iniililin^,  ami  genprally   used  in  Germany  for  all  bu 
Imve  been  cutiverled  into  American  units  by   Mr.  Wolff,  aaj 
ihey  agree  well  with  good  American  practice: 

Value  of  K  for  Eacb  SqciJiii  Foot  or  Bniox 

^'liricTwau' f         *"      ^"     ^^'    ''"    *"    **"     **"      ' 
X'  =  0.08    0.46    O.Sa    0.S8    O.'JS    O.SO    0.174     ft 

1  sq.  ft.,  wooden-beam  construction,  I  aa  floorll 

planljetl  over  or  ceiled,  f ...asoeilinj 

1    so.   ft..    (Ireprocif    cuiMlruutiou,  I ....a«  floorll 

floored  over,  ( asceitin{ 

1  nq.  ft.,  sintfle  window , 

I  sq.  ft ,  single  skylight 

1  sq.  ft.,  douljln  window 

1  sq.  ft.,  double  skylight 

1  cq.  ft.,  door 


Tbesa  coefflcients  are  to  be  inrr«>a«>d  respectiTely  r8  foHoi 
AxpoKure  Us  a  iicrtiierly  one,  and  winds  are  to  be  counted 
factors;  10$  when  the  building- is  heated  during  the  daytl 
location  of  the  buildinK  is  not  an  exposed  one;  .>('<  wh« 
heated  during  thedaytimo  only,  and  the  location  of  the  bull 
SO*  when  the  building  is  healed  during  the  winter  moot' 
with  long  Intervnla  (say  days  or  weeks)  of  non-heating. 

The  valin*  of  tliti  rail'inting-surface  is  about  as  faUowas 
pajit-imn   rndloting  snifiweK,  in  American  i'adlaton~(o( 


VENTILATING  OF  LARGB  BDILDINQS.  636 


heated  to  09°.  except  a  double  skylight  in  ceiling,  14  x  24  ft., 
outside  cemperatiirt*  of  0*,    Store  rontn  beyond  east  wall  at 

12  ft.  In  wall.    CoiTidor  beyond  s^imth  wall  heated   to  59°. 

li,  io  wall      Cellar  bfiow,  teiniwratuir  3tJ°, 
[  table  shows  the  calculation  of  lieat  transmission: 


pt  Transmitting 
I  Surface. 


_  Caleulatlnn 
_-5.nl  of  Area  of 
ofe  c  Tranarnitting 
5^—  Surface 
Ho 


lirall 

Ddows  (sioftle/.. 
rail  (stoi'e-room). 


jaU  <corridorj. 
^(corridor). 


kyligbt. 


It  =  ■ 


83  X  as  -  448 
4  X    8  X    14 

42  X  sa  -  n 

6X18 
45  X  as  -    78 

6X12 
17  X  *J  -    78 

6X  12 

S3  X  42  -  338 
14X24 
63X42 


II 


^ 


UB 
863 

72 
918 

78 
SOS 

7a 

l.OOS 
336 

3,604 


entary  allowance,  north  outside  wall.  lOt 

"  north  outKidu  wkndaws,  I0!(, 


I  looatlon  and  Intertnittent  day  or  ntght  use,  30^ 
^  thermal  unitw .. 


I- 


8,442 

a2,2ai 

3.408 

1,308 

i.886 

1360 

302 

300 

10,080 

14,448 

10.416 


83,276 

814 

3.226 


87.346 
gfl.aiM 
lia.550 


It  that  the  lecture- room  must  he  heated  to  69  depreea  Fabr.  In 
[fa«n  uuoccupied,  so  an  to  be  at  this  lemperature  when  flrat 
I,  there  will  be  required.  TeutilatioD  tint  beiug  considered,  and 
\  low.preBsnre  sienni  radiators  b«in^  the  heating  mt'dia,  about 
f  455  sq.  ft.  of  radiatiuK-surfaL-e.  (This  g'iveB  a  ratio  of  about 
intents  of  room  for  each  sq.  ft.  of  beaiingsiirface.) 
m  that  there  are  IW  persons  in  the  kcture-rtioni,  and  we  pro- 
i  feet  of  fresh  air  per  prrson  per  hour,  we  will  supply  160  x 

'cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  (i.e.,    .-'      -  oTer  eight  chaneea  of 

49,UUU 

r)in  per  hour). 
air  from  0°  Fahr.  to  60°  Fahr.  will  require  400,000  X  0.0180  X 
termal  units  per  hour  (0.0189  heiiiir  I  lie  prnrtuet  of  a  weight  of 
y  the  speelflL"  heat  of  air).  Ac(.'ordl  rigl y  Ihf  re  must  be  provided 
\  \m\  *t\.  ft,  of  jTidii-ect  snrTHce,  to  heat  tb«  air  required  for 
I  zero  weather.  If  tiie  room  were  to  be  wnrrned  entirely  inill- 
i  by  the  air  supplied  to  rotmi  linctuiling  the  heat  to  he'conveyed 
T)y  transmtssiiin  through  walls,  elc),  there  would  have  to  be 
be  fresh  air  supply  521.640  +  1 IIJ-W  =  0.15.11(0  hcat-iinlts.  Thin 
lie  provigiuii  of  an  amount  of  indiruci  heatioK-surfsu'e  of  ihe 
Be  of  635,190 -«■  400  =  1589  sq.  ft.,  and  the  fresh  air  ent4>ririg  Ihe 
pa*e  to  be  at  a  temperature  of  about  84°  Fahr.,  viz.,  69°  = 

|,  or  69  +  15  =  84°  Fahr. 

ialculations  do  not.  however,  take  into  account  that  160  per- 
Mur«-room  ^ve  out  160  X  400  =  04.0OC1  ihermal  units  per  hour; 
(60  electric  lights  give  out  50  X  lOno  =  Wl.OOO  thermal  units  per 
[50  g-asUgbts.  50  X  48(K1  ^  '.'40,000  thermal  units  per  hour.  The 
to  people  and  the  eas-lighting  would  iiiinini,«h  consi(leral)ly  tbe 
lai  required.  Praetiially.  it  appeam  that  ifae  heat  generated 
kceof  IGO  people,  61. (HX)  heat-units,  and  hy  50  eloi-tric  liplils, 
Its.  a  total  of  U4,(XH)  beat-units,  more  than  covers  the  aniouut 
fcitted  through  walls,  etc.  Moreover,  that  if  the  50  gasligbls 
^  thermal  units  per  hour,  the  air  supplied  for  ventilation  must 

Eably  below  09°   Fahr.,  or  the    rfioin  will  be  healeA  Xo  avk 
h  temperature.    If  100,000  cubic  feet  ot  fresli  alt  Vfe*  ^^^^ 


636 


BBATHTQ  AND   VENTILATION. 


are  aupplied,  and  240,000  Ihennal  URiU  per  hour  KeDcrated  b; 
be  abstracted,  it  nteaus  thai  Uie  air  must,  uoiier  tiieaa 

Dlil  OOQ 

<ou  wo'x  OlM  ^  *'"'"'■  ^"''  '***  "'°"  ^°"  "''  **■  *''°"'  *** 
more,  ihe  ndditioiml  vltialion  due  to  craslfKlitlnf;  would  DMM 
larger  supply  of  fresh  air  than  when  Ltie  vjiialinn  of  iheatau 
people  aloQti  is  coueidt^ri^O,  ona  gtti^liKht  viUaiing  the  air  as 
:iien. 

Varlou«  Rnlea  for  Compntlne  RadlatInK>sa 
ftiUi>wln«  lulfs  ai-e  compiletl  from  various  sonrct^.    They  ar 
nature  of  "nilK-of-tUitnib  "  rulvs  than  tliose  gireu  by  Mr. 
above,  but  they  inny  be  useful  for  compaiison. 

Divide  till"  c;ul)ic  fe«t  of  himoi?  of  ilie  room  to  be  heat<^.  t 
•>f  wall  suifaeif,  aud  tliu  )>[)uuri>  fet't  of  the  glass  surface  I 
Kiveu  uuilcr  l)i4-sn  hitaflings  iti  tlw  folloning  table,  and  add 
together;  the  ri-gult  will  be  the  squara  feet  of  radiatliig-sur 
tP.  Schumann.) 

Space,  Wall  akd  Glass  Suhtaob  wbicr  Ons  S^tiARB  Foot  ( 
atniFACE  will  Heat. 


1 

■§ 

^ 

3 
U 

•* 

a-n 

.z 

o 

«  a 

n 

< 

* 

m 

Once 

1 

1(HI 

per 

3 

•■!\<\ 

hour. 

b 

75 

Twice 

] 

T>er 

S 

na 

hiiur. 

fi 

Ml 

Expoiiure  of  Rooms. 


All  glile.9. 


Wall 

Surra<-e, 
sq.  ft. 


ta.s 

15.0 

ie.5 


m.l 

15.1 
IS.O 


Glass 

Surface, 

sq.  ft. 


Northwest. 


Wall 

Surface. 

sq.ft. 


Ola.<w 

8urfAce, 

sq.  tt. 


8.5 


15.87 

:8.97 


6.05 
B.BS 
9.77 


6.7 

13.78 

S.S5 

6.2 

18.91 

7.  IS 

6.7 

14.68 

T.60 

V/t 

Surfi 
tM). 

~T. 
IB 
l». 

'is! 

u. 

15. 


Emissiok  of  HsAivcNrrs  per  squark  foot  per  Hour  prom  Caxt-i 
OR  RADtATOBS.    Temp.  OF  AiK  IS  RooK,  'C  P.    iF.  SchumaoB, 


Mean  Temperature  of 
Heated  Pipe.  Radia- 
tor, etc. 


Hot  water..... 140° 

"       "     liSO» 

•'     .]«u« 

"      170» 

'•        "        180* 

"        "      190» 

•*        "      800« 

"       "     or8te*m..S10* 
Steam sMC 

'.M0» 

,.860» 
.880« 

.sro" 
i"     -.^ eso" 

.S90» 

.soo» 


BjrIU 
oiiilU 


IKDIBECT  HEATIH0-8URPACB.  5S7 


r 

■MpvMK  RtEQuiRco  roR  DiFPCREHT  KifiDs  OP  BusLDiMOB.    (From 
NmoI  the  Dubuque  Steam  SoppJy  Co^  External  Air  0°  F.     Cfaas.  A. 


tCiiblf  ft  of  Room  heated 
by  1  »q.  ft   of  Surf  nee. 
Direct;       Indirect 
Synlein.     Svstfin. 

»|!« SO  40 

«Mesa«e 1«5  100 

reUII .100  80 


Ciihlc  ft.  of  Room  heated 
by  1  no.  ft,  of  Siiifnoe. 
DlreL't      Iiiillri'Ct 
Sj'Btein.    System. 
Banka.ofHres, drugstores  TO  CO 

LarRfi  tiotele. ...ia»         100 

Churtheg 800         IM 


fi»ftn  t\tg.  Co.'s  caralofnie  irlveji  the  following:  One  square  foot  rif 
I  »ill  heat  from  40  to  100  cii.  ft.  of  space  to  75°  in  -  ia>  lalltii(l(ff>. 
«)?»«  inti'iidcil  to  iiie«ft  coodilinnK  of  exposed  or  corner  rootiix  of 
p,  and  thiiKH  less  so,  as  interniediiitp  ones  of  a  block.  As  a  pt-Ufrnl 
K).  It.  of  nurfftoe  will  heat  TO  cu.  ft.  of  air  in  outer  or  front  rooms  mid 
ti.  in  inner  rooms.  In  large  atoren  in  cities  witti  buUdingB  on  each 
» 100  Is  ample. 

APPROXTMATB  pROP0nTIO>'l   OP  BADIATINO-BtrnPACEB. 

qoare  tool  rodiatiog-siirfnce  will  heat: 

Lin  dwt-lliugB,       III  hall,  ptorea.  In  churt'lies,  large 
8c'lionlri>0!ns,       lofts,  factories,  auditoriums, 

ofn<:ea,  etc.  elc.  etc. 

tstion...        60  to  80  ft.  75  to  100  ft.  ISO  to  200  ft. 

rwt  radiation .       40  to  60"  BO  to  70"  100  to  HO  " 

ed  biillrllngs  exposed  lo  prevailing  north  or  nest  winds  should  have 
Ouiaddiiion  made  lo  the  heatinc-snrfiice  on  their  exposed  sides, 
allowing  rule  ic  given  in  thw  calaloirue  of  tlie  Baboook  &  Wilcox  Co., 
ll»  recnaimerided  by  the  Nnson  Mf^.  C*».; 

itlng  surface  may  be  calculated  by  the  rule:  Add  fofrelher  the  square 
Clan  in  the  windows,  the  nnnil>er  of  cubic  feet  of  air  required  to  be 
n  per  minute,  and  one  twentietli  the  surface  of  exteriisi  wall  and 
luftiply  this  snm  l>.v  tlje  ilifference  between  the  required  leinpernlure 
n'om  and  that  of  the  •■xternal  nir  at  iLs  lowest  point,  and  divide  ilie 
t  by  the  dilference  in  temperature  between  the  steam  in  the  pipes 
•■required  temperature  of  the  room.  The  quotient  Is  the  required 
iiit-siiTfncH  ill  tiiuare  f>'et. 

rkead  Sfeam-ptpea.  (A.  R.  Wolff,  Strvrnt  Indicntor,  1887.>— 
fcoTerhiVnl  .lyBU'iii  uf  ateam-heallD^  is  einployefl.  In  which  system 
Bjating  pipes,  usually  I!4  in   in  diam.,  are  placed  in  rows  orerhead 

toro 


I 
I 


upon  lioriZ'inial  racks,  (he  pipes  riioniiie  l^orixontaily,  and  side 
around  the   whole  Interior  of  the  huildinp,  from  2  to  H  ft.  froiri  the 


"■B'i  from  S  to  4  ft.  frnm  the  ceiling,  the  amount  of  ]W  in,  PT 
Bccording  to  Mr.  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury,  for  lieating  mills  (fcir  nliic-h 
■  system  is  deservedly  much  In  voeiie),  isabout  1  ft.  in  letielh  for 
Ben.  (t.  of  space.  Of  course  a  great  range  of  difference  exists,  due 
ipcdal  character  of  thi?  operating  niaohliiery  in  the  mill,  bntli  in  re- 

•  'be  aninuiit  of  air  circulated  by  the  mftcliinery,  and  also  llie  aid  to 
|f  ihe  rdoiii  I'r  the  frietinn  nf  the  journals. 

''set  UoRtlog-surface,— J.  H.  Kinealy,  In  Bratinii  ami  Veit- 

•  Jlay  LI.  1M91,  gives  the  following  formula,  deduced  from  results  of 
'eniR  by  C.  B.  lUchards,  W.  J.  B.-xldwin,  J.  H.  Mills,  and  oibei-s,  upon 
"eaters  of  various  kinds,  supplied  witti  varying  nmount.^  of  air  per 
''  square  foot  of  surface: 

•  35,04 


^^  -  0.36B 


J 

T,  -  (T,  -  r.)  (o.809  +  5^)+  r, .  1 


ic  feet  of  air.  reduced  to  70"  F.,  supplied  lo  the  heater  per  square 

lot  of  healinr-surface  per  hour; 

iperstiire  of  the  steam  or  water  in  the  henCer; 

iperature  of  the  air  when  it  enters  the  heater", 

pertrure  of  the  air  nhea  it  leaves  IJie  heater. 

^rwula  In  baaed  upon  an  areraeo  of  experiments  maAt  1 
mfJ^LJ!,^tL''1:  {*?  "Mu/ts  f.bt«lne<l  by  tlie  use-  ot  tVxeT 
^tmtes  be  atlgbtly  too  Amall  and  in  otiiers  aA\g\a\y  1) 


I 


538 


HEATING   AKD   VENTILATION. 


^^tlthoue)i  the  error  will  In  no  case  be  great.    No  uliiek-  formn 
^KKpect«<i  to  apply  equally  well  to  all  diKpnsltlons  of  lifntinf 
^^Blr(?ci  beaters,  as  the  eflifit'ncy  of  such  lieatei'  oaii  be  vmi.- 
^Hhrlile  lliiilUi  by  the  eo'iHlruciion  uiiil  arran|(i;inent  of  the  siirC) 
In  iurllreot  healiug.  tbe  ffncioiicy  of  the  radialinc-^oi'^'M 
and  the  tempeiaiure  of  the  ulr  will  diuiluish,  ulieu  (ho  qiu 
caused  to  piuw  thi-ough  the  cc>il  increasfi".    Tbus  1  sq.  ft.  ri 
Avith  steam  at  il-i',  has  been  found  to  heat  100  cii.  ft.  of  air  per  I 
zero  to  ISO",  or  3i)d  cu.  ft.  from  z«io  lo  100"  ia  the  satiis  lime.    Tl> 
suits  are  attaiued  by  iiAitig  hidireot  radiation  to  supply  tbe  n^ 
latioii,  and  direct  radiation  for  tlie  balance  of  tbu  beat.     (Slrani,} 

III  iiidire^ci  ftteam-liKUting  thi^  least  line  arf".a  Kboiild  be  1  to  \U 
lo  every  squaru  foot  of  heating-surface,  provide<l  there  are  no  lonjl 
tal  reaobea  In  tlitt  duct,  with  little  riHe.  Tbo  register  sbmil-l  h«v^  If 
area  of  the  duct  to  allow  for  the  fretwork.  For  hot  watiT  licailnsf 
lo  30^  mora  heating-surface  and  fine  area  should  be  givea  tbaoi 
pre«.siire  ntfani.     ( Eiifiitiferiiiij  h'l-fmil.  May  26,  1804.) 

BoUer  IIoatlng-Burfaco  Required.  (A.  R.  WoUr,  Stet 
Ciilor.  ltSS7o— VV'lidn  the  direct  KyHKiii  ia  used  to  heat  buildings  lot 
stroat  floor  ia  a  store,  and  the  upiwr  doora  are  deroted  lo  wlea  i 
riioina  and  to  light  inaniifacturing,  and  in  which  tli«  fn>uts  arcofl 

I  iron,  and  the  sides  and  tbo  rear  of  bulldingof  brick— a  safe  rule  lofd 
(apply  1  sq.  ft.  of  boiler  heating-mirface  for  each  TOO  cu.  ft ,  ami  1^ 
hidiatliig-surtace  for  each  100  cu.  ft.  of  comenta  of  building. 
[   Kor  healiug  inllli),  KbopK,  and  fnctorie.'?,  1  sq.  ft.  of  Uglier  heatia 
phould  b(3  supplied  for  each  4To  cu.  ft.  of  cont«cita  of  building;  andj 
lUtowanoe.  sliould  also  be  nimle  for  healing  exposed  wooden  dwelli^ 
lleuting  foundries  and  wooden  Kliops,  1   8q.  ft,  of  boiler    heali* 
ulioiild  be  provided  for  encli  •100  cu.  ft.  of  contents;  and  f"ri 
which  gliiga  enters  rery  largely  in  the  coDKtriictioii — such  as  cofiieli 
exhibition  buildings,  and  the  like— 1  sq.  ft.  of  boiler  hoatiug-siirtli 
be  provided  for  each  275  cu.  ft.  of  coulentM  of  biiildiiii;. 

When  the  Indirect  syst^'m  la  employed,  the  radia(or-sur(a««  i 
capRcity  to  be  provided  will  each  nave  to  Ixi,  on  an  average,  aboul| 
Ihan  where  direct  radiation  la  uned.    This  percentage  also  marlittl 
niately  the  increased  fuel  consumption  In  llio  indirxect  system. 
atenm  (Babcoek  Jt  Wilcoi  Co.)  has  the  following:  1  fs^.  ft.  of  I 
will  .supply  from  7  to  10  «q.  ft.  of  radiating-surface,  depending  up 
of  l)oiler  and  the  eFlluieiKty  of  its  BUi-face,  as  well  as  that  of  the  I 
Kurfaoe.    8niall  boilers  for  house  tise  should  be  much  larger  uropei 
than  large  plants.    Each  horse-power  of  boiler  will  supply  rrora 
ft.  of  l-in.  steam  pi  IMS,  or  80  to  120  sq  ft.  of  radiating  surface.    ' 
of  apace  has  little  to  <lo  with  amount  of  steam  nr  surface  requin 
convenient  factor   for  ruvigh  calculations.    Under  ordiuAr/ 
horae-power  will  heat,  approximately,  in- 
Brick  dwellings,  In  blocks,  as  in  cities 1S,000  to  so.onfli 

"       stores  "        "        10,000    "    15,009 

"       dwellings,  exposed  all  round J0,0O0    "   15.000 

"      mills,  shops,  factories,  etc T,000    '■   10,000 

Wooden  dwellings,  exposed  7,000   "   10,000 

Foundries  and  wooden  shops O.COO   "  10,000 

Ezliibillon  buildings,  largely  glass,  etc 4,000    "    15,000 

Proportion  of  Grafc-anrfhce  to  Radlator«ar(b<f< 

(J.  R.  Willutt,  Heating  and  Ixiifiladuu,  Keb.  IBM.t  ^H 
'•qTrt**^  .T!"*  '  }  «00  SCO  40O  800  800  1000  I**)  1400  IQOO  ^H 
°^*"|*"^;    [     190    808    aSi    SOI    630     754      879     tM    IMO  ^| 

Sleam-consnmptloii  In  CAr>It«*tlne.  ' 

St.  Paul  Railway  TtsTa.    {Bngineeitng.  Ji 


BE0ISTER8  AND  COLD-AIB   DUCTS. 


339 


CI  Diameter*  of  Steam  Sapply-malnat  vrtth  Total 
Utance  eqnal  to  il  Incbes  of  Water-colnmn.* 

Mm,  Pressure  10  lbs  peraquart)  inch  utiove  atm.,  Touipeniliirts  339"  F. 

fannalA,  d  »=  0.5374  i/  -^;  wliers  d  =  iuteroal  diameter  in  iiicheg; 

alicubic  (eet  of  steam  per  miiiut«  per  100  sq.  ft.  of  radintiiiB  surface 
^length  of  rnaiug  In  feet;  h    =  IM.S  feet  hrad  of  steam  to  lunclni-e  H< 


f{  Intrnial  Uiaineters  ia  Inuhea  for  Lengths  of  Midnij  from  1  ft.  to  GOO  ft 


il  ft. 

10  ft. 

20  ft. 

40  ft. 

60  ft. 

80  ft. 

lOOft. 

aoflft. 

300  ft. 

400  ft. 

600  ft. 

it.;  lach. 

iacb. 

inch. 

inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

Inch. 

1 

o.ms 

0  IIV 

0.136 

O.LW 

n.170 

0.180 

0,18a 

0.21(1 

0.234 

0.248 

0.27X1 

lis 

O.IS 

o.ao 

U.34 

0.39 

0.43 

0.45 

0.47 

0.54 

0.59 

n  82 

O.fia. 

5 

0.tt 

039 

0.45 

0.53 

OX 

0  OO 

«.BJ 

0.7a 

0.78 

0.82 

O.MJ 

.« 

i).n 

0.62 

0.80 

0.69 

0.74 

O.TO 

O.fiJ 

O.flft 

1.03 

1.09 

1 31 

'2 

o.as 

0.61 

0.71 

0.81 

o.w 

0.93 

0.97 

1.11 

1.21 

1.28 

i.aA 

Kll 

0.43 

068 

0.79 

O.W 

0.88 

1  (M 

1.00 

1.35 

1 .35 

1.43 

1.5S 

o.« 

0.T5 

OM 

O.OH 

1.07 

1.14 

1.19 

1.36 

1.18 

1.57 

1.70 

OIH 

0.99 

l.U 

1.30 

1.41 

l.SO 

1.57 

1,80 

1. 05 

2.07 

2.24 

0,7J 

1.16 

1.34 

1.53 

1.C6 

1.76 

1.81 

2  12 

2.30 

S.43 

a.64 

MM 

m 

l.SO 

1.50 

1.7-J 

1  M 

1,9H 

a. 07 

•J.  37 

3.57 

a.  73 

2  96 

CM 

1.43 

1  &4 

1  68 

a. 04 

S.IB 

2,afl 

a.ao 

2.81 

2.98 

3.28 

«.w 

l.U 

1.76 

2.0.1 

2.20 

S.33 

2.4a 

S.79 

3.03 

3.21 

S.48 

!S 

i.n 

l.TU 

1.98 

2.87 

£  46 

S.fil 

a.7H 

3.13 

3.40 

8.60 

3.90 

K 

i.i« 

1.U8 

S.16 

8.48 

9.60 

8.85 

3.  OH 

3.4:i 

3.71 

3.94 

4.S7 

K 

I.W 

8.04 

3.38 

2.67 

3.90 

3.07 

3.21 

3.S8 

4.00 

4.33 

4.50 

^ 

I,S8 

2.15 

S.47 

a. 84 

3.08 

S-26 

3.41 

3.!ia 

4  25 

4.50 

4.88 

K 

l.U 

2.S7 

S.61 

3.00 

a. a 

3.-14 

a  «0 

4  13 

4.49 

4.75 

5.16 

1.60 

«.S8 

8.74 

3.14 

3  41 

3.ei 

S.7S 

4..W 

4.70 

4.98 

5.40 

1,W 

?.4B 

S.8& 

3.38 

3.55 

378 

3.98 

4.53 

4.90 

S.19 

5.68 

W  so- 

2.92 

S.86 

3.85 

4.18 

4.4!) 

4  63 

B.fla 

5.77 

6  11 

6.e:i 

S.2B 

8.76 

4.3d 

4.69 

4.96 

S.lfl 

5.tHJ 

6.47 

8.85 

7.44 

from  H'iberl  BritrgH'spaperon  American  Practice  of  WarmiDK  BuildiDgs 
Jleam  iProc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  1883,  vol.  Ixxl). 

MJT  other  reKJstaacea  and  pressures  above  atmosphere  multiply  by 
ipeclive  factors  below : 

tier  col  .  Cln.  13  in.  31  in.  1  Press,  ab.  atm.  Olbe.  3lbfl.  301t)s.  flOIba. 
lUplyl.y  O.liiOW  O.BOelS  ().^5l:ti<J  1  Multiply  by  l.n*3  1.015  0,!173  O.IMS 
teglatera  and  Cold-air  Ktucts  for  Indirect  Steam  Heatiiis. 
4*  l/xoiiiuUve  Kives  file  foUowiitK  table  of  openings  for  regisiera  and 
1-alr  ducts,  which  has  been  found  to  give  ftatisraiitory  results.  The  cold- 
boxes  should  have  IHsq  in,  nn'a  roreech  square*  fodtof  rndiotor  suface, 

never  less  than  ?4  Ibn  section  il  area  of  the  hot  air  ducts.  The  hot  air 
to  ihould  have  ■.'  mj.  in.  of  «•  <  Honal  area  to  each  square  foot  of  radiator 
'tee  on  the  flrat  floor,  and  from  1V6  to  2  inches  >>n  the  second  floor, 


.k'HI 


•Uor  Surface 
iaSiscka. 


^■qiiare  foet 


Cold-air  Supply,  First  Floor. 


Size 
Register. 


i  ichet) 
46  vquare  iuchee  =  5  by  9 
60  "  "  =  fli.ylO 
75        "  "        =    8  Ijy  10 

'•  =9  by  10 
•'  =9  by  12 
"  =10  by  12 
"  =11  hy  13 
••       =  12  br  12 


108 
120 
135 
ISO 


inobes 
«by  12 
10  by  U 
10  by  14 
13  by  15 
12  by  19 
12  by  22 
U  by  at 
la  Yiy  SO 


Coldaif 
Suiiply, 
ad  Floor. 


inches 
4  by  10 . 

4  by  141 

5  by  l»i 

6  bv  H 
6  by  li 
8  by  19 


'.(?  fjo  "^i^o  tpproxJiaate  to  the  ruins  giveti,  aiidVtvitiW 

p^iUju^""'  ^^^^o^of  ^ B.ad  a.  full  Ulatributton  vbrom 


540 


HEATING  ANT)   VENTILATION. 


Pbyalcal  Propertt«a  ot  Steam  and  Coadeaaed  WM 
iiiid«r  Condltlona  of  Ordinary  Practice  In  VrarMlat 
Steam.    \Bi'igi;>>.j 


I 


I  Stpain  pressure  i  above atm... 
^1  pur  square  iDcti^  total 

B  Temperature  of  steam 

r  Temperature  of  nir 

n  r>i(Terence  =  B  -  C 

I  I  Hear  Kiveii  cut  per  niiiiule  per 
E  -{      100  sq,  ft,  of   radiatiug-gur- 

(     face  =  D  >;  8 
F  Latent  heat  of  steam  


'oltiiua  ot  1  lb.  wulitlit  of  steam 
''Helit  of  1  cubic  foot  of  steam 
Volume  Q  of  steam  per  minute 
tfl  eWe  out  E  units 

=  K  X  e  -t-  F. 

Weight  of  1  cubic  foot  of  con- 
deimed    ivater   at   tempera- 
ture B, 
Volume  of  condeiiseO  water  to 
return  to  boiler  per  minute 
=  J  X  II  -I-  K. 
Hend  of  Btearn  equivalent  to 
lainobtJg  water-column 
=  K-e-H. 


Stiuh-bcpply  Maiks. 

fHead  A  of  steam,  pquivalent 
J     to  assumed   i  inches  water- 
j     column  for  producing  steam 
[     flow  O.  =  JI-t-0, 
I  Internal  dlameMr  d  of   tube*!  I  i„„t, 
I     for  flow  Q  when  /  =      1  foot,i  f  ""^ 
Do.       do.  when  I  =  100  feet,'      '     " 
Ratios  nf  values  of  d. 


VVater-Rkti;b.n  Maims. 

^He«d   h   assumed   at    ^-ineh 
water  uiiluuin  for  producing 
full-bore  wnier-llow  Q, 
)  Internal  diameter  d  of   tube* 
f     for  How  y  when  /  =3     1  foot. 
Do.       >k).  wheo  (  =  100  feet, 
RAiio.4  of  values  of  rJ  .. 


■  P.  9, 1',  V  »!'•  each  determlnei]  fmm  Ibe  rormuU  d  =  0  tOUt 


Sice  of  Steam  Pipes  for  Steam  Heating,    (.Sm 
Bteaiu  iu  Pipes.)-ili2t.i  •>/  vitlical  utaiii  iiipm,    Uneet  tud'i 
Wlltetl,  Jleulini)  niid  I'mlilation.  iTeb  ,  1W4.) 
Diameter  of  pipe,  IncbeR.    1       144      1^      t      CU      S      tU      4 

So  fr   of  .nllator  surface  ^0      70       110    230    gwJ    MO    SIO    1110 
'  branch  pipt  for  a  givet)  exteut  of  rulUtor  surteee  1 
"r  fhttn  a  vertical  pipe  for  the  same  surface. 
.'ives  ihe  iollowin)(: 

I   fr.  'nmximiiiiii..    nA    3r»    rS»    ti>?(    [J 
n  iii'i'i    i^un  M.- very  ^««l^V^^VJt^Vls^^»•  \ 


"TI 


HEATING   A   QREEXHOUSE   BY   STEAM. 


541 


^Bl-lncb  pipe  may  siipph'  from  afxxi  to  tiVW  sq.  ft.  of  surface,  a  8- 
^■nOO)  sq  ft  .  ami  a  lUliicli  |iipe  f(ir  l.'i,0(X)  tu  .H)  (100  an  ft  ,  if  (be 
^Bun  fruiii  hoiler  Is  uot  too  ^mit.  Lessthnii  I^^inc-li  pi|«  slioiilJ 
pVnoriznntaJly  In  a  main  iirile:?g  for  a  sli>i;l>-  riuliator  (^onnrclinii 
,  by  llif  BalH-iJck  &  Wiicoji  Cu.,  says;  WIimfb  Him  oomleiised  naler 
t«1  lo  tlie  bfiilfr.  or  wlifrc  low  prensiirv  of  stcniii  is  uKeil,  lliedtoint*- 
laliib  l>-il(lliiK  from  Cliu  boiler  tn  tli>-  rniliiiliiiK-Hiirfiicci  hIioiiIiI  lie 
inches  t-i  mie  tenth  thi'  square  root  of  the  nidiatiiiK-siirfiice.  (iiahis 
.  ill  sguare  tent.  Thus  n  1  liieh  piin;  will  supiilj  UM  sipiarw  feivt  of 
Itself  iDcluded,  Reiiirn  jiiiics  NlioukI  lif  fit.  ItHsi  ^^  mcli  in  dlHine- 
never  le«8  thau  oiiehulf  rhe  diiiiiieter  rji  tlio  main— lulieer  reluiiis 
S  larjrer  pipe.  A  lli.irr.iisjh  flrjiinn(r>"  of  Mimiii  jiipes  wilfrffectiially 
all  crairking  and  iiouiidiiig  noises  tlipn-lti. 

Wotff'*  Practice.— Mr.  Wolff  Rives  tin?  follow  iii)f  flgurps  sliowhii;  lib 
practice  (I89T)  iu  proportionint;  mains  mid  retiirns.  Thi?y  nro  Imsed 
Umatecl  loss  of  pretwure  of  2S  for  a  length  of  100  ft.  of  pipe,  not  in- 
kllowance  for  Ijeiiils  and  valves  (see  p.  078).  For  longer  ruuii  dlvldn 
nal  units  K>v<*n  in  the  table  by  0.1  ^lungiJi  Im  ft..  tIttsideH  giving  th« 
muii  the  table  uliio  iiidlcateij  thenmniiiit  o1  diretrt  rndiniing  emrfaoe 
o  st<*sm-pi p<^  can  •.npply.nn  the  linsin  of  an  Bniis,«ion  of  aiO  llierimil 
■  hour  for  e.-ich  !«ijiinre  foot  of  dircfCt.  radiatiiifr  Hiirface. 
Size  or  Pipes  for  Steam  Heatlngr. 

|S  lbs.  Pressure Mhs.  Presstire  _  c  V 


•  ziJi'  3  3,3"U 


^sl 


csstire 

-■J  ' 

ii 

_;  r* 

.as-z 

*a 

l|l-^ 

In. 

BO 

ri 

1«0 

0 

ano 

7 

4nn 

K 

1    8«0 

0 

15110 

10 

aiioo 

u 

S'-TO 

u 

4(iO0 

ifl 

_  ■  Grecniionse  by  Nteam.-Wm.  J.  Baldwin  answers  a 

ihe  .iiurricaii  Miirliiiuirt  as  beKiw :  With  five  poundB  steam- 
•,  how  iiiaDy  square  feet  or  Inches  of  heating  surface  la  nece-ssai")'  to 
I  square  feet  of  (class  on  (he  roof,  ends,  and  sides  of  a  ^reenhoiiKe 
lo  maintain  n  night  heat  of  M"  to  65°,  whilf  the  Ihermoinetrr  out- 
ees  at  from  IR»  to  iO*  below  zero  ;  also,  what  boiler-surface  l.sneces- 
(Phleh  Is  the  best  for  the  purji.ise  to  use— 'i"  [)i|)e  or  1 1,4"  pipe  f 
Relianie  aiitliorltlos  agree  that  1.35  to  l.W)  cublo  feet  ot  air  in  an 
I  space  will  be  cooled  per  inlniiteijer  sq,  ft.  of  glass  as  manj'  Oeirreea 
DternHl  temperature  ot  the  house  exceeds  that  of  the  air  out.Kide. 
I  +  65»  and  -  »)♦  ihei«  will  be  a  <liffer«nee  of  SS",  or,  gay,  one  euble 
llrcooind  IST.S*  F.  for  each  Rq  ft,  of  glass  for  the  nrnat  extreme 
n  mentioned.  Multiply  this  by  the  luinilier  of  nqnare  feet  of 
d  by  60,  and  we  have  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  a>lro<>caled  1°  per 
lliiii  the  building  or  house.  Divide  tiie  iinniber  thus  found  by  4S.  and 
the  uiiiiK  of  heat,  required,  approximately.  Divide  again  hv  9JJ{, 
ill  iiive  the  number  of  pounds  of  steam  that  tmist  be  conileiised  frotu 
ire  and  temperature  of  nve  pounds  above  alinoKphem  to  water  at 
e  lerniwrutiire  in  an  hour  to  nmintahi  the  hent.  Each  square  fool 
iMof  pipe  win  condenw  from  *i  to  nearly  14  lb.  of  steam  per  hour, 
IR  ■■  the  colls  are  expowd  or  »vcll  or  jioorly  arranged,  lor  whieli 
ige  of  Vi  lb.  may  be  laketi.  According  to  this.  It  will  require  3  sq.  ft. 
mirroce  per  lb.  of  steam  to  he  coiiilenseii.  Prii|>orclon  the  heatlng- 
of  rhe  boiler  lo  have  about  one  fifth  the  neliial  radiating-siirface,  if  j 
■  ■]>  Hteam  over  night,  ami  iimportaon  the  grate  to  bn: 
■  iinds  of  coal  per  sq  ft.  ol^  grate  i>er  hour.  With  vei 
I.  lui  takes  plnce  In  ha.se.buridng  boiler.*!,  the  grale 
i«D<x/  ti'c  r«'/r  to  art- pouihlfi  ot  coal  per  hour.  It  i»  cheai 
y4''jHpr  tbmii  of  f,  and  tlit-re  is  notliiiiK  to  be  gained 
mtbe  colia  are  reijr  long.    The  pipes  la  a  Ereeutouae 


I 


I 


I 


542  ffKAUNG  AND    VEKTILATIOX. 

under  or  In  front  of  the  benuhes,  with  ereiy  chance  for  a  ipwdd 
of  air.   "Header"  coil»Are  belter  than  "r«tiini-benij"  coils  for  tU* 

Mr.  Baldwin's  rule  may  be  given  Ihe  following-  form  ;  I>et  H  =  k 
transferred  per  hour,  T-=  temperature  inside  tliH  Kreenhouse.  t  gj 
ture  outside,  S=  sq.  ft.  of  gloss  surface;    then  W  =  l.SSlT- 
=  \.S7fiS{T-  I).    Mr.  Wolff's  coeffieient  K  for  cinglo  sfcjUgM 
H=  I.II8S(T-  t). 

tIeatliiK  a  GreenI)oa»e  by  Hot  Water.— W.  M, 
Richardson  &  Boyuton  Co.,  in  a  Icciiire  before  the  Muster  PliufllW 
cialioD.  \.  Y.,  1889,  sa^s  :  I  fiixd  thai  while  ^leenliou.'^g  nere 
heated  by  4-inch  and  3-inch  oaat-lron  pipe,  on  ac<iouiit  of  the  Urgi 
•water  which  they  contained,  and  tliesuppMitlnn  thai  they  (;a»e  h« 
faction  atid  a  nioi-e  even  temperature,  florist.s  of  lone  experic 
have  tried  4-inch  and  Sinch  ca^t-iron  pipe,  and  also  J  Inch  wrai 
pipe  for  a  number  of  years  in  heallnjj  l heir  greenhouses  by  b( 
and  who  hove  also  tried  Bteam -heat,  tell  me  that  they  pet  benerw: 
Kre&tereconomy,  and  ore  able  to  maintain  a  more  pveo  teniperatni 
inch  wrouRlit-iron  pij>e  and  hot  water  ihan  by  any  oilier  Bystem  t 
tised.  They  attribute  this  result  prnicipnlly  to  th<-  fact  that  tbia 
conlainn  les.';  water  and  on  this  account  the  iieat  can  be  raitied  and 
quicker  than  by  any  other  arrangetneni  of  pipes,  and  a  more  Mitt 
perature  maintained  than  by  steam  or  any  other  gysi«m. 

HOT-WATEB  HEATING.  ^| 

(Nason  Mfg.  Co.)  ^^ 

There  ar«  two  distinct  forms  or  modlflcations  of  bot- water  appai 
pending  upon  the  temperature  of  the  water. 

In  the  Ilist  or  npentank  system  the  water  is  never  abo'e  ml*' 
ture,  and  rarely  aliove  200**.  This  method  always  give»  !«tl«factl 
the  surface  is  siiffieiently  lil>erBl.  but  in  vnabini:  it  so  its  cost  Isooai 
g]'eater  than  that  Tor  a  steaiii-henlini;  apparatus. 

In  ihe  seei^nd  method,  KouietinieK  cnlied  (erroneously)  high-pm 
water  heatiiif;.  or  the  closed-synlem  apparatus,  (he  lank  iselotnl 
provided  with  a  safety-valve  set  at  101bs.il  is  practically  as  safe  ad 
tank  system. 

Law  of  Velocity  of  Floi*.— The  motive  power  l.(  theoi 
in  a  ((ol-water  a]>piiruius  is  the  diderence  l)et«efn  the  y 
the  ascending  and  the  descending  pipes.    This  effpcli- 
sntall,  and  is  eauol  to  about  one  grain  for  each  foot  in  '. 
gree  difference  between  the  pi|>es;  thus,  with  a  liei|.'l  i     i  : . 
and  a  difference  between  the  teinpenitures  of  the  111    Ml  !        -■    :   i 
the  difference  In  their  specific  gravities  is  equal  to.s  ;tl .  r  im  -,  u  -i. 
Inch  of  the  Nection  of  return-yiipe.  and  the  velocity  of  the  circul»tii 
portioned  to  these  (lifffrenc"  in  temperalure  and  heiglit. 

To  Calcnlalei  Velocity  of  Flow.— Thus,  \>  iiji  n  lifiEhtO 
ing  pipe  equal  to  10' and  a  difTereiJce  in  lemperatiit  •  'wai 

plp<»s  of  8*.  the  difference  in  llieir  specific  gravities  '  tl 

-t-  TOlX)  =  .01 166  lbs.,  or  x  2.31  (feet  of  water  in  one  j  5  ft 

the  law  of  fulling  bodies  the  velocity  will  beequalio  8  t 
■econd,  or  >:  BO  =  78.7  ft,  per  niinnte.    In  this  caleulatk" 
lion  Is  entirely  oinilt«-d.     Considerable  deduction  mll^'I 
oecount.     Even  in  apparatus  where  length  of  pl(ie  Is  i 

KitKss  of  latter  areas  and  »itli  few  bends  or  angles,  a  i 
•fction  must  be  made  from  the  tlieoretlnal  veioclry,  v...,, 
complex  apparatus  with  small  head,  the  velocity  is  so  am 
friction  that  sometimes  a.s  much  as  from  60t  to  00:1  must  b*  ( 
tnoi  II...  fr.,..  rtite  of  circulation. 

^'  ii"s  from  the  healer,  from  which  brancbe*  may 

to  i  I  to  the  pniclnf  of  taking  off  nearly  as  mnny  ( 

hi  a  ;     ...  ...  .[•  are  radiators  to  niipply, 

It  IS  not  iiecessarv  that  the  main  flow  and  return  pipes  I 
capacity  that  of  all  their  branches.     The  liottesi  wafer  will  ( 
l^v^l  » liil.'  .Tiivii  \  mil  .mi,.-  n.i  even  distribution  of  thu  1 
»nr:  .  ■  '  ! 

I'  '■«\7.e  of  tlw  vertical maliu Ml 

;>•   ■  ,..,  ;  ..  v..cUftiw>r. 

•-  h  bot  w  atex.  iW  riVi—  ">Trt.  >»  \ 


»                                                                       1 

HOT-WATBB  HEATING.                              543 

1  of  the  pipes  consequent  on  IutIiik  their  temperatures  In- 

tti  taok  is  required  to  keep  the  apparatus  filled  wild  water, 
ixpaniiti  1/24  of  Its  built  on  bejnB  lieated  from  40°  lo  ai'i«,  and 

1st  liare  capacity  to  hold  cerlaiiilj'  this  iucri-iuiml  bulk.     It  is 

that  the  supply  cistern  lie  pinced  on  level  with  or  abore  the 

of  the  apparatus,  in  order  to  receive  the  air  irhivh  collects  ta 

i  radiators,  and  caijoble  of  holding  at  least  1/SOof  the  water 
apparatus. 

Imate  Proportlona  or  RadiatlnK-oarnice*  to 
bMc  Capacities  or  Space  to  be  Heated. 

[>Ot    0 

iBce  1 

f  Ra 

In  Dwellings,     In  Halls,  Stores,       In  Churches,         1 

.rill 

.Sclioiil-roorns,      Ix>ft8.  Facto-       Large  Audito-         | 

Ith— 

Offices,  etc. 

ries,  etc.               riiiins,  etc.           1 

ktuiv  di-  1 

ter  radi-  V 

BO  to  70  cu.  ft. 

66  to  90  cu.  ft. 

130  to  180  cu.  ft. 

iture  di-  | 

Iter  radi-  r 

30  to  60  "     " 

35  to  66  "    " 

TOtoiao  "    " 

aiure  in- 
water  ra-  >- 

30  to  60  "      " 

85lo75  "    " 

70  to  150  "    •• 

Itare  in- 

Irater  ra-  > 

aOlo40"     " 

85  to  50  "     '• 

50  to  100  "    " 

t  or  main  and  Braneb  Pipes  and  square  feet  of  coil 

■will  mipply,  in  a  low-pressui-e  hot-wnter  ati|>aratu!«  (212"*  for 

rect  ra4iatioo.  when  coils  are  ai  rlitTerent  altitudes  for  direct 

B  the  lower  story  for  indirect  radiation: 

Direct  Radiation.    Height  of  Coil  above  Bottom  of  Boiler, 

In  feet. 

10     1    20 

SO    1    40 

50 

60         70 

80 

90 

100 

q  ft. 

Rq.ft. 

sq.  ft.'su  ft. 

Wl.  ri. 

sq.ft.  sq.ft. 

sq.ft. 

sq.ft. 

sq.  ft. 

00 

M 

58 

66 

57 

59 

61 

63 

65 

68 

8» 

03 

05 

96 

101 

ion 

108 

113 

116 

121 

NO 

144 

149 

15S 

158 

ISl 

160 

175 

188 

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Sft! 

aoo 

214 

a*i 

ass 

835 

*13 

858 

afii 

271 

a-v 

870 

aa 

303 

405 

413 

433 

449 

4(15 

493 

Ml 

677 

SUA 

013 

633 

643 

678 

701 

727 

7.55 

807 

8S& 

8i« 

888 

918 

941 

Si74 

1009 

1040 

1086 

1000 

iisa 

uw 

yjiii 

1241 

issa 

1887 

1374 

1425 

14.«0 

»ae 

1478 

1530 

1571 

1 921 

1064 

1788 

1705 

1801 

1888    A 

181- 

I8TI 

19-27 

lfl«8 

•Mra 

21'.«0 

8103 

2272 

2.H56 

s^^^^l 

£344 

8309 

£176 

i454 

2531 

a.'JT4 

2713 

2805 

2B07 

^^^^H 

aa^in 

3341 

34-J4 

3;.5« 

3648 

3763 

3807 

4036 

4184 

4^^^^| 

4396 

4MS 

4ti64 

4(108 

4904 

513a 

5308 

6496 

57kX) 

^^^^H 

6741 

tm-2 

00*) 

Oi*l 

64M 

8616 

61132 

7180 

7444 

T^^^H 

7S08 

74*4 

7;o« 

7952 

8308 

8482 

8774 

9088 

9424 

9T^^^^| 

8876 

039C 

9516 

9816 

10124 

10296    10852    ll'JJO 

no-.* 

iso^^^l 

Homo 

niao 

11919 

11879 

laao-i 

]2««i6    13108  Il.-i576 

Ml»78 

14890^^1 

■wS 

11364 

13696    14S08 

14592 

l.VKa    155S8    Itil4-1 

16736 

17374^^1 

^BS| 

IIMIS 

16090    10591 

17186 

17097  '18.307 

1S961 

iflu|y 

^0100    H 

^^^H 

18109 

18868    1IH83 

I985ti 

20528    21282 

21984 

w^^p, 

«IT88 

81419    SHW 

2S80I 

23,WI    !a«73 

2S3H. 

^^^^^^^^^^1 

p"*/ 

«aMS  34320  aitae  j35(m  jmM  \irTm  \»nBi{ 

^^^^^H 

[                                         ^^^^ 

^ 

^1 

I' 


644  HEATIKO   AND   VEKTILATION, 


The  b«8t  forniK  of  bol-irater-b«atipg  boil«ra  kr*  prO| 
(ollovrs: 


>poniaa<^l 


I 


i 


1  sq,  ft,  of  i;rate-gurrae»  to  about  40  so.  ft.  of  boiler-mrfMr. 
1  ■'  "       honer-      '•  "        ft  •■    "       radl«r.ipgM4«<«e«. 

1   "     ••        grnt*-       '■  ••     SOO  ••    '• 

Rnlea  for  Hol-M-ater  Heatlne.-J.  L.  Baundcn  □(•U^ 
VrotilatioD,  Dec.  15,  ISM)  (sivea  the  f»l|un-iDp  .  Allow  t  »q  fi  irf  n» 
surface  for  every  3  ft.  of  plass  surface,  and  t  ■sq.  ft  for  erery  lu  a* 
wrill  surface,  also  1  aq.  ft.  for  the  foUowioR  oumhers  of  cubic  f«H  <«l 
In  the  several  cases  mentioned.  ! 

Indwelling'boiues:  Libraries  end  diofne-rooms,  flnt floor..  Sto  ^^^ 

LReceptJcm  h«ll»,  flrsit  floor -  40  lo  », 
Stairhalls,            "      "    WW  ■ 
Cbatii  hers  above.  "      "    , SOlo  • 
Libraries,  »ewinpr-roonii,  nurseriM,  etc.. 
above  first  floor ....  45to  M 
Bathrooms 80W  N 
lc-schoo1  rooms .  tOlo  • 
a aoto  • 
orles and  stores Uto  ■ 
AEwmbly  balls  and  oburcbes tOUtW 

To  nnd  tbe  necessary  amount  of  indirect  radiation  required  tobf«l«l 
riDj  the  required  amount  of  direct  radiation  ni'i-<ii-,iiiii'  t<.  ti»e  ,*^ 
method  aiid  add  SO?.    This  if  wrougbt-irou  I)1|h 
iron  pin  indirect-stacli  surface  is  used  it  is  advi 

S/z^'tf  of  ftolttir  fiues^  col,l-i\iy  ihtfia,  aiuf  ■ .  . 
Hot-air  flues,  first  floor:  Make  the  nnt  int^'ruai  art..  ■•>•  «4 

h^  so   in.  to  every  square  foot  of  radiating  surface  in  '  •  acl 

air  nueg,  second  floor:  Make  the  net  internal  area  of  tL  .    ,.ii*H 

to  every  square  foot  of  radlatine  surface  in  the  indir><tct  blucii. 

Cold-aiy  diiclM,  jirMt  floor :  Make  (be  net  iDteroal  urea  i>f  tlir  aiMI 
toHsq.  iu.  to  every  square  foot  of  radiatioK  snrfaw  I"  iti"  iu'liroct 
Cold  air  duels,  second  floor:  JIaUe  the  net  intHmal  :  'iiK* 

to  ^i  sq.  in.  to  every  t^quai'e  foot  of  radiating  surfacr  •%'«  il 

Hidnir  rei/Lslrrs  should  have  Ibeir  net  area  oqual  iu  ^  .  :  -  ires 
hot-air  flues '  Multiply  the  length  by  the  width  of  tbe  r«Kk»ier  ia  mc« 
of  the  product  i.¥  the  net  area  of  register. 

Arraneement  of  Iflalna  for  Hota^ratAr  H«atlnf .  I 
Mackoy.  Lecture  before  Master  Plumbers'  Assoc.  N.  Y..  18SI  i-Tfct 
two  diiTerent  synti'ins  of  mains  in  general  use,  either  of  wbicb.  If  |» 
placed,  will  eive  Rood  satisfaction.  One  is  the  talcing  of  •  slnKlr  hi 
main  from  tlie  beater  to  supply  all  the  rudiatora  on  the  BtfverBl  flooc^ 
correspondini?  return  main  of  the  same  sire.  Tbe  other  is  ll>e  taltl^ 
nuoiber  of  S  inch  wrotiifht-iron  mains  from  the  beater,  with  tbe  warn 
ber  of  return  mains  of  the  same  i<ize.  brauebiot;  off  (o  the  sevftal  IW 
orootls  with  l)<4-lncb  or  1  inch  ri|>e,  according  to  the  sii^  »f  the  raill 
roil.  A  2  inch  main  will  auppiv  three  Iij-inon  ur  four  1  Inch  brmailfc 
these  branches  should  lie  tukcn  from  the  top  of  the  bOrUooUi  atfli 
nipple  and  elbow,  except  in  R{>ei;ial  coses  where  it  ia  towi  meeBmUftt 
the  flow  of  uater  lo  the  U'ar  radiator,  for  tbe  purpose  of  smMkIN 
latluii  in  the  far  nidlator  :  In  this  case  the  branch  ia  takaa  fmaKttn 
the  licrizontal  main  The  flow  and  return  maiOB>reiMBiaUynMiOt| 
Kuxiieudod  from  the  basement  ci'ilini;.  and  should  have  a  Kiailaal  MOi 
Ihe  heller  to  tbe  radiators  of  at  least  I  inch  in  10  feet.  It  Is ciwUmal 
au  .idvuiitniie  vhere  Klooh  mains  are  us^d,  to  rediuw  the  siae  of  tk*M 
every  point  where  a  brauch  i.s  taken  off. 

Tbe  BhKla  or  lar^  ni  is  best  adapted  for  lam  buMNI 

there  is  •  limit  as  lo  siz  ■  hicb  it  is  not  wise  to  go  b(j«Ht^ 

ally  iViucb.  exiviit  in  M 

Til'  Mail   pipo  necessary  for  100  sniuir»f»*««Hl 

railiM  i>p,ktiii:;  is  ?.'<  »<iiiare  iaelica.  atule  tbe  hoisl 

I  F~i)uare  incht-s  uf  area,    Tbere  »h»ul 

:  >ji  the  puri>o8e  o(  couirollioK  ttaa  amouBt  < 

'-ndini^  on  tbe  severity  of  the  veatlier. 


SYSTEM  OP  HEATINS  AXD  VESTTLATING.   545 

BliCVrER   SVSTEJn  OP    nBATINC  AND 
VENTILATING. 

t 

rorides  for  the  use  of  a  fan  cir  blower  which  takes  Its  supply 
Dm  the  outside  of  iho  ImilJinK  to  be  hented,  furces  It  over 
kted  oilher  centrally  ur  divkltfU  up  into  u  iiuiubur  of  indopen- 
h1  then  Into  the  Bsveral  duclB  or  tlui-s  k-adtii);  to  the  various 
loveuient  of  the  warmed  air  ia  puaitivr,  and  ihe  delirery  of 

v&rious  points  of  supply  is  certain  and  eiitii'ely  indopundent 

BCODditionii.     Forengiuee,  fans,  and  Kteuni  culIiiUiied  with  the 

I  see  page  519. 

■Its  with  Radiators  of  60  sq.  ft.  of  Snrface. 
tec.,  ISua  ( — After  hnvinR  determined  the  volume  aud  tern 
yt  %varia  au-  passiu^  through  the  tluet!  and  nidiuiurs  from 
a  fan  was  applied  to  each  Iiue,  foreiut;  in  air,  and  new  sets  uf 
were  made.  The  result.s  showed  that  more  than  tuoaudone- 
JDuch  air  was  warmed  wiih  the  fans  in  use,  and  the  falliti^  off 
Mre  of  this  greatly  Inereased  ali-volume  was  only  nhoiit  Vi.fiS, 
on  of  bteani  in  the  radiators  with  the  forced-air  circulation 
fl(!^  greater   than  with   uatural  air  draught.     One  of  the 

rt  figures  obtained  is  as  follows  ; 
Natural      Forced- 
Draught         air 
ill  Fhie.  Circulation, 
air  i>er  minute  45T.5        liHT 

N>  of  steam  per  minute  in  ounces  11. T  19.6 

hire  tn  radiator,  pounds 9  6 

fe  of  air  after  leavins  radiator W"  iH' 

\     "    "  before  pnssiu);  through  radiator.    61°  •!• 

rodlallnc  surface  in  liquare  feet 60  60 

Mn  bot)]  eases  13  x  18  inches. 

pbably  an  error  in  tlie  determination  of  the  volume  of  air  in 
I  appears  from  the  followinp  calculnliun.  (W.  K.I  Assiiuib 
km  in  condensini;  from  9  lbs.  i)reM.stire  Hnd  cooling  to  the  teen- 
Bch  the  water  may  have  been  discharKcd  from  the  radiator 
iat-unit.s,  or  6i  5  h.  u.  per  ounce;  thai  the  air  weighed  ,O70  lb, 
pad  that  i(!«  specific  heat  is  .238.  We  have 
I  Natural      Forced 

I  Draught.  DrauKht. 

kr  Btoatn.  ounces  y  62  6 =    ™  )'«5H.U. 

fcolr,  cu.ft.  Jc.orexdUT.  ott«in.  >i.288=    878  I39fl    " 

[Of  forced  draujrht  tlte  air  received  U<  mora  heat  than  the 
L  whlcii  i.s  imposaihle.  Talcing  the  heat  given  up  by  the  steam 
ileaaure  of  the  work  dune  liy  the  radiator,  the.  teiiiperatiire 
123;",  ami  the  average  teinpf-rature  oC  the  air  in  ihe  ca.-w  of 
it  at  UW  and  in  the  other  case  at  IB",  we  have  for  the  tem- 
fciice  in  the  two  caMiS  13."i°  and  14J°  re.spectivelv;  dividing 
aeat-unjl.s  we  hml  tliat  each  stpiare  ftHit  of  radiating  surface 
Dteai-iiniis  per  hr)ur  per  degree  of  ilifr>?renoe  of  temperature, 
pnaturaj  draught,  and  8.5  beat-uuiiii  in  the  case  of  forced 
bt  m°  -  1W4  li'-ai-unitij  per  >.iuaru  foot  of  hurfacei. 
fen's  Houiii'iipiithic  Hospital  in  Thilndelphia.  iWD  feet  of 
pleats  ii.Vl.tHtt)  cubic  feet  ol  Kpace,  ventiljitiug  as  well;  this 
|iri'  r.of  ..f  |.i))e  surface  for  aljout  IVJO  cubic  feet  of  npace,  or 
lii  >•  I'.KX)  cubic  feet.    The  fun  is  located  in  a  s.-pa- 

|i  from  the  hospital,  and  tlie  air,  after  Ijeiin,-  in-  it.  .1 

iiroiigh  au  un.iersfround  l.rick  dtici  with  a  i"s-  of 
SI!  i-..lil  tteatlier.  i  H,  1.  Snell,  Trans,  A.  S.  M.  K  .ix  IiK!. 
Bnlldine  to  70°  F.  Initlde  ivbon  tite  OiitHide 
Is  Zero,— It  is  customaiy  In  some  contracts  for  heating 
i  tllB  apparatus  will  heai  the  infeiior  of  the  building  li>  7t)° 
..^Ibiituiay  not  he  practionble  to  obtain  zero  weather  for 
\  test,  it  may  be  difllcull  to  prove  the  p<Tformunee  of  the, 
,  Macgovern,  in  E\tmne.i;iiug  h'e^nrci,  Feli.  ,1  lMi4, 
ig  to  show  that  a  test  may  be  made  in  wiiillier  of  < 
I  lero,  if  the  beat  of  (he  interior  Is  raise(\  i\\>c>ve1 
trMure  of  the  roomn  the  Inwer  is  the  etHciency  uf 
•~i  the  efficiency  depeade  upon  the  difference  \v 


646 


HBATIlfO   AND   VENTIliATIOIf. 


temperature  ioolde  of  the  radiator  and  (he  temperature  ot  th 
concludes  that  a,  heating  apparatus  sufflcltint  to  hpal  a  f^ven  I>| 
in  zero  weatlier  wllli  apven  presmre  of  steam  will  be  roiin*!  i 
isame  building,  stBaiii-presstu-e  constant,  to  110"  at  60«,  05"  at  sf 
and  '4°  at  3-.'°.  oiitjiiile  It-mpHratiin?.  Tbe  accuracy  of  these  f 
has  not  been  texttid  tiy  t>ipeiinient 

The  followiuir  solution  ot  (he  question  is  propoced  liy  tb<r  aiiit 
results  quite  different  from  those  of  Mr.  Mttcgovnru,  but,  like  (bi^ 
perimenial  oonflruiatlon. 
I^t   S  =  sq.  ft.  of  surface  of  the  steam  or  hot-water  radlatorj 
H-'=  sq.  ft.  of  surface  of  eiposed  walls,  windowa,  etc.; 
r«  =T  teuip.  of  the  steam  or  not  wnler,  T"]  =  t«tiip.  of  Insid 
or  room,  T^  ~  iwnp.  of  outride  of  liuildlii>r  or  m<tn 
a  =  heat-units  transmitted  per  so.  ft.  nf  surface  of  radii 

per  degree  of  diffrrence  oftrmperature; 
6  =  average  heat'Unlta  transmitted  p«r  sq  ft.  ot  vralU  | 
de|;r>^  of  dUrereuce  of  temperature.  Including  i 
Tenlilation. 

It  ts  assumed  that  within  the  ratu;e  of  temperatnrrs  consider 
law  of  cooling  holds  good,  viz.,  thiil  it  is  proportional  lo  the 
temperature  between  the  two  sides  of  the  radlallngsurface. 


Then  oS(r«  -  T,)  =  6  JTtT,  -  T,). 

T4-  T,m  ar.  -  r,)  j 

U  Ti  B  n>,  and  r,  <:  0.  C  = 


r,  = 

T»-TO 


Let  --  = 

aS 

Tb  +  CT, 


C;    Ihen 


1  +  0 


c- 


r. 


vo 


Let  T,  =  UC, 
ThenC=      1, 


S1S.6'. 
8.05, 


I 


From  tbeae  we  derive  tbe  followlo;;: 
Temperature  of 
Steam  or  Hot 
Water.  T: 


MO* 

SI4.6 

306 


Outside  Temperatures,  r» 
-  BO*       -  10°  0"        lO"  M* 

Inside  Temperatures,  7*1. 
(»  TO         T5  90 


flO 


63.S 
8i.3 


Efcatlne  br  Eleetiirlty.— If  the  electric  rurr«nui  are  | 
a  dynamo  dnven  bv  «  tilt»>m'L-o(|rine.  electric  heacincr  will  iiruc 
sive.  since  the  sieam"  npne  waxtes  In  the  exhnnst-sieaiu  I 
about  W%  of  the  heat-units  supplieti  to  it.  In  direct  st«'a 
jfo.id  boiler  and  profierlj-  covered  Mipply-pipes,  we  can 

tlie  toial  heat  value  of  the  fuel.    One  pound  of  coal,  wiUi  si 

]8,0ii0  heai-nidts,  would  supply  to  the  radlalora  about  13,(W| 

hext-unilg.    In  electric  lifntini;,  suppose  we  have  a  flfi-clii^i 

eneine    developing   1    HP.    for   every  S   lb«.    ''    ~-' 

This  would  b(<  eaiilvalent  to  1,iW0,000  ft.-lhs  -t-  ' 

heat  nnitu  for  I  Ih.  of  coal.  The  friction  of  the  n 

tile  loss  by  electric  leakaire,  and  hy  heat  raii><«iM<: 

wires.  mif;iit  reilnce  the  heat-units  delivered  as  elec 

trie  radinior,  and  the«>  converted  into  heai  to  50<  {.f 

un|t,s,  or  less  ihan  one  lirelfth  of  that  delivered  to  • 

direct  steam- heiilinR.    Klectrlc  tieatiup,  therefore,  will  pp 

unless  the  electric  current  is  derH-ed  frnm  water  or  wind  j 

Otherwise  be  wasted.    (See  Electrical  SngiuserlDg.; 


IM 


WBIQHX  OF  WATBB. 


WATBB. 


Ion  of  IVaCer.— The  followlne  table  elTa  the  relative  voi- 
.er  at  differouc  tvmnemtiires,  C(  ..... 

■g  to  Kopp,  as  correctea  by  Poner. 


t  water  at  dlfferouc  tvmpemtiires,  compared  Witb  tts  volume  at 
edby  " 


1 


■ 

Fahr. 

Volume , 

Cent. 

Fatir. 

Volume. 

Cent. 

Fahr, 

Volume. 

K 

89. 1« 

1.00000 

Sa" 

9b' 

I.005SB 

:d* 

158» 

10S241 

^B 

41 

1.00001 

40 

104 

l.OOTUT 

.75 

167 

l.OJilit 

^H| 

«0 

l.OOi^ 

45 

113 

1.00967 

HO 

176 

J.0-i!87-i 

^^B 

BQ 

1.0006S 

60 

\a 

1  OlIrtB 

85 

IW 

1.03J18 

B^ 

ee 

l.OOITI 

65 

131 

I.0I41!:! 

BO 

ia4 

I.OaSTO 

Hl 

77 

1.00-.S6 

eo 

140 

1.01678 

35 

!iM 

:.o;i9« 

B 

86 

1 .004  J5 

S5 

140 

I.OlflSl 

100 

Hl'i 

I.OJSifcJ 

- 1 .04S3S  =  60.633,  treieht  of  1  cu. 


^rieht of  1  eu.  ft.  at  SB.1°  F.  =  63.4245  lb. 
U  212°  F. 

Velcbt  ofTKTmiw  «t  DUTerent  Tempermtarea.— The  weight 
^t«r  at  maximum  densltj,  39.1*.  U  generally  laktM]  at  tlie  figure  Riven 
ikitie.  0S.425  lbs.  per  cubic  foot.  Suine  auiUrjiiiieH  k1^<>  o^  1<'W  as 
The  figure  82.5  commonly  given  m  apprfniinale.  The  highest 
;acive  figure  is  eii.423.  At  0J°  F.  the  flgur<rii  range  fioiu  63.391  to(i;j.3ti0. 
ireC2.S55  U  generally  acccpied  aa  tlie  most  nccurate. 
"  F.  figure*  given  by  different  writers  range  from  62  379  to  62.418. 
rea  the  latter  Qgure,  and  HamUtou  Smith,  Jr.,  (froiu  Koseltl,)  gives 

rTii  '_•  r  Water  at  Temperatnrea  above  aij"  F.— Porter 

.i*nKine  liulicatur,"  p.  5:i)   says   ihat   noLhliig  is  knuH'n 

"U  of  water  above  412°.    Applying  formute  derived  from 

KctitH  iii'i'lt*  at  lemperature.i  below  ;.'I'."*,  however,  tlie  weight  and 

finbove  212*  may  be  calculated,  but  In  itie  absence  vt  t-JCiiprhnetitaJ 

ire  not  oertHiu  that  the  fornuilie  liold  got>d  at  hi){^lier  Ifnipciatures. 

-til.  In  hit)  "  Kngiue  attd  Boiler  Trlalx,"  eiveii  a  luljle  from  which  we 

i  fotlowiug  (neglecting  the  third  decimalplace  given  by  him; : 


|o 

S.2 

SS 

fs 

io 

-  s 

i  u; 

fi     fc 

•uT  3 

e  fe 

„-  3 

s  &; 

u'3 

fll 

III 

1^1 

pi 

.SfcS 

tso 

67.90 

830 

55.53 

430 

62.86 

490 

60.03. 

SM.64 

«90 

57.59 

360 

fiS.ia 

430 

52.47 

600 

49.61 

SO. 87 

SOO 

57.26 

370 

64.79 

440 

58.07 

610 

49.20 

&0.1U 

SIO 

66.93 

380 

64.41 

450 

61.66 

G20 

48. » 

&8.SI 

820 

66.58 

890 

54  03 

460 

61  .SO 

630 

48. M 

1  i^  :a 

S80 

56.24 

400 

53  04 

470 

50.85 

640 

47.94 

LlO.21 

840 

65.88 

410 

63.2ti 

480 

50.41 

5S0 

47.A» 

I  B«at  gives  the  following : 


.-.alore  F.. 
k  (ivr  cubic  foot.. 


813°      860* 
69.82    68.86 


800* 


350« 
65.94 


400° 
54.84 


460* 
62.70 


*  itf  Bgnrrm  /r^ven  by  dlfterfot  wrfters  rte«  Trans.  A.  8.  M.  Ywi 
tm  AoMD  iB.ie  va  if.S4£,  areraging  about  59.77,  ' 


1 

j1 

^ 

^^V                                 ^^^^^^H 

U8 

^ 

^^>            WATEB.           ^^^^H 

tTelght  or  Water  per  Cable  Fooi,  f<om  ?^  <o  ?*? 

uuils  [>ri*  p<Muul,  I'fokoiied  nbovt*  3iJ**  F. :     11 
lei-poliitiuf;  the  iiible  given  bv  Clark  as  cak- 

1.-  f.  . 

ilai> 

with  corr>-i; 
Tmtis.  A.  S 

ioiiB  for  ttppaieiit  errors,  was  i 
M.  E.,  vi.  W.    (For  heat  units  M 

ubb.-: 

>ove  xi'-i-"  s'-v 

MclllU 

2.2 

S 

S^ 

CO 

S'ii 

K 

> 

n 

a 

"5 
s 

14 

c 
s 
J. 

1^ 

g 

15* 

■^ka 

$ 

12^ 

?^     8 

H 

^ 

C 

f 

a 

H 

oi.ea 

a^ 

t-    ■ 

32 

(<-i.*i 

0. 

78 

62.35    46.03 

123 

91.16 

168 

33 

USA:! 

1. 

79 

6.2  24    47.03 

124 

61.67;  92.17 

IIW 

31 

CS.4a 

a. 

SO 

62.23    48.04 

125 

61.65    93.17 

170 

33 

63.4J 

3. 

81 

e2.22    49.04 

126 

ei.liS    91.17 

171 

36 

62.  li 

4. 

8-i 

62.21    50.04 

127 

61.01    95.1?' 

172 

3T 

(K.4a 

5. 

83 

62,20    51.04 

128 

61.60    90,18 

173 

38 

tta.  ivi 

6. 

84 

62.19    62.04 

129 

ei.S.'J    97  19 

174 

39 

(W.42 

7. 

85 

62.18 

tfiM 

180 

01.50    9^  19 

175 

^^  40 

6J.1J 

8. 

86 

03.17 

54.05 

131 

6l..vr  (Ki.2>i 

t:ii 

^K^ 

6J.4i 

g. 

BT 

62.16 

55.05 

182 

61. .52  ini)  20 

177  ; 

62.4..> 

10. 

88 

68.  ir. 

56.05 

133 

61  .M  101  21 

r«i  1 

^^v^ 

(K.4a 

11. 

89 

62.14 

57.05 

131 

61.49  Uf2  21 

179 

V 

lfc!.4-' 

i-». 

90 

62.13 

58.08 

13.^ 

01  47  1(W  2-.' 

1* 

■ 

(e.4s 

13. 

91 

62.12 

59.06 

ISO 

«1.4rj  101  22 

1.^1 

■ 

6--'.4S 

M. 

fl-i 

62. 11 

fiU.de 

137 

6l.4'l  W..23 

IN* 

■ 

62.  IS 

15. 

SS, 

02.10 

61.00 

138 

61.41  100.23 

!H3 

■            48 

tii'.41 

IB. 

fi4 

62.09 

02.06 

130 

61  8'.1  107. 2  < 

5M 

■            49 

U3.4I 

IT. 

05 

62. OS 

63.  o; 

140 

151.37  I  •«  r. 

IM 

■            fiO 

6S.4I 

18. 

96 

62.071  i;i.07 

141 

til-IO  UI9,2;< 

IMJ 

■ 

0^.41 

19. 

87 

62.Ptl'  t.i.07 

142 

Ij1,3I  110  '.X 

is: 

■            &S 

Ci.40 

,  Sl>. 

OS 

62.o5i  ci-.o: 

143 

i-.l  32  111  2<. 

lM!i 

■         fa 

Oi.H 

■,'1.01 

99 

62.03;  *i7.iti 

144 

61  3ll  112  2: 

l!f» 

■             54 

(K.41 

a.'.tn 

UX) 

62.02    (>H.I)H 

145 

61.'*  113  2W 

I'JI 

■            6& 

6J.:l9 

i'3.0l 

•.'4.01 

101 
103 

62.011  f.O.OM 
02.00,  T'l  IW 

146 

147 

61.21 

1 1  4  2.K 
1  1.-.  29 

191 

19-.' 

GI   24 

^^K67 

63.311 

^.0( 

1(W 

01  .Wl 

71  ,iiB 

14t* 

ni  22  1 10  vy 

liO 

^^Pe8 

us;.3^ 

^i,(il 

104 

61.97 

72.1KI 

149 

01.20  117.^0 

1M 

■           S9 

e;i..3S 

27.01 

105 

61.96 

73,10 

l."iO 

61. IH  lis. 31 

195 

■            60 

(iv!.3T 

V'ft.OI 

K« 

61.9.' 

74.10 

151 

01.10  119  31 

lUt 

■            fll 

B:i,3r 

afl.Ol 

107 

61.93 

75.10 

LW 

61.14  12«'  3.' 

V^ 

^^Eea 

6i.8« 

ao.oi 

108 

01.92 

70.10 

153 

61.12  121    XI 

rx 

^^■«a 

C8.3U 

31.01 

109 

61.91 

77.11 

154 

61.10  l-."2.:!:i 

!;>•.< 

^^■-44 

62. !» 

32.01 

110 

61.89 

7S.H 

l.W 

(ll.ttl  l,'.t  31 

SO" 

^^B  ^"^ 

UiM 

33.01 

111 

ei.B- 

'Oil 

IM 

fll  00,121.86 

tti 

^^m  66 

&>.M 

34.  OJ 

112 

61  .ft 

HI  M  J 

i.'>r 

01  oi!)2r..aa 

^ 

^^r  07 

6--'.33 

35.02 

113 

CA.yy    M,!2 

l.'.S 

CI   02  rjll  M 

V           68 

6M.;i:) 

3B.02 

114 

1             ,       : 

1.'.9 

01  1"  '  ■■ 

■•.'1 

■           6« 

fc!.«. 

3r.o-.' 

II  .J 

llTO 

CO  ■'- 

■            TO 

e.'.si 

:iK.<h; 

118 

■  ; 

1(11 

00  -             I 

■ 

O.MI 

MlJ.O'j 

117 

61.7,"    ,-,..U 

1(12 

1)0  ' 

^1 

6-.-.:i<j 

-llljlj 

118 

61.77,  t'l'  11 

103 

00 

1             73 

CJ  ;;'. 

ll.'.IJ 

113 

(■'..•:'■   -:.ir. 

i(;l 

0' 

■ 

tiV 

1-1,1 

t 

H 

1     . 

■i  1  .  1  . 
■l.J.(« 

:■:: 

1 
1 

1 

1       1      1 

1         Cod 

■pari 

■on  c 

f  Hoada  of  W««cr  In  Feet  with  VH 
Varloua  Vnltik 

^^ 

Ooafi 

»4 

>ot  of  1 

vat<irB(89<.I  Fnbr,  ^   63.43.MIm.  <m  the aqw!) 

(14   -Ml,..    •'0  I^UI 

1 

1 

1 

-.am 

I 

M 

•^Tf 


I'BESSLEK  OP   WATEB. 


54d 


iiinic  f.Kt,  at  3(»*.l  Fahr =   0.01808  foot  of  water; 

—    a.30T       feetof  water;    ^H 

•lies  Of  meivury =83.9  ^M 

1 =    1.13S         ^B 

>  i;.  ikiid  ODttatiiiosplierH..  s    (MXi|i93     "  ^  ^H 

■  i\  wutyr t=:  l.tv^  foot  of  pill's  n'Ater^^l 

'  :'  V =  MSiVi  lbs.  peikq    fiKil;    ^M 

•  O-.'"  F ..  =    0.4330J  llw.  pei'Hq.  illclt^H 

Ml  of  water  at  B2"  F =   O.tWuia'i ^M 

und  of  water  on  ilie  sqimre  inoh  at  ft3*  F.  =   e..'«W4  feet  of  uatrr.       ^m 

■nre  In  Ponuds  per  Square  Ineli  Tor  Different  Ilcada 
of  Water. 

1»T.  1  foot  head  =  0.4JS  lb.  per  sqimn-  tucli,  .-jsax  144  =  6i^!i3  lb 
tie  foot. 


reel 

> 
J 


4.1M\ 
9  MO' 
U.MU' 

|T..<t.'0 
21  I- 

as.! 

»0.:<i 
34.6111 

38.97t) 


1 

0.438' 
4.7M, 
9.0OT' 
13.4^; 

ir  T.V! 


39.4ft? 


o.eco 

f>  ■ 


,S9.B»8 


i.sg»l  1.732  S.165  J. am  ami 
,^.r/>!i  fl.oei;  6.495  fl,'.«n!  v. Ml 

lO.BSr.  ll.'A'jH  11.091 
I5.1.W  l.'i..'pHH  IfiOJ] 

av.''i9.4S!ilia,«iHL'o,3si 

':M<iri!-.M.;!4H  -.MJlSI 

U6''-'8.,'i7H  itron 

■.•.4T.'i'3-',90H  .S3,.'i41 
:i.'i.9:ii)  M..jr:jl3B.805|S7,-2aH  »7.e!ri 
l0.269|40.70aHl.l3,'>;4l  .sen  4U.0OI 


S 


S  4(14 

T.T94 

|-,'.134 

It;.4.'i4 

•20.7K1 


3.  MM 
H.Sfll 

IH.HS? 

•il.JI? 
•,'.%  lll^'ri.MTl 
J1I.44I  •jy.B? 
:«i.:r4l.ii.a>7j 
38.104  lys.sJTl 
4-3.4S(l|4S.80al 


rVect  of  Water,  Correapondins  to  Preimnrea  in 
PonndM  per  Sqaure  Iiien. 
Uttre  Inch  =  •3.3094T  fi-ft  linml,  1  iiliiiiM|ilii>re  =  14.7  Ills.  p*r»q,J 
h.  head. 


S.-'JOO    4.0:9    S.O-.'H    9  ■»•?  1154713.857  10.166 
4"i.4l>l  '27.714  30. 11^':)  3j..'«>i  :)4.fl4-i  lilt. !)•>■.'  :W.2H1 
IS  .I'l'l 'jt  M>s ',.s  ll(i  5.i.4-J7ri7.7!i;  IW.Olfi  i;--',  l:".r. 
.■.'1.^7.S.5-,"J80.S3I  H3.U1  ^      ' 

■  .'W  iMi.oi.ioa.u;)  iiij.-.m  !■ 

JJ.JO  I-J4.71  IJO.liJ  I:Jll  ;«  I  :. 

tth  Ua.lil  U^..^  147  HI  IM.I-.'  li'J.J- 
.»7  100.28  IW. 59  170  SKI  17^1  21  }".:y 
W..U7  I.>«.38ilDl.«9  194  (lO,JIW.3l|IM.0l|2OO.!)2, 
SIO.JO  S14.4;  <U.78  217.09  iH9,40iKl. 7]  a^.O-.}! 


i,'4  ".a 

I77.ti.l 


IS. 170 
41.570 


M«re  of  Water  due  to  Its  Welictit. -The  preKsiirc  nf  Eitlll 

II  |i,,uii'l     I"  I   M|(iiir<"  lipL'li  iigaiiisi  the  Miifsof  any  pipe,  olinnnel,  or 

lintHver  Is  tine  (Olely  to  tlie  **hPO«l."  or  iM^i^ht,  of  tha" 

Iter  above  the  pniirt  aL  which  tlip  pressiii-e  IB  eon" 

til  .43302  lb.  per  square  iuch  for  evei-y  foot  of  hewi] 

■  •..|imie  foot  for  every  fool  of  liemi  lai  M"  F.). 

;i<T  Hqiiare  iiifh  i.s  equal  iu  all  ttlrvi-iiotiR.  downward^,  ilj^l 

,1)!',  aiiil  is  hidepemleiilof  the  shape  or  xiiieof  the  containing 

ifwiiireafciil'iat  a  vertical  !<iirfac:e,  a«  a  retalniiiK-wall,  ut  uu^ 
•BCt  n»'l"  lo  llie  heoJ  fthore  Ihnljutint,  iiicreaKlng  from  0  ni  \\' 
I  fa  t  minimum  Ml  Ihf  holloin.     Tlip  total  preS-sllTe  Hi;a.lu>>v  <%.  % 
s  anJfs  lirendtli  Increases  lu  the  nivu  uf  a  rigUl.aut;*^  A ' 


WATEB. 


I 


WHOM  perpendicular  represents  Uie  lieiRht  of    tlic-  kiiId  nu<l  wbM 


diuSiii 


repreBeiila  the  pi-essure  on  A  unit  of  surface  ot  Ih-  .  'aWIi, 

creases  as  thf  Bqiiare  of  tlie  deplh.    The  suui  of  all  i  >  pw 

Is  represented  l>y  the  area  of  (he  irjBiigle,  ami  ihe  <■  '  im 

*'C^ial  lothis  8U111  exerted  nt  apoint  one  lliirii  of  the  )>'  ihate 

(1  h<'  centre  of  pravity  of  the  nren  vi  a.  trfangln  is  oim  I(»KI 

The  hurizonlal  pre&<ure  is  the  liaiue  if  ibe  surfnt- 
vertical. 

^Foran  elaboration  of  these  principles  aee  Trautwine's 
the  chapter  on  U.VLlroKtatica  it)  any  work  on  Tliyslcs.     For  da 
wnlla,  etc.,  see  Trautwine.) 

The  ainuuiit  of  presHure  on  the  Interior  walls  of  •  pipe  tuw  noappr 
effect  u|M^n  the  amnunt  of  Ilow. 

Buoyancy. — \Vheii  a  hody  in  iiiiinertied  in  a  liquid.  i> ) 
sink,  it  is  Imiiyrd  lip  by  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
dispiiiced  by  the  body.    The  wele'it  of  a  tloaling  iHHiy  Iseq 
of  the  bulk  of  the  liquid  that  it  disulacea.      The  upward  pivsfure  i>! 
ancy  of  the  liquid  may  be  reirttrilea  aD  exerted  at  the  centre  Of  cn 
ihe  di!<|>laced  water,  which  is  called  the  cetitre  of  piessiirv  ur  uf  bui^ 
A  verli(!al  line  drawn  throMKli  it  ia  called  the  axi.sof  buo^..: 
lion,     lu  a  fiDatliii;  Itodj'  al  rest  a  line  joining;  Ihe  centre  t>: 
centre  of  buoyancy  la  vertical,  and  is  called  the  axis  ■  f  t-; 
au  external  force  causes  the  a.xls  of  equilibrium  to  Ir 
drawD  upward  front  the  centre  of  buoyancy  to  thiK  :■■ 
cuts  the  axil)  is  called  the  TJie/areiifrr.   If  the  iiietaci  >' 

of  gravity  the  distance  betwet»n  them  is  calJetl   ilie  inciHreiitricJ 
the  body  i«  then  said  to  be  in  Htable  equilibrium,  teixdiug  to 
orif^nal  posiciun  when  the  extenial  force  i>  renioveil. 

Bolllng-polut.— Water  boils  at  -Hi'  l\  >  lOO*  C)  at  tnean  i 
pressure  at  the  sea-level,  14  696  lbs.  per  square  inch.  Tlie  tfO 
which  water  bolls  at  any  given  presAure  is  the  same  as  the  ten  ^^ 
saturated  Hteain  at  the  same  pressure.  For  boiline-iHtint  of  waWt 
pressure  tliau  14,6[)6  lbs.  per  square  Inch,  see  table  of  the  I'rosw 
Sat  united  Steam. 

The  Bolllne«poliit  or  Water  may  be  Ralae<l. 
la  entirely  freed  of  air,  which  may  be  ace'oiiiplishi  d  liy  f 
the  cohesion  of  its  atoms  Is  Krcally  Increased,  so  thftt'lt< 
be  raised  over  60*  above  the  ordinary  boilinf;-]Kiifit   ■ 
place.     It  was  found  by  Fara<lay  thai  when  such  m 
the  rupture  of  the  liquid  was  like  au  explosion.     \V1. 
by  a  fllin  of  oil,  its  bcillluK  temperature  may  be  rtd-.ci  i-..i.yi  l.m!.|j 
iiji  normal  standard.     Tills  ha.<t  been  applied  as  a  thvoretltMtl  explaai 
the  instance  of  boiler-explosions. 

The  freeziug-pciiut  also  may  be  lovi'ere<l.  If  tlie  wal-     ' 
-  10*  C,  or  lt<°  Fahrenheit  below  the  normal   fre- 
Smith,  Jr.,  on  Hydraulics,  p.  18.1    The  density  of  wai- 
deuslly  at  Sfl".  1  lieinjf  t,  and  at  32°,  .999«T. 

Frecilll£»polllt.— Water  freeies  at  32*  F.  at  the  oi>l  i. 
prewtiure.  and  ice  melts  al  Ihesniue  tcmperutuie.     In  then;'  .      i  ■  . 
of  Ice  into  water  at  3?*  K.  about  U3  beat-units  are  alm<>rr>c<v 
Intent:  and  in  freezini;  1  lb.  of  water  into  ice  •  like  quantity  of  | 
out  to  ihf  i^iirroundlni;  medium. 

Sea-wat«r  freezes  al  27°  K.    The  Ice  is  frech.    (T 

Ice  and  Mnow.    iFrom  Clark. i- 1  cubic  fool 
.%T.5U  Ihs  ;  1  |K>iiud  of  ice  at  3'."  V.  has  a  volume  of  .Hi . 

Helative  volume  of  let  to  water  at  lii°  ¥.,  l.OBSi,  tb.'  .-i(«iii.io 
into  the  solid  8Lat«  being  S.fAf.  Speciilc  graTity  uf  ioe  s  O.r 
CJ*  K.  Itelnif  I. 

At  lil^h  pre«.>iures  Ihe  melthiKIMiint  of  ice  Is  lower  than  !B*| 
the  rate  of  .013^1°  \f.  for  each  aililitlonal  alnioKpliere  of  pr*« 

The  speclHc  heat  of  Ice  is  .fi04,  that  of  water  belUK  '• 

1  cubic  fisit  of  fresli  snow,  accorilini;  to  humidity  uf  atmcMqili 
I'i  Ilia     1  cubic  foot  of  snow  molMteoed  aud   compacted  by 
W  IbH      (TrautwiDel. 

"-..-rn'r   fjcat  Of  Water.     iFroiii    Clark's    SteAiim 

■  ■f   KcRiiault's  foruuila,  c  =  I  -i-  O.UtWOil-t-i 
I  cciflc  heat  u(  water  at  any  (empenUuns  f  ia  I 


:?HS! 


THE   lilPL'RITIES   0*   WATER. 


5Jl 


c  s  a. 


o.ooo 

18.004 
S6.0IS 
W.04T 
W.OflO 
90.15T 
t(K.a47 

144.506 

Ifi-J.6S6 

leo.aai 


l.OOOO 
1.0005 
1  .OOI'J 
l.OtWO 

1  .(Km 
i.(n42 
].oo:>6 

1.0073 
1.0086 
1.0109 
I.OIitO 
1 .01,M 


ii  a  » 

^  ..I     M. 


i.ooa; 

l.OOOS 
1.0009 
1.0(113 

i.oon 

1.0O83 
1.0030 
1.003B 
1.0042 
1.0O5O 

1  .flor.B 


Teiiipenv- 
tures. 


Cent. 

rahr. 

ViO' 

3l8» 

ISO 

268 

140 

284 

150 

ao-j 

160 

330 

:vo 

3S8 

180 

sat 

190 

a74 

aoo 

392 

310 

410 

2i0 

iia 

aw 

416 

SIT. 44;) 
S35.T9I 
.164. 1 »; 

■v'9I.i:Ji 
309.690 
328.330 
.H".0()4 
365.760 
8M4..'M'S 
401).  •»■ 

4•Ja.4r^ 


?z: 


1.0177 

I  .mA 
1  .w:e 

1  .(W6-.' 
l.(fJ9l 

i.nctw 

1  .MOl 
)  .0140 
1.IHH1 
1 .0,144 
I  .iMilW 


m 


1.0067 
1  oirvfi 
1.0087 
1.0087 
1.0109 
l.OtSl 

I  oisa 

1 .0I4« 

i.oieo 

1  0174 
1 .0189 
1.0-^04 


•IbtlitT  of  Water.— Water  Is  very  uliKhtly  ooiiipi-msglblf. 
billty  is  from  .000040  to  .000051  for  one  atmospliere.  decreiuiine 
of  temperature.  For  each  foot  of  pressure  ni«tilled  water  will 
J  in  Toliinie  .0000015  to  .0000013.  Water  is  so  Inconipresnible 
>  depth  of  a  mile  a  cubic  foot  of  water  u'ill  neigh  onlj  about 
more  tlmii  al  llit^  surface. 

TBE  iinPCBlTIKS  OF  W^ATEH. 

Hunt  and  G.  H.  Clapp.  Trails.  A.  I.  M.  G.  ivli.  il38.) 

M  nnAlyse*  are  iiia'le  to  determine  concerning  «  Riven  water: 
c-ability  for  ninlfiiip  steam;  (2)  its  hardnens,  or  tht-  facility  with 
II  ••  form  a  lalher"  i,eoes8ary  for  washiuK:  or  i.l.p  its  adaptation 
HUfacrurin^  pui'i»Ke8. 
alo  ni«wtiiigof  the  Chemical  Section  of  tlie  A.  A.  A.S.  Itwaade- 
rt  all  water  analysea  ia  parts  per  (lionsiHid,  liiimlieil-tlioiuand, 

zraina  per  imperial  (BriHali)  K«.llaus  Into  parts  j>er  100,000,  di- 
Po  convert  parts  per  lOil.OOO  imo  Kmln»<  per  LI.  8.  srallott,  mul- 
ir.5(*3. 

coniiiiijn  commercial  unalysi.1  of  water  is  uiade  to  iletermine  Its 
HiAkfnfz:  Hteam.  Water  oxnlHliiin^  more  tliHii  5  pari k  per  100,000 
jbaric  or  nltiic  acM  ia  liable  ta  cuise  xerioiiH  eorrosion,  not  only 
B  of  tlir-  boiler  liHeJf.  but  of  the  pipes,  eylintlerit,  pistons,  aod 
Kbicli  the  ^leaiii  coines  in  cinlact. 

Msidiie  in  water  iixetl  for  nialtiNg  Hlenin  cauM's  the  Interior  liii- 
ilers  to  become  coated,  and  oflen  produces  a  dangerous  liar-d 
1  prevent*  the  cooling  action  of  the  water  from  protecting  the 
ml  burning. 

I  innirne<iia  bicart>onntes  In  water  loKe  llieir  enuBBK  of  earbonic 
ling,  and  oflen.  esp»-ei«lly  when  the  water  containn  sulphuric 
with  the  otiier  *jlid  reslJues  constantly  hein.:  fovmed  by  the 
r«  very  lianl  and  insoluliie  scale.  A  iari;er  iinioimt  than  100 
^000  of  total  fLoliil  residue  will  ordiuaiily  cauHe  troublesome 
Ulil  condemn  the  watei'  for  use  iu  steani-lxillers,  utdeas  a 
Dot  be  obtained. 

IB  tabulated  form  of  the  causes  of  trouble  with  water  for 
tid  the  proposed  remetlies,  given  by  Prof.  I.,.  M.  Norton. 

CADBBS  or  iMCBUaTATIO.N. 

I  •iided  matter. 

•-,1  sjilts  from  convent  ration, 
"lales  of  lime  and  mticuesia  by  boiUnS  oQ 
a}di  tliciii  ID  *oiMloa. 


WATBR. 


4,  Deposition  of  Biilpbates  of  lime,  becnust;  tnilphai«  of  llni«l 
Bolubl«  ill  cold  water,  less  soliibln  in  hot  water,  insoluble  alv>« 

&.  DepoMtioii  of  iiingQcsia,  because  uia<;iieslutii  snlt»  drcort 
lemperalurp, 

6  Deposition  of  lime  soap,  iron  soap,  etc.,  formed  hy  oitp 
f^rease. 

Mean*  ros  Vtaeranma  Ixcrdstation. 

1.  Filtration. 
a.  Blowing  off. 

3.  Use  of  internal  collecting  apparatus  or  deviceo  for  dli 
culation. 

4.  Heating  feed-water. 
6.  Clienik'al  or  other  treatment  of  water  In  boiler. 

6.  IntroduolioD  of  zinc  Into  boiler. 

7.  Chemicnl  tifacinent  of  water  outside  of  boiler. 


Tabi'lab  Virw. 


Trouble. 
Incrustation. 


Troublesome  Subtstance. 
gedlmc^nt.  mud,  clay,  etc. 
Readily  soluble  salts. 

Blcarbouates  of  lime,  maKnesia,  I 
iron,  I 


Sulphate  of  liuie.  " 

Chlfpridf  And  sulphate  of  ma^e- 1  /-•„.■.«.!„„ 

siiim.  f  '-o'^™""'"' 

Carbuuate     of    soda    in   large  I  ji,i,.,i„„ 

amounts,  f  rruniug. 

Acid  (in  mine  waters).  Corrosion. 


Dissolved    carbonic 
oxygeu. 


acid    and  I 


Qrease  (from  condensed  water). 

Organic  matter  (sewage). 
Organic  matter. 


Prliuing. 
Corrosion. 


Remedy  < 

Filf 

Br 

)"■■ 

t  Addiv 
)       burlu 
t  Addliinn  i-.f^ 
(       soda. etc 
I  Addition   of 
I       ride,  etc. 

Alliall. 
iHPB •' — 


I  Blue 

Curb 
j       Sut 
(  Pi-ecl,t|rt 
1       ferrir  < 
Dlllo. 


The  mineral  matters  causing  the  mf>Bt  troiilileson' 
bonateit  uud  sulphates  of  lime  nnd  mnBn«<in.  oxi.- 
and  silica.    The  analjsejt  of  s>^ii)p  of  the  most  cuiii..i  ..  . 
boiler-scales  are  given  in  the  following  tatile : 

AnalyHes  or  Boll«r-ac«lv.    (CliaiMtlvr.)  ' 


Sul 

IVr- 

phal« 
of 

Map 
lien  (a. 

Silica. 

of 

J 

Lime. 
~rT707 

troo. 

ii.r.C.&.B.KttS.,TXo. 

1 

9.» 

0.n» 

M.OJ 

No. 

i 

71  ..tr 

i.ra 

•  •  1 

"       •'           No. 

s 

fi-2.HU 

IS.iU 

980 

o.n 

No. 

i 

na.os 

4. 79 

■  r« 

J,,, 

f, 

lfl.*9 

5.W 

No. 

0 

ao.so 

SI. IT 

7:s 

1  oi      « 

"        ••        ••            N... 

^ 

i  M 

«.B1 

»0T 

t.09     a 

>•           ••            ..                 N|.. 

- 

;i    ^4 

a.iH 

0.«6 

Q«       ^ 

14                  ll                  •!                            V 

«.M 

..i 

8.M 

,,^^:^ 

THE    IMPURITIES   OF   WATER. 


553 


n    Pat-Ii*    per    100,000    u<'     Water   eiviuic    Bad 
leaulta    in   Sleani>bolIerB.    (A.  K  Kiiut.l 


,  ^i 

11 

i 

as 

•^5 

iJ 

i 

2 
< 

1 

II 

*"• 

u 

a 
P5 

Si 
u 
S 

.a 

c 

i 

0 

1 

1^ 

5 

0 

a. 

_2 
3 

£ 

& 

s 

2 

00 -c 

ir- 

^ 

U! 

- 

o 

■4 

u 

^ 

"S" 

119 

89 

S90 

590 

T80 

*i 

<M0 

151 

3H 

l.«0 

4K 

H(UI 

990 

as 

21 

30 

13.10 

75 

m 

m 

]i!0 

81(1 

31 

TR 

10 

m 

3B 

1:^1 

•il 

TO 
8J 

lei 

83 

310 
£10 

88 

aio 
i.flo 

ro 

90 

SO 

8a 

Bt  1  04 

. 

:mi 

50 

41      68 

MH) 

4S 

33 

tanc^s  have  bt><-n  added  with  tlie  tdtta  of  causiiii;  ob«>inical 
k  will  prevent  ImUnr-scale.  An  a  Keiitn'ul  rule,  these  do  luoru 
Ood,  for  a  boiler  Is  one  of  the  woi-st  p<jHKilile  |il(U'es  In  which  to 
emicnl  reaction,  where  it  nenrly  always  causes  more  or  less 
the  Tnetal.  and  iK  liHble  tn  cause  ilnii^enitm  explosions. 
here  water  riintaiiduK  lar^e  anioiitits  nf  total  solid  re&ldue  ta 
•ed,  a  heavy  iieirolenin  •lif,  frvo  froru  tiir  or  wax^  whtcli  Is  not 
ly  acids  <fr  nlKaiies,  not  having  liiimcleiit  wax  in  it  to  cause 
I.  and  which  has  a  vaiiorliinK-iKiiiit  ni  nearly  000°  K.,  will  give 
llts  In  preventinK  tioilcrsCHle.  Uh  action  is  to  form  a  thin 
rer  the  holier  lininjM.  protecting  tlieiii  lartfelv  from  tlie  action 
I  water  and  Kieaiing  the  gediiueut  which  Ik  formitl,  thus  pre 
Ormation  of  scale  and  keeping  tlie  wliii  residue  fl'otn  the 
if  the  water  in  nucIi  a  pliuiiic  sn^ijeudfil  conrliiioii  that  it.  can 
[ted  from  the  l)Oiier  by  the  pi-ocess  of  "  i)lowinjc  oiT."  If  the 
llown  off  siilllclently  ol'ten,  (his  .si'diineiit  funiis  into  a  "  putty" 
*s;itAt«  denning  the  bulieris.  Any  tjoilcr  using  Ijttd  water  slioulil 
iTery  twelve  horn's. 

•  of  Water.— Tiie  iiArdnCHs  ol'  water,  or  its  opp.»it.ti  gnatlty, 
the  eaKe  witii  wIiIcIj  it  will  foi'ui  a  latlier  witli  soap,  depends 
»hHrui"in  r he  presence  of  conipnuttils  of  lime  and  ninenesla. 
^ps  connisl.  clicniic  illy,  of  tilenie,  .Nteurale.  ami  |>iilniitale.  of 
l«e,  usually  Kixia  attil  potuKh.  Tlie  more  lirnennd  nirit^nesin  in  a 
ter.  the  uuire  soap  ajjiven  \oliinieof  ilie  water  wiildeconiiwwep, 
B.'«oluhle'>leate.  pjiliniinie,  nml  stenratc  of  lime  and  niR^m^jila, 
mtly  the  more  noap  most  he  ndil^-d  to  a  K'lHon  of  witter  in  order 
fuiry  quantity  of  soft  p  may  renniiti  in  suliition  lofonn  the  lather. 
Iiardiiv-:s  of  Kamplcs  of  water  i^j  t:cn<^rally  e)fjireKse<1  in  terras 
r  of  fttundiird  aoap measures  cou^utned  by  a  (faliou  of  water  in 
Tnuneiit  lather. 

■d  soap  ineasure  is  the  quantity  required  to  precipitate  one 
inulB  of  lime. 

dy  rt«el<oiied  that  one  gallon  of  pure  distilled  water  taltea  one 

to  produce  a  lather.      Therefore  one  i.s  deiiigcted   from  the 

of  soap-measures  found  to  be  nt'ce^.'iHr.v  to  u.se  tii  prtuiuce  A 

Ion  rpf  water,  in  reporting  the  nmnlier  of  Bonp-measnreH.  ori 

hardness  of  I  lie  wjter  sample.    In  act nally  making  I estji  for] 

••  minlrtt tire  gallon."   or  seventy  cuhie  ccullmetr.'-,    i^j    useil 

iiient  iurji^el' amount.     The  standHnl  ni**Hstii . 

ten  grammes  of  purecasMIe  xoap  (oiiitunn 

'  wcalf  alcohol  (of  about  3.J  perc  nt  iil.'  .h. 

li  .jctly  siiftlcient  soiiji  In     ' 

I.  >i>e  nulli^ramme  of  cjivl 

,11  , 1  i>olutJun  is  reduced  tu  i 

f   naif  I  lai-fri 
nrf,1  ti  lib  a  b'carbouare  of  lime,  magne«ka  i 


WATBB, 


It.  will,  on  the  excess  of  rhe  carbonic  add  boioB  t-xpelled,  <    . .  _ 
erabltt  quantity  of  Ihc  Hint-,  maznesia,  or  iron,  ami  conii<<|nMitlrl 
will  beso(t«r.    Tlie  liaiilneHS  of  the  water  after  thla  depodl  afa 
lone  ImllinR.  Ih  called  llie  pennniieul  hardnesM  and  the  ilurereiMat 
undtlie  tuUil  lioidiieHS  Ik  i'alU»<l  tftiipomry  hardufM. 

IJiiie  sails  in  water  rract  inimediatt'ly  on  soap-Holutlnna,  prvclpittfM 
oleate,  |ialinltatf ,  or  gtcaralti  of  lime  ut  ODce.  AlatrneKia  iiiilta,  ua  (to 
trary,  require  some  tonsideratile  lime  for  reaotiuu.  Tlit-.v  «i»,  b»» 
niorv  powerful  hordeners  :  one  equivalent  of  mafcnesia  sails  cnwpndl 
much  tioapas  one  and  oue-half  eqiiivalentN  of  lime. 

The  preseuce  of  soda  and  p<ilu»n  salts  softens  rather  that)  bantoai 
Each  gniin  of  carbonate  of  time  |)er  Ballon  of  water  faiiwi>  an  iMTj 
expenditure  for  soap  of  about  i  ounces  per  100  pilous  of  water,  ij 
aVerrj..  Jan.  SI,  1885.) 

Pnrtfyine    Feed-water    Tor    Steam-boiler*.  -  Ti>  cflMl 
puritioation  of  water  tiefore  and  after  Ijelng  fed  into  n  i...ii.r  »  .!.r« 
ufuctured    by  the  Albany  Steam    Trap  ConijtBuy,    ' 
the  iuipuriti'"*  i)y  the  process  of  a  continuou.s  ciiciil 
the  boiler,  through  the  Alter  and  baclt  Into  the  b«i: 
impurities  that  are  held   in  suspen.'^ion  are  lliii,«  li; 
and  "arrested"  by  llie  fliterinijr  uifent  contiilned  In 
pre.tsiire,  and  at  a  teniperalu>«  iinilted  only  by  tliiit  < 

It  Is  sonH'iimcs  desirable,  in  the  remnval  of  the  mi:  ; 
from  the  feed-water,  to  beat  ihc  water  up  to  nearly  i 
aK  it  Is  in  the  tK>fler»  and  then  to  filter  the  same  \^i.  i. 
boiler.    The  operation  in  a  KPIieral  way  ie  :  The  water  Ik  In 
liHiial  exhaust-heater  b,r  the  feed-pttlnp.  Afkd   there  it   is   f 
hdiiHt  from  theenRlne,  say  to  iiV)".  and  at  this  leimwratur.- 
healer.    The  reheater  oonsisfu  of  a  verlieal,  cylindrical   >-i 
series  of  water  pans  or  shelves,  ami  so  arraneed  that  as  t! 
it  delivered  into  the  top  pan,  and  then  overflows  into  (h.-  - 
dnwn  the  series  to  the  l>ottom.  and  dnrini;  its  ti'su- 
forniiuBtnaterial.    Theolreulatini»-pninn  takesthe  wi. 
the  reVienter  and  forces  it  throug'h  the  filter  on  Its  wh.v 

Mr.  W.  B.  Cofjcswell,  of  IheSolvav  Troces*  Co. 's  8o«Ja  \Vurk«n):>>til 
N.  Y..  thus  descrit>es  the  system  of' nurincaliuD  of  tMdter  ffAl-waWrl 
at  the.so  works  (Trans.  A  S.  M.  E.,  xid.  a.M): 

I' or  purifying,  we  use  a  weak  soda  liquor,  containlni;  abo-  • 
NbjCo,  pel  litre.    Siiy  lU  to  3  M'  (or  ?M~,  to  MO  jr»ls  i  of  1 1 
Into  the  preclpilBtinf;  tank.     Hot  water  almut  60»  C.  i.<  il  • 
tlif  reaction  of  tlin  pieolpiiatton  Bot'S  on  uhdn  the  ini 
quires  aliout  l.'S  ndnutes.    When  the  tank  \*  full  the  w  > 
the  Hyiitt  (4).  5  feet  diameit-r.  and  the  Jewell  (li,  10  t  ■ 
au  niioutea.    Forty  tanks  treated  per  H  hours, 

Charsre  of  wmer  purified  at  once- 3B  M*,  i.tii  gtikm 

Soda  in  purifylne  reaK>'nt   IS  kes.  Na^COi. 

Soda  used  per  t.llOO  ^allona S.S  lbs. 

A  fMimple  Is  taken  from  ea^b  holler  ererj  other  dar  kud  trnitfd  (M 
Bnuin6.  soda  and  salt.  If  the  deg.  B  is  more  tbtu)  %,  tbat  boUcT  to  Moi 
reduce  il  lielow  2  deg.  B. 

The  following  are  some  analyses  K<ven  by  Mr.  CVinsWell : 


FLOW   OP   WATER. 


655 


^afd  Water  for  liOcomotlTe  (7ae.  — A  water-soft- 
(r»M-fctiMn  at  Fossil,  in  'NVeMern  \V',v<'>min(r.  on  Llie  Union  Pa- 
dtfscriljeil  in  Eihi'o  AVip*,  June  !i,  IWK!.  It  its  lh«' invention 
)U,  of  Kansas Oity  The  Benpial  plan  adopltnl  is  ti>  first  dis- 
als  ill  aclo-<?<l  tank,  findtln'n  oonm'Oi  thisfo  tli<^  v^nppl}'  main 
•Ills  wiil  Ijf  frircfd  itito  111**  main^tniilr,  tlie  »u]>p!y-pipe  being 
it  tlioroiigli  mixtiii'i-  of  the  !<oliiiian  witli  tbe  Woter  ia  ob- 
e-pipo  ri'uiu  the  botiuiii  oC  itie  (nnlc  is  apt^iied  from  time  to 
f  the  prei'ipitate.  Tin-  pipe  leading  to  llie  tender  is  arranged 
*r  from  near  the  surface. 

84  feet  in  diiimeter  and  it!  feK  liigli  n'lll  contain  ntiout  M,600 

ir.    About  three  bourn  sUoiiht  Iw  allowe<i  for  tliiRnnioutit  of 

iroufirh  tile  tank  to  iM»!nr«>  tlion>up;h   pix'olpltatlou,  irlving  a 

i!«iiniptioii   of  about  15,'I0(1  gallons  i>er  htinr.     Should  more 

Hired,  auxiliary  spflllnKtBnksKhoulil  he  provided. 

I  added  to  precipitate  the  soule-formlng  impurities  are  go- 

and  quicklime,  varrln^ in  proportions arcurdint;  tollje  rcla- 

ol  sulphatBS  and  carbonates  tn   the  water  to  lie  trea.ied. 

I  cartK>aate  is  added  toproduee  just  eni>ut;)i  sodium  Hiilpliale 

I  tbe  reinaiulne  liiue  und   nla|;ne^4ia  Kulpliate  and  iirmlucu 

Its  correspondiDif  mn^egia  salt,  iherwby  lo  Ke'  '"'d  of  the 

'e,  which  produces  (ouuUng,  if  allowed  to  accumulate. 


rDRACTLICS-FLOW  OF  WATER. 


[for    Dlacharge  of  Water  ttaough  Orlflcea  and 

|"eot«nKul»r  or  ciix'ular  oi-l (Ices,  witij  the  liead  measured  from 
rtflco  to  the  surface  of  tho  still  water  in  the  feeding  reservoir. 

Q=  C  \  igHY.  a (1) 

po allowance  for  increased  head  due  to  velocity  of  approach: 


* 


C  =  CM  V  «SH  X  LH. 


. (S) 

aaA  circular  or  other  nhaped  vertical  or  inclined  orlfleeii; 
bo  (be  proponiiion  that  eacli  successive  hoiizontal  layer  of 
^trough  tiie  orlflce  has  a  velocity  due  to  its  respective  bead: 


Q  =  ci5i  f  to  X  «  V'ja^>«  -  f  H<»). 
r  vertical  welrg: 


(S) 


Q  =  cH  VigH  X  iJt. 


(« 

Firoxi- 
or  (3) 


tot  water  discharged  in  cubic  feet  per  second;  C  =  app 
ht  for  fornaiiss  (1)  and  (i) ;  r  =  correct  coefflclent  It. 

keoefflcients  c  and  Care  given  Iwlow. 

b  =  8,02;  H  —  head  in  feet  measured  from  c!enlr«  of  orlflce 

[water;  Hit  =  head  nieasui-ed  from  boitoin  of  orifice;  Hi  = 

from  top  of  orlSce;  h  =  H,  corrected  for  velocity  of  ap- 

f //+  -  -; — ;  a  =  area  in  squiire  feel ;  L  =  length  In  feet. 

O      '-iff 

fater  from  Orldoea.— The  tlitioretlcal  veK^lty  of  water 
I  oriUce  is  tlie  same  as  tlie  velocity  of  tv  fulling  body  which 
I  a  heiglil  equal  to  the  head  of  water,  =  ^  ^H.    The  actual 
■  Hinaller  section  of  the  vciiu  ciintractir  Is  substeutiallv  the 
beuralical,  but  the  veluclt.y  at  llie  plane  of  the  ■- 
|ch  the  coefficient  C  has  the  nearly  constant  value 
«er  of  tlie  ceii<«  conlyacia  In  therefore  about  .tO  ( 
I  tb»  approxiiaaiB  coelRcieat  =  .(8,  and  c  Umi  C 


1^56 


HYDHArLICS. 


dent,  the  ratio  -  varies  will)   different  ralluso'  ijie  hea<f  to 
c 

of  the  Tertlcal  oriflce,  or  to  — .    Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  gives  lii^ 
For  5  =  -s         ff™       ••         1-5        a.  an 

5.  =  ,9«H       .nW9     .WIS        .9965       .0980        ,!»!>87        .9)K 
c 

For  vertical  rectangular  orlflces  ot  ratio  of  head  to  width  W 

,a         ,8         .1         1.5         S.  3.  4. 

7i     .«S88    .9993    .1 

For  H-t-DoT  H  +  W  over  8,  C  =  c,  practically. 

Welsbacli  given  the  following  values  of  c  for  uircular  orlflcei  In  atti 
"  —  measured  liend  from  centre  of  orifice. 


—  = .04SS    .9657    .98S3    .9890    .9953 


H  ft. 


.006 


.33 
.005 


.8S        I      S.O 


8.0 


.641 


48. 


.«3a 


For  an  oiifice  i>f  Ii  =  .093  ft.  (lud  a  well-rouuded  moutbpiecr.  //  I 
.  eflective  htaJ  in  feet,  _ 


c  =  .989 


.W4 


Hniiiiltmi  Hniith,  Jr.,  round  lliat  for  ^reat  heads.SI 2  ft.  tn) 
verginK  nioi(tti|>icce«,  <•  lins  H  Taliif  of  about  oDe.  aiul  for  «a 
orinoes  In  thin  plates,  wiili  full  47»ntrnutloii,  r  ^  atfotit  .40.  6 
BmlllrKexpt-riiiirnlnl  valrip!)  of  r  for  orlflees  in  tbin  plates  dlnci 
air  lire  ax  folluw.s.    All  diinennions  lu  feet. 


Jtrcuiur,  In  sleel,  D  -  .030,  |  ^: 


(  //  = 


fCln-iilar,  in  brass,  /)  =  .OSO,  j  -^^ 
3lreulur, lubrass.O=  .100,-}  ^^^ 
Srciilar,  in  iron,  /)  =  .100,  |  ^Z 
qiiare.  In  bi-flsa,  .05  X  M,  \  ^Z 

nuarv,  iu  brass,  .10  x  .10,  {  ^^ 

k-etanBulur.  in  braNit,         i  H  = 
L  =  MO,  H'=  .OM ■)    c  = 

F'lr  tlif  reelani^nlftr  oriflce,  L,  tin-  U-mkIIi.  Is  Imii/onlal 
Mr.  Suillli.  as  the  reKiilt  nf  (he  e<illmlnn  of  iniwh  wTfwr 

■""      ia«  well  an  hi" ...,....■  i..      r.,.,.  ,., .    _. 

till  eouirac:  <t| 

[}>Ute.  Ill  v> 

'\to  Jliat  >  >.  ,,,  ...i..,  ....„  ,,, 

II'  <,'f.*entcieul  c  Is  t 
'.)  and  (i)  use  tlw  i 


.T30 

S.4» 

s.to 

.iMta 

.«J98 

.»M 

.185 

.i;» 

I.T» 

an 

.6525 

.•ISfl,^ 

.6118 

.ooro 

.l!» 

.■)57 

.900 

i.:3 

.63;JT 

.*;i55 

rooMt 

taa 

l.HII 

1  HI 

S8I 

4« 

,001.1 

.0041 

.m«s 

.«0J« 

.9)13 

■  H" 

j.™^ 

S.ftl 

.0410 

.«•.•% 

.«IS7 

.«« 

.l«l 

WiU 

J.TI 

«.:» 

.oai« 

.6139 

.OWI 

.«o» 

.'idi 

.9i; 

I.Kl 

li.8S 

.Mm 

.e;80 

.ft^MS 

.ntMO 

HYDRAULIC   FOnMUL.1!. 


of  CoeOlrlent  r   for  Vcrtlpal   OrlHces   with   Sbarp 
res.    Fall   Coutraetlon,    »nd    Pree     Dlacharee    Into 

(Haintllon  Smiib,  Jr.) 


Square  Orifices.    Len^b  of  Ibo  Side  of  the  Square,  in  feet. 


'.OS 

.03 

.04 

.M 

.07 

.10 

.IS 

.IS 

.80 

.40 

.60 

.80 

1,0 

.»3 

.687 

.C3H 

,(W1 

filfi 

.611 

.em 

.645 

.6.36 

.6*1 

.6X3 

.1)17 

.ftl3 

.flIO    .(Kl.'5!   .601 

..Wfl 

.ROB 

.us 

.636 

.6*i 

.6M 

.6lt!l 

.613 

.BIO 

.G(IM    .6it5]   ,BllS 

.(iOt 

.niH) 

tVW 

.eu 

623 

.616 

.61  a 

.6011 

.1)07 

.flOfl 

00131    ,fll«;   .«0.i 

.601 

.(Ull 

611? 

.«a 

.61S 

.61^ 

.60« 

.607 

.OOa 

.005 

.605 

.*;0I    .604 

.(W! 

MYi 

.me 

.016 

.«ll 

0U8 

.6U« 

.sa-i 

.004 

.601 

,«o;i 

,tiie!  Mm 

.m-i 

.60.' 

.(101 

.000 

.(MS 

.601 

.»Ki 

.(lO-i 

.(WJ 

.W2 

.IW-3 

.OOCj   .601 

(tOI 

.6ni 

m 

;-?W 

.Md 

.MH 

.WW 

..^ilW 

.SllN 

..MttI 

.MS 

..VJg      MW 

.59m 

.rm 

•  ftUH 

Cruular  Orifices.    Dfninelerfi,  in  feet 

M 

,0H 

.04  j  .05      .07 

.10 

A-J 

.15 

.30  1   .40 

.60 

.m 

1.0 

.GIT    .BiS 

.61S 

.61-J 

.60t! 

.Ofifi 

.(MO 

.6.301   .Oii    .ms 

.ma 

.(MW 

.tMJS 

.601     .5!)fi 

.593 

.590 

w 

.cni 

.C-a    .617    .Bl'J 

.«« 

.  <HI.'i 

.00.*    .(HXt    .50* 

.505 

.:m 

!5W 

.we 

.521 

.614    .610    .007 

.Wll    .«H 

.fiOO    .599    .Slltt 

.5117 

.506 

.038 

.614 

.609    .605    .003 

.OOi    .600 

..=.09      59«!    .5!W 

.597 

..597 

.60« 

.t\H 

.611 

.W7    .6*14'    .erti 

.0(10  .tm 

.5M    .59!«    .5!» 

.,597 

.596 

.69< 

f.i  1 

iliV. 

.603    .601     .SOS 

.59.*  ..-)!« 

.597    .597    .5;i7 

.596 

..'iDO 

.m 

.109      598    .597 

..^96'    .5B() 

..'tSU    ..MtB    .596 

.596 

.595 

..W) 

.503    .59h    .r>fl4 

.501    .59) 

.594    .591      .591 

.591 

.6«.1 

.595 

f,    ..J., 

.WJ      filK    .,'.!W 

Mi    ,592'  .5»«'   .Wi    .598 

.592 

.5UJ 

.SDJ! 

lOHArt,lC  PORMVE..X.-FIiO\r  OF  WATER  IN 
OPEN   AND  CI..OSIKD  CUANNBLS. 

of   vraler    In    Pipes. —Tht-  qimnlity   or   watfr  discharged 

I   iiiiM'  ,l<_'piTiils  on  ihf  "liemi;"  llial  i;;,  tlie  vcrtii-al  diMiaticu  be- 

iii-fac<»  ttf  KtUI  water  in  the  cbaiiiber  at  the  (»ntraiice  end  of 

Irvt-I   of   tliB  centre   of  llii-  dKclmrte-  end  of    the  pipe; 

_-(li  uf  the  pipe,  upon  the  ehaivioier  of  its  iurerior  surfauu 

and  upon   the  number  ami  .slinrpii<:a.s  ut  tlm   bends;  hut 

of   the  po»iUoo  of    the  piiw,  as  horizoutal,  Or  Indloed 

.iiards. 

,  instead  of  beiiif;  an  actual  distance  betwcpn  levels,  may  ba 

frssure,  as  by  a  pump,  in  which  rase  the  liead  is  onlculared  ax  a 

iince  oor  respond  I  lie  to  the  pres.sui-e  1  lb  per  bq.  in,  =  a.:lO0  ft, 

_i  head  =  .4;13  lb.  per  nq.  in. 

liesd  operftliner  to  cnu^v  floiT  L>i  divided  into  three  parts:    1.  TU« 

id.  ivliich  is  the  hrisiit  ibroiiRb  which  a  body  ni'isl  fall  in  trncHtt 

■••ily  with  which  the  water  flows  into  the  pl|>e  =  i''  -=-S.(,  in 

,!'ity  in  ft.  inT  K»o   aoid  A-/  =  04  32;  i.  the  ititrii-hetitl.  that 

line  the  resistance  to  eii'trauce  to  the  pipe.     With  sharps 

,^  eutry-head  =  about  Uj  the  velocity- bead;  wiili  sinootll. 

fthe  entry-head  is  tnappi-^iable;  3.  tlie/r(c(('uii-/inic{,  dM 

glstance  to  H  nv  within  the  lii|>e.  J 

I  of  pipes  of  consi.leialil,-  l(n.rlli  lb'-  ?iiiii    'r  tli»  cnlrvattd 

||iili-ed  HCaroely  «xcf-f ds  i  l',-'i      I"  ili,;  c:i-i- "l'  l.uiir  |ilpeal 

^Je  !<iiin  of  llie  velocity  mid  miry  li«y«i^euei:ilh  ■..,  Hninll 

riieKbi-ted.  ^^^^^^^^ 

I  Formula  for  Flow  orWa(.cr^^^^^^H|Con4]n1tM« 

Ivelocity  in        per  «ec.       r  |  nicnn  l(^^^^^^^^^^^ylop» 

.  Dg,  for  pipes  running  full  =  r  >  ./ ' 
tela  a  coettloleot  dettmiiiuntl  by  ezperil 


558 


Btokaclics. 


The  tneAn  hydraulic  radius  = 


t-rea  of  wet  croan-aecttoe 
wet  perimeter. 


:i 


In  pipes  nmDlne  full,  or  exactly  half  full,  and  In  iemlC'lreuUr 
nets  ruuniriK  full  it  is  equal  to  y^  diameter. 
The  slope  =  the  head  (or  pressure  expressed  as  a  bead.  In  fi 
■+■  lencih  uf  pipe  nifajsured  lu  a  at-»lpht  line  from 
In  open  channels  the  slope  b  (be  actual  slope  of  (be  gurra<<e. 
unit  of  lengtli,  or  tlie  sine  of  the  angle  of  the  slo|>e  w iih  the  b 
If  r  =  mean  hydraulic  radhig,  a  =  slope  =  head  •*■  length,  v 
feet  per  secimi!   all  iliinen'^ions  in  feeti,  ti  =  r  i  r  t  »  =  r  ♦  ri. 
Qnanilly  of  Water  DlacbarKetf.  -If  Q  =  dischaiKa  to  coti 
I  per  secund  and  a  —  ai-ea  of  cbaonel,  Q  =  av  =  nc  \  rt- 
'     a  I  r  Is  appmxitnalel.r  proportional  to  the  dtocbar^.    ItisamaxM 
SOK°,  corresponding  to  19/SO  of  the  diameter,  and  the  flow  of  a  coodnB 
full  is  about  9  per  ceul  greater  than  that  of  one  couiplwieJy  tilled. 

Table  giving  Pall  in  Feet  pernile^  the  DlatatK-e  oa 
correnpondtnK  to  a  Fall  of  1  Ft.^  and  also  the  Ta 
of  «  aad  I  «  for  U»e  In  the  Forumia  r  ==  c  i  r«. 

(  =  H-t-  L  =  sine  itf  angle  of  slope  =  fall  of  water-aurface  (B),  Id  m 
tance  (Z>),  divided  by  that  diiitance.  , 


I 


Fall  in 

Slope, 

Sine  of 

Foil  In 

Slope. 

Sine  of 

Feet 

1  Foot 

Slope. 

»*. 

Feet 

1  Foot 

Slope, 

per  Mi. 

in 

e. 

per  Mi. 

hi 

*. 

0.35 

SUM 

.00OW73 

.00fi881 

17 

310.6 

.UOKIVT 

.30 

1T600 

.OOOftlfiS 

.007538 

18 

2BS.8 

.0031041 

.40 

1»«0 

.onrv^7^8 

.0«<nM 

IB 

2779 

.«»'«« 

.W 

10560 

.0000947 

000731 

20 

au 

.01  «:(*:» 

M 

8800 

.0001136 

.010000 

as 

840 

.a04i«Br 

i 

.T08 

WSO 

.0001330 

,oiisa« 

84 

«W 

.OMMW 

.era 

BS60 

.00ni.W4 

.0ia»«7 

86 

aoit.i 

.a049M.t 

.904 

5ato 

.0001713 

.OIJiOHS 

28 

1^8.6 

.OaMQM) 

1. 

5im 

OOOISM 

,0i,i7e-." 

ao 

176 

.oaa«i8 

1.86 

48-« 

0002*37 

.OliUSSO 

si.w 

160 

.oa8M»: 

i 

l.S 

imn 

.oooewi 

.016851 

40 

ISS 

.oo:sn« 

■ 

1.T5 

3017 

.00n33l4 

.01».\» 

44 

liW 

.ooMsa 

a 

ueio 

.oooiTsa 

,01M6S 

48 

no 

.wunm 

«,ts 

5347 

.0OIM-J6I 

.QiS»i\ 

5S,8 

100 

.«I0 

.1 

i.t> 

«U 

.0OCM736 

.021760 

60 

88 

.Duat3t 

.1 

a.» 

IfrJO 

.coosjoe 

.frj-aaa 

flfl 

80 

.01  a 

8. 

1760 

.0005682 

.(h.>SlW 

70.4 

76 

M 

3. as 

lS£j 

.OOOfiLM 

.OS4807 

ao 

«6 

[OlUftU 

^ 

8.5 

1608 

.OOOMHl 

.0I!5;51 

88 

60 

.OIMMT 

M 

8.75 

iioa 

.00117102 

.OSflOM 

96 

6fi 

.OittML 

MM 

4 

\S30 

.OOOTBTO 

.»r;hn 

105.6 

50 

.01 

1^1 

& 

lOSG 

.000(M70 

.0S0773 

ISO 

44 

.onrm 

^H 

8 

880 

.0011304 

,C«7I 

1.12 

40 

.UM 

^H 

7 

754. S 

.001  Itt'.- 

.0)1641(1 

160 

83 

twaat 

^9 

8 

680 

.onisiM 

.as8».','> 

vail 

S4 

.041Mtr 

JM 

9 

58fl.6 

.0017041 

.0I1-SI6 

SM 

SO 

.06 

jjm 

10 

»# 

.OOlSMfl 

.w.v.in 

9.-n 

10 

.«*, 

^H 

11 

448.0 

.OOlSKW 

.(m:*!.-) 

4<0 

18 

^H 

U 

440 

.002-JT37 

OITIIT:) 

.'.'JM 

lU 

.\ 

^H 

It 

4na.i 

.oi>«flai 

.OH";.' 

860 

8 

.IS 

^H 

H 

r7  1 

.A0-M61.> 

.U.'.MM 

*W0 

« 

.\mmt 

^H 

15 

V>i 

.onasioii 

.tVvi: 

10^6 

6 

.i 

^H 

1« 

sao 

.OOiKKJUS 

.osfwe 

ISitt 

4 

.n 

1 

HTDRAULIG   FORMULjB. 


559 


1^  for  Clrcnlur  Pipe>»,  Servers,  and  Condnlta  of 
dlflTeronl  Dlaaiel«ra. 

Efdrftullc  depth  =  — ; =  yi  diam.  for  circular  pipes  run- 

or  exactlj  half  full. 


4^ 

Ditnn., 

♦  i- 

EHsm.. 

V'i" 

Dism., 

V7- 

In  Feet. 

ft. 

Id. 

in  Feet. 

ft. 

In. 

In  Feet. 

ft. 

ill. 

III  Feet. 

.088 

i 

.707 

4 

6 

l.Ofil 

9 

:.500 

.103 

2 

1 

.7-J-2 

4 

r* 

1.070 

9 

3 

i.iai 

.125 

3 

S 

.T-iS 

4 

8 

1.090 

U 

6 

1.541 

.144 

9 

8 

.7S0 

4 

B 

l.Ot^St 

9 

9 

1.561 

.161 

S 

4 

.78:1 

4 

ID 

1.093 

10 

1  5S1 

1       .177 

S 

8 

.777 

4 

11 

1.J09 

10 

3 

1.601 

!     i»i 

8 

e 

TW 

& 

l.llH 

10 

6 

1.630 

.aoi 

a 

7 

.804 

6 

1 

i.ia? 

10 

9 

:.fl.39 

.SS8 

s 

6 

.817 

S 

S 

1,137 

11 

1.658 

.mi 

s 

9 

.829 

S 

E 

Ll-IB 

11 

3 

1.677 

.ago 

s 

10 

.Ma 

li 

4 

l.lftS 

U 

0 

1.890 

.823 

a 

11 

.834 

6 

B 

1   164 

11 

B 

1.714 

.an 

i 

.868 

i 

8 

I.KS 

18 

1.732 

.SSi 

3 

1 

.8™ 

S 

7 

1.181 

12 

8 

1.7W 

.408 

3 

s 

.800 

S 

8 

I.IBO 

12 

8 

1.TB8 

.4«) 

S 

3 

.901 

6 

9 

I.ISIS      1 

12 

9 

1.T88 

.456 

3 

4 

Mi 

6 

10 

J. SOS 

13 

1.083 

.479 

3 

5 

.Ki 

5 

li 

1.216 

13 

a 

1.8J0 

..V» 

3 

G 

«.<t5 

<t 

l.»!5 

13 

G 

1.837 

.5» 

3 

T 

.oin 

0 

8 

1.250 

14 

1.871 

.540 

8 

8 

.057 

6 

8 

1  .■/7.'5 

14 

6 

1.904 

.ASS 

3 

» 

.968 

8 

g 

1  29} 

}!> 

1  936 

.577 

.^ 

10 

.970 

7 

I  8J3 

IS 

6 

1.9SB 

.Stti 

8 

11 

-ftllO 

7 

8 

1.348 

16 

2. 

.618 

4 

1. 

7 

8 

1.389 

18 

B 

2.0S1 

.6-JO 

4 

1 

1.010 

i 

0 

1.!I9-J 

17 

2.061 

B4« 

4 

2 

1  Otil 

8 

1.4)4 

17 

8 

2.091 

.061 

4 

3 

I.OSl 

8 

3 

1.430 

IB 

a.m 

.677 

4 

4 

l.(Ml 

8 

6 

1.4a8 

IB 

2.1B0 

.0W 

4 

6 

1.<»1 

8 

9 

1  47B 

20 

2.*« 

'■  of  tlie  Coefficient  e,  (C'hl«fl]-  condensed  from  P,  J,  Flyna 
.r  Water.!— Alrnusi  all  ihf  old  liydraiUlo  fi>riniila>  for  (Vndlnfr  the 
>cl(y  Id  open  nndolMSed  cliannvlsnHvpconotAiit  ccii'fIleipniF,ati(1  are 
c"r>-ect  for  only  a  8inall  range  of  channels.  Thev  Imve  often  be«n 
pve  iiicorrt^-t  reHiilts  with  diwustrous  effect!).  QanKiinieC  and  Kut- 
ufShly  iiive«tl({ated  the  AineHcau.  Freni-'h,  and  oilier  expeiiint-nis, 
ik«K  »8  the  rt!Rnlt  of  tlielr  labors  the  formiita  now  generally  known 
■*s  formula.  Tlirre  are  go  maiiv  varying  conililionM  alTrcting  llm 
a<er,  that  all  hydraulic  fomiulffiare  only  approximatluos  to  the 

Mllt. 

he  aurface-alope  meaoiireroent  Is  good,  Kutter's  formula  will  give 
Mom  exceeding  7)^  error,  provided  the  rugnsiiy  cot-ftlerent  of  the 
I*  kiirtnn  for  the  hiie.  F'or  small  0|>en  channels  D'Arcy's  and 
irtnutee.  and  for  cant-iron  pipes  D'Arcy's  foruiulce,  are  geaerallr 
•a  iH-iag  apprnzitnately  correct. 
ir)«  Formula  for  tneatiureii  in  feet  is 


n 


1.8H 


-f  41,«  + 


.OOSSl 


+  (41.8  + 


.0088I^  ^  JL^    1 


>  4^  ■■  mNUt  rtlooity  la  feet  per  lecoad  ;  r  : 


V^ 


c  -  m  hydrwoUo  ' 


I 


I 


560 


HYDRAULICS. 


depth  111  r«et  —  area  of  croiia-fiectlau  in  suuai'e  feet  divided  hs  wtoi 
eier  tu  lineal  Unt, ;  t  =  (all  of  wnter-gurfove  (hj  In  bmjt  c]isT«M«  j 

by  that  dislaticc,  =  -,  =  sine  of  slope  ;  ii  =  the  ooeflleient  of  ru| 

RBDdlnR  on  the  uaturc  of  tlie  linlD^  or  surfaco  of  the  ulmniinl.    If  i 
rst  t«riii  of  the  right  hand  side  nf  tho  equation  egtial  c.  we  tutm 
foi-inula,  I'  =  r  \  rs  —  v  X  t  i-  X  i  »• 
Valneii  Of  »  In  Kutter'R  Formula.— The  • 

inula  dt'pt'iKls,  in  a  gieut  iiifuMiirK,  ou  ihe  piuper  si 
of  roiighiiess  u,  Kxi«>ri*^uc«  is  rt?qnii"ed  in  ordpr  i 
this  coefllcii'iit.  and  to  this  end  prcm  iissistaiico  cai 
this  aflei:lioii,  liy  ccmaultliig  and  coiupuriiie  ihc  ii 
perlinents  on  the  flow  of  water  alreiidy  made  in  dm  • 

la  some  oases  It  \rould  be  well  to  provide  for  ti 
deterioration  of  channel,  l>y  selecting  a  high  valiii 
where  u  diinse  growth  of  weeds  is  likely  to  occur  itj 
where  ohanncls  are  likely  not  to  be  kept  In  a  slate  ■ 

The  following  (able,  giving  the  value  of  ii  for  dilT' 
piled  fruMi  Kiitter,  Jackson,  and  Heriiig,  and  thiH  vi. 
each  iastanee,  to  the  aiirfaees  of  olher  materials  equally  mu^U. 

Value  oc  n  in  Kuttkr'b  Formcla  fob  Differext  CauixM 

II  ^  .(Ht9.  well -planed  timber,  in  perfect  order  and  nlU;nnieiit  ; « 
perha]>s  .Ul  would  Ih-  i^uitable. 

)(  =  .010.  plaster  in  pure  cement ;  planed  timber  :  ^XntieA,  FoaU 
ainelled  Btoueware  aud  irou  pJpea  ;  Klused  suilace^  of  ever;  sort  I 
order. 

II  =  .011.  plaster  in  cement  with  one  tliird  sand,  in  Rood  condltioa 
iron,  cement,  aud  terra  colta  plpeB,  t\eU  joine<l.  and  lu  best  Of<Wr. 

II  =  .012,  unplaoed  timber,  when  perfectly  coDttnuous  an  iIh 
flumes. 

11  =    013.  RNhlar  and  well-luid  brickwork  ;    r- '  -  -   ,  '   ■     pa\ 

stoneware  pipe  in  good  condition,  but  not  lies'.  .iC 

uot  well  Jointed  nor  in  perfect  order  .  plastei' :  j.l 

or  iuferior  condition  ;  and.gcnei'nlly,  the  aiaieiinib  ineiiiioiiru  ' 
wheu  lu  Imjx'rfect  or  iuferior  eondiiiou. 

ji  =  ,015,  second  elojis  or  roughfncetl  l>rickwork  ;  well-dr 
foul  and  slightly  tiilterciilnted  iron  :  o-nient  nnd  terra-< 
perfect  joiiiiA  and  in  bad  order  :  ami  canvas  liuiug  ou  wc 

n  =  .017,  brickwfu'kj  BKliiar.  and  stoiiewnre  in  on  tnfprl 
berciilat'.Hi  Iron  pipe«  :  rubble  in  oeiueni  .  ■:  :  ' 
well  rammed.  \^  iu  ^j,  iaeb  diameter 
tioned  with  n  -  .013  when  in  bid  order  :. 

«  -  .000,  rubble  iu  eeuieut  id  an  infer:   >  - 
■ek  Id  a.  nnniial  condition  ;  coar>e  rubb:"  ->  ■.« 

miUtonry  ;  coarse  gravel  «ell  rainnied.  fi. m  -n 

with  beds  and  bank.o  of  wcry  Ilrm,  rei.- 
raainied  In  defective  places;  rouah  nil 
■liliand  mud  ;  i-cctvingniar  wooden  iron, 
inches  apart;  triaiiiie<l  earin  in  perfect  i.j.i.  j. 

«i  =  .UMR,  cnnalR  in  enrtli  above  the  average  tn  oiu 

II  =  .0.15.  canalu  and  rivers  ui  earth  of  tolerably 
■lope  and  direction,  in  mouerately  good  order  and  I'ckmi.vii.  .i—  •- 
Ntones  and  wecdH. 

tt  -  .0:Tli.  oacala  aud  rivers  in  earth  below  the  averaiiw  In  orOrf  ■ 
mtxi. 

n  =  030,  oanals  and  rivers  in  earth  In  rail»<  i:uii 

Ini^Ht'iDeK  uud  weeds  occasionally,  and  olisrru^- 


(1  =  .035.  suitable  for  river 

reiiimen.  and  nuviuK  utoues  . 

n  rL  ,0ft,  torrents  Hni'imibt- 

Kulier'ts  roriiiii..  i.  .-  .i... 

in  I  he  Kiirfnee  .  ; 

value  of  tt.     Foi 


iIb(m4M 


<iuunit  im. 

.,,.■    ...   ...  oig  efl>"^ 

1  In  ilie  rtow  of  V  .. 
IS  usual  loiwe  n 


HYDRAUiaC   IfORMUL.«. 


561 


"  In  Ponuula  f>:=ex  ir  y  1*  I'or  fffetitl  Pipe*  IWfl 
lod«rfttely  Sntootta  Conduit*  Generally. 

By  KfTTEH's  FoHMi-ui.    (t  =  .001  or  gre.in-r.) 


n=.01l 


n  =  .OlS 


e  = 
47.1 
SI  .5 
Tf.4 
87.4 
lOS.T 
116.1 
121.6 
iS«.6 
140.4 
145.4 
149  4 


77.6 
94.6 
lat.S 

ni.s 

130.8 
V27  A 
13J..3 

ise.i 


n  =  .019    Diameter. 


69.5 
85. 3 
S4.4 
101. 1 
110. 1 
1IB.5 
ISI.l 
124.8 


8 
» 
10 
11 
13 
14 
16 
18 
SO 


tl  =  .OII 


c  = 

153  7 
l.Vi.4 

ir>7.: 

159.7 

iei.5 
les 

IBS. 8 

1B8 

1U9.9 

in. 6 


II  =  .012 


c  = 

130.3 
141.0 
144.1 

14(1 

147.8 

149.3 

153 

151.8 

15fi.l 

157.7 


n  =  .OlS 


e  = 

127.9 

180.4 

18«.7 

134.5 

lafl.e 

1.S7  7 
HI). 4 
142.1 
144.4 
140 


I 


ulair  pjtws  llie  hydrnullc  mean  depth  r  equals  kS  ot  the  diameter, 
ag  to  Kutler'B  formula  the  value  of  c.  the  coefficient  of  (llschnnce, 
.e  for  all  ulojieK  tfeatei-  than  1  in  1000;  that  Ib,  n-ithin  these  limits 
,01.  Wb  funlier  nnd  Lhat  up  to  a  slope  of  1  In  3(140  tlie  value  of  c 
pracUual  piirposeti,  coiistaot,  and  even  up  to  a  gli>pe  of  I  in  5flOO 
•uce  in  the  value  of  c  is  very  little.    Tills  is  exeiiiiillfled  In  the 

for  Olfl'orent  Values  of   t  i-  and  a  lu  Kutter'M 
Forniul»,  wltU  n  r:  .013. 

r  =  c  1   r  :<  \  *. 


m 

Slopes. 

KlOOO 

1  in  8500 

1  in  sm.!i 

linSOOO 

1  in  10,000 

1:1 

01.6 
115.3 
142.8 

80.4 
114.4 
143.0 

8a.4 

118. -J 
143.1 

83.3 
109.7 
143.8 

Illy  of  the  valueK  of  the  coeffloienl;  of  Kutlei''K  formula  for 
tliaii  0  in.  diameter  i«  coDRldered  doubtful.  (!;>ee  iiole  under 
iR64.) 

<r  lor  Earttien  Cliaiineli),  by  Kntter's  FormolOf 
for  Vae  In  Forniiila  v  =  e  f  m. 


Coefficient  of  Houglmesg 
n  =■  .02SS. 


Coefficient  of  RouKhoess, 
«  =  .085. 


562 


HYDBAULICS. 


Mr.  HolesworUi.  In  the  23(1  wlitlon  of  bis  "  Pcicket-book  of 
FormulK,"  ^ves  a  iiiodiflcation  of  KutMr'8  formula  AB  (oUom:  ttt 
caaiiroii  pipes,  v  —  c  Vn,  in  whloh 

« 
em 


k 


1  + 


■Qge 


(" 


«  + 


■OoagA' 


I 


In  which  d  =  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  feet. 
(This  formula  was  ei'^eu  meoirecily  in  Molegworth'g  SIM  edition.) 
Molesworch'a  Formula.— v=  \' kit,  In  whioh  the  values « 

M  fuUow8 : 


Nature  of  Chanael. 


Brlclcworlc ,.     , 

Eartli 

Stiliiglo 

Boiigli.  with  howlderw. 


ValueH  of  It  for  Veloc<il«« 


Less  than 
4  ft.  per  sec. 


8800 
7900 
MOO 
MOO 


More  Ik 

4  ft.  pm 


r«o 


In  Very  large  cbaiinelg.  rivers,  etc., 
llie  result  «n  sifgiliily  tlial  it  may  be  prautically  neglectMl,  sod  kl 


,  the  description  of  the  chaiiMt 
in  sKgliily  tlial  it  may  be  1 
from  »<.'>iKi  t 
Flymn' 
ttie  value  of  Kuuer's  ouefilcleot  for  a  ainpr  of 


flymn's  Formula.— Mr.  Flfim  obtains  the  followInK  exprea 
"  '     ■  "  '001  auda  valueof  ■« 


e  =  . 


m.n 


1  + 


/m.41  X 


■OUv 


The  following 
from  Kutter'g, 

Diameter. 
6  inches 
6  laches 
4  feet 
4  feet 
8  feet 
greet 


table  shows  the  clow  at^reement  of  the  value*  of  e  oM 
blolesworth's,  and  Fiyiiu's  fonimlie  : 


Slope. 
lin  40 
1  In  1000 
I  In  -100 
I  in  1000 
1  In   TOO 

iinseoo 


Kiitter. 
71. 'lO 

60, eo 
317. 
110.6 

iao.fi 
iss.a 


Molrsworth, 

71  48 
09  T» 
317 

lie..',} 
lao.oa 
i»  n 


Mr.  Flynu  fflves  another  simpIiOed  form  ut  Kulter's  formuU  («r 
different  values  of  n  as  follows :  — 


(l  +  (44.4,X^-)).>. 


In  tlM  foUowlog table  the  value  of  Jfis  given  for  the  seTenl 


i 
I 


n 

K 

11 

s 

n 

K 

n     \      K          .1 

on« 

.010 

.oil   1 

MS  BS 

ea.ai 
vwoe 

.012 
.013 
.014 

1H8.:8 

1S7.-"; 

,015      Id-.  M 
.018     :.NT  0 

om    nr.  01     oti  1  < 
.(Hit     i:iu  r.i      i«!    i 

//  ill  tbe  application  of  Mr.  Plytiio's  tovmuNs.  hVito  steuiit  ■«vc«»'^ 
I  »«  n-("-"  I.  .t,e  table,  we  gu^>ii»a\ite  tot  »,  K.  ajoA  \  » \h«ta  ^ 
r#  •n  of  Kiiiter's  ton!nu\*. 


HYDRAULIC   FORMULJB. 

wben  »  =  .011,  and  il  =  !)  feel,  w«  bat« 

300.05 


663 


1  + 


i  01 '\ 


X  ^n. 


'ominlK  I 

1  surfaces,  Qae  plastered  sides  ftnd  bed,  planed  planka,  etc.. 


V  =i/l  -*■  .0000045(10.18  +  ')  X   ♦  IK. 

■  such  as  cut-stone,  brickwork,  unplaned  plankitig.  mortar, 


«  =  i/l -I- .000013(4.354  + 1:)  X  f '• 
Doren  surfaces,  suoh  as  rubble  masoDry : 


V  =  i/l^^.00006(l.ai9  +  |;)  X  V'rM. 
irfaces,  sucb  as  earth : 


V  =  a/i  ■*■  .0003j(o.a488  +  p)  X  V^ 
I  of  Baaio^s  formula,  known  as  D'Arcy'a  Bazin's : 


/ lOi 

*  Y    •'»i34r 


100(>« 


+  0.35 

1  channels  of  U-ss  than  ao  feet  bed  Buxiii's  ftirmula  for  rartben 
i  good  order  giT«a  very  fnlr  resnlts,  dut  Kiuter's  fonmila  is  siipcr- 
I  nliriOKt  all  countries  wbere  its  iiocurucy  bas  been  uiveatignted. 
aiil«oii  p.  5(11  Kb'<u'«ili»t-n1iieijf  <',  ill  Kiitter's  roritiiilri,  for  a  widn 
lianiii'ls  ill  t-ttrtli,  that  will  cover  anytbiii^  liUely  to  occur  in  the 
raclii'e  of  au  eiigiiierr. 
■'•  Fonnnla  for  clean  iron  pipes  under  pressui-e  is 


ft64 

H^   Fo 

^bi  th« 


HYDBAULICa. 


For  Pipes  Leas  jlt»n  5  Inrlicis  Ut  IMam«t«r| 

the  (briiiula.  u  =  c  irs,  Front  tlie  foriiiulii of  D'Arcy,  Katler,  i 


Dioni.  I  D'Art-y, 
for  Clean 


irincbes. 


I 


Pipes. 


B9.4 
66.7 
V4.S 
80.4 

84.8 
88.1 


Kutter, 

for 
II  =  .011 
«5=.00J 


8».l 
42.S 

4T.4 
51.9 
M.4 


Kaniiiii^. 

foi-  t'li-ai 

Iron 


80.4 


Dism. 
ill 


4 
5 


for  (_'l>^an 
PipW. 


M.7 
98.9. 
98.1 
(I6.fi 
101 .7 
103.8 


•  -  m 


Mr.  Flynn,  in  EivinR  the  aliove  (Able,  says  that  the  taoty.  «lu.w  ihatll 
frtlcipms  diminish  from  H  iliametxr  of  5  Inches  to  kiii;  '*•*] 

k  n  SEift-r  plan  toatlnpt  coefBelenls  vnryinp  with  tli.'  ttasj 

Ktant  C'lemfient,     No  Mpiuion  Is  ttdvBiicrtl  tt-s  to  whul   •:  ^  sbl| 

iisfHl   with   Knurr's  r>tr(iinla  for  snutll  (lialiiL'lei'9.     1  In.''   tn>:is  mt  I 
stBlH-d.  K'i^''"-  'hi-'  ii'wiilts  iif  well-kimwn  aulliom. 

Older  Ponuultea — 1'h»  follonin);  an-  B  few  of  tim  luauijt  tin 
Bow  i«f  ualur  in  pipes  jijiven  by  earlier  wrileis.     An  they  b«*e  i 
Helen t8,  thify  are  nut  cuiiaidcrecl  as  reliable  aji  the  newer  fontmMe. 


Prony, 


B  =  97  yr$  -  .08; 


Eylelweiii,    ti  =  60  ^ 


or    n  =  108  %'rt  -  O.SI. 


Hawkslt-y,    t' 


=  18|/- 


dh 


+  54rf 


Neville,  e  s  140  i ra- 


in these  foruiule  i(  =  diameter  in  feet;  It  =  head  of  «at«r 
kk-iifftTi  of  pi|ie  in  fe«l;  «  =  sine  Of  gtope  =  y;  r  =  meAD  liydr 

=  ai'eft  ■*■  wet  perimeter  =  '—  for  circular  plp«. 
4 

Jlr.  Santo  l^riiiip  (/•;«(/■(>,  Augii-i   i 
In  liriek  sf  wt'pssliuw  ilmi  ihi-actua 
culnteO  hy  E.vtelwelirsforniiila.     l' 
Jn  D'Arcv's  tor  brick   sewers,  tbis   usiuU  ccniHicifiil  of   rnugli 
'  former,  viz.,  .018,  beltiR  too  low  for  large  •§e»ers  and  far  looi 
I  of  Hiiiall  srwelti. 

D'Aivy'd  formula  fur  brickwork  ia 

r=    '-^r«;     m  =  a(\  +  ~)i    a  =  .O0S738S;    B. 
Ill  \        r ' 

VELOriTT  OF  WATER  IN  OPKN  CIIAI 

■rrlKAllntt  ratlAlH.— Ttii>mioiiMiini  iiit^uii  vpIouIiv  rrqulr^ 

,llie  iIcpiPNit  111  .'iiU  or  llie  Krowlh  t    ■••^•^ ..i....,-  .„  ...  v.. 

[  lakcn  lit  lU,  feel  per  Hci'onii.     It  is 
I  K  iMpinvd  Tor  iIiik  jmrp«i(i<»,  and  li  i 

I  If  nxiiiiiini  iiii.">/iiii..  v>.lncity  will  >.,... 

I  Ix'il      ,\    «ii.  ;i    lifdislnrlieil'  if  tin-  s 

1  iM-conil.    (.  iiti  not  loo  tiinrh  saiul 

-'■•'""I  .. .  ..ir  Cnnal  in  Italy,  ofr  u  ►. .-  -.,  .. — 

•      mi      ( H'lvnii's  " lril>:i(t"toii  ('Hnal<i.  'j 
^iiriuc*  and  Bottom  Velortlte*.— Accanttttf  [ 


fi»^  -  »,4  W«V    «•  =  wb  -V  WSK  Vf»- 


5ITY    OF   WATEB   IN   OPEN   CHANNELS.        565 


0.87  f  IS,  in  which  i'  =  m?an  velocity  in  fcef  per  secoiul, 
in  BUiface  Telocity  in  fppt  \wr  second,  t'li  =  l)Ottom  velncily 
d.  r  =  by<i™ulie  iiii^ftn  d«prh  in  fi"*"!  =  area  of  cross-iiieclloii 
Ivided  by  wettfd  perimeter  iu  fe«t,  «  =  sine  of  slope. 
xiity.  or  that  of  the  particles  in  contact  with  the  hed,  in 
less  than  the  n\ejin  velocity  as  the  greatest  velocity  is 
ft  mean. 

»  that  in  firdinary  cases  the  velocities  may  be  takeu  as  brsr- 
r  nearly  ihe  proiionlons  of  3,  4,  and  !>.  Id  very  Blow  our- 
ie«rly  tts'J.  3.  and  4. 
Mn  and  Itlean  Velocities.— Gaatniillet  &  Kutter  Rive 
lUle  of  safe  Ixuiom  audmeaii  velocity  lu  cbanuels,  calculated 
o  =  ti»  +  10.87  -t  m: 


|1  or  Channel. 


Hi 


6nV  ■■'.■.*" 
^oft  slate. 


Safe  Bottom  Veloc 

Mean  Velocity  r, 

(ty  vb,  ill  feet 

In  re«t  per 
second. 

per  iwcuud. 

0.S49 

o.sts 

0.409 

0.050 

1.000 

1.313 

I.B98 

2.635 

s.ggg 

».»:» 

4.00» 

5.1)79 

l.'.WS 

O.G64 

li.lKJti 

8.204 

10.000 

13.1S7 

I  Kutter  state  that  lliey  arc  uiiablu  for  want  of  obserratioiiB 
r  these  figures  are  trustworthy.  They  consider  them  to  be 
rlioiiately  small  than  too  large,  and  therefore  recommend 
"dently. 

at  a  IiIkIi  velocity  and  carryiiiR  large  numitles  of  silt  is  very 
anneliH.  even  when  cousiructeil  of  ihe  best  inajsonry. 
of  SiolU  to  BroMlon  by  Water,— W.  A.  Buir,  Blip's 
(fives  a  dingraii)  showing  llie  resistauoe  of  various  soils  to 
In?  water. 

show  that  a  velocity  grpaler  than  1.1  feet  per  second  will 
„jil»-  pure  clay  will  stand  a  velocity  of  7.3.')  feet  per  second. 
be  proportion  of  etay  carried  by  any  soil,  the  hi(;lier  the  per. 
;ity.  Jlr.  Burr  statesthnterperiineiits  haveshown  thnttlie  line 
i«  power  of  soils  to  ret^tst  erosion  is  parabolic.    From  his  dia- 

rliiK  li);uies  are  selected  repiesentlng  different  clas-ses  of 
resl'.ts  erosion  by  flow  of.. 1,1  feet  r>er  second. 

K>'  l.S        " 

k  y :.8       "  " 

y  8.0 

.  SSs  clay 4.8 

aral  clay,  95!<  clay 6.8 

7.85 

and  Tran* 


nd  Traimnortfue  Potver 

Elements  of  Geology,  ^  slates  : 


of  W««er.-Prof.   J. 

3wer  of  water,  or  Us  pViwer  of  overcoming  cotieKlou,  varies  as 
veloi'ity  of  Ihe  current, 
pciwer  of  a  cnrivnt  varies  as  the  sixth  power  of  the  ve- 
~'x'lty  therefore  be  inprea.ted  ten  times,  the  Irausport- 
1  l.noii.yuo  times.    A  current  riinidiiK  thrw  feel  per 
miles  per  hour.  wiU  bear  fragments  of  sloue  of  the 
about  three  ounces  weight.    A  current  of  ten  miles  an 
aeiits  rif  r,ne  and  a  half  tons,  and  a  torrent  of  twenty 
Try  frnemcuts  of  100  tons. 

rvwer  of  water  nuist  not  be  confounded  with  its  ero"-'"" 
lince  to  l)e  overcome  iu  the  one  case  w  wcigbV,  *■' 
the  latter  varies  as  the  souare  :  the  former  as  uirr 
r/y. 
tofremon]  of  BltgbUy  colierini;  matorial,  tbe  i 


HYDRAULICS. 


I 


I 


mixture  of  these  two  resistances,  and  the  power  of 
vary  at  Bome  rate  between  r'  and  v*. 

Baldwin  Latham  has  found  thai  in  onler  to  prevent  detwitlial 
ID  smull  Bewere  or  dralti<,  such  as  thnse  frotn  6  ineh-^-  •  ■  '■  ''■'^ 
a  tnijaii  velocity  of  not  less  than  S   feet  per  se<-  ■• 
Sewifrs  from  12  to  -'4  inches  diameter  sbould  have  n 

2U  fett  p«T  second,  ond  in  sewers  of  larger  dimensiwi,.,  ,, 

relocity  l>e  l(=ss  than  a  feet  i>er  second. 

The  specific  K'avity  of  the  muleriaU  has  a  marked  effect  It 
velocities  neces.sar}'  to  move  Ibem.    T.  E.  Blaekwell   found  M 
ep.  nr.  of  1.26  was  moved  by  a  current  of  from   I  25  to  I  to  I. 
while  stones  of  a  »p.  gr.  of  2  82  to  8.00  required  a  velociCj  of  t&l 
second.  •'  ^ 

Chailly  gives  tho  followinK  formula  for  fludlDr  tbe 
Tswue  rounded  scones  or  ebiof^le  : 

V  =  5.87  X^ag  , 

In  which  V  =  velocity  of  water  in  feet  pep  second  a  =  »< 
feet  of  tbe  body  to  be  moved,  g  =  Its  specific  gravitr 

fieri.  Y.  Wisner,  Kii(i'9  AVtrs,  Jan  10,  l!>9,'>,  doubts' the  eriien. 
statfrnents  made  hj  many  authorities  concern  Idk  the  rat«  of  1 
rent  and  ibe  size  of  parlit'lee  which  different  velix^liles  will  i 

Tbe  scouring  action  of  any  river,  for  any  Riven  rat*  of  our 
Inverse  function  of  the  depth.    The  fact  iliat  some  ent-i.i 
aRivi-n  velocity  of  current  on  some  stream   of  nn 
wand  or  Kravel  linu  no  twarinc  whatever  on  what 
rents  of  the  same  velocity  in  streams  of  greater  dij. 
ft.  deep  a  mean  velocity  of  S  to  .5  ft,  per  second  may  |ii  ..duct  i 
while  m  depths  of   18  ft.  and  upwards  current  velocities  ofT 
geiM>iii1  often  have  no  cflteot  whatever  on  tin-  channel  b*.<| 

Grade  ofSewera.-The  followlnK  eiDpirical  forinuia  is  i 
melNter's  '  Clcauiup  auJ  SewprnBe  of  Citief.,'  for  the  Tuinimu 
sewer  of  clear  diauietcr  equal  to  d  iucbes,  and  either  cir 
section ; 

Uinimum  frrade,  in  per  cent.  =  — — — 

As  tbe  lowest  limit  of  grades  which  can  be  flushed,  0  l  to  0.S1, 
he  assumed  for  Sewers  which  are  aoinetlmes  dry,  while  0.8  per! 
able  for  the  triuik  sewers  in  large  cities.  The  sewers  sb»uld 
larr-lv  as  pob.sible 

Belatlou  of  Diameter  of  Pipe  to  Qaaniiir  f>l>elM 
la  luiiii.v  cu-ses  which  arise  iu  practicr  tlie  informal  it 

ter  necessary  to  supply  a  Riven  quantity  of  water  o  kn 

diameter  is  coiniuonly  taken  to  vary  as  the  two  ; .■■'. 

chanre.    This  is  almost  certainly  too  large.     HaKeu's  I.- 
I    Q     \.S8f       . 
c(     j^^   I         ,  where  c  =  Xy  «  i  <■•! 

are  In  feet  and  cubic  feet  per  .>:econd. 

Mr,  Tlirupp  has  propfised  a  formula  which  ii  ,. 
■  if  thediKcharue.  ami  the  formula  of  M.  Vail.- 
vary  a.-"  the  .37"i  power  of  the  tiifcharge.    \  fii., 

FLOW   OP  WATER-EXPEBinE?IT8  ANB 

The  Flow  or  Water  tiironsli  New   ri>- 

recenilv  uii'u>in>- 1  l>v  .S.  HniL  Ku-si-ll,  of  Hie  .St.  I 
Till'  r'l'i'  '^■•''   l-li'dK-*  In  ilinni'-ter,  WS\  !<•'■*   \«n\: 
I  lo  end      Under  an  avii,        '    "    '  ' 
■  fret  in  sevrii  hours:  ui 

ni't  iinJ<T  an  Tv.Tai,-''  i 


Ud  win's  coelBcients,  gived  = 


,  I  •  i  iiut-Dtal  aatt^  W'l^  cB.\cvit*V\o«»  \)^  tivs«T<r«\>  • 


IT 


WATBR — ^EXPERIMENTS   AND  TABLES.    561 


m.  B.  Briisli,  Tmng.  A.  8.  0.  B.,  >B^.    Tbe  pipe  experimented 
t  "applying  the  city  of  Hoboken,  ft,  J. 

rAINED  BT  TBE  HACSKKBACK   WATER  COMPACT,   FROM   I883-1S87, 

•isa  Thiiouoh  a  Lfl-is.  Cast  iron  Maim  75.000  Fkkt  Lono. 

bs   p*T  sq.  ill.  at  pamplrig-stalion: 

100  105  110  115  120  135  130 

re  head  in  feet : 

66  77  69  lOO  113  13S  ISB 

V.  S.  KAllonR  in  S4  hours,  1  =  1000 : 

3.165        .3,351        3,566        3,604        3,«M        4,116        4,SS6 
jity  lo  iubIii  in  fef  t  per  secoud  ; 

t2.a4  3.86  a.53  3.68  S  76  2  93  3.00 

BUmed  la  delivering  each  million  gals,  at  glTen  velocities ; 
(8.15       $8.00       $8.10       SS.30       ta.tO       SS.OO       $9.60 
barge  hy  D'Arcy'x  foriniila  : 
I       8,004        3,2J4        3,488        3,099        3,915       4,102       4,397 


■  In  Smoofh  Caiit'lron  \rater-ptpeii  fyoin  1  Foot 
Bet  ill  Diaiuplcr,  on  Hydraulic  liirariefi  of  O.S 
jp  a  Feet  per  mile;    ultb  CMrrc-K|toiidIne  Values 

I  r=  0  \  rs.    lU.  31.  Oieene,  iu  fiuy'y  Xrws,  Feb.  24,  ltf34.) 


Hydraulic  Grade;  Feet  per  Mile  =  A. 


ft  =  0  5 
I  =  0.0000047 


V  = 
e  = 

r= 

e  = 

V  = 
e  = 

r= 

c  = 

V  = 

e  - 

c  = 

V  = 

e  = 

r= 


0.4.>ti 
Sil.T 

0.7359 
106.6 

0.9783 
115.5 

1.188:J 
122.1 

1.8872 
187.5 

l..->74i 
132.1 

1 .7518 
iV<  9 

1.9-J18 

s.oest 


i.a 

1.5 

2.0 

S-(! 

0.0OOI8O1 

0.000:2811 

0.0003788 

0.0005<!82 

0.6673 

08356 

0.9803 

1.2277 

97.0 

99.1 

100.7 

10.5.0 

-1.0793 

1.3516 

I..'i85a 

1.BS57 

110.9 

113.4 

115  2        ' 

117.» 

1.4298 

1.7906 

a.  1017 

2.0306 

119,9 

l-i2.6 

121.4 

127.5 

1.7156 

■.'.1861 

2.5045 

3.2116 

126.8 

120.7 

131.8 

131.7 

2.0379 

2  5521 

2.9039 

3.7493 

132.4 

135.5 

137  B 

140.7 

?..?|iM 

2.9961 

3  3975 

4.2548 

i.'n.s 

140.3 

142.6 

145.8 

a. 5736 

s.iaw 

8  7809 

4.7350 

141.4 

116. 0 

14U  8 

150.3 

2.8i34 

3.5S58 

4.J479 

5.1015 

145  1 

14H.4 

ISO  7 

154.1 

3.0638 

S.»168 

4  MIO 

5.B368 

148.4 

151.7 

154.2 

157.6 

4.0 

0.0007576 

1.4408 
104.7 

2.3294 
119.7 

3.0800 
129.5 

3.7676 
136.9 

4.3983 
14S.9 

4.9013 
148.1 

5.5516 
l.'B.'i 

6  0936 
]."i6  5 

6  0135 
160.1 


lies  In  this  table  have  bpeit  calcnlnled  by  Mr.  Qreene's  modifl- 
«  Chezy  formula,  wlilcli  niodiflL-ation  Ls  t'oiitid  to  Kivr  reisulta 
■  by  from  IM  to  —  2.65  jxr  cent  lavfrage  0.9  per  c**!!!!  from  vt-ry 
Mmred  flows  In  pipen  rroiii  Iti  to  4^  Inclx^  In  titametf  r,  oii  grades 
>•(  to  10.296  feet  per  mile,  and  in  vrliich  the  vrloctlieH  ranged 
0  0.195  feet  per  secuud.  Tlie  only  o-isuiiipUon  ntAd«  U  that  tbe 
inula  for  F  spires  corrf»ct  resnlti!  in  ci'iidijils  rroni  4  feet  to  9 
leier,  aa  it  is  known  todo  in  conduits  less  llinn  4  fvi't  in  diaoietcr. 
Icles  on  Flow  of  Water  in  Ions;  uibefi  are  to  be  found  lo  Eng'g 
lows :  O.  B.  PearsouB.  Sept.  2.3,  I.S.H;  E.  Slieiinau  OouAd.Yj-Vi.  W, 
le.aad  US.  JSifS;  J.  L.  Fuzn^mid.  Sept.  6  and  13,  lt$90;  Jas.\>uaA» 
J.  T.  Fnaaiug,  July  H,  itiVS;  A.  N,  ialbol,  Aug.  U,  VW4. 


PLOW   OF   WATEE  IK   CIRCULAR  PIPES,    ETC.      56fl" 

la  the  table 

mar  be  found.    Thus, 

what  Is  the  flow  for  a  Dip«>  6  feet 

»r,  Blope  J  i 

a  125  r    From  tlie  table  take  Q  =  207.8  for  tiU>\M  1  in  iOOO. 

Ten  nlope  1 

ti  125  is  to  1  in  SOOO  as  16  to  1.  and  Die  aaiiaie  root  of  tbU 

1 4  to  I.    Therpfore  the  flow  required  Is  S0T.3  ,-,  4  =  SiO.?  cu 

.ft. 

ClrcnJar  Pipes,  rondnltn, 

e<c.,  FlowInK  Fnll.          f 

»«isf  ihp  fa 

L'lor  nc  t  >■ 

n  llie  fnt mi 

la  g  =  ,te  S  r   .    1  »    tv 

nwniilid- 

diServDl  Ta 

ue8  of  Ilie  coeffloient  of  rongliuetiih  ti.  (BastU  uii  Kuller's 

J«.) 

Value  of  a«  |^. 

n  =  .010. 

n  =  .Oil. 

n  -    014 

n  =  .018. 

n  =  .015. 

n  =  .017. 

B.BOe 

6.0627 

B.88flO 

4. Bare 

3.1H104 

3  32a 

31  .S9 

lt».7« 

16.708 

iR.oao 

12. 1  Jl 

I0..50 

46.93 

4I.4S7 

87.149 

:W.4tlT 

27.f«« 

23  60 

eo.on 

78.347 

68.44 

r.i.ei«7 

51,tW(l 

43.93 

141  » 

I«t» 

11-J.79 

lOJ.M 

83.4«(J 

72  99 

«M.l 

)()■.'. 79 

171. C6 

IS."*  m 

13". 58 

1II.!> 

aoT.o 

L'74.W 

•247.83 

sum 

1HS.77 

1«« 

«-il.0 

a:7.07 

310.10 

809  8:i 

•XJOA- 

228.9 

sso.e 

.wo. 78 

453.07 

411. S7 

347.-.'X 

290  3 

;2S.4 

017. 18 

984. W 

53'^. -U 

4.M.23 

:«8.8 

sit  i« 

(<t7.50 

7«»..'.9 

!i:4  09 

570.  !H) 

493.3 

Il-iX.5 

lOlM.l 

ai7.41 

e:iti  00 

709.  M 

813.9 

1'1T4.7 

ysu.4 

1118.6 

loai .  I 

RIMI.VI 

TSO.S 

IB.V.M 

i4Hi.a 

:34.-i  0 

irai.7 

]<)« 

DOe 

!V)«2.H 

17»>J.3 

HW  9 

14rt.3.9 

1245  8 

1080.7 

aiKj.i 

2413.3 

21!i:l 

axt? 

1711.4 

1487.3 

»n 

3101.8 

snio.i.o 

i;6,-)0 

227».7 

1077 

l'>57.« 

4111.9 

S74-J.7 

34ffl 

29.34.8 

2557.2 

y.-ii.h 

S17B.3 

47)3,9 

nil 

3704.3 

3232.5 

: 075,3 

CTO4.9 

.•.8-.'5,0 

5.'i39 

4588.3 

4010 

^<:.!>:..i 

7774  .3 

7067 

6510 

5591  6 

4S«3 

nww 

UllH.a 

8501.8 

7814 

0717 

.5884.2 

l:2l»6 

lum 

lOOS; 

9272 

7W78.3 

0995  .3 

It.-W 

1«954 

11832 

IftlNK 

9377.9 

82.'0.3 

1     i<Ki04 

1.W4B 

18751 

VJ6(i3 

10017 

9.580.7 

17S88 

1S847 

14.W7 

12.-,94 

11061 

^^^b^ 

ISIJU 

I8I34 

lti709 

H126 

1287S 

^^E^ 

i«6»4 

2001S 

18096 

10112 

I44'!4 

^HEqq5 

»444 

28>8S 

^UU 

is;..™ 

I6:»W 

^^E^ 

«i93 

28179 

£4139           '  aiH70 

18:495 

^^ElM 

31887 

2fta4 

sesai 

233.V2 

i»584 

^^Bioi 

3»«9 

335S8 

30041 

86(H2 

8293a 

^^BlM)7 

SSKS 

dean 

38.301 

28853 

2.M51 

^^n&l 

VWi 

80803 

38752 

SIWIO 

281 17 

^^Bl91 

47789 

43773J 

40t;a 

8,5073 

30965 

^^Km 

fi;.>3D8 

47968 

44,'fcW 

•3*^454 

8397.5 

^^n48 

)STI03 

Mam 

46413 

.12tlJ0 

.37147 

^^■ly] 

67557 

mm 

5731.3 

4WJ3 

41073 

^^BflliO 

79050 

72694 

67140 

5sa87 

5 1869 

^^BB17 

91711 

84247 

77933 

B78« 

(UKHi7 

^^^nSd 

IIB-WO 

96991 

S07.^9 

7H20I 

69801 

■En 

120570 

iioaoB 

10a5.'i9             8B4-.'.'l 

79250 

lirater  In  Circular  Pipes,  rondulta,  etc.,  Flowing 
uiidvr  Proasnr«. 

D'Arcy's  foniiiilic  fur  iliu  flmv  nf  nnter  UirouKh  cnnt-iioii  pi|>fs 
tOmTM'l'"'J"  f'f  result"  ohtumt-il  Ijy  Kutler's  furinulo,  with  ii  =  .013 
IISCH.I  from  Klynn  on  Wntt-r  Puwer.l 

!  ti.  aod  also  tUe  valiiew  nt  the  tnctors  c  1  r  and  <tc  t'r  tot  u«e  \n 
^  =  «IV    v=e  irX  I  M,  and    Q  =  at  y'r  X  Vi' 


Wo 

HYDRAULICS. 

'^^M 

Q  =  discliarge  tn  cubic  feet  per  aeeond, 

a  =  area 

a  Miuare  fecc^^l 

Ityin  fee 

.  per  second,  r  =  mean  liydrmulic  depth,  M  dlam.  for  fiipt^^l 

full,  «  =  sine  of  slo] 

e. 

^m 

(For  rallies  of   t  «  see  page  558.) 

^ 

Siae  of  Pipe. 

Clean  C«3t-lron 
Pipes. 

Value  of 
nc  \'r  bj 

Old  Cast  IroBBJ 
Unedwithl)^ 

w 

^^H 

if  ^  dlam. 

a  =  area 

in 

square 

feet. 

For 

For  Dia- 

Kiiiler's 
ITnrmiiliL 

For 

^H 

In 

Velocity, 

cliarge, 

K  "1  .iiuin. 

wlieii 

Velocity. 

od^l 

ft.    ill. 

i    I 

c\9. 

ac  Vr- 

H  =  .013. 

<  «7. 

-3 

.ortiirr 

5.S51 

.004(Kt 

8.sa8 

~^H 

.wum 

8.7113 

.00914 

8.607 

^^^H 

.00307 

0.309 

.OiSSS 

S.98I 

^^^1 

J 

.0O54.5 

11.81 

.OOSiH 

7,811 

^^H 

1^ 

.«X«2 

13.68 

.11659 

9.86a 

^^H 

]i2 

.01s*t7 

l.'i.58 

.19115 

10.48 

^^H 

]i? 

.01070 

17.82 

.28996 

11.65 

^^H 

s 

.02182 

18.98 

.41SS7 

12.75 

^^H 

_       «« 

.0341 

31.94 

.74786 

14.78 

^^^1 

■      8 

.0491 

«4.68 

1.2089 

16. M 

^^^H 

■        4 

.0878 

29.87 

85630 

19.79 

^^^1 

W        5 

,1S6 

83.M 

4,5610 

82. B« 

^^^1 

a 

.ins 

37.28 

7  3068 

4  set 

26  07 

^^^1 

7 

.867 

40  85 

I0S52 

87.84 

^^^1 

6 

.940 

43.76 

15.870 

38.43 

i^^^l 

9 

.4^3 

40.73 

80.898 

15.03 

31.48 

^^^1 

10 

.MH 

49.4.% 

36  B!i8 

38.88 

j^^H 

11 

.600 

££.18 

34.4«8 

a5.o» 

^^H 

1 

.78S 

54  S5 

42.918 

as.so 

aa.7& 

^^^1 

1      8 

1.000 

59  34 

83.435 

39  91 

^^^1 

1       4 

I. we 

8.>l,(»7 

88.888 

42,  f  3 

^^^1 

I      fl 

1.767 

87  75 

119  72 

t03U 

45.57 

^^^H 

1      8 

•■i.m-i 

71.71 

156.46 

48  34 

I^^^H 

1     10 

2  MO 

75.32 

108.83 

50  858 

^^^H 

9 

8.14^ 

78.80 

247,  f.7 

1IS4.6S 

52.961 

^^^H 

a    s 

a.&ST 

82.15 

30J.W 

U.a5l» 

^^^H 

a    4 

4.'.'76 

as  »fl 

.'W.  14 

57  438 

^^^H 

B    e 

4.909 

88.30 

433  B2 

411  37 

&9  4.S5 

^^^H 

H  B 

6.^85 

91.51 

511.10 

81.58 

^^^H 

■1   10 

a.305 

94.40 

595.17 

81.49 

I^^^H 

» 

7.068 

97.17 

686.76 

674.09 

es.as 

^^^M 

a    3 

7.87B 

99.93 

788.94 

87.81 

^^^H 

S      4 

8.?» 

102.8 

895.7 

80 

^^^^H 

3      0 

9. mi 

105.1 

ion. 3 

1081.1 

70.70 

^^^H 

3      8 

10  r>a9 

107.8 

11311.5 

Ti.W 

^^^H 

■i    10 

11. All 

110.8 

1271.4 

74. in 

i^^^M 

4 

12.508 

118.6 

1414.7 

1483  9 

75.78 

i^^^M 

4      S 

!4.1H8 

116  t 

1647.6 

M  18 

t^^H 

4      6 

15.904 

1198 

1901.9 

20K7 

80  43 

^l^^^l 

4      8 

17  781 

1-J2  H 

2176.1 

82.99 

i^^^H 

6 

Id.*;.  6 

ive.i 

2470.4 

86BS 

84  83 

l^^^^l 

6      3 

21  048 

1293 

2799,7 

8A.I« 

I^^^^H 

6      « 

ii3.758 

132.4 

3146.3 

9489 

m.<n 

^i^^^l 

6      • 

as.067 

135.4 

35IC 

81.08 

l^^^l 

6 

M.S74 

138  4 

3912.8 

ixa 

83.08 

g^^^H 

C     8 

88.183 

144.1 

4782, t 

6339 

ten 

^^^^H 

7 

38.485 

14».fi 

5757.5 

6510 

JflO.81 

s^^^^l 

T    e 

44.1T9 

l.%4  9 

IHMI.O 

7814 

104.11 

f^^^l 

^^^ 

SO.SCO 

100 

8013 

9271i 

m.ei 

*^^^l 

^K  e 

so.t4a 

i«8 

9381.: 

lOHHB 

111 

^^^^H 

^fl^^^fel 

lUP'<* 

ISW) 

\mrA 

l»4J» 

li^^^^l 

^^^■ft^fl 

^^^^^H 

ei.5 

\\Ba! 

V'&\  v^a 

■i 

■ 

B> 

\  \47W» 

r~ 

^ 

OP  WATER  ISr  CIECCJLAB  PIPES,   ETC.       571 


I 

Clean  Case-iron 

Old  Cast-lmn  Plpet 

f- 

Pipes. 

Value  of 
ac  Vr  !))• 

Lined  Hiih  Deposit. 

' 

Are 

For 

For  DIs- 

Kiiiiei-'s 

For 

For 

Velocity, 

CharBe, 
nc  J'r. 

wlicn 
n  =  .013 

Velocity, 

c  yr. 

Discharge, 
ac  yr. 

183.8 

itissa 

18990 

123.4 

iosm 

•3 

187.9 

I7B55 

21404 

120..S 

12010 

B9 

laa.a 

191166 

24l!ig 

129.3 

13429 

D8 

ID6.S 

*jao4 

26981 

138 

1  )9:i5 

19 

aoo.4 

■mm 

soon 

i:»  S 

16545 

83 

iKM  4 

37134 

3;«m 

137.5 

\SSZ-i 

88 

aoB.s 

£9818 

XuM 

110  1 

200M 

BS 

«3.S 

:««JI 

40|:K 

142.; 

21971 

ai6.o 

r^MUiO 

44332 

143  -2 

2:4»SS          1 

yj5 

2)9.6 

.■itwor 

4K4i:l 

147.7 

26108         I 

|M 

2*13 

«IS5 

5-i7."i.1 

l.W.l 

2S335          1 

Bfer 

2366 

4S6S1 

5734-1 

1.«.8 

3(KJ86 

■■Kt 

2904 

4087:1 

BilM 

155 

.1.3144 

Bf '' 

2:n  g 

sam-s 

67140 

157  3 

35704 

K9 

837,8 

57074 

724011 

159  8 

mm       J 

■70 

240.7 

61$I9 

779H2 

1(!l  !t 

41199         J 

5^0 

847.4 

701M 

897S9 

IBM.  4 

47186         n 

|M> 

253.8 

79736 

102559 

1711  7 

5.3633 

mter  In  Clreolar  PIpcR  front  %  Incb  to  12  Incite* 
Diameter. 

^'Arcy's  formula  for  cIcaii  cast-icon  pip*8.    ^  =  ac  Vr  V*- 


8lop43,  or  Head  Divided  by  Leai^th  of  Plpt>. 


llnlO. 


.00187 
.00289 
.00903 
.0«00.3 
03687 
.060(4 
.09140 
.18077 
.83047 
.88SKS 
.81018 
1.44«i 
2.3104 
3.4314 
4.82)44 
6.5302 
8,5222 
10.880 
13.571 


1  In  30.  1  in  40. 


1  In  BO.  1  logo. 


Quan 

.ooopo' 

.«>.'04, 

.OOiJSS 

,01418 

.(H807 

.04274 

.06470 

.09247 

.167*2 

.27031 

.57309 

I.019A 

1.6338 

2.4966 

3.4143 

4.6178 

6.0265 

7.6981 

U.MM5 


.8162 


tity  in 

.00OS4 

.00145 

.00451 

.OtOOt 

.01843 

.03022 

.0457B 

.06539 

.11824 

.19113 

.40521 

.72109 

1.1552 

I .7157 

2.4141 

8.9651 

4.2011 

5.44S1 

e.78Si3 


cubic 

.00052 
.0HI18 
.OffWB 
.0(1818 
.01.W5 
.02468 
.03786 
.D5339 
.093S6 
.15607 


.5888? 

.94331 
1.4110 
1.9713 
2.6662 
3.47B9 
4.4447 
5..'>407 


.9836  I   .1581 


feet  p 
.00045 
.00102 
.00819 

.00708 

.01303 

.02137 

.03235 

.0(624 

.0B361 

.13515 

.28654 

.50992 

.81600 

1.21,32 

1.7072 

2.. 1089 

8. 01  as 

3.8491 
4  7982 


1291      .IHB  i  .1 


1  la 

100. 


1  In 
150. 


er  sec 
.00040 
.00091 

.00286 
.00683 

.oime 

.01912" 
.02894 
.0I13U 
.0747^ 
.120S0 
.856.30 
.45610 
.73068 
t  .0B.'>2 
1.5270 

a.owi 

2.6952 
3.4428 
4.2918 


OQd. 

.00033 
.00075 
.00238 
.00517 
.00952 
.01561 

.02;«s 

.  03:17: 

.OCIOG 

.09871 

.20927 

.37241 

.59660 

.88607 

1.9468 

1.6862 

2.2006 

2.8110 

3.5043 


111) 
200. 


.OOOSti 
.00065 
.00202 
.00448 
.00824 
.01352 
.02046 
.02927 
.05288 
.0B.')48 
.18183 
.32251 
.51666 
.76784 
1.0797 
1.4603 
I.DllSS 
2  4344 
3.0347 


08165  .07071 


i. 


572 


HTDIUULICS. 


Value  ot 
ac  i  r. 


Slope,  or  HfAd  Divided  bj  Lragth  ot 


1 1ll 

850. 

1  In 
40U. 

1  in 

400. 

1  111 
SUV. 

.OOOK 
.00049 

.Oi.llo.t 

OOOCf. 

.01'!  j:i 

oonv 

0004 

'jl 

■)■-' 

0.' 

1.3060    lAirH 
l.TO«    1.5563 

a.i:ra  ,i  aerH 

3.7UI    a.4TSl 


ViilueofVi=        .0<VWI    .0BT74    .ftVUt.    .0."i 


I.K^i^ 
1.4I0O 
I.  WO.' 


.i.u.'iU    j.D-Jiu    1  ;<i 


Oirilj   .04  IT* 


for  U.  S.  gals,  per  see.,  luultiuly  the  fliruitrs  In  Ibe  tAlile  by. 

mm.,       ••  -^  "       " 

houi,       •  •'  *• 

..      ..       ..      ..    24  hu.,    ' 

For  an.T  other  slope  the  How  Is  proporlioiuil  In  tlie  Bquara 
slope  ;  thug,  flow  iu  slope  oC  I  in  100  U  donlile  that  in  s|n|i«  o(  i  I 

Plow     or    Water    In    Pipes    from    n^    Inrli    In    II 
Diameter  for  ■  Uniform  Velorlty  of  lOU  I't. 


LOSS  or  HBAD. 


quantity  In  gallons  per  minute  and  d  s  dlftineter  Id  laohM,  i 
d'  X  .7954  X  100X7.1805 


0'  = 


144 


=  4.06<i». 


pr any  other  Telocity,  V,  In  feet  per  minute,  C 

fedislI1etpr  of   pip«  in  inches  and  velocUr  iu  toH  per  second,  to  0 
e  in  cubic  feet  bq<1  in  gallous  i>er  minute. 


l.OSd'i^  =  .040M»J 


e^ 


d<  X  .7854  X  t>  X  CO 
144 


s  0.3!t73S(l*v  cubic  feet  per  mioate. 


=  .337%  X  7.4805  or  a.448il'u  U.  8.  Eallons  per  minute. 


_. __       pipe  orcylinjer  In  Knilons,  ninliipiy  llie  sqiia 

KdiainHt^T  in  liiofifs  hy  the  length  In  inches  and  liy  .0081.    Or  mnlliply 


I  Bnd  the  capacity  of 
.»dlainHt*r  in  hiolies  I  _ 
tuiuirv  of  llio  diameter  in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet  and  by  .OlOS, 

.m4dn 


iMUiir 


«  =  ■ 


231 


=  .0000*1  <exact)  ,0084  X  13  =  -0108. 
I^OSS  OF  HEAD. 


hi* ton  r<r  head  due  to  frictlnn  wlicn  water,  iileani,  air,  or  gas  of  any  I 
n  through  a  straight  tube  la  repi-eseuted  by  tlin  formula 

/lit",!   hfi 

1/  "T- 


Ulc 


•'dig' 


whenoe  v 


y-- 


.jleh  I  =  llio  leu;?tli  and  il  =  the  diameter  of  the  tulie,  both  in  feet;  v^ 
(•city  la  ftset  per  decom],  and/iH  acoefBeii^nt  ti)l>e  determined  byexperi- 
■1.   According;  to  Weisbauh,  /  =  .004114,  iu  whicli  ctk.se 


^: 


;  50,    and 


-Vf. 


Ifck  to  one  of  the  older  fornmlK  for  flow  of  natei-  (Downiiig's).     Prof.  Un- 

JMTf  that  the  value  of  /  is  posnilily  too  small  for  tubes  of  smaU  bore, 
be  would  put/  =  .CXM  to  .01  for  4lnch  tubes,  and/=  .0081  to  .018  for  9- 
ih  lubiea.    Another  formula  by  Weisbnch  is 


laokine  gives 


/..oc»(.+^). 


fnm  the  general  equation  for  velocity  of  flow  of  water  v  =  e  Vf 
fcmml  plfics  <■ 


/Ti/p 


we  have  t>»  =  «».• 

4 


,rfh 


and  h 


c*d' 


in  which 


"■•ieotcnf  D*.\rcy's.  Bazln'n.  Kutter'R.  or  other  formnlii.tts  rnurirt 

•  t.  Since  this  coelTicieni,  varleR  (vitli  the  condition  of  llie  inner 
■  tuoe,  an  well  as  with  the  velocity.  It  is  to  be  expected  llint 
'Ha of  head  piven  by  different  writers*  will  vary  iis  niueh  as  those 

;  flow.    TwO'tttlile>i  for  loss  of  head  per  100  ft.  in  lenslh  in  pipes 

•  lianieferii  with  difTeit-nt  veloeitiet"  are  Riven  below.  The  flr.*t 
ark,  hosed  on  Rllt«'  and  Howland's  experiments;  the  Becnnd  lU 
:ton  Water-wheel  Co.'h  cntnloKiie.  authority  not  fitated.     The 

-  (.'Iveii  In  ihesH  twii  tables  fcir  any  t-lven  dliimeier  and  velocity 

iv,     Kither  table  .Hiioulii  he  uwd  with  cnutlon  anM  the  re- 

:i  the  quantity  of  (low  fur  the  iilven  diameter  and  head 

'  ■  lies  of  Sow  baseil  on  Kutter'g  and  L>'Arc;'8  {ormuJr 


» 


574 


BTDBADLICB. 


BelRtlre  Los*  ot  Head   hj  Friction  for  ea«k 
Lengtlt  or  Clean  Caat-lron  Pipe. 

(Based  on  EIHg  and  Uowlaud's  cxperiuientt.) 


Velocity 

In  Feet 

per 

Diameter  of  Pipe*  In  Inches. 

3 

4           S 

S 

7   1   a 

• 

to 

u 

Low  of  Read  In  Feet,  per  100  Feet  Look. 

__ 

Fe«t 

Feat 

Feet 

Feet 

Fept 

Feet 

Feet 

Fee*  1  r«» 

FMt 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

of 

or  1  «f 

Head 

Head 

Head 

Head 

Bead 

Head 

Head 

Head  Bov 

2 

.1>7 

.S5 

41 

.»! 

.27 

.28 

.10 

.18       J 

S.A 

1.49 

.92 

.64 

.SO 

.43 

.86 

.80 

.27 

A 

S 

I  » 

1.2 

.82 

.72 

.61 

.51 

.44 

SO 

A 

8.3 

S!6 

1.6 

1.8 

10 

.T 

.71 

.61 

.58 

A 

4 

«.» 

«.3 

1.7 

l.S 

.« 

.92 

.TV 

.« 

A 

4.S 

1.5 

1.3 

l.S 

1.01 

.«T 

A 

S 

1.8 

1.1 

.1 

S.B 

« 

..... 

..  .. 

— 

t5 

18 

21 

S4 

er 

80 

88 

36 

4t 

8 

.11 

.085 

.075 

.OSS 

.056 

.093 

.«« 

.047 

M 

2.5 

.17 

.U7 

itr 

.109 

.068 

.085 

.076 

.067 

M 

8 

.41 

.21 

.17 

.15 

.18 

.18 

.108 

.10 

M 

8.8 

.*» 

.29 

.SS 

.20 

.18 

.16 

.15 

.14 

II 

4 

.41 

.38 

.31 

.87 

.«! 

.a 

.80 

.17 

.14 

4.S 

.5U 

.46 

..39 

.SI 

.80 

.88 

.25 

94 

.11 

B 

.70 

.58 

.48 

.41 

.87 

M 

.» 

.87 

.« 

5.5 

.H4 

.70 

.59 

.50 

.44 

.38 

.81 

.88 

.0 

6 

.59 

.58 

.49 

43 

.4       .a 

Iioaa  of  Head  In  Pipe  by  Prlctlon.— T^<msi  of  head  by  tr 

ench  ltK<  r>-eC  in  iHii^th  of  dilTereiil  dlHiiirleni  of  pipe  vr\vn  (lUcBar 
following  quantities  of  water  per  mluute  (Feltun  Waterwlxel  Oaji 


S. 

Inaide  Diamt-ter  of  Pipe  In  Inches. 

h 

B  8 

1 

2 

3 

* 

&         1 

1 

i 

1 

I 

1 

J 

1 

^1 

Z   . 

h 

a 

^1 

h 

^1 

i 

,.f^ 

•J  c 

v  e 

b. 

OB 

-fc 

us 

b 

ea 

'is 

5 

¥ 

^ 

k 

? 

1= 

}r 

I- 

1 

y 

h 

V 

h 

V 

h 

0 

h 

Q 

* 

2.0 

2.87 

.«s 

1.185 

2  62 

.791 

8.80 

.593 

10  4 

.474 

."t.O 

4,W» 

.w 

8.44 

S.9« 

t.69 

888 

l.SS 

15  7 

»7» 

4.0 

H  90 

1.8'J 

4  10 

5.83 

8.73 

11.90 

soft 

809 

I.M 

5.0 

I2.S3 

i.m 

«.I7 

6.54 

4. II 

14.70 

8.06 

86.8 

8.46 

ihH 

S.U 

17.23 

I  98 

8.01 

TJS 

5.74 

17.70 

4. SI 

81  4 

8  45 

7.0 

88.89 

8.31 

11.46 

0.16 

7.68     20.6 

5  W 

86  6 

4.57 

57.»J 

LOSS  OF  HEAD. 


m 

Inside  Diuneler  of  Pipe  Ui  Inches 

W'     *     " 

9 

10 

11        1         I^ 

h 

Q 

k 

Q 

h 

Q 

h 

Q 

h 

Q 

h 

.19fl 

1 

.S8S 

83.0 

.996 

41.9 

.384 

sa 

.237 

65.4    .216 

792 

04.! 

.«II8 

48.1 

.«U 

62.8 

.M4 

79.5 

.488 

98.3    .444 

119 

.4(17 

141 

1.175 

M-1 

l.O-JT 

83.7 

.<il3 

106 

.««! 

HI     1   .747 

IftH 

am 

ISH 

i.n 

80  2 

1.54 

105 

1.37 

134 

1.2=3 

16.1    i.va 

19H 

I.IVW 

•£« 

S.46 

96. £ 

S  15 

125 

1.92 

159 

1.71 

196      1.56 

i37 

1  4!» 

X\ 

•.as 

118.0 

2.B5 

HO 

aw 

185 

■i.-JH 

Sr-i'J     i  07 

277 

1.91 

M 

Inside  Diameter  of  Piiw  in  Incbes. 


13 


.tm 


no 

166 
2T9 

887 


14 


.169 
.349 
.567 
.881 
l.va9 

1  (a 


1-^8 
19-J 
356 

3S1 
3ifi 

4'<» 


15 


.158 

5fS 

,8ii 

1 .  ua 

I.S'2 


147 
221 
291 
368 
443 
.516 


16 


.147 
.301 
.513 

.770 
1 .076 
1 .4.i 


167 
£51 
3ii5 
419 


IS 


.18i 
.271 
.450 

.685 
.9.'>r 
1.27 


318 
4-J4 
530 
6*i 
742 


.119 
.845 

.410 
.617 

.K61 
1 .14.S 


Sit 
8»1 
5-^8 

654 

TRi 
016 


luside  Diameter  uf  Pipe  in  Inulie!>, 


nr— 

24 

iM 

28 

30 

36 

i 

e 

A 

« 

ft 

Q 

h 

e 

h 

h 
.066 

Q 

b06 

8l« 

.098 

.rrr 

091 

442 

.084 

513 

.079 

848 

^^ 

47S 

.204 

.ws 

.ilis 

<nm 

.174 

770 

.15.1 

im 

.185 

1278 

fin 

«n 

.34:2 

754 

.ais 

BH.1 

.293 

loaa 

.273 

llTIi 

.S2H 

IMff 

bi 

ne 

.513 

»43 

.474 

1106 

.440 

is8;i 

41: 

1478 

M-i 

fll2l 

E^ 

DM) 

.717 

llSl 

.06i 

IJfcJT 

.615 

1&:)9 

.574 

17li7 

.479 

25(5 

pM 

1109 

.953 

1.119 

.879 

1548 

.817 

1798 

.76^ 

2(KJI 

.636 

2868 

t.— Gi*eii  200  ft.  Iiead  mid  6U0  ft.  of  ll-louh  pipe.  carrviuK  119  cubic 
wat«r  per  minute.    To  I1n<l  effective  head  ;  In  riKbt-badd  coluiim, 
rll-lnch  pipe.  And  IIB  cubli;  ft.;  opposiie  this  will  be  found  ihe  loan  by 
DO  in  100  ft.  of  leiiglb  f'>i'  ibis  amount  of  water,  ivhlcli  is  .444.     Multiply 
1  by  the  number  of  hundred  fei>t  of  pipe,  which   Is  6,  and  we   have 
■  ft.,  which  is  the  loan  of  head.    Therefore  the  effective  head  is  SOU  -  2.G0 

•inanATioK.— The  loss  of  head  bv  friction  in  pipe  depends  not  only  upou 
ler  and  length,  but  upon  ihe  quantity  of  water  passed  throujflj  ft.  Th  • 
or  preiicure  is  what  would  l)e  indicated  by  a  preswure-jtau^  attaejied 

£lpe  near  the  wheel.    Readings  of  gauge  should  be  talceD  while  Ibe 
1  Sowing  frum  the  noEzle. 

luce  tieoos  in  feet  to  pres.sure  In  pounda  multiply  by  .433.    To  reduce 
pressure  to  feet  multiply  by  2  301), 

I  Formula.-  WeiKbach'it  fonitula  for  loss  of  head  caused  by  I 
of  water  in  pipe!<  is  as  follows  : 

\  \  r  I  5.;«7d 

vbere  L  =  leoftth  of  pipe  In  feet; 

V  =  velocity  of  llie  water  In  feet  per  second; 
d  s  diameier  of  pipe  in  ineliei. 

Oox  (Amer.  Mncfi.,  Dec.  89,  181)3)  giyea  a  simpler  tormvAb  -wYtkK 
*  IdeuUcml  results :  — 

S~  Mct/oDhead  la  feet  =  —  ^^'•  +  6F~  8 


Friction  head 


1 


F 


aXDRALLlCS. 


He  gives  a  table  bjr  means  of  wliieli  the  value  of 
obtnined  wlieu  V  Is  known,  and  vice  ir i«a. 

4V*  +  &V  -  2 


V«u:|S  UP 


laoo 


0.6        0  8 


.OlSW 


.OISM     OISIO 


.iwi',  .1TK13  .i;.v*; 

.aiTos  .asiM' 

.a*-i5fll  .S8OT0 

satcii  .3«ua  .S5s»i' 

i    .40S>&8  .41T03    .■l«4:.l| 

.497«i  .4K-'0      Smrr 
.STliS,     . 
.68aw 


6mn  1  .i!'.>s75  1  .(■,^lt',^^  1  .rANW  1 


USil 


The  use  of  the  formula  and  table  Is  illustrated  as  follows; 

Oivpn  11  pliw  5  inclios  diameter  and  lOno  f«pt  Iodk,  with  4B  r««l  I 
will  ihf  discnnrse  beV 

If  Lhe  velitL-iiy  f  is  knowu  in  feet  per  second,  tiiv  dl8cli«rR«  ••  | 
cubic  tot>l  ^>el•  uiiiiule. 

R)  equulioD  2  «?  liave 

»4P>.f  6F-8        ffl         «9XB 
ia»        "^  i    ~  1000    =•"■""■ 
*lienee,  by  table,  r=  real  velocity  =  8  feel  per  secoiHj. 

Tbe  discliarKe  in  I'ubic  feel  jxT  rninuie,  if  V  is  velodly  iu  ff*l  ftf  1 
mid  (i  diuiiieter  in  iuobeg,  in  U.S2T°i&i<' I',  ulieiioe.  di8Cbarg« 

t=  (I.327a5  -••  35  ■•:  8  =  65. 15  cubic  feel  per  minute. 
The  velocity  dii«<  tliv  head,  if  there  ««re  no  friotkiii,  t*  8.1N6  |' 
et  |ier  second,  and  the  diacharfte  at  (hat  veli>city  vrould  ite 
O.ajrari    •  95  ■<■  .-<i  1T:^  =  4«<i  cubic  feet  iwr  nilnnte 


Kiippoxe  It  is  re>|iilred  to  il»"ll»er  this  nmuunt.  4*0  cubic  '"(i.t 
(  i  reel  per  second,  nhut  djaiueter  uf  pipe  will  be  reqiiin<d  and  i 

he  iDiisnf  bead  by  frlctimir 


J  =  diameter  =  i  /  — — *  _ 
I    FX0.887-J5 


-|/r 


460 
O.SSTSi 


=     tT0«3«MI 


Havliie  nirw  the  diameter,  the  vel'K'lty,  and  tbe  discbatx«>  Ui»f 
I  cnlculnted  by  equation  1  and  iiue  of  the  table;  thus, 
L  4r»-t-Br-2  ^  1000  JO^ 


:  say  48  feet  effective  hl^ad  applleakla  M | 
|o»»  nf  \\r»d  may  ^'"s  solved  rapidly  'by  i 


p 

r        LOSS  OP 

HE.4D.                                     fiTT        1 

HeadM  »t  eiTPii  liMtcn  or  DiMCliarfti*  In  <  lean   M 

mh  Plpea  for  Kach   lOOO  l'>rl  of  Lcitsrlli.            ^^| 

{tMsl  fi-oiii  BlIiM  and  H 

•wIuikI'n  Hyili'diillo  Tables. I                ^^^| 

«-fi>uli 

8-liich 

KViuch        12tiii-li   '    14  liioli           1 

1^ 

llpe. 

Pipe, 

Pipe,          Pipe.     1     Pli)e.             ■ 

i* 

A 

c  tj   1       "  '.S  ui       "1  o  t! 

ii 

11. 
5^ 

II 

5" 

yfe  1  •=■= 

otI    .01 

P 
^ 

57 

.11 

.in 
.sa 

M 
.10 

,10      .02] 

.80'     .04    ,141       OS 

"ib 

"loi 

.811 

1.18 

l.OM 

.t» 

.lid 

.411     .11    .88;      05 

.21 

.03 

.05 

I.TO 

2.S8 

.'.Kl 

.00 

.81    .aa  .4si    .10 

.31 

(Vi 

.«) 

3  S7 

3. 9  J 

I.8» 

1.01 

,8«|     .3«    .57      .16 

.42 

.08 

»4T 

a.8< 

6  Oil 

1.00 

1.5S 

1.02      .54    .71       .34    .52 

.12 

ia» 

a.  4(1 

n.m 

I.OI 

S.lS 

1,«3      .75    .86      .*j;   .63 

,lfi 

Lira 

3.WT 

11. -IH 

2.•i^ 

i.M|     1,43      .991   .99      .43!    .7.S 

.21 

,6t» 

4.S4 

14.89 

a. 55 

3.68:     1.03    l.S^  1.181     .541    .Kl 

.27 

.53 

5. 07 

■J.J.OI 

HID 

6.04      £.04    1.93  1.431     ,8ll|.04 

.40 

.78 

fi.H] 

•Vi  m 

3. S3 

8.03      2.45    9.7^1.70,  1.14  I. 'i'l 

..^5 

M 

T.lH 

44. .'>4 

4  « 

10. ((3     2.86   8,66  1.981  l.,V,' 1.46;     .73           I 

0  (M 

57.11.-. 

."s.oa 

14.0.i      3.27    4.78 -J. 27l  1.96  1.87 

.11)       1 

[:: 

10  ai 

73.I-J 

5,74 

17. lift     8.08   8.93:!.Iv,'.i  S,4.'>1  HM 

1.17           1 

11  35 

01). 05 

ti.sa 

ai.74      4.08,  7.38  y  W    3.00  2. 08 

1.43           1 

IS.UI 

l-.ll.-.'O 

7.6(! 

31.10!     4  8010.38  3.10;  4.a},2.50 

3.02           1 

,-- 

15  eeii75  « 

R.91 

43  13'     S.T'J  14,02  3. 97i  5.74  2  91 

272           1 

... 

iti  \\'i»  «i 

10. -.'I 

.M.S4,     6.5318  22  l.Sl    7. 4113. 33i  3..'51            1 

80.4,;iSW.90 

11.47 

(19.?J     7.35lS-;.%5.1l!  9.8C;3,75l  4.41           I 

•ia.69,3S6.«J 

12. rr 

Wi  27 

8.1728.25  5.87,11.50:1.17 

5.41            1 

b  •• 

15.06 

181.7(1 

10.2143.87|7.0«17.R2  5  21 

8.35           1 

i 

12.83  02.98  S..^, 25. 51  B  85 

1.93            1 

..... 

1...  1    .  ,'8. 31:21. no         1 

1 

iS-inch 

30-i 

POh 

34-i.ifJi        .TOIugh 

KhiCll              1 

Pipe. 

« 

pe. 

Pllie.            Pipe. 

v\v^..         1 

J 

t« 

A 

d 

'1 

it 

it 

•a 
t 

11 

0    . 

U 
'J« 

li 

.IB 

ll 

fc.- 
,01 

.*! 

.UH 

.13 

.61 

.08 

.35 

.CM 

.23 

.01 

.TB 

i.ao 

.44 

r.oa 

.87 

.71 

.12 

.45 

04 

.,S2 

.02 

,«a 

1.80 

01 

I..M 

.56 

l.OB 

.24 

.08 

.03 

.47 

.04 

M 

8..'K! 

1.00 

3.01 

M 

1.12 

.41 

,01 

,15 

.la 

.00 

M 

S.lii 

5  4n 

a.  v. 

1.47 

1  77 

.02  1.13 

22 

.70 

.09 

.ta 

B.ffll     8.4B1     3.00 

a.oo 

2' 13 

.87  I.M 

'.m\  .as 

.13 

■BL  4.41 

4.70 

3.67 

9.81 

S.JS 

1.16,1.50 

.40  1.10 

.17 

■■    B.01 

(l.Oll 

4. OS 

3.64 

2.8t 

1.50  l.NJ 

,58,1.26 

.32 

W^ 

B.«7 

T  fi7 

4. .'in 

4.58 

3  19 

1.8.S2,04 

.Gl!l.42 

.j^ 

% 

e.sn 

ft.4^ 

5.11 

5.(121     3.55 

2.31  2.27 

.78  1.58 

iis 

7.5T 

13.49 

6.18 

8.03      4.38 

3.88,2.78 

1.11,1.59 

4K        J 

'.'.. 

7.15 

10.8(J 

4.00 
B.B7 
8.83 

4.43  3,18 
S.75  3,fl8 
7  85  4.08 

1 .40  2  81 
1.9!)  2.. 52 
2.4.12  84 

.83        ■ 

.M       ■ 

1.00        ■ 

!   •  • 

..... 

, 



1  54 

2  983.16 

i.ft'i     m 

^ 

..... 

....  5,41 

4.85.3.n|»^i^H 

r.- 

•  • .  •« 

0.30 

B-T';ijl^^H 

:v/ 

'-^;r£vV 

fef^ 

^H 

I^^^K 

■ ^^^^^3 

^^1 

HTDRAULICB. 


■        KfTect  or  Bends  and  Cnrr^u  in  Pipe*.— We 

I     bends:  Lowor  head  In  feet  =  .131 -f  184?/^ j^X  z^ 

=  internal  radius  of  pipe  in  feet,  R  =  radius  of  curvature  i 
=  velociiy  in  feet  per  second,  uud  »  =  tlie  centrul  alible,  ur  i 
by  the  iieacl. 

Hamilton  Smith.  Jr.,  in  IiIk  \vori<  on  Hydranlioi. 
rlata  at  Imnd  art*  entirely  iiiKuftioicnt  to  |icmiit  n 
ttiiti  quite  cuuiplleated  «ul>,jeet;  in  fact,  alxiut  tlit-  on  , 

are  those  nnirle  by  Bossut  and  Dulniul  witli  small  p>)>ei>. 

Curves*— If  the  pipe  iius  eatty  curveH,  Kay  uitii   rn«lliif» 
dianieter«>if  the  pipe,  the  flow  will  not  be  innlerinIK  .lumn 
the  tups  of  all  curves  are  kept  Ijelo'v  llie  hydranlio  r 
he  mniie  for  escape  nf  nir  fidm  tile  tops  of  all  enrvi- 

Hj'draiilic  Gradc-Ilne.— In  a  Bti-ai^rht  tui  ■ 
throiiKhout,  ruiiiiiUK  lull  umJ  (il»cliar{;inK  freely  In' 
Krade-line  is  a  slraight  lln«i  drawn  from  Ihe  <liR?hni 
liiarely  over  tlie   entry  end  of  the  pijie  and  at  a  ■    . 
<*min!  to  the  entry  and  velocity  beads.    (Trautwine,  i 

In  B  pjp«  lending  from  a  reserroir,  no  part  of  its  lenfctji  bIiiI 
Mle  iiyaraiilie  Rrade-line. 

Floiv  of  Water  In  Hoaae-aerrlce  Pl| 

'Mr.  E.  Kiiichliiiii;,  t..E.,  lurnlHlieil   ilie   followluK   lahle 
Mernr  Co.: 


I 


Discbartre,  ur  Quantity  capable  of  l>eiDi;  I 
Cnbic  Ileet  per  Minute,  from  the  1 
under  the  conditions  Hpeclfled  in  the  dnM't 


[ 


FIBE'STREAMS. 


579 


a?5nime(t  that  the  pipe  is  atralKlit  and  smooth  Inside;  that 
lid  mctflr  are  (Jisrpgardeil ;  (hat  the  inlet  from  the 
■ler,  sluiip,  not  tlariuf;  or  roundi'il,  and  (hat  the 
"f  pipe.  Thf  ilflivciies  eiven  will  te  increasfni  if, 
p  I  tit'  meter  and  [be  luain  is  of  largor  diameter  than  the 
main  is  tapped,  say  for  1-iiich  iiipe,  Init  is  enlaruijj 
•  Iti  inch;  or,  llitrd,  if  pipe  on  tlie  iiuilct  is  larger  tliaii 
_3e  of  till-  meter.  The  exnctdetails  of  tire  conditions  ijivea 
practice;  conseqnemly  ilie  quaniitifs  of  the  table  Diay  be 
•creased,  Ijecaiisc  the  pipe  is  liable  to  Ix?  throttled  at  the 
I  Ijends  may  interpose,  or  8lop-«>ukx  uiay  be  iised,  or  the 
ly  be  increased. 
^  Pipea.— A  pipe  is  said  to  1»>  air-lioiiuJ  irlien,  in  coii.^!e- 
iog  etitrappedai  the  higu  [wliits  of  vertical  curves  in  the 
lOt  flow  out  of  the  piiK^,  although  I  he  mipply  Ik  higher  than 
reniody  i»  to  pri^vide  cocks  nr  valves  at  the  hiph  points, 
the  air  may  be  discharged.  The  valve  may  be  made  auto- 
cif  a  float. 

It*.  (Molesworlh.l— //  =  head  of  water,  h  =  hei^lit  of  Jet, 
.jet,  K  =-  coefficient,  varyinK  with  ratio  of  diameter  of  jet 
=  KH. 

10        eOO  1000  loOO  1800         S800        SiSOO        4500, 

.»  ,85  H  ,7  ,6  ,.'.  .«> 

■vered  throngta  meters.  (Thomson  Meter  Co.). —The 
dice  limits  the  veloeiiy  iu  waler|»|ves  In  10  llueal  feet^r 
I  tliis  as  a  l>asis  of  delivery,  and  we  lliid,  fur  the  several  sizes 
metered,  the  following  approximate  reMiilt.s: 

>r  of  pipe  iu  ii>ohes: 

9j  1  IH        3  3  1  6 

led,  In  vubic  feei  per  mintite,  due  to  said  velocity: 

rai      s.tM     r.:iG      la.i      '-'fl..'.      52.  i      117.0 
krs««l   for  W^ater  In   DlflTerent   Cities  (Kalioual 

in  price  for  1000 KcJlons  iu  103  places.. ,  ...    0.4  cents, 

im ...        -.  :.'8      " 

Ota  to 100 

FIRE-STBEAinK. 

:e  fk-om  Nozzle*  at  Dlfl'erent  Pr^nnnrea. 

\  Am.  Water-worlts  Aas'n,  181IV,  A'lig'j/  A'etrjt,  July  14,  ISSa.) 


580 


HYDRAOLICS. 


Friction  Loase*  in  Hone.    In  i)i»  nii.,v>'  i/thi.^  liii 

water  (ilsflmrijeii  JUT  ji't  wrre /"i 

III  pravldlng  for  rliis  pi-wsiir*-  'i 
IOH»«i!  in  cncb  hose,  nooordliig:  tu  ii> 
CO  be  used. 

Thtf  loi«  ot  preysiiie  ur  Un  eqiiivulent  lorn  of  hetui  (/t) in  ll 

fouiid  by  Uiu'formula  h  —  ii'i-lrn)-— .. 
•iil'i 

III  this  formiila,  asoiiliiiaillj- useil.  for  fHct(Of)  per  IIUfLi 
IJicre  are  ilie  foUottUiK  ci'iistiiiils  :  i-'W  in.  •lljiniet'-r    ■''  ^•"-' 
U>ngth  of  hose  /  =  lUO  ft.,  aiiil  -Jy  =  61  -T    The  v«rl-. 
feet  per  stcoiiil ;  A  =  lnws  nf  licail  iii  feel  vkt  IiKi  i 

tieril  found  by  exporlineiit ;  \\w  veliKiity   c   is  fa ,. 

clmiKes  of  thi'  jets  ihrun^li  llie  rIvcmi  diuiiietci'  of  b<isi\ 

Head   aud    PreiMttre    ■<««■•««    by  Friction    \m 
liengtlia  of  Knbbcr-Hned  Rmootlt  i.<>t«lM. 


Di-cliarKf 

Velocity 

L'oefBcient, 

Head  i.oHt. 

I'l-rt-on- 

pfi'iiiiimt(-, 

per  second, 

m. 

ft. 

lAVii.  Ilw 

galluiis. 

n. 

(«l.')0 

'«  k;i 

per  Hq  In 

vSX) 

laOTi 

9.1W 

aso 

ii;.3H8 

.  in  11(11 

;«..■» 

15.43 

300 

J8,8.^« 

.iHMltf 

40  80 

to.si 

M7 

vi.orr 

.rtM:fl) 

«i.M 

W.70 

3S0 

aeK:» 

.(KMOT 

68  4S 

»T!I 

400 

Sfl.HJ 

-tWCW 

ss.ai 

«.» 

450 

S9.4Q8 

.I1'>4:J4 

Ill.lW 

«.W 

eoo 

32075 

H013J 

137  ao 

50.87 

sao 

a:l.9*J 

.(K14.il 

148.40 

CI  in 

TliesK  frii'tlon.s  are  forgiven  voliiMlftx  of  ttoiv  III   ' 
ties  rcafU'Clivpjy  clue  to   thiise  volumes,  and   aif 
nozzle.    The  chficikieH  In  dozzI«  do  iioi  affeot  the  fri^  . 
is  no  eliaiige  in  velocity  of  (low,  liiit  a  larger  nojale  wu  U  «iiitit 
tlie  uozzio  nii^mr'nt!s  the  iliKcbai  L'e  and  velocity  of  ttow.  aii<|  ih 
ilici'e«ses  the  fiielioii  l.rss  In  th*'  hose. 

Loan    or  PrcsNiire    i/>)    and    IIe«d    ifo   In    R 
SmootU  2lu*iu.  Hose  luuy  l>«  found  npproximaielj  I 
'7'      ,  ,.   _       I'l' 


P  =  m 


4\M<I^ 


niid  ll  =      ''    ^,  hi  whh'h   I)  =  pr(«!(itt«   losi     l.jr 

pounds  per  RC)unrp  inch:  (=  l»ngth  of  iv-we  In  f«>i:  •/  ^  mil 

alsoharBed  periniiiiiie;  (i  .=  (liftiii.of  ilie  liosein  ■  i  ■' 

hwul  III  feet.    The  coeflleient  of  (i*  uouid  be  M 

Tiie  loM  of  pivssiiie  mid  heud  for  a  U(i  In. 
hPieht  of*)  ft.  i.",  ill  enoh  100  ft.  ol  i^A-iii.  hos.-.  ..i|.i  .ai.u.i..-! 
ft.  aet,  or,  sjiy,  hichidiiiK  frlctioo  in  (Tie  hyilrant,  \i  fi.  toxtt  ur 

foot  of  lll1K««. 

If  We  uliaiifie  the  iiorztefl  to  114  orl5fl  ill  di  It"' '' -' 

hW^lit  of  Rliviiin  We  iiici>'U(w  the  frietlon  !■ 
infttely  "s  fi.  mid  !  ft.  head,  resiiectively,  fin  ■ 

Tiipse  (rompiitntloiis  show    the  j!'^'*^  diflU  i...  >    

Hi  renin  tliioiii;h  hirtre  n<>zzles  iiiileiiLS  the  lio«e  is  vciy  »lli>ii.  «■ 
l^iitlly  Ol  direct  iirensiire  system. 

This  niiiBle  li-tl  in.  ulream  requ^ren  npproxliiot 
leur  lo  ]j6  ft   liead,  at  the  playpl|M'  mid  4.^  i 
Innprt-it  of  sinrioih  '.'l^-lii-   homv  »ii  that   for   I' 

mil-''  '  ' ..s.i.i..  '. I.,  .r  ,1...  iivdi'dit  or  ■ 

ft.  lU-l"   ""-■ 

yve  I  :  lie  III  drmil 

ft  .  i-  -I-  ^1  ■■  ...  ,    ■.    ..-    ■      ." luse  llie  dinil.. 

tile  lotii;  ho-e  niiii  save  f ni'ii..n-to«H  of  heiid 


Hmttfd  raparltiea  or  Steam  l'lre>«nBin<Hi,  « 

V  fdlld  jrirater  lliaii  Vlielr  uldlHitWN  rule  nt  wovW*!  dn-A, 
KitVn.  per  mSii.»u« 


onf  tiiiiv  t; 
as  folluwH 


l»t 


THE   SIPHON. 


581 


squired  at  Nogule  and  at  Panip,inth  Qaantltr 
■Aure  uf  Wut(>r  Neoenaary  (w  tbrow  Water 
Dititaiiees  tl>r<>iii;li  Ulirerent-Hlzed  Nozxlesa* 
-iiicli  Rubber  Uoso  and  Smooth  Nozzien. 

Kn»«nts  of  Eilis  &  Lcshure,  Faoulug's  "  Water  Supplj-.") 


I  of  Noxsdes. 


a,  Iba.  per  so.  In 

pump  or   hyaranc  witb 

!h  rubber  how?  

inute , 

tanee  tlirown,  re«t 

c**  thrown,  f*^gt 


]  Ipch. 


iyilaeii. 


40 

eo 

SO 

100 

40 

48l 

T3 

9T 

181 

M 

1» 

]«> 

aio 

i4b 

19« 

lOS 

1« 

168 

IRfl 

IIS 

w 

]l« 

181 

US 

HI 

eo 

Rl 
•HO 

MS  1T;^ 
Ml  ir 


80 


too 

ISS 
310 


of  Nozzles. 


IJi  Inch. 


>e,  Uis.  per  bq.  in 

pump    or  hyilrant  with 


40 


Bch  rubliar  ho6e 61 

Inute I  Sii 

'distance  thrown,  feet I  118 

)tau«.*e  ibrowu,  fiwiL I    8' 


CO  80 

SQ  133 

la6  18B 

iiM  u-i 


100 
154 
207 


IM  I"cli- 


00     £0 


lOO 

40-.' 

ifla 


sater  length  of  2J^lrieh  hose  the  Inei'eased  friction  can  be  ob- 
noCiiig  lilt-  dUTr'renceg  between  the  above  eiveu  ■•  pressure  at. 
d  ■■  preJixure  ut  piiiiip  or  hylrant  with  100  feet  of  hose."  For 
*  tt  requires  at  liydrant  or  pump  ei^lit  pounils  niure  prf*Fsiu'(? 
oat  iio/.zle  to  overcome  the  rrictioii  when  pumping  through  100 
-inch  hot*o  (iisine  1  inch  nozzlti,  wllU  JO-pouiul  pri-ssiire  at  salil 
n  it  requires  lO-poiiniln  pressure  to  overcome  tho  frlcllou  in 
out^h  litK)  feet  of  haiiie  biz©  hose. 

P]o\r  dne  to  Increaae  of  Iientrth  of  Hose. 
perinieTUs,  Trans.  A.  S.  <J.  E.  18S9.)— U  the  Ktatic  pres- 
a  hydraiuplpejsof  such  size  that  the  tire.<iiure  at  the  hy- 
lose  '-Hi  in.  iioiniiial  ilium.,  ami  the  nozzle  1^  in.  iliHin.. 
e  flre-streain  obtainable  and  the  quauiity  In  gallons  (>er 


M 
BO 


ttt,  otSii-in.  hose. 


Lineo  Hose. 
HeliThi,       ual». 

fewt.       iw  niin. 
.    73  Ml 

..     4-J  181 

..     S7  140 


Beat  Riililier- 
lineil  Hose, 
Height,        Qalt). 
ft-et.      per  min. 
81  S»i 

dl  »!3 

40  11.3 


I 


I  ft.  of  smoolhest  and  best,  njbhcr-llned  hose,  if  diameter  be 
>)ji.,eff«ctive  height  of  stream  will  b&3'Jft.  (ITT  eal'^.);  if  diameter 
Mar,  effeoUre  hel|;bt  of  Ktruam  will  lie  16  ft.  (19:1  gals.) 

f  THE  SIPHON. 

hn  Is  a  hent  tube  of  unequal  liPttnfhes,''opcn  at  both  ends,  and 
!ouvey  a.  liquid  from  a  hijjher  to  n  lower  level,  over  on  inlermedi- 
ler  than  either.  Its  p.arallel  biftiiclies  beius  in  a  vertji.-alplane 
liito  t«  o  biHlieg  of  liquid  whoHe  upper  Hurfucej*  are  at  dilTerent 
Id  will  «tand  at  the  same  level  built  witlijn  and  without  each 
I  tube  when  a  vent  or  Sfnall  opt'iiiiiR  Is  made  at  llie  iH'iid.  If 
idriiwti  from  the  siphon  tliruuKh  this  voiii,  the  wator  will  rlae 
ra  by  lb«  iitmoKplieiic  pressure  viitliiiut,  and  when  <.he  two 
and  the  vent  /»  c/oseW,  ilie  licjuid  will  flow  from  tVe  \\v\jW 
D«-  a<  tlie  end  of  the  uhorter  braheh  of  the  slphoti  Va  be\Cv«  ^^^ 
Uquiil  In  tliH  msvvvnir. 


582 


HYDRAULICS. 


ha 
no 


! 

pp.' 


If  j1  =  area  of  cross-secllon  of  the  tube  In  sqiiriiH  f'-et.  fr=| 
In  level  l>etwecn  the  two  i-es.TTOirg  in  f.-- 
pounds  per  i-uWc  (cot.  then  ADH  lupiisiin 
caiispf  the  movement  of  the  fluid, ami  I'—   \ 
Teloolty.  in  feet  jiei'  second,  which  is  reilu 
and  fncriiin.  as  in  ntht»r  castiH  of  flow  of  ii'; 

of  the  diffeicticc  of  level  being  greater  than 

the  water  in  the  r^borler  le^  is  llniited  to  tliai  •\uk  Iu  «  I 
that  due  to  the  dilTerence  oetween  tlie  atmoaplierjc  press 
and  the  vacuum  at  the  brncL 

I^eicester  Allen  (Am.  Mack.,  Nov.  2,  1803)  says:   Thui  _ 

irlphim  must  he  greMer  than  the  flow  which  would  take^^ 

,«ban;e  end  of  the  pipe,  proviiled  ihe  pipe  wpir^  fllleil  wll 

pply  end  stopped,  ntid  the  discharge  end  opened  «heti  th»< 

left  free,  unrt^?iiliited,  and  unsiibnierKed. 

To  iUualrttte  this  principle,  let  us  suppose  tlie  etirf  ine 
having-  a  calibre  of  1  foot,  in  which  the  differi'ii 
point  of  supply  and   disoharge,  is  4  iDChes.     I 
liphnn  to  be  at  Ihe  sea-level,  and  its  hi{;best  p 
nippty  to  be  S*  feet.    Aluo  suppose  the  diKcharK^  i-iid 
__  igulated,  uoBubinerRed.     It  would  be  itioiwrative  fx 
longer  leg  would  not  be  held  solid  by  tiie  pressure  nf  il,. 
it.  and  it  would  therefore  break  up  and  run  iiul  fast-ei  ilu 
pi  iced  at  llie  intlow  end  under  an  effective  bead  of  only  4  ( 

Lone    SIphonw.— Prof.    Jo-seph    Torrey.    in    xbe   J 
desL'ribe.s  n  long  siphon  which  vas  a  partial  failure. 

The  length  of  the  pipe  was  ITK  feet.    The  pipe  was  3  Inch* 
rose  at  one  point  9  feet  above  the  Initial  level.     Tin-  ihiul  Ict 
below  the  initial  level.    No  automatic  air  valve  "  'i. 

point  in  the  siphon  was  about  one  third  the  total  <: 
nearest  the  i>ond.    At  this  point  a  pump  was  pi'. 

"1  the  pipe  when  necessary.    This  »ipbon  would  t\uv.  itA 

id  then  ce-asa,  owing  to  accuniulaticMi  of  air   in  the  pi|r 
'operation  it  discharged  4314  gallons  perndnuto.    Tli-  tli' 
from  siK'li  a  sized  pipe  witii  tiie  spccdltMl  hertd  i~ 

Stpbon  on  tlio  Water-supply  of   iTI 
;i?)iy>  yeirs,  Mny  -1.  ISM.)— A  liindi  siphon,  (12 

ft  ot  ii.Vi  ft*!  and  a  ■l.'j''  change  iu  allpnnu-nt. 

ew  York  Cii.v  Suburban  Wnter  Co..  which  suj  1 

.\t  its  Bunmilt  the  Kiplion  croHses  a  supply  mai' 
the  siphon. 

The  nir  chamber  at  Ihe  siphon  ia  13  inches  by  16  fe«'t  Iouk.    A  i 
and  coclc  at  the  top  of  the  chamljer  provide  an  >>\ii]t^t  f"r  nw  u^m 

It  was  foimd  tliat  the  sifihon  witli  air-chanii  ' 
nntil  lv!5  cuVjic  feet  of  air  had  gathered,  and  ilmi 
soon  with  a  H-foot  lift  a«  wiih  the  full  lift  of  i 
iperate  about  t'J  hours  without  lieinj^  reohnrg 
jolten  over  by  chartting'  every  six  hours.    It  en 
out  of  34  with  only  one  man  in  atteudancn.    W  u  • 
above  it  is  necessary  to  close  the  valves  at  eacli  vrnl  v(  lb»j 
recharge  It.  , 

It  hAK  been  found  )iy  weir  measurements  that  the  diarharit*  «( | 
before  air  accuniulatisa  at  the  summit  la  practically  tboi 
Htrftight  pi|>e. 

KIK.^IiUHEllIRNT  OV  FLOWINCi   WAT1 

Piezometer.— If  a  vertical  or  oblique  tiil'e  »><>  ln>!»>rii"l 
aiuiug  water  under  pres-sure,  tlie  water  wiv  ■  ., 

Vnl  lieiglii  10  which  it  rises  will  lie  the  hi  1 

III  where  the  tutie  is  aitat'hed.    Such  1 

I'ssiire  measure.    If  the  water  In  Ihe  1  1  ■ 

I'l  it  shows  tiiBt  the  pressure  iu  the  ni,  1 

structlon  Ix-iwet-n  i)ih  pi*-7,->?i).«r»»r  and    ' 
lore  Its  pr  •    -   '       '      ■    '     '       •       •'    ■ 


i«. 


«\\V  \ 
i.«»  "Al 


STEASUREMEKT    OF   FLOWING    WATER.  583 

TbH<>  CJAng^e.— The  Pitot  hlb«  l8  used  for  mMRiirinjr  tlif>  reloe- 

I.     II  hns  Uerii  used  whli  pr«'Ht  suct'<*s»  in  iiiBasurinK 

-      iS.  W.  Rdhinsori,  Roiwrt  Ohio  Gool.  Survey.  1890.) 

r.t  Mag.,  vol.  sxxv.)   Ii  is  siniply  a  lube  so  bent  thai 

to  the  current  of  fluid  tlfivvinj;  from  a  liihe,  with  llie 

liflce  opposed  ot  rl^ht  aiiRlt^s  to  ihn  dlreelion  of  tins 

...     ,  .    .-  ^:  e  caused  by  the  iiiipnot  of  the  current  is  trunsiiiillfd 

Uip    lul<r!  lo  a  pr<-»8ur>>'KHiiK''  '^t  any  liiud,  Kuch  as  ii  coluinti  of 

of  mercury,  or  a  Bourdon  Hprin^-xauge.    From  llie  (>rcR»ure  thus 

I  nr,.i  1 1,.^  Iniown  density  aiicl  teiupemture  of  the  ilouini;  ens  is  o!i- 

'   ■orre-sponding  to  iliB  pressure,  and  from  tills  the  vt-locity. 

!i  of  the  I'itot  tube  described  by  I'rnf.  Kobinsnn,  there  are 

ltd  into  the  pipe  convrying  thi- pns.  OEiir  of  wliicli  has  the 

Lhe  oiWlce  at  riithl  annle*  to  tlieeurreut,  lo  receive  the  static  pr-eg- 
»  the  pressure  due  to  impact:  the  other  has  tlie  plaue  of  its  oritice 
to  tbe  current,  go  as  to  receive  the  static  pressure  only.  Tlie«e 
I  connected  to  the  legs  of  a  D  lulie  partly  filled  with  mercury,  which 
taters  the  difference  in  pressure  io  tbe  two  lubes,  from  wnich  the 
nmT  I.e  calculated.  Comparative  tesitH  of  Pilot  tubes  wiili  (.'Uf- 
Mirement  of  the  flow  of  natural  gas,  have  shown  an  agree- 

rl  I*Ieter,  Invented  by  Clemens  Herscbel,  and  de«crilieil  In 

I   by  the    Builders'  Iron  Fnnriflry  of  Providenc,  R.  !..  I» 
.iiuri,  who  flret  called  attention,  in  1796,  to  the  rulatiuii  be- 
'  ii'S  and  pressures  of  fluids  wltun  flowing  through  conver^in^ 
viikK  tubes. 

lata  of  two  parts— the  tube,  tbroucrh  which  the  water  tloH'S,  and  the 
,   which   registers  the  quantity  of  water  that  passes  through  the 

ae  takes  the  shape  of  two  truncated  cones  joined  in  their  stitidlesl 
s  by  a  short  throat-piece.  At  the  tip-etreain  end  and  at  the  throat, 
!  airclininbei-s,  at  which  points  the  pressuees  are  taken. 
tlon  of  tlie  liibe  is  liased  on  that  property  which  cau.sea  the  small 
t  a  gentiv  expanding  frastura  of  a  cono  to  receive,  without  material 
i  tosa  o^  head,  as  umcli  water  at  the  suiallesi  diameter  as  is  dis- 
at  the  lanre  end.  and  on  that  further  property  which  causes  Mie 
of  the  water  flowing  througli  the  tliniai  to  be  less,  Uy  virtue  of  lis 
reJocit  r,  than  the  pri-ssure  at  the  up-stream  end  of  tile  tube,  oaeh 
being  Ht  the  same  time  a  function  of  the  velocity  at  that  point  and 
fdro-stJitic;  pressure  wliich  would  obtain  were  the  water  ruotionless 

connectod  with  the  tube  by  pressure-pipes  which  leail  to 
:bers  surrounding  the  up-stream  end  and  the  throat  of  the 
t  in.ii      >-    pla^'d  in  any  cnnvenient  poaltiou  wtthiu  1000  feet  ot  the 
ti.ooi  ■■;.'•   1  'V  a  weighluml  clnekwork. 

lfl,.r..  .  f  [■ri'S.'iure  or  hem!  Hi  tlieentrance  and  at  the  tllTOSt  of  the 
!  in  the  recorder  t)y  the  dilfprence  of  level  in  two  cultimiks 
iodrical  reeeiver.i,  one  within  the  other.  The  inner  carries 
.n  of  which  is  indicative  of  the  quantity  of  wnler  flowing 
By  its  rise  and  fall  the  float  varies  the  time  of  contnct 
.jracitig  drum  and  the  couuters  by  which  the  Bticcesslve 
lered. 

t  to  the  sizes  of  the  meters  nor  the  quantity  of  water  that 

I.     Meters  with  24  inch,   30-inch, -IS-fncb,  and  even  30-foot 

ilv  niod>-. 

i-ut  by  Tentnrl  Tnbea.    (Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Nov  ,  1tt87, 

»lr.  Hei-s'liei  recoinnii-nis  the  lI^^e  of  a  Ventini   lulie.  in- 

■  •  main  of  ih>-  pumping  engine,  for  delerrainini;  iho  quantity 

■r  iliscliiirged.     Such  a  tulie  applied  to  a  ij-lnch   main  has  a  total 

>f  about  aO  feet.     At  a  distance  of  4  feet  from  the  end  nearest  the 

tn.?  Inside  diameter  of  the  tube  i<  contracted  to  a  thnjjit  having  a 

lit  8  inches.     A  pressuregaiige  is  attached   to  eacli  of  two 

I-  Kurn>undine  and  coinuiunicatiiig  with  the  eutT(v«cfto» 

.=r  rrlrh  the  throne,     .tc'coivling  to  experiiiieivlsuAftAewpoTt 

:i  //id/ametfrat  the  Ihroat  and  12  in  al    " 

!«.  /h  t/;s„„.|ei-at  (he  tluoai  andU  {• 
rtTA/f/,  pa.Mse.s  through  llie  tuhe  ism 


I 


r 
I 


I 


t'g4 


nTDBAlTLlCS. 


h.v  llip  uoeftiiKos.    Mi'Hiirechel  stat-?*  th«t  tli»  eo«4nolo«it  | 
wijoly-varying  sizes  of  UitHWrind  for  a  wide  in oki*  nf  TelntMi 
ptjip,   wiis  fouiiil   to  be  within   two  jifi' Lt'ul.  elUn-r  \v»v,  of  ( 
woi-d§,  tbe  quantity  of  water  HowliiE  Ihrr^iigh  tl"-  '" 
presspil  witliiii  two  iicr  cent  by  the  formula  U'^;  d 
A  is  the  area  of  itie  throat  of  Itw  tiibf,  A  the  I. 
ing  I"  llif  dJITerence  In  the  pressure  of  llie  water  eiin-i 
f<iiiiiil  al  IliM  Ihniiit,  anil  n  -  3:.l('i. 

nraHiirctiient    of    DlHChargc    of     Pn>n|>ine-<>ncli 
MeaiiB  or  iXozzlos.    (Trans.  A.  S  .^!    ■ 
•  if  watnr  h_v  i.'oni|itLtatioij  from  its  dlscJ!  i 
nozzk's  "f  firi'-hnsL-,  fiiriiishes  a  means 
tlellvrPeil  by  ft  iiiitnpiiiEenglne  wlili-h  fuu  ..t- 
Jolm  R.  I'i<»eiiian,  Ti-ans,  A.  fH.  C.  K.,  Nov.,  !•■ 
iiient.x  c'overirit;  ii  wide  ranvre  <if  j>resaiire*!  au 
that  tl>e  cuelHoient  of  discharge,  for  a  stnoolli 
was  within  oiift  half  of  one  per  oenf ,  either  ^ 
the  nozzlB  Iwiiip  accurnti-ly  faliiwri'd,  nnd  llr 
by  in«ans  "fan  accurate  gttUKeatlttclied  to  a  ^uph.l.h  |.i' 
of  the  pinypipe. 

In  order  to  iihr  thi.^  method  for  detenniDlnrf  th«  qnn: 

•charged  liy  a  piimpin/eiifftue,  it  would  be  n<'-     • 

box.  to  wli it'll  tho  water  would  be  conducted, 
nozzles   as  would   be   required   to  earrv   off 
Freenifin's  estimate,  four  H4-incl'   ■  — jL'     " 
of  80  lbs,  per  square  im-h,  wuuM 
lialf  niillloti  engine.    He  also  suj;. 
a  sincie  opeuirifc'  fur  disoharfre,  r...^i 
so-called,  the  water  bein;;  carrietl  to  it  i 

To  insure  reliability  for  these  tueasin 

off  valve  In  the  foree-tnalti,  or  the  seviiM,  .- .,   ...... 

iio  that  all  tlio  wai«rdischarge<l  by  the  engine  may  puss  u. 

FIoMr  through  RectanKolar  OrlAcea,   lApprox 

Cl'BlC  FEKT  op  WATI^a  PlRCBAROBD  PER  MlNtTr  THI|..ri.FI    .^    f   ! 

Inch  Sqt'ABE,  vnubb  a»v  Hkad  of  Water  ruo>i  z  . 

For  any  other  orifice  multiply  by  Itxarea  fn  aju.! 

Formula,  ^  =  .021  t-  /»"x  a,    0'  =  cu,  ft.  per  miu. ;  a  = 


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neaMurcmcnt  or  an  Open  Stream  bf  Voloelfv  and 

•erilon.— M..,t-iii..  !l"-  .|.-|.ifi  .  r  i.,.-  >;.ii.v  .ir  rn.n,  .'.  t,.  i;  i-  . 


;ABUREMEXT  of  FLOWIKG   M'ATKR. 


586 


imi«  giveH  lli«  velocity  al  (lie. surraci^.  As  Uie  lop  of  tli« 
1(1  the  Ixitlom  or  sides — the  average  voloclly  IwlnK 
velocity  at  llii?  middl*— it  Is  c'ouveuletit  to  meaaur* 
- .  r  Lhe  flout  auU  reckon  it  as  I(K). 


Fio.  180. 
Tnclt  OTensurcmenf*.  (Pelt<m  Water  Wheel  Co.) 
,  Fip.  I'Wi  kIiows  iI>i-  foituof  n)easijrinB-l)nxnrdln.>rily  uapri,  and  thn 
't«l>)u  civfes  tlie  iliMlmii{«  in  cubic  feiH  per  iniiiiile  nf  a  miucr's  Inch 
■■  meamretl  uihIim-  the  various  lit-aas  end  diir«reuc  IPDgtlisaod 
^«l[i^nures  iim;<I  In  California, 


^pesiiiRS  9  Inches  High. 

OpeninfTS  4  locUes  High. 

ttu\  to 

Heart  to 

Head  to 

Hwwi  to 

Hi>n<l  to 

Hr-odtO 

nitre, 

Comrv", 

Ceutre, 

Centre, 

Ceiitri", 

LVn>r8, 

nclies 

8  iucheB. 

7  inches. 

6  Inchea. 

0  Indies. 

7  iuches. 

IM    ft 

Cu.  ft. 

Cii.ft. 

Co.  ft. 

Cll.  ft. 

Cll,  ft. 

T.'SIS" 

1.47H 

l.S8tl 

1.8J0 

i.4aQ 

i.sro 

!.»:> 

l.JHO 

l.«MI 

1,.*» 

].4'0 

1.59» 

1.850 

1.4!<4 

1  000 

1,»14 

I.-IKI 

1.009 

l.SOt 

1.IM5 

l.Brti 

iMO 

1,4S7 

1.61S 

I.  IK'S 

i.m 

1  tllW 

1  S.-3 

1.491 

i.oao 

l.WM 

1.4m 

l.tWI 

1.854 

1.404 

l.O'JS 

1.8» 

1 .  IH9 

l.(H» 

1.356 

1.491! 

1 .6-26 

1.305 

l-l.s<l 

1,606 

l.W 

1  499 

l.»l$ 

I,3l» 

1  41X1 

I.IKIA 

i.ffi;) 

1 .4!)9 

i.am 

l.SOfi 

MOO 

1  807 

1..1'.9 

1.500 

1. 031 

i.aec 

1    VM 

I  «or 

i.aeo 

1  .mi 

1.0« 

q.soc 

l.-IW 

1.607 

1.801 

1  .BtW 

1.6!M 

j.aer 

1.4'Ji 

l.fiOT 

1.381 

).50:l 

1.6J1 

1.4III 

1.608 

1.303 

1..503 

I  flltt 

1.807 

i.iie 

1.008 

1.8U3 

i.sur. 

1  687 

1  im 

l.4ll<i 

1  uig 

I.M4 

1  tar; 

1.6!» 

1.S08 

1,48)) 

1  .WD 

l.JWS 

1  50S 

l«^fl^^ 

x.vm 

1.4!):l 

i.eoo 

i.a«5 

i.rjos 

^^^M^^^H 

1.S68 

1  49S 

LAW 

1.300 

l.GOQ'i 

^^^^^^^1 

a.aaa 

i.4iri 

i,i;io 

i.sm 

i.bmJ 

^^^^^^^1 

i:9» 

im 

I  DIO 

7.508 

i.sog 

^^^^H 

I apertam  fruia  Which  the  aboys  meaturooie 


586 


» 


HYDRAULICS. 


mere  through  material  l.<4  iocbes  thick,  an. I  tlie  Inw^r  Mn*  1 1 

the  bottom  nf  tlif>  ini'nttiring-lx'x;.  thus  gKin^  full  <-r>iitrartJnn, 

Floiv  or  Water  Over  IVcirs.     Wclr   Dam ^ 

(Pelton  Water  \\  lieel  Co.)— Piuce  &  boau-d  or  plauli  to  Uwi 


S% 


.M,.  . 


Fio.  131.  ^ 

In  the  skptch.  at  some  point  whero  a  pond  will  form  Bboid^^^^H 
the  notch  Id  thi-  dam  Ahoiild  l>e  from  two  to  four  ttmea  It^^^^H 
quantities  and  lonKvr  for  Initce  qtioiititlcs.  Tbo  edfrcfs  ot  W^Wm 
be  bevelled  toward  the  intaiie  aide,  as  abown.  The  orerfafl  liclMBi 
should  not  lie  less  tlmii  twice  its  depth.  [Krancis  says  a  fall  btio*  III 
fquai  t4i  otip-hnif  tin-  head  is  sufflelent.  but  thfif  niiist  lie»fr«»KI 
air  under  iliu  sh«?t.l  , 

In  the  pond,  about  6  ft.  above  the  dam,  drive  a  stake,  and  thM  oMH 
water  until  It  rispx  precisely  to  the  bottom  of  ilw  ii.,riii  :iii<l  mart  iW 
at  thU  level.    Then  complete  tlie  dam  so  na  i  '  '"^ 

through  the  notch,  and,  after  time  fi>r  the  •»  i.  i.  IM 

again  for  this  new  level      If  preferred  tli.>  -i  I'li 

precinety  level  with  the  Ixtttoin  Of  the  !■■ 
measured  with  a  rule  after  the  water  is  i! 
ferabie  in  moat  cases.    The  atuke  can  liw 
between  the  marks  ia  the  theoretical  dejuh  uf  tltiw  our.- 
quantities  In  the  tshie  on  (lie  follnwiiii;  pa^. 

Franclk'B  Formidie  for  Wvlr*.         ^k 

A«  given  by  Aa^H 

Fnuicia.  ^^ 

Weirs  with  Ijoth  end  oontractions  I     n  —  t  vuki  x^d-i- 

suppressed f     V  —  •'■•»*«  aw^  t 

Weirs  with  one  end  contraction     I      q  _  <  4u|  _  la^l        .-^1 

Weirs  with  full  contraction 9  =  S.SSif  -  iArt*       « 1 

St  varial  Ion  of  the  Trancls  fonni«ln<  from  the  va)u«*4 


l£HEXT   OF  PLOWlXtJ    WATER. 


cubic  feet  p«r  secaod,  I  =  lenirth  of  weir  in  frf  i.  h  =^ 
measured  from  the  level  of  Ibe  crest  to  tbe  level  ul 
eir. 

in  cubic  feet  per  mimde,  and  ]'  and  A' are  taken 

Of  the  above  forroiilu?  reduces  to  (^  =  0  1/7i  '.  From 
In'iDf;  table  is  oaloulnied.  Tbe  value:)  are  ^iimck-DUj- 1 
I  computations  of  waler-powpr  for  weirs  wiibout  t-n<1  . 
tor  a  weir  ibe  full  widlb  of  the  channel  of  approaL-h,  i 
also  for  weirs  wllli  end  contraction  when  1  =  at  leaat  1 
pcess  of  tbe  truth  when  I  —  \h. 


L 


IVelr  Table. 


or  Water  per  Miicdte  that  wn-L  Fr^w  ovm  A 

(KCU  W^lDE  AND  FROM  %  TO  80^^  t.tCHES  Dsap. 

Otber  widths  multiply  by  the  width  in  inches. 


>«!n. 


ie.B8 

19.01 
21.23 

ss.oo 
88. ;m 

80.80 
88.45 

an.n 


H'n- 


ou.  ft. 

.05 

.55 

1.35 

a.34 

3.50 
4.81 
6. £5 

r.tio 

P.47 
11  85 
18. « 
15.09 
17. )5 
10  29 
81.51 
23.83 

28.fl5 
31.18 

sa.Ts 

86.45 


?i  In.  I  }6  in.  I   ^  in. 


cu.  ft- 

.09 

.61 

1.46 

3.48 

8.68 

4.98 

6.44 

8.01 

9.69 

11.48 

13.36 

V>  34 

IT. Hi 

19.36 

ai.8o 

S4.11 
86.50 
28.97 
31.50 
34  11 
86.78 


cu.  ft. 
.14 
.73 

1.38 
$.61 
3.81 
5.15 
6.6'.' 
8.-J1 
9  91 
11.71 

i3.e4t 

15.59 
17.117 
19.S4 

sa.oa 

£4.40 
20.su 

31.82 
34.44 

87.14 


cu.  ft. 
.19 
.89 

1  711 
276 
3.97 
5.33 
6.B2 
84« 
10  13 
11.114 
13.85 
15.85 
17  94 
20.11 
!«.:47 
S4.70 
27.11 
S9..W 
3i.l5 
»l.77 
37.46 


»i  in. 

?8in. 

CU.  ft. 

cu,  ft. 

.96 

.•» 

.92 

■oi 

1.82 

i.S 

:i.90 

s.as 

4.14 

4.3» 

5.51 

5.<a» 

7.01 

7.SI 

8.63 

8.8» 

10.» 

1097 

i*>  1? 

12.4, 

1409 

14.81 

le.ii 

16.8d 

18.31 

18.41 

20  39 

ao.Mfl 

32.65 

23. 9r 

2.1.00 

S9.30 

a7.4a 

97.72 

29  91 

;i0.22 

82.47 

3S  80 

35.10 

35.44 

37.80 

.IH  IJi 

rurate  computations,  the  coefllcients  of  flow  of  Hninilton 
f  Uazln  aliould  be  u.-^ed.  In  Striili'H  h.Tdraulics  will  be  found 
Bsullsiif  eiperiinentsoii  oriHces  and  weirs  of  T»rii>u8Blia|i«ii 
I  <li(I(>r>>nt  authorities,  to)?-ctlier  with  a  di.wussiui!  (^f  llieir 
6.  iSci'  also  Truutwine's  Pocltet  Boolt.) 
Kperimenld.— M.  Razin  (dnnafeadai  Potifs  el  C'i'Ikos''"*. 
iled  by  Muriobul  and  Trautwlne,  Proo.  Engrs.  Club  of  i'liila., 
|e  an  eictensive  series  of  uxperinientK  witli  a  Hiiarp-cirslrd 
tteral  contraction,  tbe  air  being  a<]milted  freely  beiilud  (lie 
Hd  found  values  Of  m  Tarylntj  from  0.42  to  0.50,  vvltli  vurin- 
fthof  I  he  weir  from  19^  lo78fe  in,,of  theheiRhl  *if  tlie  cr^st 
m  of  ihecbonnel  froui  0.7B  to  2.  Ifl  ft.,  and  of  llui  li<-a<l  froui 
proni  these  exporinieulB  he  deduces  the  follow  iiiu  fornmla  : 


I.4S5  +  0.91 


HILL-POWER. 


•ad  of  wat<>r  can  be  m&de  nfl«  of  in  one  or  oth«r  of  ibe  following;  wojrt 

its  m-eiKhi.  as  in  ttie  waler-balaiic«<  and  >ivurtihi>t -wheel, 
1  ttM  pressure,  lu  in  (urbiDea  and  in  tlto  liydraulic  ouxUif,  by dr 

k(<«.  (BlIZ. 

[|l«  imfinlae.  a*  ia  the  und<>rshot-wbeel,  and  In  the  Peltou  wIh 
[Tonibinalion  nf  ilif  nh-ive. 

|>a«r«r  of  a  Bnnnine  8treBiii>— Tlte  frrosx  hormpowpr 

jU  X  6--Mi-'  ■*-  a.'Al  =  . UMl^l!.  Ill  « liicli  O  ia  tlie  disibHiKe  in  cubic 

1  act4uJl]r  liiipiiiglng  ou  the  flout,  or  bucket,  aiid  i/  i^  llieorvl- 

to  ibe  velocity  of  tbe  stream  3..^  =  jQ-j,  Jn  wliicb  v  is  the 

*    )  pr   Kecood.    K  ^  be  taken  In  cubic  feet  per  mlnutp, 

IK  of  an  UDderahol-wb(>«l  driven  by  a  <!iirrent  alone  be  6 

.  HiMi  the  velocity  of  Mreoni  =  SIO  ft.  [ler  iiiinulp,  or  3W  ft,  p»r 

llicll  t  li'-  I  lieoreiii;ul  bea J  is  .19  ft..  O  =  S  so.  ft.  X  -10  =»  1080  cu.  ft. 

.  H  =  .l«ft  :  H.P.  =  1050  X    10  X.00ie9=  .«77H.P. 
ffla  »«>ijld  reallie  only  about  .4  of  tblH  power.on  ncconntof  friction 
.151   li.P.,  or  uboui  .08  H.P.  per  KOiiare  foot  of  fluat,  wbich  is 
..  fi^  sar  ft.  of  float  per  H.P. 
•  nf  T^  r-tor*. — A  current  motor  conld  only  iitiliie  thp  whole  poi»<!r 
Ml  If  it  could  take  all  ili«  Telocity  out  of  iho  wnlfi-.  so  llmt 
ilDRts  or  b'lekets  witli  no  velocity  at  all;  or  in  (.>t tier  word*, 
'IJM1I  ••  <  ti»?  bnckliig  up  of  the  whole  volume  of  ttm  Bti'eiiiu  until  tim 
eiiu  was  <-quivnlent  to  the  tiiforetiral  head  due  to  the  velocity  of  the 
Ab  but  a  Huiall  frnrilon  of  the  velocity  of  the  mrfam  can  be  talien 
lciii'r»*ot  inoior,  lis  elBcieiicy  Is  vciy  ytiiall.    Current  motor*  may  be 
I  obtain  aniall  amounts  of  power  ft'oni  Inrge  Htreams,  but  for  larg;e 
lihey  are  not  prnciirnbli'. 

»'<iver  of  Water  Flowlns  In  a  Tnbe.— The  head  due  to 
„i  / 

'  ia  —  ;  the  head  due  to  the  pressure  Ik  -  ■ 


.«0 


the  head  due  to  actual 

>  tfae  datum  plane  is  A  feet.  Tiie  total  head  In  the  sum  of  these  = 

In  feet,  In  which  v  «■  velocity  iu  feot  per  Eeeond,/=  pressure 

er  Ml.  ft.,  W  =  weight  of  1  cu.  ft.  of  water  =  152.30  lbs,    Ztp  =  jTes- 

.  per  sq  In.,  —  k  i.aOSp.     In  hydraulic  trannmission  the  velocity 

I  height  above  datum  are  usually  small  compared  wllh  the  pretisure- 

Tl>e  work  or  energy  of  a  given  quantity  of  water  underpressure  = 

le  ill  cubic  feet  X  ilfi  pressure  In  lbs.  per  nq.  ft.;  or  if  ^  s^  quuiiiily 

teel  per  isecoiul.  and  p  =  pr««sure  In  lbs.  per  equate  Inch,  It's 

I  the  H.  P.  «  i^*^  =  m^Q. 

knin  Eflirleiier  of  a  Lone  Conduit.— A.  L.  Adama  and 

meil/iiil/'j;  Ach*,  May4,  ItfKi),  »liow  by  mailiematlualnnalyslathat 

llitions  for  Becuring  the  tnaxiiuiiin  amount  of  power  through  a  Iohk 
>f  nzed  diameter,  wlUiout  regard  to  the  economy  of  water,  is  llmt 
Kill  from  the  jiipe  should  be  Kuch  tliat  the  friotional  loss  in  the  pipe 

anal  to  one  tliinl  of  the  entire  utalic  bead. 
••*rer. — A  •■mlU-power"  ia  a  unit  used  to  rate  a  waler-power  for 
w  of  renting  it.    The  value  of  tlie  unit  i«  different  Iu  dilTerenl 
The  following  are  exninples  ifrooi  Emerson): 
t,  A/ii.<>.— l!><'h  mill-power  at  the  reti)>ei-tive  falls  in  declared  to  be 
flnnnp;  Hi  houm  in  (i  dny  to  draw  38  cu.  ft   of  water  per  second  atr 
'  '       '  ■'.         is  a)  feet,  or  aiiuaiilily  iiroporlioiiBto  to 

II  to  S6.i  liorst-ixiwer  us  a  niojciinuui. 
■  luring  IS  hours  111  the  dny  (io  much  waler 
jvowt'i  •••piiu  i<>  »M  lu.  ft.  a  second  at  tliegreiit  (all,  when  the 
reet.     Kquiil  io8A  H.  P.  maxiiniini. 

l/««.— The  right  to  draw  duriiiK  16  hours  In  a  day  w)  much 
1  give  n  liofse-iiower  equal  To  SO  cu.  /t.  \M;t  second  '   " 

t^iial  to  t!>  B.P.  mnxiiiiuin. 
.  Jfiuu.— 3i)cii.  ft.  ot  uBier  per  i^cood  with  headt 
.  j» 
,  a:  J£—PJr/de  T3S  bjr  the  numbtir  of  feet  ot  InU  1 


da}'  fo  much 
nd  wbeoJkaj 


WATBH-KIHKK. 


:  the  arc  lubteiKlloK  one  biick*t  at  enlruicr, 

II.  =  oh.  tbe  arc  siibtend!n)roi)e  buckei  »i  »xlt, 
K  =  bf,  normal  section  of  passage,  tt  bein^  assumed  Ual  I 
and  buckets  are  very  narrow, 

fc-,  =  bl^  Initial  normal  si-cLlon  of  bucket, 
t,  =  gi,  leriiiiual  normal  section, 
Mi't  =  vell^city  of  initial  rim. 
Ml'.  =  velocity  of  tcrmlDal  rim. 
t  =  HFJ.  angle  between  the  terminal  rim  i 
valor  at  exit,  ,         .  „     . 

r  =  depth  of  *:.  v.  of  n,.  and  j/,  of  *,,  tlK«n 
A'  =  Yd  »lu  ;  Ki  =  «i  «,  wn  yj;  A',  ■>  wi,  sin  y,. 


Tbresidniple  Hygt«maar<f  rneognlzfid,  r,  <  >-,,^BaIled  ontwarH  f 
oalMiDwanl  flow;  r,  =  •.,  ealk-d  parallol  flow.    The  Qrsl  awl i 
b«coiublii«il  »lrh  ili«  third  m/ilciiiK  a  iiiiS'»d  .syMein, 

Value  of  ym  Ithe  qiiiUtnii  niii/ie).— The  t-tHcieuoy  U  lorrr»KJ««_3 


.7V 


cri'nBwj.  nnri  Ucit-aiVhl  for  vt  =0.     Hfnt'*'.  tli*>'ii^iii 
'  biicKr      ■       ■  ■  ■  ... 


o«llv     Ihx 
lni>nt  nf  (liH  biii-^tci  should  In-  "mnRent  to  the  qi; 
This,  however,   for  the  lilschar^  of   a   flni'' 
rf-quire  an  iufluliff  dijjlh  of  Imcket     In  praclli- .    . 
Iittve  a  (Inlti!  value.  The  Inrger  thi*  illameti"r  of  ilie  t«rMiiiial 
may  iio  ihis  hurIci  for  n  civen  i1i»ptli  of  wheel  and  ^iren  quani 
(ll!<cliQi't(>!d.     In  praotloe  Vi  i^  from  10*  to  30*. 

In  n  nliofi  in  Mhk'h  all  the  eleincntR  ex<:vpt  y^  are  flied 
ilw  u'lie«l  for  [MfM  efre<.-t  must  increase  as  tb«  quil(ln(  ao(l« 
il»w*r)'a*««^H, 

l"ri(ii.-ii  nf  I,  -i-  f.   must  he  less  Ihiin  I'^O",  hut  the  b««t  r 
diHvrmlnuil  by  iitiulyKiN      Iton-ever,  since  the  wat«r  sliould 
lis  citlirse  ns  niuoti  an  iinKsihlr,  f  mm  it  ^  rnir-r.y.e  t/i  li<  leA*lttf{ 
nn^le  a  fur  thin  r'  ' 

In  |iraoUix>.  a  . 

I'll.'  v;iUl.-  I  , 

t  Hi  (or  outward  flow,  bi^tiig  iwipri 

trirl\ona\  TiBia\K\at>c««  &>!«<«»&  u^oa 
lOlbnoaa  ot  \taa  aattaosa.  Buwy*—  ' 


uram 


TUUBINE    WHEELS.  &93 

t  tliecuiv<«l  ikurta.  Mid  ftlso  upoii  Mie  speed  It  te  run.    TlieHe 
oi  iK^    •  issi^iieil  beforehADd,  but  WeUb&uh  gltea  for 

ion;;  M  :  ■  w  O.W. 

•I  III.""  I'lul,  and  ft,  tnny  b«  from  0,06  to  0.07S,  sod  Mi 

I  0. 10  «>r  tjvvii  Jiir^iiT. 
Y,   inu.sl  bn  less  lliaii  IHO*  -  n. 

gale  Htdn,  y,  may  be  20  ortO  dpgreee  lees  (has  180*— 8a,  giriiif 


ri 


Y.  -  180*  -  Sa  -  >5    (luiy)    =lS5-8«. 


iMml     ^ 


Hi  SO",  y,  =  BS*.  Some  ilesignt^ra  make  y,  90° ;  others  more,  aud 
leas,  than  tlml.  ninoiiiit.  Wei^bnob  sUKK<.'»Ii!  that  it  be  Irss,  so 
jket  will  ha  Kbortpr  ami  friciliiii  Iniw.  This  rpsnonlng  appears  lo 
'or  Iha  liillow  whei.'l,  lait  imt  for  Dn-  oiitHow  nhet-l.  In  the  Tre- 
ne«.  di^sf rilifil  hi  the  I<nwell  HvdiTiiiUc  Ex|ierltiit'nt.s,  thtw  an^le 
tiijrh*  «  »'".  and  v»  10°.  whlon  fir()|M>rtions  Insured  a  pusltlve 
tbu  "htM-'l.  Founit-yrim  mndeyi  =  W°,  and  a  from  80°  to  4*", 
<m  made  the  liiillal  preiuiiire  In  the  nbeel  near  zei-o. 
Burkel  — Thu  foriii  of  the  biickrt  eanuul  tie  determined  auulytiu- 
i  the  liiltiiLl  and  (••rmliiHl  dIreetlooB  and  Ihi)  volume  of  the  nocer 
aii^h  I  h»  witi'el,  ilie  aiiM.  of  tJio  iioruial  (sections  may  be  fouud. 
section  of  the  biiclcets  will  be  : 

ba  of  those  sections  vill  be : 

K  t,  _       fc, 

a  sin  a'  o,  Blnyi'      *     "« "I"  ■)■»'.. 

of  curvature  and  seotion  must  be  Kradunl.  and  the  eeneral 
ao  that  eddies  and  uliirls  shall  nut  lie  fnrnieil.     For  the  Rainu 
erl  must  be  run  with  the  oorieot  velooKy  to  t<eoui'e  the  besi 
'practice  I  lie  buckets  are  uiadeof  two  or  three  arvn  of  circlea. 
ADKenlinL 

ii£  o/ w  — 8o  far  as  annlyain  indicates,  the  wheel  may  run  at  any 
t  In  order  tliat  the  scream  Hliall  flow  smoolldy  from  the  supply 
Dto  the  bucket,  tho  velocity  I' should  lie  properly  lefrulated. 
,  =  0.10,  r,-<-  r,  =  1.40.  a  =  25«,  y,  =  90°,  y,  =  1V>.  Ihe  vel.pctty  of 
rim  for  outward  llow  will  l>e  for  iiiaximum  etUci«ncy  0.(114  of  the 
ne  to  the  bead,  or  wr,  =  0.814  S'^H. 
xHly  due  to  the  head  would  he  l'2j/i/  =  1  414  \'(iH. 
inflow  wheel  (or  the  case  in  which  r,"  =  fcV,  and  the  other  diuien 
l»ea  above,  wr,  =  0.964  \''igU. 

best  efnciency  of  tlieTreinont  turbine,  found  experimentally,  wiih 
id  the  corrB»<pondinp  velneity.  0  K'iW.^  i>f  that  due  to  the  bead,  and 
lociUts  above  and  below  this  value  ilie  eflloiencv  was  less. 
Tremoot  wheel  a  =  'JO"  int-tead  of  •&".  and  y,  =  10°  instead  of  !«•. 
uld  make  tliH  themelioal  eniiiency  and  velooil.v  of  the  wheel  some- 
tier.  Experiment  showed  tlmt  the  veloi-ity  iiiiitht  IjeconsiderHblr 
smaller  tliao  this  amount  without  miicli  diminution  of  (beefflciency. 
fouud  thai  if  the  vel'X-lty  of  the  initial  tor  interior)  riro  was  not  less 
BOr  more  thao  TW  of  that  due  to  the  fall,  tlie  elTlcienoy  wa.>i  7f«<  or 
'bis  wheel  was  allowed  to  run  freely  without  any  brake  except  It* 
lioD,  and  the  velocity  of  the  luitial  rim  was  observed  to  be 
iH.halfof  whiuhlaO.flerii  WgH.  which  in  not  far  from  the  veloultv 
aximiimefreui;  tiiatiKtosay.wheD  the  Kale  iH  fully  raised  the  coefTl- 
sBect  Lsaniaxlmum  when  the  wheel  Is  moving  with  about  half  its 
n\  vel'-^'lty. 

'  '•■  •icrtit. — Siicceosful  wheeln  have  been  made  In  wlili-h  ihf  rtl- 
iiH  hiicl<etM  waH  an  $nuill  uh  O,?.*)  of  an  inch,  and  otin't^  m^ 
■ti»«.     Turbines  nt  the  (Vnteuiiial  Exfiosition  hail  biif  1.- 
•■   nchra  from  ii-ntre  lo  centre.     If  too  Inrce  iliev  will  o..i 
i.-r  should   lli"y  be  too  deep.     Horizoi""'  •— -•iii.itiij 
iced.    Tbew  secure  more  efficient  wor»  "^ 

|vuiv  ).""i  uiteneil.     The  fnriii  and  niiniber  Ot  ll 
I  trie  ehtetty  the  reeuit  ot  experieuoe. 


r: 


594 


WATER- POWSB. 


Hatio  of  Rdrfij.— Theory  doM  not  limit  the  dlmcnaiOM  or  tlie  wixtL  : 
practice, 

for  outward  flow,  r^  *■  r^  is  from  1,IB  to  l.EO; 
f<ir  Inward  flow,  rj-^r,  is  from  0.6t  to  0.80. 

It  appMUn  that  the  lutlow.wheel  has  a  higher  <?fneit*ncy  Mian  theimlw 
Oow  wheel.  Tlie  iiiB-jw-wlieel  alM>  runs  ^oiiiewliai  slMwer  for  liew  tC 
Th«  I'etitrifiiiral  force  In  thf  miiwanl-flow  «h«"l  tHii.U  t><  fore*  Ihf  i 
outward  fajiiHr  rlian  it  would  otherwi^**  flow  ;  while  in  the  inn'&ril  flowv 
It  lia*  the  CDDtrnry  vlTvCl.  actlii|:  att  it  dot?a  hi  opfiosilkm  tu  rln^rrfcx' 
UiM  liiicketH. 

11  alxu  apiM>arK  that  the  etttcieucy  of  llie  outward-flow  wlic*!  Iiigii 
flllfhily  AK  the  width  of  th«  crown  is  l(>5<3i  and  llit;  velocity  Uir  iiti 
efllcicnov  i*  8low«ir  ;  wliile  for  tlie  inllow-wht^l  the  effiirirDcy  «llit1 
uri-a-w^  for liicti'&!u«l  width  of  ciMwn.aiid  the  velocity  "f  Uieouteiiia 
Raiio-  liiiif  nl.s<>  iiicmuies. 

Efflciriirii.—The  exact  value  of  the  efflcieocy  for  a  particular  »li 
be  fi»mMl  liy  ei|ierii«etit. 

It  »eei>i<  hurilly  pomible  for  the  effective  efficiency  to  equal.  ■ 
jxot^tHl,  XM,  uiul  ail  claliiiK  of  SIO  or  more  per  ceui  for  lh<«e  moioret 
diacnnletl  na  iinprcthahle.  A  tiirhine  yieldios  front  75;C  to  NOjt  1*  < 
gOO^t.     Kx|irriinenls  wilii  hi)j:lier  efl[lci«iK*i*t8  have  been  i"ej*orte<I. 

The  oei.Oiittttil  Tivmoiit  turbine  g&rit  TllJ^iS  without  the  "  diffimer," 
miEht  hnNeii'Ided  >ii>me  3;t.  A  .lonval  turbine  iparallel  flow)  hu  rep 
lui  viehiniB  n.T."i  to  O.SW,  Inn  Morin  !<ii|;i;eHte<t  correotioiui  rediicinK  It  lot 
O.Tl.  Weinijai'li  jfiv«*s  the  renulis  of  many  experiinents.  in  »liich  tlM* 
cienry  riiiipetl  frmii  hit%  lo  Mt.  Nunieronti  ex|K'riment«  Rive  £  =  060t«_l 
The  efBcleiu-y,  o.iiKideriiiff  "nly  the  t-nei-Ry  ini|>arled  to  tlie  whwl.'^" 
Ceeil  by  Beveral  pur  cent  tlie  elTloieney  of  the  wheel,  for  the  l«tti!r»ill 
elude  the  fiietiim  <ir  the  sniipori  ami  leakage  at  the  joint  betwrwi  tlits' 
and  wheel,  which  ar«  not  ineltjcled  in  the  former  ;  also  ax  a  plant  then 
aiices  and  losties  in  the  supply-chninlMT  are  to  be  still  further  de^luctel 

7Vie  t'l'OPi'f.— The  crownH  itmy  be  iilane  Ronular  disk!>,  or  coiilc ' ' 
curved.  If  the  partillDns  forniiiif;  the  buckets  be  BO  thin  that  thejr  tu 
dlncarded,  the  law  of  nt'lial  How  will  lie  determined  bv  the  fonn  I 
CrowUH.  If  the  crowns  be  plane,  the  raiiial  flow  (or  radial  cOinpoDUB 
diminish,  for  the  outward  flnw-whet-l,  ns  the  diBtance  from  the  axis  li 
—the  bncleels  helne  full-  for  the  angular  space  will  be  gienler. 

Prof.  \Voo»l  deduce*  from  the  fni'innlce  in  his  paper  the  tables  on  f 

It  appenrx  troni'thrne  table's:  I.  That  the  terniinalangle, a, hasflttIK 
been  niiide  io<i  lar({e  in  practice  for  the  best  efMcieucy. 

tl.  That  ihK  teriniual  uuKle,  n,  of  the  Kuiiie  sboiilJ  be  for  th«  I 
Ihiin  10*  fur  the  wheels  here  consiilered.  but  wheu  the  iultial  »»k1<!*1 
bucket  lnM",  and  the  l*i  riilnni  au^le  of  the  f^ulde  is  5*  28',  thef;aliio" 
clencr  In  not  'H  jtreater  timn  when  the  latter  is  35°. 

8.  That  the  Initial  angle  of  the  bucket  should  exceed  W  for  best* 
aiitllow  wheels. 

4.  That  with  the  initial  allele  between  00°  and  120°  for  best  effectotil 
wlieel«  the  efficiency  variea  scarcely  Ijt, 

.").  In  th*i  oiitHow-wheel,  column  (9)  showe  that  for  the  ouUnw  I 
effect  the  direction  of  tlic  iinitlln?  wn'er  in  referencie  to  the  earth  Aw 
nearly  railial  (from  78"  to  ST"),  but  for  the  inflow  wheel  the  water  l«tf 
forward  in  qisittioK-  TliisHhowH  that  the  velocity  of  the  rim  gbonldl 
what  exceeil  ilie  relative  Hnal  velocity  backward  In  the  bucket,  tmi"' 
columns  i<»nod  (M. 

6.  In  the^sn  lablej^  the  veloclllefi  ^Ivea  ai^  in  term?  of    | '3(//i ,  and  t. 
elHcleutg  of  this  expreKxion  will  be  the  part  of  the  head  which  wouMpn 
that  velcicity  if  ih»  water  ituued  fierly.    Ther«  in  only  one  ca<>e,  Cfilimwl 
where  the  coefllclenl  exceeds  unity,  tinrt  the  excess  i.s'so  small  it  iti»J''^ 
carde<l;  and  it  may  lie  said  that  in  n  properly  proportioned  turbine  i 
fX)udition8  Imne  ^iven  none  nf  tlie  vehwities  will  equal  that  due  loll 
in  the  KU|)ply-chaniber  when  niiiiiliie  tit  l»est  effect. 

7.  The  inflow  turbine  presetilH  the  best  conditions  for  coDslruclW> 
prodiicinf|r  a  jjlveu  efle<!t,  the  only  apparent  dlKadvantaKe  beinff  an  Ino'"' 
first  coal,  line  to  an  increa.<ed  depth,  or  an  increased  diameter  for  (  "' 
a  uiveii  ainouut  of  work  The  larger  ufllcicQcy  should,  however,  a 
itnuti  aJiza  the  increased  Arst  coh(. 


11 

b. 
t< 

kl 

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3 

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1 

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s, 

11 

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ei  ^  ^  ti 

'  S  3  =  «» 

« 

^l^l>£: 

* 

IIII 

J.     «■     «3 
S     <     O 

oo 

t:  S  «  s 

D     a     0     a 

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1-- 

S  "  ?  S 

S  -D  S  oB 
13   odd 

N 

2*   =  2  w 

fe  i  i  ^ 

dodo 

« 

u 

■r-   -t-  -i-  •*■ 

I  iliS 

d  d  d  d 

Ifi 

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c 

;a  a  a:  a: 

iiii 

d  d  d  d 

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> 

' 

llllilil 

•«•  v  «►  ■» 

d  d  d  d 

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> 

IIII 

iiii 

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ao 

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d  ^  a  a 

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a. 

laj  aisia: 

iiii 

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1    d  d  d  d  , 

,  1-. 

M 

d  d  d  d 

li- 

^J?||    1 

(1 

? 

fc                  1 

1876.    (Pioiti  n  pnpBrhr  R.  H.  Thnrstftn  on  'I' 
T{irl)liie  VVliei")*  in   llic;  Uiiitwl  StJiies,  Traiin.  A,  ' 

llie  JinlKys  at  the  liitfinalioiiul  Eiliiljllion  coiiJi..;   

turbines.  Many  tif  llm  wheels  offered  for  tests  ut-ie  foiui^ 
Ui:«is  ili-feclive  ill  nttiiig  niKl  wurkinanKlii[>.  Tlii'  TnlNrainK  it 
till!  resullu  ot  all  turbiuea  tinlerud  wliicb  ku-w  u»  cfllciel 
SevvD  Qiher  wheels  were  tested,  ^vlug  remits  between  OW  ^ 


M»kur'i4  Tiutite.  or  Nauie  the 
Wbeol  is  Knon-n  By. 


Rlwlon  

NHtloiml 

Gt-vHlln(»lngle) 

Tlios.  Tuit 

<iol.  I  ic  &  JlcCullougb, 

Riuliiev  Hunt.  Much,  Co....... 

T>!er  Wheel  

Qeyelin  (diinlcxi.  

KmowIIoii  &  ]>olaii 

K  T,  Conc-&8ons 

Hiirher*  Harris 

Yiiik  Manufftctiiring  Co 

W.  F.  Mr»«si'r  *  Co 


is 

li 

=  (5 

li 

«>= 

d 

d 

"i 

a  ^ 

u  a 

5 

=  6m 

"u. 

•a 

|t^ 

K& 

!i 

--2  s I-'  '* 

•-'   « 

^ 

r^ 

l""^ 

|.^ 

tsra 

t' 

ST.flS 

M.«0 

«.4t 

88.79 

70.VU 

83.30 

SiMS 

70.40 

m 

8I.il 

.  .  . 

71.01 

^^.90 

TK.Ti) 

7I.M 

68.00 

Bt 

7V..%9 

81.34 

79.W 

C7 

77  57 

77.13 

74. a 

76  94 

)».« 

TO  in 

Ts.'aa 

3 

75.70 

07.08 

67.87 

t!>  1.1 

74.i»'9 

7|.9rt 

70  5* 

The  Hinits  of  ei'mr  of  the  t«iKi.  Mjrs  Prof.  Thurston,  wens 
lliey  art*  iindonhtodlv  cniviidemble  as  compared  with  Um  Int 
the  iieriiieiueiit  tlimie  At  HulyoUi — possiblr  lis  luucb  a»  Wor 

ExperiniHiiiK    with  "ilraiiplittuboti."    or    "  .tuclioii-tnb«a 

netiiallr  "diffuiwM-s"  In  their  t-fft'ct,  bo  far  a<  Pr.if  Tliurgto 

bem,  indicate  the  logs  by  friction  which   -  aiittt 

Kt«.  this  loM  (lecreasiiiB  as  the  tube  iur.  ii^al 


TDBBIMB   WHEELS. 


£97 


idrli'"  '  nuMiiilWifii? power.   A" quarter 

losaiuu  a  "(quarter  twiHl  "  about  5;(. 

JTnrMnt     .  >iii>.Mjt>i'.>iis, jjower,  etc.,  of  blaiid- 

lues  ooirsiiK  irjK'  cuiuiM^uew  of  cliffei'eiit  juaDutactiireni. 

Brent  makers  vury  Breatly  iu  their  pioportiona  fur  any 

I  'Water-^Fhcel.— ^fr.  Ross  E.  BroHiit-  ( Eiu/'g  Ifew*,  Feb. 
iliues  the    piincJpleH  U|ioD  which   thin  water-\vlit>el    is 

'   "■" ^  yy  a  jiftof  water  escnpiiip  from 

>  ! ,  flue  to  its  TfliKTlty,  into  ii«rful 

t)  lie  wiieH-biii'lirt.  aftfr  i»li'liing 

wiii^  11  t"  I'rM  ii.-itM«-  iiix.-iirt.r^n(»  it,  wiQifHit  indoclrtg  turbu- 
Smi  fif  tli«"  paTiirtPS. 

I>e  fully  eff*?!'!**),  and  unaToidaUe  dlAlcultltw  iK>c««9itat«  tlie 
Inn  of  tlie  en>?r)ry.  Tlie  prlnHpal  losi^es  oeciir  a«  follows; 
I  or  niiKiiliir  diversion  of  the  jet  in  MitfririK.  or  in  its  coiirae 
Bc-ket,  eainiiig  impnet,  or  Itip  convcrsl'in  of  a  piirlkiii  uf  tlie 
at  i<iiit(«d  ot  WBHfui  work.  Second,  hi  the  RO-caHed  friftlonal 
r»>d  to  l4>«  rnrrtjon  of  tlie  water  by  tlK^  wHt^-dtnirfncen  of  th;- 
IK  also  ttie  conversioii  of  a  ix>rtion  of  tUv  Micrpy  into  lieat 
ful  work.  Tiiird,  in  Ihe  ■velocity  nf  the  water,  a-s  it  leaves  the 
BntinK  eiwrgy  wtiic4i  bas  not  be<ni  eonvewed  into  work, 
ikiiifc  a  hieli  efflflenij ;  I.  The  biiclcpt-txirfm*  at  the  entrance 
iroxiaiately  'XinlU-l  tot}ie  relative  oourH*  i if  the  Jet,  and 
MM  be  ciirwt  lu  tiicli 
t  avoid  «harp  ivngiilnr  rje- 
*tream.  If,  for  exAmi>le. 
I  snrfttoen' tin  angle  anil 
8<*'e<l.  a  portion  of  tti« 
fl.tli^  sriKxithiiess  of  tbe 
lsrb«d,  und  lh"re  resulls 
iwa  iiy  inipfici  ami  othrr- 
hrnnce  antt  drtleclion  hi 
tket  are  Koch  a«  to  avoid 

Vhemahi.    (SeeFiR.  J«.)  ^     .      ^ 

ter  of  tmcketa  •lioiild  be  mrmll,  and  the  path  of  the  J«>t  Bi  Ine 
In  other  word*,  the  total  wetted  surface  shoiikl  be  small,  us 
jtion  will  lie  profiortional  to  tlii«. 

etid  of  the  InicUet  should  be  as  nearly  tangential  to  the 

(.onipiitlble  with  the  elearanoe  «f  the  iMtcket  which 

.iflferenees  of  veloiHly  in  the  parts  of  t4«!  eseapinif  water 

_    III  order  to  bring  tlie  wotwr  lo  Test,  at  the  liiseharge  end 

Is  tiiowii.  nvatheiiialiiuilly,  riiat  Oie  velocity  of  tJ»«  bucket 

f  tbe  »eloclty  of  tlie  j(3t. 

M«hown  in  Kig  135.  will  cause  the  heBping  of  more  or  less 

deail  or  turbiileiit  waier  at  tlie  noiut  ludicated  by  dark 

■hadiup.    Tliis  <le«d  water  is  FubiiequeJitiy  litroKii  from 

hrel  with  oousltUirable  velociiy,  «ind  ropeeatiots  a 

Jo>-s  of  eBeiT5^-.     T4ie  iiitiiodiiclrioii  of  tile  Wed)re  iU 

tltou  bucket  (see  Fift.  13<)  is  jm  efBoieift  mvaoeof 

JK^t^is  l""*. 

A  wheel  rif  vh«  forra  of  ibe  Peltoii  euuformi dloaely  Ilk 
<)on!itrtirtl">n  toeadi  of  tliew  refinire+iK-Kts. 

lu  a  te>i  niaidv  by  the  i.i  m  ri.i  .r«of  ihefd«*io  laitae, 

»eftrOr»eBTBn»'y,  tJal..  ■  -.n!  tmd  Tenulls  were 

at  (olli»v«  :  Xahi  kMp],  :  .  ^liaiiieler.  ffiKKl  ft, 

,-of  8S»Wf-e»t  »bove<?eTin>      i  Tlie  luss  by  fHeiion 

,8fL,  rwfluciiic:  thttefTeolive  li,-a.il  t..  am. J  ft.    Tlie  IVIIon 

be  1  BtMii-  li  ft.  in  diaineler  anfl  theiniMle  »un  ].R9in. 

Ic  villi;,.  M;m  inr-afinred  -liv  a.  I'rotry  tirak^,  »nrf  the  muMi 

.■tof»*7a<. 

:  vH  a  loolor  far  .suiitll  jiowwu.    A  l«8l  bf 
M  ilh  .'1  3i  iin-li  iu,7y.W.  uiuli-r  I""  Ibx  i nv.sKiii-e, 


Fic.  184. 


Fio.  135. 


E-dltTe 


bert  W.  fitahl,  U.  8.  N.  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xtli.  t^),  gives  llie  foUowIn 
lalBuiK]  talile.  ba«ed  upon  n  iheorrticiil  iliKi:iiiiKi<>ii  of  wave  motion: 
tm  tolol  enrrtry  of  one  whole  wave-li-npUi  of  u.  wnve  H  ff ft  lliKtl,  L  tvtt 
;  and  one  foot  in  breadth,  the  length  Iwine  the  distance  Iwtween  Buoo 
cresu,  and  the  height  the  vertical  distance  between  the  oreat  Mid 

ICh,li  K=  6Lm  (l  -  4.935  ~)  foot-ponuds 


la  time  required  for  eacb  irave  to  travel  through 

.i*i>,th;.^=^^-4 


diitaoce  e<iual  i.o  In 
secoada,  and  the  number  of  wave 


i 


WATEE-l'OWER. 


the  I 


(rl»eii  point  in  one  minute  is  H  =  —  =  00  j/  ^-j^.    Heooe 

of  an  iiidefloite  serim  of  Hiich  waves,  exiireseed  in  hor«»-iiovcr  ] 
breodtti,  is 


^feti 


SiWOO 


']r  Ru)>sttttit|iig  various  values  for  fi  -*-  L,  wlihin  the  limit*  of  i 
ually  occuiTiiiB  iu  nature,  -we  obtalu  the  followliiK  t»t>le  of 

Total  Ensbbv  uf  Pkep-ska  Wavks  ur  Terms  t>K  Hoiu<B-i^wn  I 
o7  Breadth. 


-Batio  ot 
fceogtliof 
■fares  t« 
WelKlic  of 
Waves. 

Leogtli  of  Waves  in  Ft>et. 

« 

eo 

75 
.64 

too           ISO 

iiOO 

PO0 

SO 

.0( 

.93 

1.81  '      8.(» 

7.48 

80.4 

40 

.06 

.36 

1.00 

805 

$.05 

11. »9 

Ut.J 

80 

.12 

M 

1  77 

8.64 

10.02 

80.57 

M7 

» 

.45 

1.44 

3.06 

8.13 

81  ^9 

45.IM 

a; 

» 

.43 

•J.R8 

6.97 

14. SI 

SS.44 

».»4 

ita.c 

1» 

.RS 

fi.53 

15  8i 

31  28 

86.88 

irr.oi) 

487n 

6 

a.ao 

18.S8 

61  48 

105.08 

291.80 

597.79 

iii4r.:.l 

The  ni;ni-es  are  oorrect  for  trochoiilal  deep^swt  waves  only,  bm  t 
H  close  HpproxiiimtioD  for  auy  nearly  rpcular  series  of  wik»e«  » "!■ 
nnil  u  rniiHppi'oxJuiRtloii  for  wavts  ui  slinllow  wal^r. 
Tlie   qufStiriii  of  tlie  nruclfcal  utilizatlou  of  tli«  enerKjr  •lllcJ)  i 
niiu  waves  rilvides  Itself  into  several  part« : 
1.  The  various  uiotiona  of  llio  water  wliidi  may  be  utiUced 
|rpo$e9i, 

Tlie  wave  motor  pivper.    Tliiit  is,  thw  portion     '    ' 
Utact  with  tile  Mater,  and  ri-ceivliiK  and  trnnsn, 
ellier  with  tlie  luecliauisiu  for  traiiiiiniuinjc  tlin 
'  ntiliziuK  llie  same. 
'...  Uegulalirig  devioea,  for  obtainlne  a  uniform  motion  from  Uv 
and  more  or  le«s  spasmodic  action  of  the  waves,  as  wrll  ft?  for  adjr 
ttp]iaralii!i  to  ilie  state  of  the  tide  and  oondiiltin  r>r  '' 

4.  Sioraee  arranKemKnts  for  iusuriuft  a  conitnn  m 

po\vt.>r  duiiitu  u- caliu.  or  vvbeu  tilt*  waves  are  eoiiii  i'tl- 

Tiii^  motions  tliat  mav  iie  iitUi/x^il  for  fM'vwer  pur; 
1.   Vertical  rise  and  fall  of  mrticles  ni  and  near  III. 
lAMtiid-fro  motion  of  parliutiM  ut  and  near  the  surf  ;i 
irfaco  of  wave.    4.  Impetus  of  waves  rolling  up 
takers.     5.  Motion  of  jisturted  verlit^ls.    All  of 
1  on«  nii-ntinned,  have  at  various  liiues  lieeii  \. 
Iwer  purposes;  anil  the  last  is  proposed  to  lie  ns''ii  in  .ti  inr 
1  Mr.  Stiihl. 

The  molloii  of  distorted  verlio«l>i  In  lhii«  dt»fln«1'   \  «et  of  p«rtii 
Illy  ill  Ilie  Name  vertioiil -■         ■     "  ■  •  ,- 

ttinin  In  a  vertical  lin*'  ■!: 
I'lldp-  a  v**!  of  «(if.h    I 


to  the  beU«(  that  »• 


PUMUS   AirU   PUMPING   ENOIlsES. 


6()i1 


\ol  lh«  SriiiH,  it  U  proposed  lo  conBtriict  \aruo  baxlDR,  by  niea.1111 
le  power  Bvailabln  rroiti  the  ri*e  nud  ftill  of  tlip  ttde  c  onld  be  iiiiL 
BelliCMl  proposed  is  to  hn»'e  t»o  buslus  wfiarated  bv  «.  Imulc  rising. 
,_..  waif  r,  willilu  «hli-h  turbines  would  be  pl.-icpd  TDe  llpl^ei'  l)n.<ln 
t>ein  ci'inmuiilcatioD  with  the  ^a  diiriiiK  ihc  liislicr  out.-  lliliM  of  ihe 
aiice.  ibiiiig,  and  llie  lower  basin  dmluB  the  luwei' oue  Ihiid  of  Ihc 
ing^.  fulling.  If  //  bo  the  range  lii  feet,  the  level  In  tjie  iiiniw 
woulil  never  fall  lidow  %II  iijcnsiii<-d  from  low  water,  mid  tin 
«  ihe  lower  basin  would  never  rl«j  above  lilJ.  The  avullable  lieni 
reen  O.h'MI  and  0  9011.  the  menu  vidue  b^'Tug  y^H.  If  S  square  feel 
fif  the  lower  busiii,  and  the  above  conditions  are  fiilltlled. « 
SB  fu.  ft.  of  water  Ls  delivered  tlirong-li  I  In-  llirbines  iu  the -space 
„  Tbe  nieAH  flow  is.  therefore,  SH  ■+-  B»,!HX)  cu.  ft.  per  Hee  .  hikI. 
ftU  bring  WI,  Ihe  available  gross hoi-Re-jJOwer  iai  about  1,  'MtS'll'. 
J  meASUred  in  acres.  This  niighi  be  increased  by  about  one  tlilnl 
_Jloii  of  level  in  the  baRlns  amounting  to  Wff  were  perrniltfil.  But 
ch  thlK  end  tlie  number  of  turbines  would  hare  to  be  doubled,  the 
head  being  reduced  to  %fT.  and  it  would  Ih>  moredifllcult  10  transmll 
t&ot  power  from  the  turbines.  The  turbine  propoged  is  of  an  improved 
(JesiKiieii  to  utilize  a  larpe  How  with  a  moilemte  dinnietir.  One  ha-s 
leaigDt>d  to  produce  3O0  liorse-power,  with  a  minimum  head  of  5  tl.  3 
a  speed  of  15  revolutions  per  minute,  the  vanes  having  13  ft.  internal 
Mt.    The  speed  would  be  maintained  constant  by  regulating  sluice 


*r 

m 


PUMPS   AND  PUMPING  ENGINES. 


14 


.OOWAdV; 


eorellcal    CHpacllr  of  a  Pnn»p,-Let  t^  =  cu.  ft.  per  m  n 
Auii-r.  (jrtlR.    iM-r  uiin.  =  T.IBO'i'/;  d  =  diani.  of  pump  in  inches;  J 
(1  111  Indies ;  y=  immber  of  single  Btrokesxier  mill. 

Cl^jacily  in  CU.  ft-  P«r  mill.  =  *'  =  j    "^  '  is  =  .00(MM5Af«P/i 

^■pacity  In  (fals.  per  hour   =.'.'(Mifrf«l. 

BKXer  required    for  *U  =  46.9i/51  =  17.15 i/^-. 
^»en  capacity  iHjrmln.  ('      '"-'y    yi  y  yi 

»B ptotOD  gpeed  In  feet  per  mlo.,  <t  =  IS.Sli/  "    =  4.95 i/    - 

Ihe  piston  speed  Is  100  feet  pec  mln.: 

m  =  laoo,  and  d  =  1.SB4  V  V  =..41»  »'ff';    6'  =  4.08d»  per  niiu. 

e  ftctiial  capacity  will  he  from  6W  to  95:tof  the  theoretical,  uccordinu  l^ 
iKhlni'fls  (rf  the  "]iiHloii,  Vnlves,  auctlon-pipe,  etc. 

keoretlcal  tlorme'po-w^r  required  to  ralae   W«ter  to) 

(■  Height.— llorse-power  = 

nia  in  cu.  ft.  per  min.  X  pressure  per  8q.  ft.  _  Weight  x  helitbt  of  lift  J 
38,000  ~  88,000 

=  cu  ft.  tiermin.;  O'  =  fralii.per  mln.;  W  =  wt.  In  Ibs.t  P=  pi-essiM 
ft  ;  p  =  pressure  In  llis.  per  sq.  In.;  H  =  height  of  lift  In 


O'  =  frala.  per  mln 
a.  per  u.  ft  :  i>  =  pressure  In  Ihs.  per 

tii.»Q',  p=  w4p,p  =  A'd»n,  u  =  iatxjj*,  Q'  =  7.mi(j- 


HP  = 


Q'P   _  Q-ir  y  U4  y  4Jt»  _  Q'H  _    (t'H 


M,000 


"Mxtoo 


Sin -J     wim. 


H?  = 


WB        Q'  X  6S  an  X  8.3(»p  _    l^p 


33,000 


3S,000 


«J0. 


1714,5' 


}  liomepdirer  reqiiliv-l  an  allowance  nmat 
of  eagtiif,  pump,  vafve-s,  and  passages. 


602 


WATBft-POWEB. 


Deptli  of  Snetlou.— Theoretically  a  perfect  ixiniu  hIII 
from  a  lieiglit  "f  uearlv  31  feet,  or  the  height  eorr. 
vauimin  (1 1."  Ihs.  X  v'.OT  =  33.93  feet  i: but  since  a  ji. 
abtahii^d,  on  account  of  valve-leukttge.  air  cuntaiut 
vapor  of  the  water  itself,  the  actual  height  is  getu  ijl 

wiitfii  the  water  is  warm  the  height  to  which  it  can  -ad 

creases,  on  account  of  the  liicreaKed  [irrssure  of  the  v 
water,  tliercfore.  the  water  must  flow  into  tlie  pump  iiy  graiitT.  ] 
lowing  table  Hhows  the  theoretical  maxiiuuiii  depth  of  guctioo  tar^ 
temperatures,  leakage  not  considered: 


Temp. 
F. 


I 


im.4 

133.4 
t«2.5 
170.8 

m.o 


Absolute 

Pressure 

ofVupor, 

Ihs.  per 

sq.  lu. 


Vacuum 

in 
Inches  of 
Mercury, 


S7.88 

a.85 

33.81 
SJ.77 

19. T4 
17.70 
1&.66 


Max. 

t>epth 

of 

Suction, 

feet. 


81.6 
29. S 
37.0 

24.7 
52  4 

soil 

17.8 


Temp. 
F. 


Absolute  Y 
Pressure         Tri 
of  Vapor.  ,„„,"' 
Ihs.  per    ^Sii'i:! 
8q.  m. 


188  0 
188.4 
193  S 
197.8 
SOl  9 
906.8 

aoB.a 


R 

9 

10 

n 

12 
18 
14 


Amouut  of  Water  raised  by  a  8toi;Ie'-a«tln8 

— It   is  cinnmon    to   eKtiniato   tliat    the  quantity  of    wuier 
ainple-actinc  hucket-valve  pump  per  minute  is  equal   to  thd 
strokes  In  one  direction  |)er  minute,  uiuliiplied  by  the  »nlimn>f 
the  piston  in  a  single  stroke,  on  the  theory  that  tin-  ■■ 
only  when  the  piston  or  bucket  a.<>cend!<;  Init  lh«  fn 
water  does  not  cease  flowing  when  the  bucket  desi  . 
linuously  through  the  valve  In  the  bucket,  so  that  tiit-  iii^ti* 
pump,  if  it  Is  operated  at  a  hl)fh  speed,  may  ainount  to  nearly  4 
calculated  from  the  displacement  multiplied  by  the  Dumber  of  i' 
in  one  direction. 

Proportloulng   tfae   Stcaiu-cfllnder   of   a    Dlrr«l-t 
Pump.— Ijet 

A  =  area  of  stcara-cylinder;  o  =  area  of  pi, 

D  =  diameter  of  Bteara-cylinder;      d  =  diamel^i 

P=  Kteani-pressure,  Ibs.'persq.  in.;»  =  reisistaiic. 

B  =  he«d  =  a.309p;  p  =  .4*5//; 

_        _  ,  ,  ,,  work  done  iu  punip-cylllid 

E  =  efficiency  of  the  pump  = t—. ■    ..    '—- — = 

"^  work  done  bythe  jitemii-cyl 


.4  = 


"P. 

Bi'' 


EAP 


;n-V^-.  .-y^'--.  .= 


H=  9.aoaRP -;    If  £•  =  TW.  «  =  Ij 


A         p^        .438g, 
a"  KP~    JCF  ' 
K IR  commonly  taken  at  0.7  to  0.8  for  ordinary  direct-act Iuk  l 
the  hiitheat  clavs  of  piuupine-enplneK  it  may  amount  in  II U, 
pressure  Pisi  the  mean  enective  p" 
Kraiii;  the  wnt>'r  presKure  p  is  th' 
plunder  or  piston,  iiiclmline  the  »•; 

diazrrHtn  of  the  water-cylinder.     Ih.   |.ir.^-.ii.   ..,-   i-uij 

nMenllr  mucli  irreater  than  that  due  to  the  lieiKht  of  ili«  J 
ttie  friction  of  the  valves  and  i)as.sagea,  wliich  liicre«»rsi 
of  flow 

Speed   of  Water  tlkrougb    Ptpea  and    >*linip«| 
The  ffifnl  of  the  nater  I*  c i\iiuu)n\5  tt<m\  \vM  v^. •^w  t^ei  t«r  maiaai 
,  /eet  iHfr  miuute  fg  eiceeded,  the  Uwa  trvimVrV'-"  •"  "...    ■  ■ 

iTii*  dUunPtrr  ot  pipe  rrqu\rert  Is  *M>y   ^. 


PL'ilPS. 


GOS 


tor  I>ircot*actlne  Pumps.— Tbe  two  fol louring  tables  are  le- 

[   iiiaiiufaL-liirera,  as  representing  tlie  two  common 
iinip,    vl».,    the  sinple-cyliiiili-r  and  the  diiplei. 
!•' by  mimt  of  the  liindiiip  riiaiiufttclurers.  ^^ 

Tlie  D(>an<«  0irect*acllae  Pump.  ^M 

Standard  Sizes  pok  Oiidikart  SEnviCK,  ^H 


■ 

•g- 

5 

o 

is 

tiiute. 

Cttpacity 

s 

B 

3 
CD 

a 

1 

^^H 

H 

tt 

S 

per  HiDUte 

2» 

§S 

lo. 

o 

I 

1 

i 

K 
1 

at  QlTen 
Speed. 

^1 

CO 

It 

^0. 

1 

o 

w 

a 
5 

•a 

e 

Stka. 

Gals. 

n 

1 

a 

1 

00 

2 

■ly 

5 

.14 

itoaoo 

130 

18 

33 

M 

1^ 

^ 

~^ 

^B 

6 

.iT 

1  toiiOO 

130 

35 

33 

iJ 

i 

'H 

^^v 

• 

.30 

1  toSOO 

125 

40 

^ 

18 

i2 

i' 

a 

2*6 

^H 

« 

.51 

ltoS75 

12S 

04 

IS 

H 

3 

3  « 

^B| 

t 

T2 

110  97B 

ISffi 

!» 

45^ 

15 

3 

41 

^V 

10 

1.64 

1  to  250 

no 

180 

58 

17 

\' 

^W 

5 

4 

Hu 

10 

1.91 

1  to  850 

110 

210 

58 

17 

1m 

S 

4 

^a 

10 

a. 17 

1  to  250 

110 

23!) 

58 

17 

IVd 

B 

4 

< 

1« 

1.4T 

1  to  350 

100 

117 

67 

30« 

i3 

4 

4 

7 

13 

S  00 

1  to  250 

lOO 

200 

67 

aojn 

ji2 

6 

4 

8 

13 

S.Gl 

Ito  SSO 

100 

361 

68 

so 

ji2 

S 

B 

IP 

12 

4.06 

1  to  350 

100 

408 

68 

SOM 

jL? 

8 

8 

■fr 

)3 

2.61 

1  1O3S0 

100 

361 

80^ 

1^ 

s 

6 

B 

^K 

W 

4.0» 

1  toaso 

100 

408 

^ 

90 

q 

8 

8 

^H 

IS 

5.87 

1  toSTiO 

100 

587 

80 

JXA 

2 

8 

e 

^Hl 

IS 

4. OB 

1  10  460 

100 

408 

64 

84 

2 

gu 

6 

8 

1^ 

18 

8.12 

1  to  300 

70 

429 

em 

30 

S 

^TS 

S 

8 

n 

la 

5.87 

1  (0  350 

100 

587 

64 

^ 

2 

Sife 

8 

8 

K 

18 

B.80 

1  to17B 

70 

ei6 

88 

2 

£U 

8 

8 

u 

18 

li.OO 

1  to  17B 

70 

840 

88 

2SH 

8 

gL 

8 

8 

w 

1« 

4.(18 

1  to  250 

100 

408 

60 

80 

2 

2V 

8 

B 

w 

18 

B.ia 

I  to  175 

70 

428 

83 

25 

i 

S>L 

8 

8 

10 

SI 

8.10 

1  (0  150 

50 

406 

112 

26 

2 

2J^' 

8 

8 

u 

12 

5  87 

1  to  350 

1UU 

5S7 

69 

ao 

£ 

gii! 

8 

8 

u 

18 

8.80 

1  to  175 

70 

816 

88 

S8J4 

8 

SL 

8 

8 

ti 

M 

11.75 

1  to  150 

50 

587 

112 

28 

8 

s^ 

10 

8 

u 

94 

15.08 

1  to  160 

50 

800 

112 

34 

S 

12 

10 

le 

IS 

18.*! 

1  to  17S 

80 

1114 

84 

34 

3 

2lo 

12 

10 

18 

■H 

a0  8S 

1  to  150 

50 

1014 

lis 

38 

3 

24* 

12 

10 

M 

Id 

la.oo 

1  to  175 

70 

810 

«9 

27 

to 

SH 

8 

8 

M 

a 

15.00 

1  to  150 

50 

fiOO 

109 

SI 

S 

12 

10 

1* 

Id 

18  02 

1  to  176 

BO 

1114 

85 

S4 

2 

SU 

12 

10 

» 

SI 

30.88 

1  to  150 

50 

](M( 

115 

34 

2 

^H 

12 

10 

IS 

21 

tW  43 

1  to  125 

50 

Ua 

115 

40 

2 

SHi 

14 

18 

t« 

■n 

30. 8H 

1  to  125 

50 

Km 

118 

38 

3 

3H 

12 

10 

18 

n 

1W.43 

1  to  125 

50 

13a! 

UK 

40 

3 

au 

14 

18 

•a 

3;!. Ill 

1  to  VJ5 

5(1 

iiaa 

118 

40 

3 

IS 

14 

^^L 

u 

vo.4y 

1  to  125 

511 

13-Jtf 

lie 

40 

8 

M6 

14 

IS 

^H 

84 

ifc.'.G4 

1  to  126 

50 

ICfti 

118 

40 

8 

8m 

10 

14 

1 

Si 

L 

S9.B0 

1  tolas 

50 

1075 

VM 

40 

8 

m 

.8 

•k 

BnfT  ofSmall  DIrccl-actiuK  Pnmpa.— Clioa.  E.  Eraer]^| 

"  '  "  -  <'f  I'liilttjflphia  ExlilliiiHiii,  iKti,  Uro\ip  .XX.,  says  :  "JJ 
111  .it<-aiii-iraiiips  at  tlir  American  Inglimte  Exliil>ltioii( 
•  •r«:;'>  siju-d  nu-jim  iiumps  do  not,  oti  llu<  avertiRtt,  \\\iH 

I  SO  J  '  ''ei'iJifM  l,^ii  fu^nvr  li,  the  steam- cyniultrs,\\\o1 

'  '/Jt"  '^''"'!"'"  of  "'f  engiut?,  but  morv.  uartlcxdr 

—t.,,  '"''•^'"unibetntmp.    Again,  all  ori;"       — 


604 


WATEE-POWEB. 


wb«n  tfan  steftm  it  aceidentmlly  low;  hence  as  racfa  pnnipi^ 

«|l>inst  the  atmospheric  pressure,  tlie  oet  ot 

nnall  peruenta)^  of  tbe  total  pressure,  wtii< 

radiating  surf  aee  exposed  and  Dm  Ci>tal  abaei, 

expetiiliture  of  steam  veiy  larcB.    Ouu  pump 

wejcht  of  .steam  por  Imlirateil  iioisf-power  jibi 

the  C'<st.  will  raif  ly  fall  l^low  60  iKuiiids  ;  ariJ  n  - 

dicated  power  Is  lir  itized.it  may  besflfi-ly  state' i  rii.ii  ..rinaf^ 

rarrly  require  less  tliun  IW  puiinds  of  steam  per  hour  for  «icli  1 

utilized  in  raising  wuivr,  eqiiivaJeiil  to  a  duty  of  only  ;.'S.C>iX),COO  I 

per  100  pounds  of  coal.     WIUi  larger  Hleaai-puaips,  parliiiils.rl]fl 

ate  proportioned  fur  Iho  worlc  to  be  done,  the  duty  will  l>v 

creased," 

Tbe  WorthtuKtou  Duplex  PuBip. 

Stanoaru  Sizes  roa  Oruimarv  Sckvick. 


a  .:; 


St 


Vi 

(ti^ 

lH 

fM 

m 

mt 

SU 

mr 

f^L 

n 

m 

u 

w\,< 

ifl 

101- 

IHH 

lOli 

Sil 

Wh 

14 

ISi 

lt> 

la 

isH 

lit 

JO 

13 

i«H 

II 

:» 

U 

b 

h 

=  be 

O  B 

=  3 

=t 

J4 

1 

ti  0 

? 

S5 

JB 

1^' 

4 

a 

S 

3 

.01 

4 

.10 

5 

.so 

« 

.39 

<i 

.49 

<1 

.51 

10 

,69 

10 

.m 

10 

i.'a 

10 

1,(10 

10 

1.60 

10 

1,M 

10 

y,4.% 

10 

a. 45 

10 

2.45 

10 

a.45 

10 

3,45 

10 

l).67 

10 

.1.57 

10 

3.S7 

10 

n.f.7 

10 

,•1,57 

10 

4.A0 

10 

•1,89 

10 

4.89 

10 

4,89 

10 

6.60 

to 

6,68 

l.t 

r.,10 

9  US 

act 


*.=  » 


S?J 


100  to  ■»» 
100  to  '.'00 
100  to  200 
100  to  150 
100  to  l.SO 
100  to  IW 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  I'JS 
75  to  1.H5 
75  to  1 25 
75  to  135 
75  to  13S 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
73  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
n  to  135 
7i  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 
75  to  135 

75  to  l■.■^ 

75  to  133 
.■Ul  til  llM' 


8  to  90[ 
aOto  40' 
4<t  to     8ti; 

70  to    100* 

85  to  Via, 

Kioto  150 

100  to  170 

135  to  330 

ISO  to  SOI) 

!45to  410 

345  to  410 

Sin  lo  410> 

3t!5  10  6I0' 

365  to  610] 

3fi.'i  to  810 

805  to  6II)| 

8(!5  tA  r-.:i) 

53P  I 

5»i  I 
53(1  l„ 

^!lot,    -  .' 

730  I. J  ;  ja) 
7:«)  to  1230, 

780  lo  lino, 

Till  I..  I5--'i) 


&itf  otl 
Short] 
To  he  In 
IniRtta  la 


£ 


PUHPS. 


605 


ft  PI«lon.— A  piston  speed  of  ]00  teet  per  mlnnto  Is  comnionly 

I  net ii.ti.  but   for  sliikrt'Slroke   piiin|m  this  pivfr^  too 
II.  n-quirintf  too  rieqiifnt  a  rt-v<'rs«l  .if  the  vrIvbh. 
nk  '.'  ffti  aiiJ  upwnrii,  iliis  t-peeil  mnv  In*  ii)n»i<1i'r«bty 

.  If  s'Aivcii  Ait'l  pasfinj^t-a  are  t>f  ample  anfH, 

__    or  strokes   required  to   Attain  m.  FUton 
tin  50  to  1 25  Feet  per  Tllliiutc  for  Piiiitpi*  liavlnt; 
Strokes  flroin  3  to  18  Inrhea  in  Ei«ncth. 


Length  of  Stroke  in  Indies. 


ili'rmbl^ 


8 


10 


1« 


IS 


Numh<>r  of  Strokes  per  Minute. 


Ijl 


soo 

150 

ISO 

100 

Kt 

76 

00 

50 

40 

3S0 

IfiS 

ISS 

no 

94 

6S.5 

flO 

fifi 

44 

840 

180 

144 

ISO 

ina 

to 

78 

fiO 

48 

360 

IftS 

158 

ISO 

111 

l»7.5 

7« 

<5 

68 

SSO 

aiO 

168 

140 

lao 

108 

84 

70 

58 

■•JVI 

a2r> 

180 

150 

128 

IIS.B 

DO 

7.'i 

60 

J<l 

240 

19d 

IflO 

137 

ISO 

96 

80 

H 

.III 

255 

ao4 

no 

116 

187.5 

108 

«5 

08 

1       itn) 

8ro 

SI« 

180 

154 

185 

108 

90 

n 

380 

S89 

H8 

1»U 

163 

14:!.n 

114 

ge 

78 

400 

aoo 

a40 

am 

171 

150 

120 

100 

80 

4^0 

str, 

ssa 

210 

ISO 

187. S 

liW 

100 

84 

440 

330 

swi 

!W0 

188 

m 

1.12 

JIO 

68 

4(M 

S45 

am 

•230 

197 

ires 

138 

115 

93 

4M) 

800 

2H« 

•J-IO 

axi 

160 

144 

IJO 

9(i 

Stiti 

875 

300 

350 

211 

187.5 

150 

lis 

100 

83 
87 
40 
43 
47 
SO 
83 
67 
60 
03 
87 
7(1 
73 
77 
80 
83 


*titt< 


«f<<>if4  of  PampIug-euelneM.  (Jubn  Birkinhiiit!,  Trans, 
-lu  dealing  with  sueli  u  poiidfrnus  and  un.vieldiuR  sub- 
iBare   iiiaiiy  ditflciiltit-ii  In  ovei-coiiie  In  iiiakioe:  a  pump 

,  ^  ..._..  puton  apptjii.    Tlie  nttainineut  of  nio<lt'rut«ly  litgh  spe«d 

Unwuvpr.  en^is  acconiplislied.  Well-proporlioneU  pumpinB-erinliies  of 
Ipe  capacity,  provided  witii  ample  wAtj-r-wajs  and  properly  coast ruolecl 
*^««.  are  operated  siieeeanf ullj-  BRiiinsl  heavy  prt'S.sures  at  a  Hpewl  of  250  ft. 
minute,  wlllioui  •'tl>ii(r."  c-oncii.-islon.  or  injuiy  to  the  apparatus,  and 
rel»iio  doubt  that  the  K|i(«fd  can  he  Riill  furiher  increannd. 
Ipecd  of  Vrater  tliroogli  Valves,— If  area*  through  valves  and 
lor  (rtusaices  art*  HufBeieiit  lo  tiivo  a  vrhH'iiy  of  2.^0  ft.  per  min.  or  \ess, 
9r  are  ample.  The  vratur  ttUiiuld  be  earefiillvViilded  and  not  too  abruptly 
r<vi.-,l      ,F.  W.  l)(?an.  Bng.  Kent,  Aug.  10,  ISDS.i 

■opd  Paiupa. — Prni'iice  has  shown  that  100  ft.  of  piston  speed 
Ihr*  limit,  il"  •excessive  wear  and  tear  is  to  be  avoided. 

■.• lyof   water  through  the  Biictlon-pipe  inu.st  not  exceed  200  ft. 

UDluutf..  five  the  real»tauoe  of  Ihi)  suallon  Is  too  j^reat. 

Bk  approximate  sixe  of  suetJnn-plpe.  where  the  lenf^lh  does  not  exceed 

■kanil  cherr-  are  not  imire  thnn  two  i-ll)o«>,  may  be  found  a*  follows  : 

t'Wot  ihe  diameter  of  the  cylinder  niiilllpllcrt  by  I/IOO  of  the  piston  spe«d 

f»et.    For  duplex    p\imp»  of  small  bIz.p.  ii  pipe  one  Bixe  largi-r  is  usually 

nV'if.vt'.i      Th.-  v»^loclty  of  flow  in  the  d1nchar)tf-pipe  should   not  exceed 

The  volume  of   discharge  and  lentfth  of  pipe  vnry  so 

I   iiiHtallations  that  where  the  wnler  is  m  be  foioed  more 

■  •t  diKCliarge-pIpe  shonld  be  calculated  for  Die  particular 

■K  no  greater  vLuity  lliaii  5(W  ft,  per  ndmite.    The  slateof 

oalcolated  in  pinirle  iM-lmder  pumps  from  -SO  to  400  ft.  per 

velocity  is  permitte.l  In  the  Inrper  pipes. 

the  proper  sizr-  of  pump  for  a  steam  boiler,  allowances 

n  supply  of  water  --iifTIi-'leut  to  cover  all  ihp  <letnaiidR  of> 

illnpr,  etc..  up  to  the  capacity  of  generator,  and  Hhoiild  not 

i.ly  aecorriiiii;  to  the  nqiilreriieiils  of  the  en^jliie,    in  proc- 

li  the  way  from  la  up  to  M,  or  more.  pouiidP  of  stenni  per 

."U   beliiiir  worked  up  to  catiaclty,     Wlieii  »n  el]!  " 

■jr  utirU-rliiadeJ  more  water  per  H.H.  will  he  reqiiU) 

'  at  Its  rated  cnptteity.     The  AVeiiige   run   uf  UolT 


GOG 


WATER- POWBE. 


boUen  wUl  eva.pormt«  from  Hot  lb*,  of  w»tctr  per  «q.  ft,  o(lie«tfat«i>< 
p«r  hour,  but  luay  be  driven  up  to  6  lbs.  tf  the  grmte-giuface  ia  too  IM 

U)«  drmuKlil  ton  Kr«*.t  for  economiod  worUnic.  1 

Pump- ValTea. -A.  F.  Sn^W  (Triiris.  A.  8.  H.  E..  x.  5:21)  irlTMftUM 
of  dt!sii;ii»  >vith  dl intensions  r.r  mc  or  Cornish  valves  used  bi  U 

pumpliiK^-BKines,  wclli  n  d(vr  ihforj'  of  their  pro|iortloiu.  j 

tollowlJig  it)  a  gimininr/ of  till  :^  of  the  Tulres  described. 

Sdhiurt  or  Valyb  PaopoanoKS. 


I 


I 


of  Eiifcine. 


Providence  ComUb' 

entrlae 

St.  Louis  W«t«rWk8. 

Milwaukee    "       " 

Chicago         "       " 


wood  seats 

OhloAt^)  Watwr  Wks 


^  » 


E5 


12 


10 
Itl 

7 

25 

1ft 

IS 

8 


I.  -  (  ^ 

- 1  ii 


i-l^Sa 


1  lb. 
reduced   to 
.66  lb. 

I.S8 
1.88 

.«) 

1.41 
l.Sl 

i.ie 


<!•  c    ■ 

a  f 

III 

^5 

=11 

1^- 

-^' 

IP 

|*.s 

i6i 

377  lb«. 

18 

flSO 

67 

sso 

88 

190 

75 

151 

8S 

140 

M 

1.12 

75 

151 

Goodi 

8oai«iu| 
j  Soineiwl 


1 


Mr.  Naele  says:  There  la  on^  TtMiture  In  whloU  th<>  Comisb  nlni 
Deoesaarily  defective,  luunely.tlie  lift  oiust  nlway»  Vie  quite  Inree,  unlMil 
power  ii  nacriflued  to  reduce  ji.  U  U  undeniabit'  ihui  a  ttiiiall  lift  if  on 
able  to  a  ^reat  one,  and  lienot;  it  naturally  leads  to  the  eubctitand 
numerous  small  valves  for  one  or  s^reral  laice  ones.  To  what  extnai 
ductiou  of  size  this  view  might  safely  lead  must  be  left  to  the  judtnM 
the  enKineer  for  the  particular  case  iu  baud,  but  c«irtaiuly,  theoretieilH 
must  adopt  small  valves.  Mr.  Corliss  at  one  time  carried  the  UhmJ 
far  as  to  make  them  only  1^  inches  In  diameter,  but  from  Stollidlj 
the  more  commnn  nrncMce  now.  A  small  vnlve  prewnts  prop<ir(loiiiiW 
larger  uurfuce  of  dijjcharee  with  the  same  lift  than  a  lai'^'ur  vftkr,  w 
whfttf'vtT  the  total  nrya.  of  valre-eieatopenlni;,  it«  full  oonH'nis  (»iib« 
i-lian;ed  with  less  lift  through  Duinerous  small  valves  tliun  with  OBsl 
on>'.  J 

Henry  R-  WorthlnKton  was  the  flrst  to  use  nuraerouR  small  nibber<1 
In  preference  to  tlio  lar^rer  metal  valves.  These  valves  work  well  fnm 
the  condliioiis  of  a  city  pumplng-en^ine.  A  volute  spring  is  geoersti^ 
ti>  limit  till"  rise  of  the  valve.  1 

In  thMljj-avilt  lilKli-iluty  sewerage- enf;ine  at  Boston  (Am.  MtirhiHiii. 
81.  IHM),  ihu  valves  are  of  rubber,  *i-inch  thick,  the  opcninp  iu  vulje 
hi'iii^  I9t^  X  4,t4  Incheii.  The  valves  have  iron  face  and  back-p' 
fiHiu  tlieir  own  hinges. 

centrifuoaij  puinps. 

Relation  of  Beight  of  ILIfK  to  V«IocltT.-The  helfsU  i 
(Wends  only  on  the  tanKeulial  velo<.-ity  of  the  circuinference,  every  U 
tiiil  velocity  ^Ivln^  a  constant  hei»;li:t  of  lift — nuinetiniea  termed  "bn 
whethiT  th«  (Hiiiiii  i,-<  small  or  laree.    The  quantity  of  water  diachsrp'ill 
proportion  to  tlie  arsaof  thu  di-^cliarKiui;  orifices  at  the  circumfeiente,* 

{iiiiporlion  to  f.hn  sqiiart^  of  the  Uianieter,  when  the  breadth  iskcptUtf* 
i.  H.  Biwl  l.^pp.  Gyc.  Mech..  ii.  606>  gives  the  following: 
Jrft  y  ri'prfs-ect  iho  quantity  of  water.  In  cubic  feet,  to  be  pii 
liilntitf,  h  the  helKtil  o£  Ruclion  \«  leeV.K'  Uw  Ueight  of  discliar;; 
1^  the  diuriinfter  of  6uctlt)«-p\ye,  is^vuA  Vo  Uv*  d^i^vnn'UKc  tt\  " 


OENTRiPUGAL  PUMl'S. 


ardingto  Fink,  d 


=  o.a»/- 


(>o: 


g  beinff  the  acceW 


§.w y    iWii^k'y 
_       Ity. 

Uon  lakes  place  on  one  side  of  the  wheel,  the  inutde  diameter  of 
I  equal  to  1  ,"^^1,  and  the  outside  to  ^Mi.  If  the  Huutiou  takets  place 
s  ox  the  wheel,  the  inside  diameter  of  thp  wheel  is  fqual  to  0.8Sd, 
Bide  to  I.7rf.  Then  the  siiction-iujif  will  have  two  branches,  the 
li  equal  to  half  the  area  of  ci.  The  suction  j>i]ie  should  be  as  short 
to  preTenl  air  from  eutedne  the  pumi>.  The  laugeniialveloeity 
r  etlg'O  of  wheel  for  the  delirery  Q  is  equal  to  1.25  Vig<h  +  V) 
a>nd. 

I  are  six  in  numher,  constructed  as  follows:  Divide  the  central 
►.  which  incloses  ihe  outer  edces  of  ihe  two  arms,  into  auy  num- 
I  partji  by  dlTldins  the  radii,  and  divide  the  breadth  of  (lie  wh«!pl 
»  manner  by  drawing  crmcentric  circles,  Tlie  interst.ttiorjs  of  the 
il  with  the  correspoudiuf;  circles  g^ive  points  of  the  artii. 
Iment*!  witli  Appold's  jiump,  a  velocity  of  circumference  of  BOO 
n.  raised  the  water  1  ft.  hi^h,  and  irtiniitalued  ii  at  that  l<^v«| 
tcbarglngf  any;  and  double  the  velocity  raised  the  water  to  four 
icil^bt,  as  the  centrifugal  force  was  proportioDate  to  tbe  wiuare 
city;  coDsequently, 

9tU  per  min.  raised  the  water    J  ft,  without  discharge. 
J     .r       .,        ..       »        »      4  .> 

B      "  "  "        •'         "      !6  "  "  " 

0  "  ' 64  " 

test  bei^ht  to  which  the  water  had  been  raised  w  Illiout  discbarRe, 
oiments  with  the  1-ft.  pump,  was  67.7  ft.,  witli  a  velocity  of  4153 
u,  beinf;  rather  lr><s  tiian  the  calculated  height,  awin)?  probably  to 
th  the  greater  pres.sure.  A  velocity  of  1 128  ft.  per  min.  raised  the 
ft.  without  any  discharge,  and  the  maximum  effect  from  Ihe 
>loyed  in  raising  to  the  ^ame  lieiKhl  .^J^  ft.  was  obtained  at  the 
^  1078  ft.  per  miu.,  k'vIijk  adischarKe  of  UtKlftals.  per  min.  from 
imp.  The  additional  velocity  required  to  effect  a  discharge  of 
mrmin.,  ihrouKh  a  l-ft.  pump  vvorkitin  at  adead  Jevel  witiout  any 
ift.  is  550  ft.  per  niin.    ['oD.'i»?qiieirtly,  aridlng  this  mniiber  in  each 

1  velocity  given  aljove,  at  which  nodt^icharKe  lal<es  place,  the  fol- 
Deities  are  obtained  for  the  iiia.ximum  effect  to  be  produced  in 

^1050  fc  per  niin..  reloclty  for    I  ft.  height  of  lift 
1950      "         i  •' 
»50      "          "            "          •'    18  ' 
4550      "          "           "          "    64  "        *'         " 
d  terms,  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  for  the  circumference 
J  be  driven,  to  raise  the  woter  to  a  certain  height,  la  equal  to 
Kbt  of  lift  in  feet. 
ce  CenlrlfnEBl   Pump*.   Claaa  B— For  Lin«   from 
IS  to  3o  ft. 


Size  of  Pipes. 


It  ion. 


Dis- 
charge. 


Kconomical 
Capacity, 
Id  ^itona 
per  min. 


ToUl 
Capacity, 
in  gailons 
per  niln. 


Horse-power 

per  Ft.  Lift, 

for  smaller 

quantity. 


1 


1 


I 

i 
I 


IXin. 
i 

8 
4 
6 
0 
8 
10 

14 

JH 
18 


SO  to 

UOto 

(Wlo 
lOOto 
aw  to 
500  to 
l.tilO  to 

i.euoto  3.000 

ii.OOOto  8,000 
3.000  to  5,000 
WOO  to    7.000 

ttowion.ooo 


» 

80 
ICO 
350 
600 
iiOO 
2,00t) 


ISO 
300 

650 

i.aw 

2,  BOO 
4.750 

r„wo 

10,000 
14,000 
16.000 

sa.ooo 


.034 
.035 
.055 
.076 
.175 

.■u 

.45 

.68 

1.00 

l.» 

A.« 


WATER-POWKB. 


Table  orDlameter*  and  Wldih  orPalleyn,  Vl«lli«l 
and  Number  of  Bevolutiona  per  ]ninut«  K4MM 
raise  minimum  Qaanllty  of  Water  to  OlflTer**!  B 
wltb  DlOiercnt  Sizes  orPninpa  orrian  B, 


St 

!i 

«a 

r'r 

Oc 

Ids. 

Ins. 

)H 

5 

« 

fl 

3 

7U, 

4 

^h 

S 

u 

S 

H 

8 

16 

ID 

18 

It! 

iS 

M 

34 

15 

S8 

19 

as 

Ins. 
5 
5 
7 
7 

n 
11 
i« 

K 

u 

14 

IS 

la 


V. 

£>.'-■ 

X±: 

-5S 

sS 

^ 

ia^ 

IHH. 

a 

•<o 

4 

6U 

0 

80 

7 

leo 

B 

331^ 

9 

5(IU 

10 

1100 

ill 

lOOU 

li 

2000 

la 

aixm 

u 

3."^ 

n 

6tKlO 

Height  ill  Fe«l  unJ  HerolDliflnspi 
MlAQte. 


c 

8 

10 

tS     16 

w 

7« 

405 

Eir. 

4:» 

47.'. 

515    560    (tt5 

im 

SMI 

4ai 

4751  &10   ft7Sl  M)l 

365   ^CA 

4«j  <:5    WTi!  SDO 

riiii'  3-.- 

.■»i    41.-.    JTV  .v«l 

■-'■' 

'1.11. 

1;K  ISOi  ]&i  175' 
li'i  145  IM  16S 
IIO'  IJO:   l«0'  )3ft    V 


lite' 


^^0   . 
210    ' 


I 


I 


EflUcienclea  of  CentrliUKal  and  Reel  p.' 

W.  O.  \V.>blier  (Trans.  A.  S.  M    K..  vi(.  BOv;  _ 
ri^IatlTB  enich'Bfles  of  centrifiiKRl »iiJ  t<H.ripr< ■  ' . 

followInK  figvires  are  takeu  for  the  different  li; 
Lift  feet: 

2      5    10    IS    aO    SS    30    35    -<0    SO    CO    80    100    iW 
Elllclencr  reoiprocHtinif  pump: 

..     .     .30  .15  .55  .61  M  .68  .71  .70  .77  .84    .86    .87 
Efficiency  cwnirirnttal  pump: 

.60  .56  M  M  .C9  .68  .6«  .02  .58  .60  .40 

The  term  efllcienoy  bere  u«cil  ludlca'- 
or  liorse-power  of  the  water  raised  ili>  i 
the  Bteaiii-eriKiiie, anil  does  Lot  lhen-f"i' 
liut  that  of  tlie  eoniblnpd  i>uinpiiad  eurinf 
way  of  showing  the  i-elntivc  valnes  of  differ 
linvine  their  iiiolive  power  forminif  a  pan  ol  w 

The  hiifhest  value  of  this  term  tiveii  (>y  Mr  \\  .l.hri .  Is  .yivi  fi-.r 
170  ft.,  anil  36l.'i  ^ols  per  inin.  This  whk  ohtaluetl  In  ■  iv»t  ot  Iki 
punipini;  enKiiit' at  I..awreliCe,  Muhs..  JuU  i4,  ltl7S. 

With  recipro<Tatitig  pumps,  for  higher  !irt^^  ihan  !'<' 
cieoole-s  full^.  and  from  200  m  :(iiO  ft.  lift   tlie  av.  : 
.W.   Below  ITW  ft.  the  enrve  als«o  falls  rever»lv  nn' 
ft.  its  denc-eut  l>ecoiiip»  more  rapid,  and   Ht 
riH'orded  perforiuftnee.     There  u re  not  any  v. 

this  lift,  liiu  some  (iKtires  nr<'  givi'u  for  111"  i 

tJ>tal  niiinber  of  Kalloiis  |>iii'  pities  in   II.'l!a]i,|   uihJjtj 

fiTjm  which  an  e/ticlertc.v  of  i  iif*diir»l. 

With  ecntr;fi];:nl  piiiDps.  <  Ni'li  ilie  niflTiiniitll 

lain-  ■  .--ly  17  fl.     .\t  ifii- 

l»r^  III  now  to  ohtntii  i 

t]-'  "  ■  '>est  di^ne  nt  :t  pu' 

The  (It II 
wepB  Oe^ 
tnlia.     f.'.h 

of   *  Cetili  llhj,-"i    Jiiiiiip  il'r\    t-ngiiii-  (.1  lltl    lO.OOJ  i;:il»    J-TJ 
K  toiia.  I 

The  piimf"!  pl.ipt-1  tw  (JwvTinr  nl  fh'  Keifarn  M.irvhi.ii,  1 


DUTY   TBIALS  OF  PUMVIHG-ENGINES. 


6001 


M,  approxlruately  m  follows:  A.  2"  pump  (this  d«iiiirontiOD  lueauinK 
the  8iz«  of  JisaLarfce-outlet  in  Inches  of  diameter),  icivloe  an  effl- 


of  3^3.  a  3"  pump  4^%,  and  a  'i"  pump  5;'^, 
lettlcluiicy. 


mni 


5"  puuip  eoA  and  a  6" 


TeMts  of  Cenlrlfusal  Pumps. 

W.  O.  Webber,  Trans.  A.  8.  SI.  E.,  ix.  337. 


An- 
drews. 

An- 
drews. 

An- 
drews. 

Heald 

Heald 

Heald 

Berlin. 

r 

Slsco. 

SiBco. 

&. 

Blsco. 

StfbwarU!- 
kopff. 

No.  0. 

No.  B. 

No.  9. 

No.  10. 

NiX  10. 

No.  10. 

No.g. 

Uacharge. 

»Wi" 

9W" 

9^" 

10" 

10" 

10" 

J)«" 
lO.J' 

■action  ... 

^i" 

9M" 

194" 

IS" 

Vi" 

U" 

disk 

W^ 

2(1'' 

2fi" 

80.6" 

3(1.5" 

80.5" 

S0.6" 

(T  minute. 

191.9 

195.5 

200  5 

].•*«. 3 

202.7 

213.7 

500 

lenniiiute 
'in  feet.. . . 

1513.13 

att3  82;S49a.33 

1 073.3- 

:J044,9 

•J371,67 

1944.8 

13.S5 

12.6i! 

I3.0H 

12.33 

1-.'.5S 

13.0 

16.44 

B.P . 

4.60 

6.  IT 

8.28 

s.-^s 

6.S1 

7.81 

IVtarH.F. 

10.09 

12.3 

14. 3S 

8.11 

10  74 

14.02 

11 

WT- 

46.53 

53.0 

Br.67 

M.5 

60.71 

55.7s! 

73.1 

IMI  of  Ceiitrlfnga]   Pump*,— For  forms  of  pump  vanea,  see 
hjF  W.  O.  WVIilier,  TraiiB,  A.  S.  .M.  K.,  Ix.  !t!8,  and  dlBcussioii  thereon 
f*.  Thurston,  Wood,  and  otliers. 
I  Centrlfngal  Pump  used   «•  a  Surtloii   Dredec.— The 

OS  cr-iMril'iiKal  piiiii|)  was  u«ed  by  Goii.  Ollliiiiw!',  U.  S.  A.,  in  1H71,  In 
ling  ibe  channel  over  the  bar  at  the  nioutli  of  the  Bt.  John's  River, 
%.  The  nuuip  wosaNo.  9,  wiUi  suction  and  disoliar^  pipes  each  B 
dimii.  It  was  driven  at  300  revolutionH  per  minute  by  belt  from  an 
dereloplDg  B6  useful  hi.vi-n»'-power. 

Mwh  VO0  r«!volutlonB  of  the  putnp  disk  per  nitnnte  villi  ensily  ralsa 
kitons  of  clear  water  lift.  hiKh,  ihrougli  a   stiniglit  verlical  flinch 
00  rerolutiriiiN  weru  required  to  raise  S^OO  i|,'alluiiii  of  fiaiid  and  water 
tilth,  through  two  inclined  auctinn -pipes  having  two  turns  eacli,  di»-J 
id  lliro'Jijh  a  pipe  liavjoff  one  turn.  1 

proponinii  of  Hand  that  ean  he  pumped  dL-petida  greatly  upon   iUl 
■  graviiy  and  fineness.    The  calcareous  and  arfrlllaceous  sandB  flow! 
freely  tlinn  the  Biliriou.s,  and  fine  sands  are  It'&s  liable  lo  choke  lliel 
ban  th'JSe  that  are  coarse.     When  working  at  hrgli  sjieed,  51^  to  5.'>?  of" 
ma  be  r»ise<l  throDRli  u.  straight  vertical  pi|ie,  Kivin^  for  every  10  cuirjio 
of  nuUerlal  disc-httrped  fi  to  Bl^  euhic  yards  of  cunipact  sand.    With 
Mittancea  used  on  thf"  St.  John'?  bar,  the  pmportion  of  .-(and  seldom 
Im -tlML  Kenerally  ranging  from  30;(  to  36^  when  working  under  th« 
MvtsMe  ooodlUonft. 

•nnpinc  'iViO  e-alliins.  or  12.6  cubic  yards  of  sand  and  wntt-r  ppr  minute, 
wo'j'  ■•  itp  obtained  from  8.7  to  4.8  cubic  janls  nf  siind.    Dur- 

»ei.r  •  ihe  work,  before  the  teeth  under  the  drair  hid  been 

»rb  tt  nid  the  flow  of  sand  into  the  pipes,  ttie  yield  woa  con- 

•My  below  ihis  average.  (From  cataJogae  of  Jos.  Edwards  &  Ck>^ 
.of  the  Andrews  Pump,  New  York.) 


a 


nST\  TKIAIiS  OF  PlTRIPrNC-ENCinBS. 


^WttC'e  of  the  A.  8.  M.  B.  (Trans.,  zli.  5:10)  reported  in  1891  on  a 
^BlDe(hod  of  conducting  duty  trinls.  lu-stt-ad  of  the  old  unit  of 
^Hot-pounds  of  work  per  lOO  lbs.  of  coal  used,  the  cnmndttee  re<^oin- 
■■bw  unit,  fu<jt-pound«  of  work  per  uiilllon  beat-uultH  furnished  by 
RBSr  The  Tariotions  in  quality  of  cool  umke  the  old  standard  unflt  as 
iiof  duty  ratinf^.  The  new  unit  is  the  precise  equivalent  of  100  lbs.  of 
ia  etses  -n-hfTP  each  {lOiind  of  ciwl  imparts  in.OtW  heat-units  to  the 
rlFit],  1- where  the  ev«poi-n.ti..iM.-;  lO.rtiO-i-iW.^.T  =  KUne  lbs.    " 

r  fri  .  :'  per  pound  of  fuel    This  eviipriraiive  rea 

ot<l.:  .     "i««of  L!ua)ber7a/i<f  Jii'dijiiinous  coul,  un 

VluhnJar '"■/'<:'/'»,  and,  ia  manjr  eaKea,  ttom  llie  bestg* 


i 

c  ' 

h 

ira       II 
b«^H 

ir- 
eu 

n-_J 

'4 


^4i. 

48. 
44. 

~     1 


WAXEB-POWBB. 


16.  Weight  of  water  Aippli«d  to  boiler  b;  main  fe«d-i 

17.  Weight  ot  urat«r  supplied  to  boiler  from  rarious  octeri 

18.  Total  weigtitof  (eed-irater  supplied  (rom  aa 

19.  Boiler  pri«iiure  indlc*l4Hl  by  gauge 

1  W).  1^-  -filed  by  KflUKe  on  ffjrce  main 

I  iU  \  lied  liy  gautfu  on  siieiion  iiiaio. 

^,  P:  icBpoiidijig  to  viu:uuiii  givcii  io  preceding  liM., 

'JS.  VvriiciU  dtiiiaiio«  betweeu  tiie  ceutres  of  tlie  two  gausoa. 

54.  Pressure  equivalent  to  distance  between  the  two  gauge*,. 

MISCCLUUrEOUa  DXTA. 

89.  Duration  of  trial 

!iC.  Total  Dumlier  of  siogle  strokes  durlni;  trial 

9r.  Percental^  of  moisture  in  steam  supplied  to  eogliio,  or  nnma 

of  degrees  of  superheating- 

a.  Total  leakage  ct  pump  during  trial,  determined  from  r«iult*^ 

leaicoge  test  

S9.  Mean  ofrectlve  pressure,  measured  from  dlacram*  taken  I 

■team  cylinders 

^FamOIPAI.  RISULTfl. 
80.  Doty 
ai.  ParcentagA  of  leakage ...> 

as.  Capacity 

as.  Percentage  or  total  friotlon 

ilDDmoNAI.  BESDI.TS. 

34.  Number  of  doulile  strokes  nf  .>itf  ain-plstou  per  tninul* 

55.  Indicated  horse- power  developed  by  the  vanoug  steam-^yS 

St.  Feed-water  coutmmed  by  the  plant  ptr  hour 

ST.  Feed-water  consumed  by  the  piaiu  per  indicated  b« 

per  hour,  corrected  for  moisture  in  steam 

38.  Number  oi  beat  units  ounsuuied  per  indicated  hor 

per  hour 

SO.  Number  ot  heat  uciis  consumed  per  indicated  horse-poi 

per  minute 

40.  Steam  aooouoted  for  by  indicator  at  cut-off  aod  raleaaa  Is  I 

Tortous  Bteam-cyllnders .... 

l4i.  Proportion  which  steam  accounted  for  by  indicator  b« 

I  ilie  feed-wQtor  consumption 

Number  of  double  strokes  of  pump  per  minute 

Mean  uBeciire  pressure,  niea-tiired  frcim  pump  iliagraroa  . 


Indicated  horse-power  exerted  In  pump-cyUndera. 

45.  Work  done  (or  duty)  |ier  100  His.  of  coal 


SAMPLK  DLkOtUiM  TAKKN   FROK  8TE  t 

(Also,  If  possible,  full  mMisureinent  of  the  dis.:  naint 

At  the  iuitlal  point,  cut  off,  release,  and  coropj>.-.a, .t..  tu 

Aud  the  proportions  of  the  stroke  completed  at  the  yari.ni*  i^'i 

SAMPLE  DIAORAX  TAKEN  TOOK  PDMr-OTU.<<  MIS 

These  are  nut  necessary  to  the  main  object,  but  It  la  da 
them. 

DATA  AND  RESULTS  OF  OOItXA  ' 

(In  accordance  with  the  scheme  recommended  by  tb* 
mittee  of  the  Society.) 

VAcriJiTf  pvmps-AiB'LiPT  rvKf. 

Tlie  Pnlaonieter.-In  the  puliometer  tlie  wat«r  I 
ato  the  pump'Cliaiiih'-i-  by  the  condensation  of  aieMtt  ^  ' 
breed  Into  tlie  delivery  pi|ie  liy  the  pressure  of  a  aew  < 


Fthe  surfivee  of  tlie  water      T»' 
lie  otlier  is 
,^t' 


ii.'unii.Ts  are  used  whleii  \ 

meter  is  dewiiiWxJ  I 


ACtrUM   PUMPS — AIR-LIFT   PUMP. 


613 


8n«l  prejwure  b'^'B*'''  place<3  on  Ixtfh  slilesof  the  ttirolile, 

•II  ami  tliermniiietiT  [ilaofd  beyoiiJ  tlni  Ihiottle.    The  wire 

irottliu^  c-HiiseJ  biiiKrliealintr. 

fiieuiii  ijwil  wpitt  coMipiKeil  from  llielnoreane  of  the  leiii 
trster  in  passliit;  tliroun^li  ihe  pump. 
II  >:  loss  of  heal  —  Fbs.  of  wnler  sucked  in  'X  iucrense  of  temp. 

I  in  a  pound  of  titeain  Ix  tbp  tola)  heAt  in  a  pound  of  i^atu- 
foiind  tnjtfi  "  stwini  lahlos  "  for  llie  xiven  pr«ssini?.  plus  Ihe 

ling,  minus  the  tcinp^ratiire  of  Ihe  chschargnl  water  ;  or 


indg  of  steam  = 


Ibt.  water  y  increase  of  leinp. 
H  -  o.m  -  T. 


V  tlie  four  tests  are  gtceu  in  the  followioK  table  : 


id  Results. 


ftute 

fpip«  liefoi-e  thmtll'g 
ta  pipe  oflfr  tlirottlV 

ter  ibrottllng.deg.F. 

'  superheat'g.defr.F. 

iet'd  from  temp., lbs. 

.lbs. 

fore  entering  pump, 

>se  of 

'gauge  on  lift,  ft 

'ICaUf?^  on  Kuetlnn... 

'Kttuge,  total  (/i) 

'  nieasirre,  total  (h\ 

»nof  plnnt  (fi)-i-(ff) 

ulsonwttT 

WliiBive  of  boiler. . 

E  Ibftt  of  boiler  be  0. 

lljorates  10  lbs. water 


Kuniber  of  T^st, 


n 

in 
19 

sro.4 
s.i 

ICIT 
404,786 
75M 
4.4T 
SlKfiO 
1S26 
43.18 

as.9 
o.rr, 
am: 

0''09S 
0,1 066, 

10,511. JUol 


fi 

3 

60 

57 

110 

UT 

30 

43.8 

2T7 

30U0 

8.4 

17.4 

931 

1»I8 

186  863 

228,4«5 

S0.8 

T8.3 

5.5 

7.49 

fiJ.OO 

64.05 

13  eo 

19.67 

tw.si 

78.72 

ST.flO 

eo.G 

0,87* 

0.911 

o.ni.Vi 

O.OlSfl 

O.0I3B 

0.0115 

O.OOUA 

0  11080 

13.301.000 

11.059.000 

64 

104.3 
UG.l 
270.1 
1.4 
lOlfl.9 
SIR.  053 
70.SS^ 
4..'fl  . 
39.00' 
19.87 
49  57 
41.00 
0  639 
0  0138 
0  0116 

o.ooai 

13,036,300 


Xs  having  the  bitrheat  lift  (54.05  ft.),  tliat  was  more  efllcient 

smaller  suctl>in  iVi.'X  ft, ).  and  this  was  also  the  moBt  elDdent 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  ilie  otlier  two  tests  havinf;  the 

^f t  ),  that  was  th*-  more  efJlclHiit  whiuli  liad  the  g^realer  biuMIou 

'  DO  l»w  in  tills  regard  was  estialiJislied,     The  pressures  iiited, 

,,  follow  llie  Older  of  mugiiitude  of  the  toljil  hi.'MiN.  lint  are 

I  thrreio.    No  attempt  was  lujidi?  to  delfiiulne  what  press- 

klhe  bestelllcleney  for  any  pai'tirulai'  hciid.  The  pri»sstire  iipe«l 

'  >  a  praoticiil  runner,  and  he  judged  timi  when  ihe  pump  was 

riy  and  widl.  the  pressure  then  exLsirnpf  \va»  the  propiT  one. 

Iiul.  In  the  first  test,  a  pressure  of  11!  Ibf.  of  steaiu  should  pro- 

fnunilwrof  slrokes  aad  pump  over  !>0f  more  water  than  ^6.1 

^t\g  the  same,  a.s  in  the  fourth  e.vperitiient, 

ery   in  dist^URsi'-n  of  Prof.  Wuo-Vs  puper  say.s,   referring  to 

•himself  and  others  at  the  CflileiiniftI  Kshlbition  in  IfiTB  (see 


?  Judges,  Group  XX.),  that  a  rai'tnim-pimip  tested  by  him  iu 
tv  of  4  7  iiiiHioiis;  one  lemeil  by  J  F  Flagg,  at  ilie  riiiviituati 
1875.  gave  it  maximum  duly  of  i.fi  miili-iiis.    Several  vacuum 


|iii-niiiitps.  ei.mpared  later  on  the  «iame  bn.si<.  ^^ere  ri*ported 
llutles  of  lO  to  11  niillioiiR.  Die  H'^-um-puinps  d>'iug  no  Imtter 
mim-puMiiw,  Injectors,  when  used  for  lining  waier  not  re- 
iiraie'l,  have  an  efHcienev  of  2  to  5  millions;  vaeuiim-piimps 
|r  between  3  and  10;  snuill  s^^•ank.plul1f)s  lielneeii  8  and  ]5  ; 
l^iunpB,  l>eiWtfeo  15  and  ,30,  and  pnnipiag  en|,'iues  between 
Bs. 

record  of  teat  of  a  pulsomeler  is  given  iu  Eiia'g,  Hov, 
toiglit  "t  tvctiua  II. i!?  ft.  ;  total  height  of  lift,  llW.ISf 

of  delhvryvii^.  IIH  ft.  ;  quaulilv  delivered    per  l«ot 
tre/frht  ofateam  used  per  H.  P.  per  bouf.  'Hi  ~ 


perb^uf,  O-i.'iliJ 


I 

I 
I 


I 


I 


6U  WATEB-POWEB. 

done  pt^r  douih^  of  ntrtLta  SI, Sift  rooUpouDdK,  equal  to  a  dutjrof 
ruui'iHtuiiilii  t>«    100  lb*,  of  coal,  if  >0  Ib6  o(  Meam  trere  geiw 

|H1IIMll   of  I'ltKI. 

Xbe  Jet-pump.     This  mai!biiie  works  by  nivaus  of  tlii*  tpndi 


iilr<*ajii  or  J»>i  of  HciiJ  lo  drlvf  or  curry  omtiKuoii."  parn 

Tha  water- >*i  Jitiii 
Jniikr*  ThoiiiKOD.  and  nrHi  i1n<<'rih«<1   in   IKiS.    In  snni< 


with  U.     Tha  water- >*l  Iiiim|>.  in  Its  piv»*-nt  form.  »«-s 


Mnoll  fccaie  &s  to  tlie  eJlli'ifUfy  of  llje  jpi-puuip.  ilie  ^freaifsi  eniuu 
found  to  ial(«  place  when  the  ilirptli  from  whicli  tlii^  water  uasilran 
Hui'tion  pi|>p  was  al>oiit  nine  tenths  of  the  height  froth  wliich  tbei 
In  fi<rni  III)?  jet  ;  the  flow  iipilie  xiietion-piptf  beini;  in  that  oasetl 
Dftli  nf  that  of  the  jet.  anil  the  t-fflricnoy,  voiisequviitly,  9/10  X  1/ 
Till*  Ih  but  a  iow  «nii-lfn(*y;  lint  it  ih  pivluible  that  it  inay  be  iucn 
iiiiprivt-nipntH  in  pru|>jrtiLiu>  of  the  mHchiiie.    (Haiikiiie,  b.  H.) 

Tbe  lujector  when  iiwd  a.s  a  pump  has  a  verj'  low  effitHriM 
ljiJ>-i'tor-.  iimler  Slejiin-lK>Uer«.) 

Alr-lllt  Pump.— The  airlift  pump  consists  of  a  ^ 
with  liK  lower  end  submerKed  in  a  well,  nnd  a  smaller  i 
Into  it  at  thu  l>ottoni.     The  rising  coUimn  in  the  pipe  cou 
with  water,  the  air  belnir  iti  biibbleH  of  vnriou!)  sizeK,  8n<l  i>  tiit'  i' : 
lliati  a  Ooluiiiii  of  water  of  the  same  height ;  connequeiitly  the  wil< 
plp4*  in  raised  atxjve  the  level  of   the  surroundnif^  water.    This  HI 
ramiii);  WHter  waH  propo8ed  as  early  an  \197,  hy  lii>«'s<:her,  of  Fivil 
wax  mentloneil  by  (7olIi>n  in  lectures  in  Paris  iii  18711,  Ijiil  ilu  fti^ 
applieallxD  proliablv  was  by  Werner  Siemens  in  Berlin  in  IS*.     I 
I'linle  experiinenteti  on  the  principle  in  California  in  188B,  and  V.  8 
on  apparatiiH  involving  it  were  granted  to  I'olili*  and  Hill  in  the  lA 
A  iia|n-r  desoriliinK  Itiula  of  the  air-lift  pump  made  l>y  Randall.  Brc 
Iti'lir  WOK  lead  before  I  ho  Tecliniciil  Society  of  the  Pacillc  Coast  In  I 

The  (liaineler  of  the  puinp-oolumn  was  3  in.,  of  the  air-pipe  C' 
of  tile  airnliscbarKe  noKle  W  in.  The  oirpipe  liad  four  shai^  beni 
leUKtli  of  Sfi  ft.  plus  the  depth  of  Hiibineralon. 

1'he  water  was  piiin|>ed  from  a  closed  pipe-well  (.Vi  ft.  deep  and 
diameter).  The  eflBeleuey  of  the  pump  na-s  based  on  the  least  W 
retleally  requireil  to  oomprejui  the  air  and  ileliver  it  to  the  receiver 
elDcienoy  of  the  compressor  \>e  talceu  at  TOX,  the  efficiency  of  the  p 
CouipreSKor  together  would  l>e  70i  of  the  efflcicuoy  found  tori 
alone. 

For  a  i^ven  Kuhmemlon  (h)  and  lift  (If),  tbe  ratio  of  the  two  be 
within  reasonable  liiiiliK,(ff  i  lieln^  not  muoh  ^leaier  than  (A),  the) 
%vaa  {rreatest  when  the  pressure  itt  the  receiver  did  nrit  greaLly  el 
head  due  to  the  siibmendon,  Ttie  smaller  ibe  ratio  H  -i-  h,  the  lii( 
tlie  eiUclt'Boy. 

The  pump,  a.s  erected,  fdiowed  the  following  etHcieticies  : 

For  U-*-h=:        0.5  10  1.5  2  0 

Kmcien(;y    =        tM  «»  30*  2W 

The  fact  that  there  are  abBolutely  bo  moving:  parts  mattes  tl 
eHpeoinlly  fitted  for  haudltiiK  dirty  or  Rritiy  wat>'r,  sewage,  mil 
anl  Hcid  or  alkali  Noliitions  in  chemical  or  metallurgical  works. 

In  Newark,  S.  J.,  pumps  of  this  type  are  at  work  haviUK  a  total 
of  l.iKW,«Hl  (jallong  daily,  iiftiiiK  water  frotn  three  8-ln.  artesian  we 
Newark  ('hemloal  WorkH  tjs«  an  uir-lift  pump  to  raise  biilphuric  Ml 
^!:ravily.  'i'he  Colorado  Central  (^nsoliilated  Mining  Co.,  in  one  of 
at  lleurKetowD,  l^oio,,  lifts  water  in  one  -^ne  STiO  ft.,  iifttne  a  seriesi 

For  a  full  tti.'Count  of  the  theory  of  the  puuip,  and  details  of 
olhtve  referred  to,  see  fiiig'ff  Seicn.  June  8.  189S. 

THE  U¥DRA1;L.IC  RAIV. 

Kfflclency.— The  iiyrtraulic  rum  U  used  where  a  eoniilderabi 
water  with  a  moderat<i  fail  is  available,  to  raise  a  uunl]  (mrtion  of 
to  a  heielu  exoeediiig  tlint  of  the  fall.  The  followiui;  at*  rulisa 
EytelweFiv  jis  tlie  results  itf  his  experiments  (from  Ranklne): 

Let  (^  be  (he  whole  supply  of  water  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  of  v 
lifted  lo  the  IimIkIiI  h  al>ove'lhe  pond,  nnd  Q  —  <l  riiiiA  to  waste  at  I 
H  below  the  pnnd;  L,  the  lenirth  of  thu  supply -pipe,  from  the  1 
waste-clavk  ;  D.  its  diameter  in  feet;  then 

h  . 


D=   Va«ayv,    L=H-V^-^  gXSfeet; 


I 


THt    HTDRAtTLlC    BAM. 


=  1.18 


-»Vb 


when  —  do«s  not  exceed  30. 


nearly,  when  ^  does  not  exceed  18. 


M±-i'„.„..Yi 


esUlhso.rihe  values  givi>iiii.vU'Aui  uIssoh'nF)'!  iiii'k  - 
Ikll.  .4  6  8  10  12  14  16  1R  !»  1>-J  -H  -.'6 
1...  73  51  62  44  3"  81  as  10  !•!  9  4  0 
iter  (h^it/'g  Mgchimics,  ISM)  reports  the-  if  siilu  of  four 
conslrticted  l>y  Hiirtisey  ,4  Co,  Bt'rini-a  FrWh  'I'lit-  nim  »bs 
Conneciioii  for  ]V4-iDch  supply  ftiirt  Vfi-i"<-'li  tliw^lmrce.  n^e 
id  wBs  IH  iricliHRiii  diaiiit'ter.utovil  Stlfner  Iruiff,  «i^llS^'lbo"^, 
QiiivtiU*ni.  tn  aboulGA  feel  of  strai^hc  pi  {it*,  mo  far  n>i  i'».>iHi 
tJ.  Eacb  inn  wttsniudti  with  a  iliffi^r«iiii  sirtilif  for  llii*  viisit- 
Uie  supply  anil  delintrj'  head  liein;;  coiiKtiiiiti  lht«  o  Jeur  i.f 
wa»  to  fliid  thut  stroke  of  clack-valve  wliich  would  give  lite 
By. 


ke,  per  cent 

ses  per  minute. 

^1  of  wfttcr  

fret  of  water 

nped,  pounds.... 
Pl>lied,  pounds.... 
■eoi 


100 

80 

80 

.w 

W 

61 

.I.OT 

B.-7 

5  58 

lij.va 

19. T& 

19.7S 

•.'9- 

296 

301 

lOlS 

150? 

IBIS 

64.fl 

06 

74.9 

46 

96 

la.T.'s 

887.5 

nw.5 

70 


',  71.9,  the  hi(ch«st  realized,  was  obt&Lned  wlien  thi'  ctaekvalve 
luce  equal  to  00%  of  its  full  stroke,  tlif  full  travel  lieiog  IS/Ili 

of  IFater  Delivered  hy  the  Hfdraiillc   Ram, 

d  Works- )  — From  SJ  tu  lUO  ttfet  couvi-yjjnrr.  oiu-  wveiiHi  of 
rine  can  be  disohar^erl  at  a.a  elevation  Ave  times  tui  hit;li  oh 
ly  the  ram;  or,  one  fourlaeiilli  can  be  raljett  and  dlavbart^eil 
bJKli  as  the  fall  applied. 

conveyed  by  a  ram  8000  feet,  and  elevated  iOO  feet.     The 
MniB  to  50  feet  long. 

table  elves  the  uauociiy  of  several  eizea  of  rams,  lUe  dluieii- 
to  be  tiaed,  ana  the  size  of  the  Kpring  or  brook  to  which 


hr  of  "Wat4?r 
ished  per 

the  Spring 

ik  to  which 

Ram  is 

lapled. 


per  min. 
li  to   3 

«  !:  1 


Caliber  of    Weight  of  Pipe  (Ivend),  if  WrouRlit 
Pipes.  Iron,  then  of  Ordinary  Weight. 


Drive-pipe 

for  head  pipe  for  not 
or  fall  not'  aver  SO  ft. 
over  10  ft. 


DiKcharge- 
and  lint  < 


r 


WATEK-PO\VEIl. 


I 


I 


HVDRAIILIC-PRESNVRE  TBA^'^'^  f«M 

Water  under  high  nreRsure  (T!X)  to  iJOOO  lus.  p<-r  i«i 
affoi'di*  a  very  sallstaotory  meUivxl  of   traiiKiiiittir 
e«peoi«lly  for  thi»  nmvrmiMil  of  heavy  luuds  at  Btnsl 
and  elevulor's.    The  system  L-nrisistB  usually  of  oue 
nf  <levelr'piii(t  the  required  presKure;  accnimilntor: 
ders  with  heavllyweighieil  |.i1un);er»  t>assiii:r  '' 
upper  end,  by  M-hicli  a  quantitv  of  water  iiiav 
sure  ti>  which  the  pUin^.tTls  welBliteil;  thedisii  :■ 
urauea,  or  nther  inaehiiiery  to  w  oiwraled. 

The  earliest  inipt.rtaiu  use  yf  li>'Omiilif  preiSRUre  proijAWyj 
Braiiiah  liydraulie  press,  paU'iiled  ill  ;TWt.    SIrW   fj    Ann'Uxir 
nne  of  the  pioneers  In  the  adaptation  of  t!      '      '      •''■ 
use  of  the  luiMiiiiulator  l>v  Ariiistroiig  If 
maeliliiery.    Ktceut  .ievelopmenls  iino  « i 
due  lo  Ralph  Tweddell,  yf  I  '  ■   ' 
Besj<enier,  in  lii»  t>ate[il  of  ^i 
liydrMiiise  piviwure  for  comi 

Tbe  CiroHii  Amount  oi  t^nrfm  •■!  hk-^'ik' 
Ifi  the  ai-uuniulntor,  ineaMired  in  (oC't-poiiiijK,  Is  ii- 
Ita  pressure  in  pouiuia  per  fujuare  fooL     Tht»  lif^rsep 


Steadily  Bowing  in  H.P.  = 


ri50 


,a6l9p9,  in  wliicli  V  1--^  <liet|m 


in  cubic  feel  per  second  and  p  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  mju 
Tlie  loss  nf  Hiiergj'  due  to  velocity  of  flow  in  the  pipe  i«ral< 
lows  ( K.  (i.  Blaino.  kug  g.  May  'iri  and  June  &.  It<91 1: 

AccordinK  to  O'Arey.  every  pound  nf  wb'.i'i  S-' • 

t'uerg3-,  or  enemy  due  to  its  velocity.  In   pattsin 
In  length  and  X>  feet  diameter,  where  A  ik  a  vii 


oast-iron  pipes  it  may  be  taken  as  Jh  2  .005  ( 1  + 
iticAtM  =  d. 


m)'"'^] 


A  = 


1(3  4         IS         G 

Jt.1    .01   ,007S  .00667  .006815  .000  .00583 


OOSTI 
The  loss  Of   piierjor  per  minute  Is  DO  x  ISMQ  x 


8 

ouocs  . 

"0   to" 


.    ■  I     ..        ■       .11-      .6at5.'WZ.<H.P.)»    ,        ,  ,  ^  _^ 

jHiwer  waiilei.l  lu  the  pipe  is  1»  =  ,  .tj — ^,  in  wliich  *  rarW' 

diameter  as  ahove.    p  =  pressure  at  entrance  iu  poiuidii  prr 
Values  of  .0.38SA  for  different  diameters  of  pifX'  in  iuclio  are: 
«I=M1  4  34  ."iB  rsQ 

.OMfrl  .00896  .004T7  .OOJil  .O03O8  .(W»»  .00871  .00*M  .tuvt'.H  rtMfl 

Efficiency;  of  Hydraulic   Appiiraiii> 

direct  hydraulic  ipliiii»;er  or  ram  is  uku^iIIv  tn: 
Kiven  as  the  efTlci-'nev  of  n  mm  with  cliain  1 
prniierly  proporti'ined  and  well  lubricated: 
.Miiftiplylntr  ...  Stol     Jtol     Btol     8  to  1     lOtol 

Kmoi.ii.-v  ;  .  HO  7G  7;.'  CT  m 


U  to  I 


Hi- 


ll' 


Otnl  liu|5,l^; 

F  -  aiviiiiiiilutur  prejv-iire  in  pounda per acinore  inch; 
(M  =  ratio  of  multiplying;  i>ower: 
J?  =  elTeolive  pi-easure  lii|M>inuU  periiqunre  iDOh,  iDduillns  all 
fur  friction; 

F  --  /'l,«l  -  .nt,.i,. 
J.  I".  Tllit  {fCiiij'u,  June  r 
lion  of  l.yiliuiiitt- jai'l^H  fi-.o, 
lea  lirr  nail.  ittL's.      1  I.--   Tr  i. 


I 

Irnts 


HTDRAULIC-PBESaURE  TRANSMISSION.  611 


!«••  or  Hydraulic  Cylinder*.— From  u  tabl«  usfd   by  8U;^_ 
tstrojji^  wf  Hike  tlie  rullowmi;,  fur  cast-iron  cyliuden;,  for  au  in^H 


fKssiire  of  KXO  lOs  per  bquare  inch: 

0(cvli[i<ler,  incht^a..       S         4         i         8         10        13       16      90      94 

MK,  incbes..    .    0.832  1.146  l.o52  1.875  2.7J2  3.578  3.1U  3.«iV  4.11 

any  olber  prt^ssure  inulliiily  by  the  ratio  of  tliat  presoure  lu   1000. 

Hpiir,-.;  i-orrespODd  nearly  lo  the  formula  t  =  O.lTSti  +  0.48,  in  which 

rul  d  =  iliaiiiet^r  in  inilii/K,  up  lo  10  iui'hcs  diameter,  but  (or 

:ar  the  addltio:)  0  4X  is  reduced   to  0.19  ami  at  iS4  iiivheH  it 

.;.         .  iij-  foruiulip  for  thicli  cyIimlei"H  see  jKipe  iH7.  anle, 

irou  F^ould  not  be  used  for  prufiKureft  exeeeiliut'  ■-'000  lbs.  per  stjuar 

For  lii|{lier  pressures  steel  CIMtln|;4  or  forged  sleel  Kliouid  lie  u.s<f<l^ 

irking  preiisurea  of  750  lbs.  per  gquare  iriL-h  tlie  text  prei-MurH  stiouli'" 

I IbA.  per  square  Inoli,  aad  for  luOO  lbs.  tlie  test  preiwuie  Khoulcl  tiot  I 

IB  S.1UII  ll»i. 

Ml  of  Holatlne  by  Hydrnallc  Pressure.- The  niaximun 
ble  speed  for  warehouse  <!rutieK  is  6  feet  per  second;    for   platforn&l 
i4ftw(  per  second;  for  passenger  and  wag(>ii  hoistj*,  lieavy  lootls.  W 
ar  aeoond.    Tlie  inaxiniimi  .speed  under  any  circuiuglani'e»  i^ould^ 
RBeeed  10  feet  per  Keeond. 

9  Speed  of  Water  Tbrougb  Valves  diould  never  be  greater 
DOfe«»t  per  second. 

ed  of  inrater  Xhroiigh  Pipes.— Kxperimentn  on  water  at  1000 
ensure  per  squnre  inch  flowing  into  a  lliiUKiiiK-iii«ehiiie  rain,  V'O-ineh 
ler,  tliroueb  a  t^  ineti   pi]"-  coniracied  at  »iie  piiiiit  to  V4  inch,  ^avea 
!r  of  114  fet-t  f)er  wemul  iu  ilie  pipe,  and  iM  feet  at  the  reduced  sea-j 
Through  a  ^-incb  pipe  reduced  lo  ^inch  at  one  point  the  Velocity! 
i  feet  p«r  secoud  in  the  pipe  and  381  feet  at  the  reduced  s<-cUon    ]n  a1 
1  pi(>e  witliout  contrnetioii  the  velocity  was  355  feet  per  sieuond, 
many  of  the  above  note»  the  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Joliu  Piatt, 
llhiE  eiijrineer.  of  New  Yi>rk. 

5h-pressnre  Hydraulic  Preoaes  lu  Iron-works  are  de- 
by  R,  M.  Uiieieii.  of  c.rmmiy,  in  IVans.  A.  1.  -"d,  K.  INW.  The  fol- 
(  diktiigct  arianKein"nts  u.sed  in  different  syateuis  of  hiKl'-pi  tHSure 
uUc  worl£  are  diActiK-sed  and  illii.'itraled:  J 

l«am  pump,  with  fly  wheel  an'l  accumulator.  I 

learn  puiup,  without  fly-wheel  ami  with  uucumuUitor,  1 

i«ain-pUDip,  without  flywheel  and  wiiliout  accTiimilstor. 
MM  three  HyHtems  the  Talve-uioiioii  iif  the  workinji!;  press  Is  operated 
hieh-pre.'Wure  L-oliimn.    This  i*  avoided  in  the  following: 
Ingle  octiiiK  atenminieuBiller  wiihont  itccuniulator. 
l«Mn-punip  with  fly-wlieel.  withoutaccnniuiaroraiid  wlih  pipe-circuit, 
laam-pump  witii  tly-wheel,  wiiliout  accumulator  and  wltlioMt  plpe- 

ditadvaotaKes  of  accumulators  arethiij^stnted:  The  weiithted  pluneem 
forni.-rlv  s<>rve<l  in  motit  cases  aH  accuuiulatorK,  cause;  vlulHUl  Hbockl 
1  .    when  chuDKeH  take  plnce  in  the  niovpinent  of  Ihe  water, 
placed,  in  order  to  avoid  biirstin|<  from  tills  cause,  the  pip' 

-ively  of  forged  and  linred  steel.    The  seats  and  cones  of  tl 
iic  vul.ea  are  cut  by  tlie  water  (at  hiwb  speed),  and  in  such  oases  only 
0*1  careful  niainEeiiHuee  can  prevent  great  losses  of  power. 
dranllc  Powrer  In  London. -Tiie  general  principle  luvolved 

iier  into  mains  laid  in  the  streets,  from  which  seivicc-pipe* 
J  the  bouses  to  work  liftH  or  three  cytiiuler  motors  wheB 

:  is  require<l.  lu  some  cases  a  »inall  Pelton  wheel  lin«  been 
wjikiifi;  under  a  pre;tt.iire  of  over  "00  Mjh.  on  the  stpmre  inch,  tjver  65 
of  hydraulic  mains  are  at  present  laid  (i84'J). 

reservoir  of  power  conaiBtg  of  capacious  aceuninlator.s,  loaded  to  a 
are  of  SOO  lbs.  per  aquare  Inch,  thus  pn.HluciiiB  the  sniiie  effect  a8  If 
Wpply-iaiikii  were  placed  at   1700  feet  above  the  Htreet -level.     T! 
IstAkeii  from  the  Thames  or  from  wells,  mid  all  sediment  is  reiiiov 
Iroin  by  filtration  before  it  rejicliesthe  main  eUKUie-pumps. 
re  are  over  1750  juaclilnes  at  work,  und  tlie  supply  is  about  O.SOO.UOO 
IB  7*'r  tar^k. 

1  iliat  the  water  ii^il  should  be  clean.    The  ston^g^gleuk  ex- 
^llul»  boiler-house  and  coalnture.    The  l^iik 
iMi  lilt  of  mud  is  i}efn>su«d  here,    it  then  pasfteft 

^■goser  0/  tJw  riigities,  itiid  it  in  liiroi^  into  a  set  of 
^HZi0  lioJx  ofrUD  alter  is  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  coni 


!k( 

h«S 
ily 

ed 


1  a 
XM)    1 


618  WATKR-POVrBB. 

gruDular  flllerinK  iruiterial  reeting  upon  a  ttilae  bottom ;  oi>4«fl 
tributiiig  arrangement,  affordinir  passage  for  tfi»>  iiir.  sn.l  mtr 
bottom  of  th*-  tank.     Tile  dirty  water  is  RUpj  ■ 
head  tank.    Afcer  paiWliiK  tliroiiRh  ihe  lilir 
into  the  (.'IPBii-walcr  tank.  fr<iiii  uliich   lli»'  _ 

Kupply.  The  cleaning  of  the  Hlters,  which  is  done  at  lntir>al»l 
effected  80  thoroughly  iii  sifit  that  the  filtering  material  iiewr « 
removed . 

The  engine-house  contains  i<ix  sets     of    trlpli' 
eylliHlei.s  Bi-e  IMnch,   -iJInoh,  3(5  inch   X  S<-iijcl> 
single  iilu'iKi'r-punip  with  a  5nic'h  rniti,  secured  ii 
the  conneetiiig-rnd  being  douhle  to  clear  tlie>  piin)|>.      i 
150  ll)K.  on  the  square  inch.     Enrli  pump  will  tii^liver  .**'  . 
minute    under  a  preKsure  of  800  lbs.  to  (he  Sijtiare  infli 
about  01  revoluiions  per  minute.    This  is  a  liiirh  . 
heavy  pressure;  but  the  valves  work  sileutly  and  \ 

The  consiinipiion  of  Kteain  is  HI  iMiunrls  per  lio 

The  water  delivered  from  the  main    piitnptt  pasS4*s  irit*^ 
The  rams  are  lM  inches  in  diameter,  and  have  a  sirokei 
each  loaded  with  liutons  of  slag,  coittained  in    &u'iv__ 
box  suspended  from  a  cro§8  heart  on  the  top  of  the  ram. 

One  of  the  accnniiilators  la  loaded  n  little  more  heavily  llu 
that  they  rireami  tall  successively;  the  inore  heavily  ln.ii!erl  i 
valve  on  the  main  Kleiim  pipe.    If  Lhe  CDKiues  .><i 
wanted,  the  lighter  of  the  tworaniK  llrst  irises  n^  ' 
then  ascends,  and  when  it  hit.M  nearly  reached  (he  >      ' 
Checks  the  .supply  of  wati^r  aiitoniatically. 

The  mains  jn  the  piihlic  streets  nre  9f>  constructed  and 
fectly  tru»tworiliy  and  fiee  from  leakage. 

Every  pipe  and  valve  UReil  tJiroughout  the  nystein  is  teste 
square  incli  before  being  plnce<l  on  the  ground  and  again  teaO 
preHSure  in  the  trencheH  to  htsiire  (he  [)errecc  lighlDess  of  f 
joinlliig  material  used  is  gutia-peroha. 

The  average  rate  obtained  liy  (lie  company  is  about  8  skill 
sand  gallons     The  prini'ifial  use  of  the  power  Is  for  iotennitt 
where  direct  pressiu'e  CHa  l>e  emiiloyed,  as,  for  idstancv, 
cranevi,  preKse.s,  warehousB  lioirsis.  etc. 

An  inijjormnt  tise  of  the  hydraulic  power  Is  It-s  apphi 
gulsbing  of  fire  I)}' means  of  Oreal head's  injector  tiydranl, 
these  hv4lr.tnts  a  cnnliininu.s  tire-eneine  is  available. 

Bydranllc  RlTetlne-BiacIilneH.— Hydro iiMc  rli 
ducedin  Eugliihd  liy  Mr.  R  U  Twedilell.    Fix-' 
1868.     Portable  riveting  niaclibies  were  intrc-. 

The  riveting  of  tlie  large  steel  plates  in  the  I 
portable  machines  workuig  with  a  pressure  oi  I'l' 
exceptioniil  cnses  'i  duis  per  inch  was  used.     (Proc 

An  ap|>lientiou  of  hydrtiulic  pretwure  invenleil 
Liverpool,  di!-peiises  with  the   necessil.v  of  «■', 
three-tliniw  putiip  driven   by  vim f ting  or  »• 
partially  upon  the  work  aixMiniulatoii  in  a  htv. 
(kassjige  from  the  pumps  niiil  hack  to  tlient   js   m 
very  feeble  pressufe.  re<pdriiiga  inintmuiu  of  p  iwerlal 
water  ready  for  action  ut  (he  desired  tnonieut,  when  l>vl 
current  is  8topp<«d  frotu  going  back  m  the  puinpf.,        '  ' 
piston  of  the  tool  to  be  set.  in  motion.    The  ivutei 
driving-belt  or  steiani-engine.  supplemented  by  ihr 
fly-wheel,  Is  employed  iti  closiog  up  the  rivet,  or  b«-iiuiri 
ject  Hubjecte<l  to  its  operation. 

Brdranllc   Forirlac.— In   tl<e  oroihiciion   n(  hn 
cast  Uigout  of  mild  strei  it  is  esseiitjal   that  (he  n''> 
operated  on  a»  equally  as  possible  throughout  its 
employlng  a  ■team-hammer  fur  thi«  piii|>ivse  it  hh'. 
t«mal  Hurfacv  of  (he  ingot  ab8i.<[>> 
of  the  blow,  and  th,'it  a  cotnps^ 
oeotraJ  portions  of  the  ingot,  t<v 
'"  '  »Ui«  rapid  niol^nu -/.    ..^  > •■-. 

a««ai««Lta 


rDaAULlC-ttlESSUBB  TRAXSMISSICN.  61'J 

orfcinK-press  the  force-pump  and  the  large  or  niain  eylioder 
I  iu  direct  and  constant  comnuinlL'ation.  There  are  no  inter 
of  any  kind,  nor  ha.s  the  ptimp  any  clackv»|v«<.  but  1' 
It*  ryiiii'lor  full  of  water  direct  into  the  cylitider  of  tlie  preita, 
ill  ■.  ater,  as  it  wei-e,  tmck  nf^njn  on  the  return  stroke. 

bt  -s  and  the  pip©  connectinR  fliem  are  full,  the  Ian;* 

'""  '   ■  ■    Hnd  falls  Hiniultaneou^ly  with  eacli  Ktrolce   of  tbt 

up    a   continuous  oscillatlnp  motion,  the   r«ni,  of  course, 
Fehorter  diHtance.  owiup  to  the  larter  capricity  of  ilie  pr>-» 
lal  Iron  and  Steel  In°tituiu.  1801.    See  also  illiislrnled  arlicli 

anism,"  ptLgei  6AR.) 
aplete  illustrated  account  of  the  development  of  the  hy' 
^■press,  see  a  paper  by  R.  H.  Tweddell  in  Proc.  lusl.  C.  E.,  Vol. 

Forelu^jtreaa,— A  aOOO-ton  fonrinjt-press  erected  at 
ea  in  Ueleinm  is  described  in  Eng,  aiu'  Sf.  Jour,,  Nov.  jS,  IHOfl. 
composed  essentially  of  two  parts— the  i>res»  itnelf  and  the 
The  compressor  is  fonned  of  a  vertical  sieameyllnder  and  a 
Bder.  The  piston  rod  of  Ibe  former  forms  Hie  piston  of  Ihe 
jydraulic  pi-ilon  discharges  Ihe  water  into  Ihe  presH  projier. 
ion  la  made  by  a  cylindrical  balanced  ralve:  an  HfHtn  an  the 
leased  the  steam  piston  falls  automatically  under  the  ncllon  of 
iiig  it!>  de»-ent  the  steam  pai<i«sto  the  otberface  of  thepialon 
Bylinder,  and  finally  et^'ape^  from  the  upper  end. 
I  enters  under  the  pi«ton  of  the  oompressor-cylind'-r  the  pl«- 
>its  rod  forces  the  water  into  the  press  proper.  Tht-  |>rtvBure 
In  the  pistoD  of  the  latter  is  transmitted  throu;;!!  a  ci OS's  head 
t  which  Is  upon  the  anvil.    To  raise  the  crue.'^'henil  iuoi>niall 

rAtn-dylindeiTi  are  used,  their  pit^ton-rods  beinp  connected  to 
Btenm  acta  only  on  the.  pistons  of  these  cylinders  from  below. 
B  of  ateam  lo  the  cylinders,  which  stand  on  tisp  of  the  pi'ess 
^ated  by  the  same  lever  which  directs  the  mollnuis  of  the  com- 
movement  giveo  (o  the  dies  is  sufncient  for  all  the  ordinaiT 
■Dntini;. 

)  blows  per  miimte  has  been  attained.  A  double  press  on  tne 
liaving  (wo  compressors  aod  eivini;  a  niaxiuium  presiiure  of 
beeo  erected  in  the  Knrpp  woilis.  at  Eswn, 
^  ~  teMBlfler.  (Irun  Aye,  Auk.  1890.)— The  i  bject  of  the 
JU>e  the  pressure  obtained  br  the  ordinary  iiccumulator 
to  operate  powerful  bydraiille  machities  requiiliig  very 
iHiout  increasing  the  pres-siire  carried  In  The  Hccuiiiulatur 
1  hydraulic  system. 
Inteiisifler  consists  of  one  outer  stationary  cylinder  and  one 
which  moves  in  the  outer  cylinder  and  on  a  H.ved  or  ctntti'nary 
_r.  "When  operated  in  connection  with  the  liydriiulir  Ijloom- 
bod  of  working  is  ns  follows:  The  inner  cylinder  hariitg  been 
terand  connected  throug-h  the  linllowplnnKer  with  Iheli)i1rau- 
tthe  shear,  water  at  the  ordinary  accnmniatorpret.KiiTeiK  ad- 
ie  outer  cylinder,  which  being  four  limes  Ihe  .secllonal  area  of 
|ves  a  pressure  In  the  inner  cylinder  and  shear  cyliniler  con- 
rith  of  four  times  tfie  Bccumulator-presBure— that  is.  If  ihe  »c- 
MBure  is  BOO  lbs.  per  sijuare  inch  Ihe  pressure  in  Ihe  iiuensifler 
(.  per  square  Inco. 

le  BDKlne  drtTlne  «n  Alr^compreanor  and  a 
kmiaer.  {Iron  Af/r.  .May  \2,  IHIW.)— The  ^rcat  Imninier  In 
tome,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  exit^tcncc.  lis  railing  weight 
0  tens,  and  the  foundation  belonifini;  to  ir  cnirxi^^iK  of  a  block 
t  1000  tons.  The  stroke  is  ]B  tVft  t'*4  inches;  the  dinnieler  of 
Ifeel  8H  inches:  diamelerof  piston-rod  ].*^ inches;  total  lieieht 
",  63  feel  4  inches.  The  power  lo  work  the  hninn>er.  as  w  ell  as 
of  l(Xi  and  l-W  tons  respectively,  and  oiher  nuxiliarj-  appli- 
g  to  it.  Is  furnished  by  four  air-corapressors  coupled  together 
reclly  by  wuler  pre8.>iure  engines,  by  means  of  which  the  air  Is 
TS.5  pounds  per  fqiiare  itwit.  The  cylinders  of  tV\e  » 
'  ~'<^'JlJ"T  P'-f"'iJ<-<i  vitlt  a  bronze  lininu,  have  iv  " 
,/i^  '"'■'"■"■    "■'"'  'I    pressure  of  water  . 


flTEL. 


•r  Coubaatton  of  Pa«l«.    (Rankint>.>— Tiie  follow- 

Uur  total  iiuut  nf  i-oiiibii«ii(iii  with  ox^'i^'eo  of  om^  pound  of 

'  iianiHd  in  ii.  iu  British  theruiHl  iiuin,  ami  also  lii 

I  from  ai'-J*.    It  also  shows  the  wW^hC  of  oxjKtn  re- 

jritb  each  poiicid  of  th«  ooinbiiklilile  sod  tht>  wcT);ht  of 

er  to  supiily  tbut  oxyKfn.    The  nuantitiea  of  hrtil.  are 

'  of  Mil..  FRTJ'e  aud  mibermauti. 


rned  60  lui 
I  so  as  to 


I  bf  drocarbons,  1  lb 

i  much  a«  is  iiiadf 
rfect  com  bustioii  of 

on.  Tiz..g^  Iba  


Lbs.Oxr- 
gen  per 
lb.  Coni- 
iMistible. 


I.b.  Afi 
(about). 


8 
8  3/7 


■m 


m 

6 

18 

15  8/7 


lan  Meat,     f,.^,^  gj.,„ 
F.,  Iba. 


uults. 


6S,083 
4,400 
I4,S00 

•»M-i 

from  «1,T00 

to    IB.UUO 

10,000 


64.3 

4.&S 

IS  0 

88.1 

from  «iU 

to  ao 

10.45 


Dt  coiiibUBltoii  of  carbon,  iimkiiiK  enrbouic  oxide,  produces 
ftbird  of  the  lieat  which  is  yielded  by  thr  comiJletci  conibuslioo. 
•at  of  conibusllon  of  any  i.cHiiiiu(irRl  iif  Ii\di(i>,*en  and  oaibon 
uiii  of  the  quniitiiies  of  lieat  whiuh  Ihp  corif=Iitin'ntB  would  pro- 
jly  hv  Uieii-  coiiibiiglloii.  (Maish  kos  Ik  nu  cxoeijiloii.) 
DR  the  total  heat  of  combtiBtion  of  comjiouiKls  coDtiilnlng  oiy- 
B»  bTdrof^eo    and  carbon,   (he  (ollivwiriK  principio  1h  to  be 

J\ !•  '■  -'.-en  ami  oxygeo  rxlul  In  a  coiiipoiind   In  the  i)roper 

■  r  (thai  is,  by  welKht  oiip  part  ot  hydrogen  tu  eight 

L  t  aiiciits  have  no  effect  on  the  total  heat  of  conibuS' 

ItK^r  i,  ,-;M-^-i  in  II  K''<»at.Hr  profMirtion,  only  the  Kurpliis  of  hydro. 

u  which  in  reouirrd  by  tlK-  oxygen  in  to  he  taken  into  account. 

ng  l8  a  irenerul  fortiiiim  ^DiiIouk's)  for  the  total  boat  of  com  bus- 

impoiinil  of  carbcn.  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  : 

id  O  be  the  fiaciioiis  of  one  pound  ol:  ihn  compound,  which 

tirely  of  oarbou,  hydrogen,  and  oxypeu.  the  remainder  beiltK 

and  other  iinpuiitien.    Let  Ii  be  the  total  beat  of  combustiou 

of  the  compound  In  Brit  ish  thermal  units.    Tlieo 


lug  table  showa  Ibe  composition  of  those  compounds  vrhich  ara 
K,  either  aa  furnishine  oxj-geo  for  combustion,  a.s  entering  into 
loo,  or  as  being  produced  iiy  the  combustion  of  fuel ; 


Ji  =  14,800 1  C  -(-  4.S8(/f  -  -g  )  [  • 


FUEL, 


«ach  lb.  of  C  re<]u<m  iH  lb>.  of  O  M  burn  it  to  CO, ,  and  air  c 
f  n.  hv  weiebt.  8*ii -^  0*3  or  11.0lb<>.  nf  airmv  required  to  bum  11 
Jnalyx'*  orCaa««  of  Combnatlon.— Tbe  f Dllowlne  ora  i 
.-Bill  II  lurKf  liuiiiUcr  of  aualyiw^of  jcaxr^  fioiii  l<K.-oinotive  boilers, 
the  nuixe  uf  cotnposlciou  under  difFerent  circuinatonces  (P.  H. 
Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E  ,  it.  230): 


TMt. 


CO, 


18.8 
11.6 
8.5| 

la 

6. 
8.4 
1< 
1.4 

S 


cx> 

0 

«.& 

8.6 

6 

... 

8 

.... 

17.8 

.    4  .  . 

14.7 

l.< 

8.4 

4.4 

lA.H 

13.S 

81 .6  Kn  smoke  vislbl)*. 
81  6  Old  Drp,  eecaplnrr  K»a  white,  eoKine  woiUbc  I 
81     Frenh  flrw,  niiKih  black  gas,         "  " 

80.6lOld  fln*.  (lanifier  cl<}sed,  eni;ine  ataodliu;  stilL 
79  81  ■•     "     Hinoke  white,  engine  workiDi; bard, 
6i     New  fire,  ci>rjii«  ma  workJof;  hard. 
8i.8  Smokw  black,  engine  not  working  banL 
78.8       ■'       dark,  blnwi^r  on.  cOKiii^  HtaaiUngRtin. 
81.5       "       white,  enjcine  working  bard. 


In  aaalyaea  on  the  Cleveland  and   PUtabiirj{h  road,  in  every  ioi 
when  the  smoke  waa  tbe  blackest,  there  was  fouud  the  |;reate8t 
of  unconsumed  oxyiceii  in  the  prndnct,  ahowlne  that  gometbinfc  beddct 
mere  preasnce  for  oxygen  Is  requiiied  to  effect  the  combustion  of  ibe 
carbon  of  fuels. 

J.  C.  Hoadley  (Trana.  A   8.  M.  E.,  vl   749)  found  aa  the  mean  of  a 
uumtier  of  analyaea  of  Hue  ^lues  from  a  Imiier  using  anthracite  coal : 
OO,.  18.10;    CO.  0.30;    15,11.94;    N,  74  66. 

The  toss  of  heat  due  to  buriiiuK  C  to  CO  instead  uf  to  CO,  was  3.181. 
surplus  oxyffen  averaRBil  IM.J.'Sof   the  O  required  for  tbe  C  of  the  fuel, 
average  for  different  weeks  riiiiKinK  from  88.fl;<  to  IST?. 

Analyses  niailf  ( I)  iletHrniiijf  tiie  CO  proiliiceil  by  excessively  rapid  flrlm] 
Mve  resulu  from  ■;  .'iK  to  J. SI*  VO  and  S.li  to  S.UIJ  CO,  ;  the  ratioofC 
the  CO  to  total  carbon  buiiu-il  beliin  from  43.80*  to  4aS5<i,anil  the  ni    "" 
pounds  of  air  supplied  to  llie  furnace  |>er  pound  of  coal  beiUK  froi 
IB  3  lbs.    The  loss  due  to  buniiiiK  C  to  CO  was  from  ^^.g4]^  to30.8( 
full  power  of  thi'  cnal. 

Temperature   or  (lie   Fire.    (Kaiikioe.  S.  £.,  p.  283.)— £hr  tem 
atun*  of  tliH  dre  in  meant,  ilii"^  [eiug>erAlni'rt  of  the  priHlucts  of  combuf" 
tbe  instant  tlml  the  cnnibustjdii  is  cauiplctt*.     Tlie  elevRtion  itf  tbatti 
atiire  above  the  temperature  at  which  the  nlr  and  the  fuel  are  sni 
the  furnace  may  be  coniruleil  by  dlvlclliii;  the  total  heat  of  conibi 
one  lb.  of  f«el  by  the  weiKlii  ami  liy  the  mean   ispeciftc   heat  of  tbe 
prodticls  of    combustion,  and  of  the  nir  euiployeil  for  tbeir  dtluCiOD 
GOfistniiit  pressure.    Tile  s|iecillc  heat  under  constant  pressure  of  tiittfl 
UCTB  is  nbnut  as  follows : 

Cnrbonic-aclil  sas,  D.JIT :  steam,  0  475;    iiitroi^D   (probably),  0.848;  tli» 
O.SBH;  sslies,  prnliahly  alHHit   (l.'.W.     Using  these  data,  tbe  follow ine  rcil^ 
aw  ohtaiiinl  for  puce  carbon  and  fur  olillaut  pas  burned,  reBpectlvdy, ft 
in  just  sutflcieDi  air,  thi-nrelli>allv.  for  their  oumbustiou,  and,  second,  wl 
an  equal  amuunt  of  air  is  supplle^l  jn  Biliiitinn  for  dilution. 


Fuel. 


Total  heat  of  cnmbunllou,  per  lb. . . 
Wt  of  products  nf  combustion,  Iba. 

Their  iiipati  speciHc  heat. 

SiH'Clfli!  heat  X  weight 

Elevation  of  t em pe future,  F 


Products  undiluted. 


Carbon. 


Oleflant 
Oae. 


]4,.'KX) 

13 
0.237 
8.08 


81,800 
16.43 
0  887 
4.S3 

BOSO» 


Products  diluted. 


Car  boo. 


14,600 
85 

0238 
5.94 

8440* 


Oleant 
Oai. 

3I.Mi 
U.» 

0.10 

T.I 

JTlO* 


[The  above  calcntatlans  are  mnrJe  on  the  assumption  that  the  lipeidSl 
heitts  ot  the  j^ases  are  constaui  but  they  probably  increase  with  ine  to 
crease  of  tempera)  tire  (see  SpecWc  He&vi.  \\\  «\i\cV  c«se>  t.Via  temperallin 
vyouid  be  Jess  than  those  above  c\i en.   Ww  s.«.\viv''"»>-'>»« '«'w^>»*a*« 


Re  heat  re>ii(1ervd  latent  by  the  conveislon  Intu  Btt-am  of  >uy 
It  111  Ihf  fuel  1 

Tomperatnre  In  Combaatlon  of  Ga»eB.  tEng'g, 
<1  A^iril  -.  i&Mi  > — It  is  fuiKKl  Ihat  ihu  teiupc taiuivrh  itblalliHl 
lit  fall  nhon  of  those  ohlaioed  liy  cali-iilmiun.  Three  Un-o- 
ieo  Klveii  10  accoiiiil  for  llils  :  I.  Th*  cooling  ffrtHit  of  the 
con(aiiiiii|;  vessel;  'J.  Tbe  relarHmicin  of  the  evoliitloii  of  h^-at 
issociatioti;  3.  Tlif  iucreiuw?  of  the  sjieclflc  heat  of  the  eauesal 

)pef'Htut>^.  The  cnlculated  temi>era1iire8  are  obtahiablc  only 
lion  thai  the  easeK  shall  combiue  iuHtautaiieoiisl.v  and  siiiiulta- 
iiKht'iil  their  whole  iiiafcs.  Thia  couUilion  in  jiraolieally  iiii|>08- 
rliiifnis.  The  ^aAt*K  funned  at  the  liegluiiing  o(  an  explo.sion 
luaiiiiiiic  coiiihuitlible  Igaaes  and  tend  to  retard  or  checic  the 
it  the  reiiialuder. 

CLASSIFICATION    OP   SOLID    FCELS. 

jjsifles  solid  fueU  as  foUowg  {ISng'g  und  it'g  Jour.,  J\i\y, 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FUEL. 


633 


1874): 


Name  of  Fuel 


Ratio 


O 


H 

or  O  -t-  y  *. 
H 


Pmijonion  of  Coke  or 
I  Yielded  by 
llie  Dry  I'liro  Fuel. 


roi: 
CI 


liarcoal  yielded  by 


oae  and  eocasing  matter). . 

all  fuel , 

brown  coal 


IS 
4®  1 
1  a  0.75 


Dua  coals  he  dlrides  into  five  claases  as  below 


fn». 


■'\ 


Elementary 
Cumpo&ilion. 


H. 


80O8&5.8®& 


84®BG 


88901 


5^4.5 


O. 


l95i^lS 
14.2^10 

It  ®5.3 


5.9^4 .     e.5@S.5 


I  Propor- 
„    .    O     tion  of 
Ratio  =- 1    Coke 
rti  j„   yielded 

'i         illla- 

tlOD. 


4^ 

1 
1 


Nature 

and 
Appear- 
ance of 
Coke. 


'     Melted. 
.600.68  J.       but 
friable. 
'Meltctd; 
eoDie- 
what 
com- 
pact. 
2<elied; 
very 
ooin- 
pacL 
^'Pulveni- 
Irot. 


74@.8S 


.82^.90 


rareJr  eicee<1s  1  p«-r  tvnt  of  the  melKht  of  the  fueL 
J  bituminous  liiriiitps.  wliich  res^eiuble  pH-troletinii. 
(lie  foUowinfr:    The  exirme  dlffereiioes  in  ibe  cbeoitcal 
of  dl/Tf  rf  nt  kinds  of  t-oal  are  very  creat      The 
ratMNS  from  at)  ro  sa  percent-,  that  ot  byiito^at- 
frpa  5  to  Sliver  cvat;  [hat  of  water,  or  ox^gea  kud  ^ 
tWob»  which  rorm  water,  from  ao   inavv'*'^^***? 
let:  tbmt  of  »sh.  from  lU  lo  '»  p«r  cetil. 
fffomJ  may  be  divided  Into  v.rincip*\  c>- 
.  «  *f™'-Wt«injlcou«  coid;  8,  bitumUif 
.  S.  Itgnit^or  hrowQ  coat. 


I 


to»j»    » 30  saiTO  tt.9     « x:     ve    zi  *i 

I  •rr«al^  ma  AatktmcU*,  BttaBtli 

Pre*-  Penir«r  Fraser  iTr-^r^    ^    .    -.    ,- 
U(lB  of  coals  •coordiiur  Co  :.' 
boo  beanitoUieTc4ati>e  b>  : 

In  mrrungiag coal*  nailer  lu-t. ^ 

*M  nilpbur.  «anfaT  matter,  and  moieuire,  are  dacn^aftdad,* 
■Utumis  alMie  are  nrniMrnti* 

Oartioa  Wtxti 

Ratio. 
L  H«rd  diy  antliradta.    100  to  IS 

n.  Sfini  anthracice. IS  (o  8 

in.  geini-bitumiDous.  ...       8 to  6 
IV.  BttattilDogg    5io  0 


MO.    tofltais 

O.Sto  «. 


It  appears  to  the  aathor  that  Om  above  claaslficatioB  doM  aM  I 
Iin«  at  the  proper  point  bMwceu  the  wtoi  bltuminoua  and  HaMB 
coala.  Th!  •"  "  r.n,, ,.(  q  ^.  v.H.C.  =  5.  or  flii«J  eaHma  tMW.««| 
drocarboi  -•  it  wuuld  throw  iiianj  of  tbesMwacoMNafO 

andtiom-'r  <.  P>-nn..  and  tbf  CumbniMOd,  Md..  aad  fM 

Va..  ■■">■  ■  r.r,,..i.rai!i-  ..f   ,-,,,e  oUsa.  aad   premrtf  f 

wii:  :  inoiu  rl— d     The  iIctWm 

tUUU'DOUV   c(aI«.  V  *■  ^% 
a  in  UWM 


tw.-^ 

woui.. 

elaa*. 


li-aothracalai 


Ttie  fuUowitiK  1^  pi-uiArini  by  the  author  as  a  toOer  daHNI 

CarboD  Batio.      Mzed  CarlMtn.  Vol) 

!  nthracite  .     100  to  U  100       toM.SX         0      •! 

iOit« lato  7         ezsitoSTs         rfltj 

imona 7to  8  87.5  to75  HI  11 

ISItim.iiw.iin  3lo   0  T5       to   0  *     W 


ANALYSES  OF  COALa 


62b 


I  io  Um  vicinity  of  Sheoaodoah,  aiid  in  tbeHoutUern  AelU  bclweob, 
tinnk  and  Tamnijun.  J 


1 

«4 

It 

1= 

i2 
1 

is 

II 

si 

■i' 

u 

s 

1 

Vol.  Matter. 
Per  cent  of 
tota.1  com- 
bustible. 

on... 

E.  Middle 

.^.71 

S  08 

BO. 40 

6.22 

.RS 

8.M 

88.07 

>oth.. 

E.  Middle 

4.18 

a.m 

M.38 

5.«i 

.49 

3  4G 

27. DO 

Me  . 

W.  Middle 

3.5t 

3  ra 

81.59 

10.05 

.M 

4.96 

81  9S 

Mth. 

W.  Middle 

8.16 

8.74 

81.14 

11.08 

.90 

4.38 

SI  .88 

o*e  F  Souibern 

3,01 

4  13 

87. 9S 

4.38 

.M 

4.48 

XI. sa 

lltn..  W.  Mttlcllc 

a.  04 

8.93 

fiS.Wl 

9.88 

.40 

4.S6 

eo.Bs 

Pool 

W.  Middle 

3.41 

3.98 

80.87 

11.23 

M 

4  60 

20.32 

loth. 

Southern 

!|.0» 

4.  •,'8 

83.81 

8.18 

M 

4.85 

IS  6S! 

sotll 

Kortheni 

Hi 

4. as 

83.27 

8.20 

Mi 

B.OO 

19.00 

ilBed 

Lovalnock 

!.:» 

8.10 

83.84 

6.$8 

1.03 

8.80 

10  29 

above  aDtilyRPB  were  made  of  coals  of  all  sizes  (mixed),  When  coal  is 
«d  into  liiEes  for  Khipiiieut  tlie  puiit.r  of  the  di(T«ftfinC  sizes  a«  re(^rdii 
ules  gDMtly.     ijaiiiples  from  cue  mine  gave  resulti>  as  followH: 

Screened  Analyses. 

N«mi»  of       Throiifrh  Over  Fixed  I 

Coal.  inches.  Inches.  Carbon.  Ash.       ^ 

If a.5  1.75  88.49  5.86 

ore  ....  ...        1.75  1.98  88,67  10.17 

Kitnttt l.iiS  .7n  80.72  1S.S7 

.75  .50  70  05  14. Oe 

.SO  .25  76.92  18. 82 


nkwiMat.. 


Kui.li 


Sulphur. 
091 
0.59 


Bernlc«  Baain,  Pa.,  Coals, 

Wat«r.   Vol.  H.C.    Fixed  C.    Ash,    Sulphur. 

.1..      p.,ui„„n    „„.i(0.fl«  3.50  82.5S  8.27  O.M 

Bin,    rnlllvnn    nndj  ,  ,  ,  ,  . 

0mln|?t.-O«.:     .»Ilge0f8..|,„  ^^  gggg  g^  jI^ 

leoal  Is  on  ibe  dWiding-line  between  the  anthracires  and  s«mi-aiit.hnwi 
aud  te  similar  Io  the  coal  of  the  Lykens  Valley  district. 
■  recent  aualyxes  (Trans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  xlv.  721)  give  : 

Watt-r.     Vol.  H.C.    Fixed  Carl..        Ash 

tncseoin Oii5  0,40  83.09  S,.34 

Mow  «patn  ...  3.87  15.42  71.34  9.97  _ 

■  •li-niitliraoite.  the  tiecond  a  Sfini-bituiuinoui. 
iiplodby  AutliraciteCoal,    <J.  C.  I.  W  ,  vol.  lli.)-Tho 
iif  2:40  lbs  or  hard  L,ehlKh  c»al  Isalittle  over  36  feet:  an 
amylklll  \V.  A.,  37  to  38  fe*?t ;  Sliamoldei,  38  to  39  feel ;  Lorberry, 

Die  IO  measurement!*  made  with  WIIUeiibarTe  anlhracito  coal  from 
llDR  Valley,  It  reqiiire.<i  32.2  cu.  ft.  of  lump,  33.9  cii.  ft.  broken, 
A  egf^,  3«  «  cu.  ft.  of  Btove,  35.7  cu.  ft.  of  chHsitiuit,  and  38.7  ou.  ft. 
iDiake  one  ton  of  coal  of  2240  lb». ;  while  it  r«iuire«  iS.H  cu,  ft.  of 
1  CO.  (I.  of  ljrok<-n,  30.8  cu.  ft.  nf  oeK.  31  1  cu    ft.  uf  -.tove.  31.9cu. 
tfiiit.  811(1  'i'i.i^  '-'11   ft,  of  pes.  In  uinlie  hum  ion  nf  stHKi  lljs. 
»attlon  of  Anthracite  and  Scml-bltitmlnoua  Coals. 
.  1.  M.  E,,  vl,  43ti.>— Hard  dry  anthrai.'iteH,  1C  nnaiys+'s  liv  hojfeil 
armn^  from  94.10  to  82.47  fixed  carbon.  1.40  to  V.fS  VMlatik-  inalterS 
50lo  8.00 ash,  water,  ami  imitiuitlcii.    Of  tlio  fiie)  con^tltiu-lntti  aloti< 
»hJ  c&rbou  raDRW  fmni  i)S.53  to  S9.(>3,  and  tlif  voloille  matter  from  1." 
87, the  correspondinjj  carhou  ratiLi.«,  or  C  -*-  Vol.  H.C.  being  from  07.1 
'1, 

I  rfM.— 12  ftnal.vses  hy  Rofers  show  a  i 
III.  7.07  to  l-l.T.'i  volaiile  iiiuller,  and 
KM  ':         -       ^xciiiilltjfi-  tfie  asb,  etc.,  file  rnii|ce 
'  rolnllle  eonibugtlble  7.1''  Io  l.',.W.  th 
^fraui  JZTa  lo  6.41. 


I 


JB29 


FIJBL. 


r    Bemi-bUKminoHt  CoaJa.— 10  analyses  of  Fenna  and  MihtIudJ 
Ihted  carbon  68.41  to  MSn.  voliilllfe  matter  ll.a  1. 
Impurities  4  to  13.99.    The  perfpiitaire  <if  tlie  fii<- 
79.84  10  88.80,  volatile  comUiisitible  ll.'M  to  ao.ie,  ,.. 
3.90. 

ADierlCAn  Seml-bllnmlnoaa  «nd  BltunUaoa*  f'l 
(Selected  chiefly  from  vai-lous  papers  In  Tnuis.  A.  I.  M.  B.i 


^Hpcnna.  Semi-bH uminowi ; 
^^     Broad  Top,  extreiues  of  5. . 

Somerset  Co.,  extremes  Of  5 


» 


Blair  Co.,  averajte  of  5 

Cambria,  Co..  ttveraee  of  7,  ( 

lower  bed,  B.  j  ■  •  •  • 

C'ambrla  Co. ,  I ,  I 

upperbed,  C.    t 

Cambria  Co.,  South  Fork,  1 

Centre  Co.,  I   

Clearfield  Co.,  average  of  9, 1 

upper  bed,  C.  f '    ' 

Clearfleld  Co.,  average  of  8,  I 

lovrerbed,  O.  (•••• 

Cle&rfleld  Co.,  range  of  17  anal.. 

Bituminous : 

Jefferson  Co.,  average  of  86 

Clarion  Co.,  average  of  7 

Armstrong  Co.,  1 

Connellsville  Coal 

Coke  from  Conn'vflle  (Standard) 

Youghioglieny  Cool.  ..  

Pittaburgfa,  Ocean  Mine 


Moist- 
ure. 


.79 

I    .78 

J].5(V 

11.89 

1.07 

0.74 


0.60 
O.TO 

0,81 

10.41 
■<    tv 
l.»4 


1.81 
1.517 
1.18 

i.as 

.49 
1  03 

.as 


Vol. 
Hydro- 
arbon. 


18.8i 

17..<« 
14.3.1 
18..51 
26.72 

17  18 
I5..M 

iB.eo 

23  94 

SI.IO 

io.oo 
to 

JB.19 

82  .VI 
8X.60 
42.55 

ao.io 

0.01 
M.40 
89.00 


Fixed 
Ciu'buii 


re  4G 


00-  — 
68.94 

73  42 

T8  (» 
S8.7I 

00.9S 
74.08 

ee.w 

to 
T4.oa 

so  99 

M  I& 
49  00 
S9  Bl 
Si.W 
Mtb 
5T.»i 


Aah. 


The  percentage  of  volatile  matter  in  the  Kiiraning  lower  brfj 
Freeport  lower  bed  D  locreaxM  with  great  nnlforinlly  frvxii  eit*(  laC 

V..l!UiI..  :vi.!l.T  Flmrii' 

»      Clearfield  Co,  bed  D ■.■ 
B 
CUrioDCo.,        "   B : 

"    D  ...   37.;.-.  i.i  JO.SfJ  M"3 

Connellvrllle  Coal  and  Coke.    (Tmiia.  A.  I.  M.  E., 

The  OnnnellsviUe  coaUfleld.  in  the  Houthu-eHterti  pArl  of  IVnuvyH 
Rtrip  about  3  miles  wide  ami  iJO  niilrs  in  lenetli.     TlieiiiiiMI 
e<influe<l  to  the  Pittdbiirgli  xeum.  which  iiere  hiiK  Ha  beat  def 
Hlxe,  and  its  qiuiliiy   lx<9t  R<ts|>led  lo  col<e  ninking      It  ie«n« 
from  7  to  H  feel  of  coal. 

The  following  aualy.4e8  by  T  T.  Morrell  show  about  Its  ntaf  c 
tion  ; 

Moisture.  Vol.  Mat.     Fixeil  C.      AkIi       Sulphur 
Herold   Mine     ..     I.>W  28. R3  00.79  0  44  K 

iMine.         ..  O.ni  SI. 91  56.40  9.52  '" 

fiparlMg  the  coin|v«Hliioi\  o<  coiiUwcross  the  Ain 

.veiMi.di   ..f   I'l-uni-jlvmA^.  ><•  >k\W  \*>  vxomA  ■ 

Ihr  tut  V>'\<uinuv.m'»v' 
,.,\IUe  I."-   A'llVsVmvitXi  >;■ 

1  iueoaurea  of  WeaVoru  Veou^^.^  *.  .^ 


JLSALTSES  OP  COALS. 


2^ 


ilr  in  compo&illon  In  Ihe  cnnls  of  thpae  upper  anO 
the  saiiieKi^i^rapliical  licit  or  hasin. 

the  tipper  Coal-iueaaiires  iPenna.)  In  a 
Wesltvard  Order. 


Moisture. 

Vol.  Mai. 

Klxed  Garb. 

Ash. 

Sulphur 

....  1.85 

3.45 

K9.06 

5.81 

0  30 

....  0.89 

16.52 

74.28 

9.-J9 

0.71 

....  l.M 

28.85 

68.77 

5.96 

1.24 

•  .a  .       .... 

31..% 

60.30 

7.84 

1.00 

....  1.02 

S3. SO 

ei.84 

s.as 

0.8H 

....  1.41 

ST.Bti 

54.44 

5.8« 

0.04 

m  the  lioirer  Coal- 

ineaMnren 

111  a  'Wont ward 

Order, 

Moisture. 

Vol.  Mat. 

Kii«i  Cjirb. 

Asli. 

Sulphur. 
0  3«» 

....  1.35 

.3.45 

TO.Of. 

5. SI 

....   0.77 

18.18 

73. »4 

6.60 

l.OS 

.    ..   l.-)0 

87. S* 

61.81 

6.83 

a.eo 

....   1.18 

1S.54 

74.40 

5.W 

1.86 

0.92 

24.38 

Ci.-i2 

7  69 

4.flJ 

....  0.96 

S8.30 

52.03 

5.14 

3.66 

lla  and  Ohio   Bltumlnon*  Coala.    Variation 
of  Coala  or  the  name  Bed*  in  dlfTcrent  DIs- 

0  aualyH*^  iti  Ihe  reports  of  Jhtt  Peiinsvlvnuia  (if<th<«icul 
WiDK  Bre  telecleJ.  They  are  dlvidPri  Into  <lifl'fr('iil  groups, 
analyKig  in  each  group  is  glveii,  ash  and  other  impurities 
and  the  percenta(;e  in  100  of  coinbuiitihle  matter  being 


l-fa«d,  upprr  bench 

ihip,  Greene  Co 

ship.  Wa.'ibiUKtoii  Co.... 

l-bed,  lower  bench 

^p,  GreeoeCo 

r,_'WashJugton  Co 

neCo.... 

^6r«eaeCo 

jflibliiKton  Co 

kcc 

on  Co.,  areraBe  . 

■Co 

tituminous  (nhowinp 

.  mat.  to  tbe  eastward) . 

leorgetown 

Qeorgetown 

Oaio. 

ted  In  Ohio: 
)bio 

r 


No.  of    Fixed 
Analjrcea  Carbon 


.S9.73 
83.28 

60.69 
54.81 

64. S9 
60.S5 

(90.87 
I  59  II 
J63..VI 

I  .w.nr 

lUI.HO 

■(54.33 

66.44 

67. 1« 

I  75.47 

40.68 
63.57 


Vol, 
H.C. 


40,»< 
48.76 

39.31 
45.69 

35.61 
.39.65 

39.13 
40  89 
36.46 
4a.  03 
at*  IM 
4.'i  67 
33.66 
■>•  I- 
•20  ir 
'J4  .')8 

59  82 
37.43 


Carbon 
Batlo. 


1.48 
1.13 

}.&4 

1.19 

1.80 

1,52 

1.6,i 
].;») 
l.';4 
]  .i'4 
l.fil 
1.19 
1.98 

i.ar 

8  U3 
3.07 

0.68 
1.66 


Moisture.    Vol.  M»l,  fixvd  C. 


Ohio. 
HoekiDg  V«Uey 

Marvuikd. 

Cumberland..., 

ViROISIA. 
Soiitti  of  JameK  River,  -JS  lUial- 
jrmjti.  r«nK« 

Average  of  "iS 

North  of  James  Rjver.  eiMtern 
oulcrop, 

Carbonite  or  Natural  Coke 

WeHtem  outcrop,  11  aualjraei, 
raiitce 

Average  of  11 

vCastnpr  &  Currants  Circular) 
Wkht  ViHruNiA  (New  River.) 

O'liiuulnioai.t  3 analyses 

NulUlburgUt 


Luinc 
BUM  II 


W.&l 
83.13 


VisauiiA  and  Kestucky. 
DIk  •'^(one  Oap  Field,;  danat- 

yseii,  rnriiic 

KK.NTVCKV. 

Pulaski  Co.,  3  anitl^'Kea,  range 

Mulilebberg   Co.,  4 

runK* 
Kentucky  Cannel  Coals.l 5  an- 

alyges,  ranK» 

TCKKE8BKX. 

Soolt  Co.,  BauKO  of  several.f . . 

Roan*  Oo.,  Rockwood. 
llnmlUoii  Co.,  Melville 
Mnrion  Co.,  Ktna 
.SifWttiiee  Co.,  Tracy  City 
Kelly  Co..  'Whiteniae 
Ueoroia. 

PadeCo 

Alabama. 
Warren  Field: 
Jefferson  Co.,  BlmilORliam.. 
•*     Black  Cieek.. 

TiiKcaloosa  Co 

CAhabn  Field,     (  HeleBa  Veio , 

Bibb  Co    . . . .  )  Coke  Yeln.. . . 

*  Analyses  of  Pucaliontas  Coal  by  John  fait 
0.  H.  O.        N.        8. 


4.44 

4.30 


4.l»      O.W      0.61 
6.8S      0.66      0.50 


«W  from  Monsan.  »h««»^  ^*a«"««».« 


AXALYSfiS  OF  COALS. 


iL.ABAMA  COALA.    (W.  B.  FlUllips,  ^0.  <t  U.  J.,  Jiiue  8,  ]8S3.) 


I 


I/>C«tioi]. 


: : 


onhiHeleDa  .... 
Pratt  mines. 

'Brook  wood. 
.Blocton  


ood' 
oek., 

rood 


Pratt  mines. 
Brookwood. 
Blue  Creek  . 
Coalburg 


Proximate. 


»l.30«0.50  78.23 
S3  45  63. 20  T.5.8S 
S7.HOlfi8.7n,ra.47 


u.m 
:«,ei5 
31  ..w 

ai..w 

IS!fi.80 
3i.5B 


flO.WjTS  7S 
57.3tl  rO.!« 
<>l.».M7f..05 
««.a);7U.96 
60.90  7^.08 
05.57  74. SB 


30.15  52.90  60.87    10.70 


UlUmale. 


7.98 
10.42 
lO.JIH 

S.61 
10.19 

B.Bl 
lO.M 
10.77 
I0.S6 


II. pa 
7.51 
l.BO 

u.ia 

9.9S 
8.BS 
9.6' 
9,83 
9. IB 


1.7:1 
0.40 
1.48 
I. SI 
1.62 

i.sa 
I. so 

l.Sl 


1.07 
1.8(1 
1.44 
0.8H 
0.97 
\.lb 
1.03 
1.3i 


9.C0  1.!«].7S|  16.30  0.65 


1.70 
1.S6 

i.aoi 

1  9S 

\.m 
i.rs 

1.00 
1  50 

0.83 


I 
1 


•rkCoal  (J.  S.  Alexander,  Trans.  A.  I.  51.  E.,  Iv.  100).— The 
■nl  of  the  Bi-azll  (Indiana)  district  differs  In  clieinical  com- 
'le  from  the  coking  coals  of  Westeni  I'eutisylvanltt.  The 
»J  iiffircnce,  however, !«  quite  marked ;  the  hitter  ha^a  ciiliuid  Htriic- 
lule  up  of  bltmnlnons  particles  l.Tin^  apninut  each  dtljer,  sn  that  under 
itJon  of  heat  fusion  thronghont  thf  mass  readfl.v  Inken  pinco,  while 
toal  h  formed  of  alternate  layers  of  rich  bilnininoiis  nmtter  nnd  a 
wMlke  substance,  which  Is  not  only  very  slow  of  combustion,  but  «o 
•  the  traoKmliieiou  of  heat  that  agiflntinatlon  ispre-renled,  and  the 
Unuaway  layer  by  layer,  retaining  its  form  until  consumed. 
H.TB«  by  E.  T.  Coi:  a  73.SM.  H,  4.50;  O,  11.77;  N,  \.7i\  w\i,  t.W, 
tlT.  ».'!». 

"-''"lely  rariablc  fti  diameter.    T\ie  aboti  aMi- 
.•<  imperon  ■'  .•\riierIt>An  LocohioUveVrfcCttC*'* 
.  '*■„ ',"*"•  "'«  Stauuton  coal,  wb\ch  \«>Q 


IBSa  ^-    '    I  VXTBh. 

NIXon'B  NavlKation    Welsb   4'okI  la  r>'innrlcntilv  piirK,  «■! 
taius  not  iiiori;  than  ii  to  4  [M^r  cent  of  ualie^,  tc^^  '  liff^ 

lUHtrous  co)t«.    The  qiianltty  of  flxe<l   carlioii  "M 

■niouK  the  (try  coal^^,  hill  oil  aoconnt  uf  it»  <.•.■.  1/ 

buHlioa  it  b«l6nKS  to  tlie  cliDiS  of  fat.  ur  loirc  Hi 
Clit-miojil  aniily^i.t  guve  lli»  followliijj    iv^ul 
4.SS:  Hulphiir.  .69;  nitiiwii.  .49;  nxysen  idifffi'  1, 

The  analyaix  glinvved  tiie  following  <!oiiip<Mittoii  uf  lite  cuUilUe  OCBl 
bou.  2,'.a3:  hyilrr.Ki-n.  SI.W  :  O  +  N  4-  S.  ii.bi.  1 

The  hent  uf  c-uiiibuHlloii  was  found  to  be.  as  a  rrsuli  nt  mvcmIiI 
nient8,  8061  caloriMi  for  tlie  unit  of  weiKlit.     CalcuUlnl  •ccOrHai 
ootiiposition.  tlie  heat  uf  coiubuMiuu  would  be  StUK  calorirM  =  ll(,W| 
tlierina)  units  per  pound. 
Tlilu  roal  is  gHiifrnllv  ii(!p<1  in  Irini-lripsi  of  st.- 
Sanipltng  Coal  for  An*Ijrsls.-J.  V 
s.li.  .lit,  saj'R  :  The  tinsiiitabli-  sampling  nf  a  > 

I  pre  partition  of  Ihe  eample  in  llie  laboratory.  01 
terminations  of  the  ash  so  wide  in  ran^t?  as  t 
pmctieul  purpos*fS  ;  evei-y  otlier  Hinjcle  iluterntr 
Bhowing  its  relatlvB  part  of  the  error.  Tha  d'-ttiuiliittiiun  of  j 
n<h  are  eiiijet;ially  lia(>le  to  error,  oa  ihey  are  lntitnai«l>'  *» 
fil:ue.s. 
Win.  Forsytli  In  bis  papt^r  on  The  Ht<atint;  Valiif?  <•> 
AVica,  Jan.  17,  lS9"i).  says  :  This  trmiljlt-  In  KtttinK  a  f  ■ 
onthroolCe  Colli hiu;  oonipfllcd  tlie  Ueadiim  U.  K.  Co.,  1:^ 
to  lekf  a.s  much  as  •'i'Ki  lbs.  for  oni-  isamplt',  (Iran  11  <lire<_i  try 
it  stands  rendy  forsblpiiient. 
The  dii-^ctions  for  C'lilcclluK  samples  of  coal  for  analy»l«  at  th 
laboratory  arv  as  followa  : 

Two  samplea  should  lie  tnkeD.  one  luarUt^l  "avernge."  (hfOtbt| 
ICric'l:  samplM  should  contain  ai>onl  lOlliK..  niadf*  np  i>f  tiitn|* 
of  all  oraiierH  taken  from  different  part^  of  tlie  dump  or  ear,  ami  • 
that  thpy  shull  reprefieut  as  nearly  aa  potHlhle,  nm,  the  nvei-aK*  kii:  I 
Ihe  Iwst  colli 

I      An  example  nf  the  dlfTerence  betwet^n  an 
Bumplp,  taken  from  Mr.  Korsytli'R  |>aper.  Is  tl.t 
Moisture.    Vol.  Mat. 
Averaie  l.M  47  M  :i'  ^l  v  M 

Select ...     1,90  SI.TO  4«.«S  I.VI?. 

The  theoretical  evapomtive  iwwer  of  the  former  ii  rx  1  T.  IIM.* 
from  and  at  'il'.*°  per  lli.  of  coal,  uud  that  of  ilie  lai', - 
Relative  Value  of  IMne  81z«»  of  Anlh  1 
on  a  f(i-at«  coal-dust  is  commeicially  v'alui.'l>iii,  itn' 
tbracMtes  i>eiiie  sold  at  the  following  rates  (ht  ton  at  the  nmni 
to  a  recent  addresK  by  Mr.  Eckley  B.  Co.\e  1  li<BSi 

8iiu.'.  Kanice  of  Size.  Prieeakl 

IlliestNUt l^toitfi     iiicli 
Pea 3St<'»  m 
Buckwheat.. B,  iBloH 
RIcp ?<jto»7l«  . 

Barley 8/llS  tt- i  tJ  O.jlJ 

But  when  coal  is  reduced  to  u-j  tiiipal|iable  diiKt,  a  raoibiid  off 
becomes  poxiiihle  to  which   even    the  nncjil   of  tliese  hIim  I»  I 
dapted:  the  coal  may  be  blown  in  0.1  dum.  mixed  with  its  prvjwr] 
of  air.  ami  no  (na'e  at  all  U  then  reqiiliv.). 

Preitii«d  Fuel,    iF,.  F.  I.  "' 

fuel  h  IS  tje»*it  iii.'kIu  from  au;  *tl 

rent  of  its  hull<  of  dry  pitch. 
■  "■:•..'•"  F.  the  N 
■  to  •il-:'',  at 
.  .    ,•  i--*.  and  in  t 


ore  ir^Mwivvj  iu«n«  o\  «w*i.-i\>«tt 


VALUE  6P  StEAM  COALS.  633 


VALCE  OF  STEAn  COALS. 

oal  iDHv  be  determined,  with  more  or  le«8  ppprox- 
lirt^  diflerent  iiwllioils. 

jiB  ;  •■id.  Ijy  combiistiod  In  a  cijal  i-Bloriiheler  ;  3rl, 
kboiler.  The  flrsl  two  mt'thods  give  wh«i  niny  be 
ting  value,  the  tliii-d  ({ive*  (lie  praL-tionl  vnlne. 
"St  two  iiielhorlK  depeiulB  on  liie  pre<^isiloM  of  the 
doriiiK-try  adopted,  and  upon  tlie  cai¥  and  Kkill  of 
Ate  of  tlie  third  (iieihod  are  sulijecc  to  iiiiiiierons 
I  error,  and  may  l>e  taken  an  apprnxiniHtely  true 
conditions  uuder  ulilcli  ttie  lest  is  made.  Anaiysix 
*itli  considerable  acouiaoy  the  hratjuir  vahie  which 
the  cooditioQfi  or  jierCftH  conihiiKtioii  and  complete 
prodnred.  A  boiler  tj'iit  gives  the  nolnal  result  under 
esa  inii)erfect  combiiKUon,  and  of  nnnieroiis  and  va- 
give  tb«  hixhritt.  practical  hoatiiiK  value,  if  the  coudl- 
!>ft,  extent  of  heatinij  surface,  nieihod  of  lirinR,  etc., 
>r  the  paiiicniar  L-nalteKled.  Hiiil  it  may  K've  results 
»^if  these  eoutltiiuD<>are  adveitw  or  nuvuilable  to  the 

being:  so  extremely  variable,  (heir  nsn  for  the 

be  relative  steainiiiK  values  of  difTerrnt  ooalg  Ubh 

DncIusloiiH.    A   notable  inslanoe  Ls  found  in   the 

te«t«,  made  in  18(4,  tbe  only  exUMisive  neriea  of 

Ivei-  made.     He  reported  the  st>'aiiiin(c  value  of  the 

iC'o.'iicDnl  lobe  far  Ihe  lowent  of  all  the  aothra- 

iiily  explained  by  an  examinnliou  of  the  condltlona 

Jie  test,  which  were  entirely  uusuited  to  that  coal. 

tit  for  Pilttihureh  coal  which  ig  far  iH-nentli  Dint  now 

f'  practice,  bis  low  restilt  belUK  chle^y  due  to  the  use 

PronoHed  ApparatUA  for  Determining  |]i»  Heating 
Ma  (Trans.  A.I.  M.  K .  xiv.  7^7|  the  nnllior  dencribed 
M'atiiK  d^itinml  to  C<>Kt  fuel  nn  a  liireH  w;'u!t<.  nvolditiK 
Tiler  Lest.  It  couwist-i  of  a  fire-brick  furniu'eeiieluseid 
«fo  cylindrical  lihells  conlaiiilng  a  ^rpRl  numliei'  of 
lied  by  cooliug  water  and  through  which  the  gages 
being  cootud.  No  steaui  Is  geutsraied  Ui  the  ap- 
ed through  it  and  allowed  to  escape  at  a  tciupeni- 
iuct  or  the  weiglii  of  the  water  pax.'<eil  through 
>ln  temperature  18  the  measure  of  tbe  heating 

nee  of  opioioD  concerning  the  value  of  cheiiii- 

of  approxlrnatiiig  ttie  heating  power  of  coni.  It 
^-Rtueinrid  lileunler-TMllfus,  in  llieirexleiisive  series 
in  1668,  that  tlie  heating  power  aw  deternijne<)  br 
mler  than  that  given  tocbetiiliitl  analysis  accoril- 

Paria  by  51.  Mahler,  however,  show  a  much  closer 
Id  caloiimelric  tests,     A  brief  descripliim  of  thene 
e  French,  may  be  found  in  an  article  by  the  author 
I  vol.  i.  jiage  97. 
(pressed  by  the  formula, 

Bh  Tliennal  Unlt.s  i=  14,50OC  +  63,BO0  (  H  -  y).* 

r«*i>ectively  the  pereentr.ge  of  catboii,  liydrogi^ii, 
by  IHI.  A  Kliidy  ot  M.  Malder'i*  calnrinielhc  te»t« 
difference  l)etweeu  the  rcwlis  of  these  le»l«  atid 
r  power  by  Oiiloiig's  law  in  any  single  I'lLse  is  only  n 
eHiiIlK  i>f  81  tests  sliow  that  Iiulong's  foi  iniilii  glveo  an 
beriiutl  units  less  than  the  ealorhnetric  tests,  the 
le  being  over  H.OOO  thermal  unit«,  a  difference  of 


^  formula  wIth'Berthelot's  llgiire  for  tt 
I  ttiermal  units. 


N.aMo  +  la.o-is  (u  -  i?-±-?L 


634 


FUEL. 


Mabler'8  calorimetrio  apparutus   codsIkCh    of   a  Kimnr  dg 
"  bomb"  Immersed  in  water,  prnp«r  pref'n  'itoi 

atloii.    Onp  Krain  of  theooftl  In  be  tf<itfd  I  tiuinb«tt< 

tliisbonih,  oxyReo  pas  is  iiiln>luL*wl  und^T     ^  ' -^  uLn.^it 

and  the  coal  ignited  explosively  by  oti  eleilrji;  sjiai . 
plel*  and  iiistaulaneous,  tlie  beat  Is  radiated  into  t' 
weighinc  2"JO0  grams,  and  its  q\ian1ily  is  dptenniuf^  I  j 

L  tiiru  nf  tlds  water,  due  corn-cf  ions  lieing  made  for  tlie  lu  ai 
apparatus  itself.    The  afciirooy  of  the  np|>arntu!>  Is  rema 
tests  Riving  results  varyine  only  atmiit  2  jinris  in  !(">>»! 
The  L'lose  agreement  of  tlie  result-s  or  culorr" 

\  condurted,  and  of  the  heating  power  caloidHtf  1 1 

I  dicates  that  either  the  chemical  or  the  call-' 
cepted  as  correct  cnoueb  f"r  all  pi  actioal  purjMiM  -s  t. 

I  heating  power  of  coal.    The  results  obtained  by  ► 

I  taken  as  a  standard   by  which  the  results  of  a  l)oil' 
pared,  and  the  difference  between  the  total  heating  powi-r.  ajuj  iJus  r») 
the  boiler  test  is  a  measure  of  the  InefHcieacy  of  tb«  boiler  uO'lcr  Ik 
ditinns  of  any  parttcidar  test. 

In  practice  with  good  anthracite  coal,  in  a  steam  ^' 
tioned.  and  with  all  conditions  favorable,  it  la  po? 
steam  8Wof  the  total  beat  of  combustion  of  the  coal. 
obtAined  In  the  tests  at  the  Centennial  Kxhihilion  n 
boilers.  An  efficiency  of  70;t  to  7fif  may  easdy  1*  ot. 
f  ice.  With  bitinninous  coals  It  i.s  tli(n<Milt  to  obtain  i. 
the  theoretical  maximum  of  economy,  for  the  reason 
tile  combustible  portion  of  the  coal  escapes  unburne'; 
ing  rapidly  as  the  content  of  volatile  matter  increa- 

,inoat  coals  of  the  Western  States  it  is  with  diftlculty  timl  . 

^ASf  of  the  tlieoretical  efnciency  can  be  oblatDed  without  ili' 
ducers. 

The  chemical  analysis  heretofore  referred  to  is  th' 
the  percentage  of  carbon,  liviliogeu.  and  oxygen  of  Ih 
however,  from  a  study  of  .uahlera  teat.^  that  the  pi  ^ 
gires  tbced  ctirlwn,  volatile  matter,  moisture.  Ji' 
giring  a  tneaj^ure  of  tlie  heating  value  with  a  li' 

After  deilucllng  the  moisture  and  asli,  and  cah'.  -i 

percentage  of  the  coal  dry  and  tree  from  ash,  the  aulliui  luvs  cmim 
following  table : 

Approximatc  HsATUta  Valce  or  Coaia 


Percentage 

Heating 

Equiv.  Water 
Evap.  from 

Percentage 

Heating 

3 

K.  C.  in 

Value 

F.  C.  in 

Value 

JM 

Coal  Diy 

B.T.U. 

and  at  -.•I'J' 

Coal  Dry 

B.T.O. 

<SB 

and  Kree 

per  lb. 

per  lb. 

and  Free 

jwrlb. 
Ootnb'to 

^H 

from  Ash. 

Comb'le. 

Combustible. 

from  Ash. 

ocAl 

100 

11300 

Jfi.OO 

08 

l(MW 

97 

UTOO 

IS.iS 

B3 

1SI«> 

A| 

04 

i5ia) 

16.(16 

60 

14U0 

iM 

W 

IMSO 

18.03 

or 

14040 

%iM 

87 

laioo 

IC.2I 

54 

IStU 

at 

80 

inmo 

10.40 

M 

l:M0n 

UJt 

T2 

xteea 

10. Ul 

BO 

r^.'ii) 

til 

Below  MH  the  law  of  decrease  of  heatlng-po»  ' 
|«nltv  <lo«8  not  hold,  as  gome  eannel  cnnU  ami 
I  heating  power  than  would  be  pretlii 

Th'-'  nw  of  this  table  may  Ix-  stio'' 

Cirf'n  <\  cofil  cmralidnp  moietuv" 


JiTlXK  VALUE  OF  STEAM   COALS.  635 


ityM 


lethat  can  beobtnlnnl  In  praciicc  from  ihlti  <K>al   would' 
.«i.......,,,-  ,,f  i],p  boiler,  aort  ihi«  lareely  upon  Ihe  dffflrult: 

tiitile  coiiiliustllilo  mutrtT  in  ilit?  builor  funiB<j 
uld  bo  oljtaiiierl,  llien  llie  tvapornliou  j)er  lb. 
;,^    -.. ■,■.,!  t)e  14.4-J  x  .li.">  =  'J.;^?  Ihs. 

iihi-aciie  coal,  in  wlilcli  llie  combusllble  portion  ig,  say.  07% 
\i  volatile  iiiacl«r.  tlie  hif^h&it  ivsiilt  that  cnn  he  expet-ted 
Ih  all  conditioDS  favorable  is  Mi  lb«.  of  water  evapiirated 
Jer  lb.  of  C'.mbU'ililile.  which  i.s  W>t  of  1&2H  lbs.  Ihe  Ihe* 
wer.  Willi  iliebe.st  eeiiiibltutiiiiioii.sooalK,  siwh  lis  Cunj' 
lonia.'i.  ill  which  Ihe  ftxed  caibon  is  60*  of  ilie  lutal  com 
or  70S  of  the  thi'on  tical  16.4  lbs,  may  beolitainwl.  For 
ritli  a  Hxed  cnrhoii  ratio  of  (W;t.  II  lbs.,  or  (iW  of  ihe  then- 
ioboiit  the  lieut  prBclicalljobniiiiablewllh  the  bent  lioilers. 
)hio  eoals,  with  h  fixed  farbon  nitjn  of  t'OS.  10  Kir,,  or  MS 
1S.09  Ihs..  h<i«  been  olilained.  uiitler  favorable  coiidltinnf, 
arch  over  the  furnace.     Wilh  ctiala  mined  west  <vf  Ohio, 

ralitw,  the  boiler  efflclency  in  not  apt  lo  Iwas  liiRlj  nuiirs. 
rex  a  table  of  probable  maziinuni  boilerlen  re>uils  from 
tlxcd  carbon  ratios  may  be  ooii!itrLu.-ted  as  l'ullo\ta: 

i> 97  80  OR  W  M  BO 

£  313*  pur  lb.  coinbustible,  iiiaxliiiuiii  iu  boiler  lestH: 

ri.-i        isj.5        II  10  S.3         7.0 

[•erceiit SO  70  68  06  80  55 

illation,  iinp«rfectcoMibnslion,  etc: 

■JO  84  31  31  40  45 

)«tween  the  Ions  of  20^  with  amhrnciie  and  the  greater 
her  coals  is  ehietly  due  to  Itnperfecl  ooiiihn.>e:tion  of  the 

tbe  more  faiebly  volatile  cobIb  sending  up  the  oldniiiey  llie 
>f  wiioke  and  iiiiburued  liydrooarbon  t'HseB.  It !»  a  tueoKiire 

of  the  boiler  furnace  and  nf  the  ineillctency  of  heatlng- 
I  the  depotiitfoq  of  gnol.  the  Initer  being  primnrily  cnused 
ion  of  Ihe  <3rdMi6ry  furnace  ami  its  iiiisiii  I  ability  to  the 
r  bitatninoiin  coal.  If  in  r.  boilerlest  with  an  ordinnry  fur- 
sare  obtained  thai]  ihoi>e  in  the  al>ove  table,  ii  Is  au  inilioa- 
ble  conditions,  such  as  bad  flring,  wroHt  |)r<iportiorR  of 
Iraft,  and  the  like,  which  ai-e  renieiliable.  Hi^ner  lexultH 
inly  wllh  gas-iiriMlnc-ers,  or  other  styles  of  furnace  espe- 
rsniokeless  conihns^tlon. 
mace  Adapted  for  Different  Coaln.    iFrom  the 

I  "The  Eva  pom  live  Power  of  BitiiniinoUB  Coals,"  'I'runa. 
i7.)— Almost  any  kiari  of  n  furnace  will  be  found  well 
1^  anthracite  eoal:<  and  setul-hituminoiiH  coaM  crntaininf; 
volaiile  matter.     Prtitably  the  best  furnate  for  burning 

eonlniii  lietween  tHW  and  -IC^  volatile  nintter,  incUuiiug  the 
iVejHh,  Nova  , Scotia,  and  the  l-'ittshiirpli  nuil  Mcmontrnhela 
Lain  Rrale  bnr  fiiniace  wirh  a  fire-brick  arch  thrown  over 
i  of  keeping  the  conibiistinn-clianiber  lboroiii;lily  hot.  The 
nalB  contalniuK  over  40;^  volaiile  matter  will  lie  n  furnace 
e-briok  with  a  laree  conibtistionohaniber,  and  some  »pe- 

inlrodiiciii^;  very  net  air  to  the  Ka-''e.-<  ili.-^lilled   from  the 
ly.  a  seiiarnte  gss-prodiicer  niid  coinbn.mion-clianiber,  with 
Inir  lio'li  ;iir  and  i;n.«i  lief'iiT  they  unite  in  (be  coiiibiiRlion- 
■  r  furnace  to  be  e?ipec<ally  avoid  d  In  bitruluj?  all 
r  over  SOS  of  volniile  niniler  is  (lie  oidiuai-y  fur- 
<iH  directly  above  Ihe  Kinle  har.-t.  ami  in  which  the 
of  llie  l.oiler  are  direcily  eximsed  lo   ruiliatioii  fnnn    the 
The  quetitlon  nf  ndniiltlnK  air  above  the  urate  is  still  un- 
ion JPni/it>#rr  recently  «aid:  "  All  our  experience,  extending 

goes  to  Hliow  that  when  the  production  of  smoke  is  pre- 

(leTicef  for  ndinittlDK  air,  either  there  isun  Incieace  in  the 
U'l  or  a  diminution  in  the  production  of  steam.  *  *  •  The 
nter  yet  deTiwd  is  n  good  flreinan. " 

•Oravebi  Mfaruacem,—niice\\{.  experiiiieitU  »Uov<  rtitA 
coal  coiisiilfrut.l^  saving  iiliiy  be  nittdo  bv  Cbtismx  vYv* 
itnrdu  from  thf  rrcshlyfli-fd  coal  througli  l\v«   \\oV  co«\ 


636 


FUEL, 


Calortmeirle  T«st«  of  Aiuerlran  C'mmtm,-} 

leats  of  Ameiican  ami  foielKii  coals,  inadt>  Mtilh  ^^oxj^m 
<<eo.  H.  Barnw<Traug.  A.  8.  M.  E,.  vol.  xl*-.  ftiej,  IkefMi^ 
sbowlng  tlie  rang«  of  vfti'imiou: 


Seml-hititminota. 
George's  CrTt,  Cuinberi'd,  Hd.,10  tests 


Pocahontas,  Vo. ,  6  tests 

New  River,  Va.,  6  twts 

KIk  Gnrdeo,  Ya.,  1  test 

Welsh.  I  lest 

liUlLltlhlOUM, 

Viiiigliiogheny,  Ps.,  lump  — 

•'  "    slock 

Froiileiiac,  Kansas   

rfl.(H>  Breton.  (Caledonia) 

I^jkiicoz^bire,  Kng 

AJ'J/i  rarile,  1 1  tests 


EvapormtlTe  Power  of  BltnmlB«a» 

(Tests  with  Babcock  &  Wilcox  BuIlei'B,  Ti-nns.  A.  A.  M 


Name  of  Coal. 


I.  WvW.  ,  ,  ^ 

'  t\.woltt'»,  fll  . 

••    Nil  Tool  lump 

I  o«(leS1innnon,  nr 

pitUb'Bli,   %   nut. 

J  ill  '•  run  nt  mine" 
.•  ImJ,  hliick,  "very 

Sooil" 
aoksoti.  O  .  nut ,. 
•'•  HInunton.  Ill  .nut  , 
ent""  ^on"fnliiK« 


1.«       • 


COKE. 


637 


fl.  London,  EtikUdi)  ;  S.  Feacedale,  R.1;  S.  Cincinnati.  O. ; 
Pu.;  5.  Chicago,  III.:  8.  Sprlngneld,  O.;  7.  Sou  Francisco, 

«Je)it8  the  fiirnoce  »88  giipplleil  with  a  flre-brli'k  arch  for 
"**  lion  itt  heat  from  tlt*^  coal  directly  to  the  boiler. 

f  Coal.  (I.  P  Kiiiiholl.  Tiniia.  A.  I.  JI.  K.,  vlli.  aW.)— 
or  liiK  nestliFrlne  of  dial.  wliUu  KOmi-times  increasing 
iftht.  if)  to  (hiiiliilHli  the  iiimiitily  of  cnrbon  and  ilinpooable 
to  iiicr<>H!i9  ili>>  qiiunlliy  of  iix.vkcu  and  of  lud i»poiia Lie  hy- 
I a  rediunlon  In  llie  raluiilii:  value, 

EyritTS  in  cool  tends  to  produce  rapid  oxidalion  and  lueclian- 
)n  of  the  iiiasH.  wiHi  durelopuii-uC  of  hear.,  losii  of  ci^klng 
lAneoiiH  ignition. 

recittbie  resultK  of  the  wcnthciliiK  of  anthracite  wiihln  the 
of  expoMire  of  stotkrd  crial  are  conttned  to  ihr?  oxulation  of 
jrrites.  Ill  cokiiiK  i-oiil!<.  liowuvcr,  wvntlieriiiK  rt^iici's  and 
I  ih<r  cokinK  iM>«er.  while  the  [ryriteH  areoonvOTted  from  tilt' 
Mtl^  liitocoTnpHrativeiy  innomoii9  sidphates. 
(t  that  nt  a  lempei-ntuic  of  15»<°  to  1B0<"  Fahr.,  three  coals  lost 
*  au  averau'e  of  ;1C;(  of  caloriDc  power.  (See  alao  paper  by 
Traus  A.  1.  M,  E.,  iv,  5S.) 

COKE. 

flid  material  left  after  evanoratiiie  tbeTolatflr  ingredlenti  of 
Cleans  of  parliiil  eoiiibuiitron  In  lurnaceft  called  enke  ovt-ns, 

a  ill  the  relorts  of  ^n»-wurks. 

ovens  i»  pief>-rivd  to  jths  coke  as  fuil.    It  is  of  a  dark-gray 

tly  nietaliio  lustre,  porous,  brittle,  oiid  hard. 

n  of  ci.ke  yielded  by  a  given  neiglit  of  coal  Is  very  different 
Bdx  of  colli.  i-»ii|>iiiK  from  0.9  to  n.HR. 

^roiiH  texture,  it  readllj-  aitriicis  and  relaliiK  water  from  the 
ft  Boiiieiiiiiei',  if  it  is  kci)t  without  proper  shelter,  from  0.16  to 

•  eight  coiiKiMs  of  niflstnre. 

Analyseii  or  Coke. 

rt  of  John  R.  Procter,  Kentucky  Geological  Survey.) 


per 


Where  Hade. 


■a.      (AverofT^  of  3  samples), 
feno.  ••        "4        '• 

la.  "        "  4        "       . 


Vo. 
|Ky^ 


Fixed 
Carbon 

Aah. 

88  D6 
HO. SI 
ST.afl 
W  58 
08.38 
93.23 

i>.T4 
16. »l 
10.54 

5.7J 

r,2i 

6. Off 

Sul- 
phur. 

0,810 
I.6QS 
I.IW) 
0.B97 
0.56;> 
0.74U 


ItlinenM  In  Coking.    Cohkbi,i,bvii.le  Reqion. 
(John  Fulton,  .^wi^i-.  Mft:,  Feb.  10.  1893.) 


Bee«TeT7  of  Sy-im»dii(rta  In  Coke  nfmnaf 

iiiinv  coDSidei°)ible  pro^rMa  hox  w^a  inad<^  In  Uie  rrcivu 
The  HolTnian-Olto  oven  baa  beeu  riioul  larguly  used,  ila 
tx-luK  >J>ai  it  is  ronnect«d  with  rei^DPrators.  Id  iSM 
g3-au<iii  were  niniiiug,  and  in  ISQS  llie  number  had  increasi 
A  Hoffman  Otto  oven  in  Westphalia  tnkps  a  change  of  " 
and  couverU  it  inio  colie  in  4H  Lours.  The  prcHluct  of  i 
Wis  (Oils  111  l)ie  Ruhr  di8(rict,  11T0  tiuis  in  !«ilosla,  aud  960 
tilot.  The  yield  from  dry  coal  Is 75*  to  TTS  '  f  c. .ke.  •Z.T<f  to 
to  \.ifot  Biilpbatf  of  ainiiioiiin  hi  llie  Ruhr  diairict;  03^ 
4.i))lof  tar,  and  lito  1.25*  of  sultiliatt-of  ainnKiitin  in  theU 
and  66X  to  i-i%  of  cuke,  ijl  to  ^.SKof  tar  nnd  1.6;  to  t.Vf  ofsu) 
in  th«i  Saar  dlntriot.  A  group  of  00  Hoffman  ovens,  iberefi 
the  followinE: 

^^^^-  "^ll:      ; 

Ruhr S1,«X) 

Upp«"r  Silesia 48.000 

8«ar 40.500  1 

An  oven  which  hao  been  iiitmductad  lately  into  Germi 
with  the  recovery  of  t>y-prnducts  is  the  Seinet-Solvay,  wbl' 
tliaa  the  HoffinanOlto,  and  for  this  reason  T'if  to  T7<  of  | 
mixed  with  iSif  to  STK  of  coal  low  in  volatile  matter,  and  j 
cuke.    Mlitun'8  of  this  kind  yield  a  Inr^r  perQentage  oCi 
otlier  hand,  ihe  amount  of  gas  is  lessened,  and  therefore  it 
ainmoiiia  is  lint  so  great.  ■ 

In  the  manufacture  of  coke  from  soft  coal  in  retort  ovei 
ih'MB  couslruoted  so  as  to  save  the  by-products  formed  in 
allons,  llie  colte  has  the  diaadvanta^^e  of  bein^  more  pQ 
iiinre  easily  crushed  cell-walls  than  when  the  same  coal 
ordinary  beehive-oveu. 

References;  F.  W.  Luerman.  Verein  Dentscher  Ki!«en] 
/r/i»i  Aff',  .March  31,  ISWi  .4Hier.  Ufr.,  April  38,  1803.  Ai 
of  artkiles  on  the  mauiifaeture  of  coke,  by  John  Kiillon,  ol 
Im  iiulitishfil  in  llie  /'oUin-ij  Eiinineer,  beKinuing  in  Jaiiuai; 

Maklns  Hard  Cokie.— J.  J.  FronheUier  and  O  S 
lirla  Iron  (.'u.,  Ji>liii!iii>wti.  i'a.,  have  mode  an  improvenn 
factiiiv  by  mIiIcIi  coke  of  nii^  dveree  of  hardness  may  be 
ai-cumpllshed  by  flist  grlnibng  tlio  coal  to  a  coarse  powi 
with  a  hrdrate  of  lime  (it.lr  or  vrater  slacked  cniiHtic  I 


ei 


[ 


WOOD  AS   FUEL.  639 


^^e  coke  1h  Terr  Ifght,  38, 36,  and  33  lbs.  are  regarded  as  a  biii<)icl. 
rrom  42  to  50  Ills,  nie  (fiven  as  the  weight  of  s  bushel  ;  in  this  case 
r-iiid  he  (jtittH  li*^avv. 

cfs  ortlie  Dimillatlon  of  Coal.-S.  P.  Sadlei's  HaiKllxiolv 
OrKJinlc  Clit^iiiisiry  K'^es  a  illagrain  sliowiiie  otpt  50  oliciiiiinl 
\  are  derived  from  tiistillai  ion  of  conl.  Tlie  firsf  litrlvalives  are 
_>liqiior,  cnal-tar,  and  coki?.  From  (he  gas-liquor  are  derived 
ad  sulphate,  chloride  and  carbonate  of  ammonia.  The  coal-tar 
into  oiI.s  liRhler  than  water  or  cruria  naphtha,  oils  lienvic r  than 
lerwlstf  dead  oil  or  tar.  coniraonly  called  crcosute,— and  pitch. 
;wo  foriner  arp  ilnrivpfl  a  variety  of  rheinical  products. 
e  enal-tar  there  comes  an  ainiost  endless  chain  of  known  conihina- 
ft  Rreatesl  inriuslry  based  iiixSn  their  use  is  tlit?  luatiiiracture  of 
the  enormous  exieiil  to  which  this  has  Rrown  can  he  iudeeri  from 
at  there  are  over  CiKUlifrnrent  coal-tar  colors  in  use,  oiiarittiiy  more 
et  an^"  too  expensive  I'or  this  purpose.  Alatiy  ruf  ilicinal  prppara- 
f  from  thcserirs,  pitch  for  piivirg  piirposew,  and  chemicals  for 
irat>her,  the  rubher  manufacturers  and  tanners,  as  well  an  for 
;  liinl>er  aud  clolh». 

ipoeilion  of  the  hydrocarbons  in  a  soft  coal  is  itDceHain  and  quite 
but  tbe  ultimate  analysis  of  the  average  coal  shows  that  it  np- 
quite  nearly  Iti  the  ciimpo-sition  of  CH4  (marsli-goM).  |W.  H. 
rrans.  A.  I.  M.  E.,  xx.  6ia.) 

MTOOD  AS  FCEI>. 

rhen  newly  felled,  conlahis  a  proporllon  of  moisture  which  variea 
1  in  different  kinds  niiJ  in  different  speeitnens,  ranging  between 
|t,  and  Ix-inp  on  an  averaRe  about  40^.  After  9  or  12  iiiuutha'  ordi- 
ig  in  the  atr  the  proportion  nf  uiolstMre  is  from  30  to  35J.  This 
dryness,  or  almost  |>erfec(,  dryness  if  required,  can  lie  rirndiiced 
lays'  drying  In  an  oveu  supplied  with  air  at  about  '-HO"  !•.  Wiieu 
ke  is  used  as  the  fuel  for  that  oven.  1  )b.  of  fuel  suffii'ei;  to  expel 
B,  of  moisture  from  the  wood.  This  is  the  result  nl'  c xperitnenta 
B  scale  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Napier.  If  air  dried  wood  were  used  as 
■e  OTein,  from  3  to  S)^  lbs.  of  wood  would  probably  be  required  to 
lie  name  effect, 

ciflc  gravity  of  dilTerent  kinds  of  wood  ranges  from  0.1  to  1,3. 
y  dry  woo<I  contains  about  MJ  of  carbon,  the  reniaiiider  couiiisting 
iilrely  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  In  the  prnportious  which  form 
»e  coniferou;!  family  contain  a  ^^nlnII  quantity  of  turpentine,  which 
>cart)on.  The  proporilou  of  a-sli  in  w  oori  is  from  tji  to  !>%.  The 
.  of  combustion  of  nil  kindH  of  woo<i,  whun  dry,  is  almost  ex- 
lame.  and  is  that  due  to  the  OOf  <if  carbon. 

ve  fs  from  Rankine:  but  according  to  the  table  by  S.  P.  Sharpless 
.1.  W.,  iv.  36,  the  ash  varies  fromO.tW?  to  LaCjC  in  Amerlcau  woods. 
uel  value,  instead  of  being  the  same  for  all  wooiIb,  ranges  from 
fblte  oak)  to  S5IB  calories  {for  long-leaf  pine)  =  (IfKKl  to  8888  British 
nils  for  dry  wood,  the  fuel  value  of  0.50  lbs.  carbuu  being  7272 

ne  V«lne  of  Wood.— The  following  table  is  given  in  geveral 
tererence.  autliorlly  and  quality  of  coal  referi'e<i  to  not  stated. 
)(ht  of  one  cord  of  different  woodE  (thoroughly  sir-dried>  is  al)Oul 

rbanl  maple <l5Mlbs.equal  to  JSOOIhs.  coal.  (Others  give  SOfO.) 

J 38S0    "  "      IMO    "      "     (         "  171S.) 

land  black  oak..  8350    "  "      13U0    "      "    (        •'  H60.) 

lestnut,  and  eira..  2850    "  "       9)0    "      "     (         '  ioaO.> 

gepine     -   2«M    "  •'        800    ••      "     (         •  9-^5., 

ig  to  the  figures  in  the  laat  column,  it  is  said  : 

,e  above  it  Is  safe  to  assume  that  2)4  lbs.  of  dry  wood  are  equal  to 

ige  quality  of  soft  coni  and  tliat  the  full  value  of  ihe  same  wvight 

it  woods  is  very  nearly  tlie  same — tliat  is,  a  poiuid   of  itickory  is 

more  for  fuel  I'baii  a  pound  of  pine,  assunune  l>oth  to  be  dry.     It 

nt  that  tlie  wood  lie  dry,  as  each  lOU  of  water  or  moitslure  in  wood 

;t  about  I23(  from  its  value  as  fuel, 

an  average  wood  of  the  analysis  O  Mf,  n  8.f.!t,  O  48,W,  «itC\iO.M>, 

irj,  Its  /u«>l  value  per  pouad,  acaordiag  to  DuloDg's  tortnu\ik,  V  = 


I 
I 

I 
I 

I 


640 


PUEL. 


[n,r«)C  ^-  W.OOOiH-^)],  is  8irO  IJriiiHh  tliemial  iinJt? 

or  lln.iiily  diieJ  in  nil'.  eoiitailiH  Jj!(  or  Jnoiuture.  tlitii  Oi" 
iioiiiid  or  euoli  wood  N  Hiipi^  quurtpis  of  ?|T0=  "■  ■"  ■ 
heat  [i-qijirwl  to  hwal  ami  pvnporaie  tlii!  tij  lb.  of  «-m  > 
teuiperaiure,  atid  t-*  li  titt  itie  steMiii  mode  from  tin 
lure  of  till'  (■biiiiney  K'<?e-'*-  '^i'  l'"*"  lieat-unlts  |ier  |K' 
'Jl'^°.  0(16  uiiit8  lo  evaiMirato  It  at  lliut  ti'iiipl'ruliP' 
raise  llie  leinperatiin'  of  lli«  sie<«iu  to  4'.'0'  F,,  or  1,' 
wliicb  Bubtmcicd  fnim  l^^»!  ttl'-7.  Ii'«v<?s  58'2J  hem  iinii^  »-. 
.  nf  Uie  wood  per  pound,  or  alKMit  0.<  Hint  of  a  pound  of  carboii.i 

rompoMtlon  of  Wood. 

(Analysis  of  Woods,  by  M.  Kuijeue  Che*iuittier.1r| 


Woods. 


CoinposiUoD. 


Carbon.     Hydrogen.     Ozyfcen.  I  Ni 


Bwch 
Oiik  ... 

Itiiuh 

I'liplar 

Willow 


\yerage  . 


4i  SfiK 
49. rA 
fiO.-JO 
49.37 
•19.96 


49.7W 


6.0I)( 

S.Bt 

6.90 

e.ai 

5.96 


6.06:( 


41  1« 
41  OS 
41.00 
89,46 


4l.30f 


I  O-f 


Tlie  followinK  table,  prepared  by  M.  Violette,  shoK'D 
wiitiT  i^xpolled  frotii  wood  at  Kradiuilly  incr«aiiiiiK  Ituiiptj 


Teraperature, 


*%;»  I'ahr 
aW"  Kiihr. 
:ii;«  Fnhr 
■■«>.'  P'nlir 
l»;°  Puiir 


Water  EEp«'ll«d  from  100  PitiUut  W 


dale. 


17  03 
m.l.'i 

44.81 


Aali. 


14.'78 
10.19 

ST.6I 
83  38 


Cttti. 

IS  3.' 

17  (M 

40  M 


Wi 


Thi>  ivoml  nprrnted  Upon  barl  IkwII  l(«p(  In  ■toi'e  dllrlOK  liro| 
wo  .li  tvlili'li  liuK  bfii-ii  HCiuugly  ilritHl  b3-  meAim  ofarliflclAl  Im 
p  ISC  1 1  lo  llitf  iiliiiim|ilierM,  11  ivabiorlM  atiuiil  an  iiiiicll  watfri 
III  iiMuIr  drie  I  stale. 

.4  c'inl  ii/  miixl  =  I   .;  I  y  8  =  1  ' 
iiili'i^lllUi  H|iueeti,    (Jluivii.H  Bull 

13  E.  I''fitiow  uivt's  till- pt-r  wilt  • 
irlally  lu  l'rU!«ia<J   C.  1.  W.,  vol.  iii.  p. 

TiiiilH-r  coniB,  74.<I7;(  =  HO  cu.  ft.  i>er  cords 
Kirewood  coi'du  (n»«M'  0"  diam.),  B9  44*  =  75  cu.  ft,  p^r < 
•'  Billet  ■'  Oi|vjH(ov«r3"dinlil.l.  M.&M  =  tW  cil.  fl.  ftcf  i 
"  Brush"  wooils  less  Ihiu  3"  diaiii..  lfi.&-J!«;  RuoU,  ST.C 

ClI.tRCOAI.. 

Olinreoitl  Is  iiiadt-  liyevapoi-ailni;  tliv  v.ilfttilo  <?oti»llfiii-nt»  i 
pi'nt,  oltlif^r  by  A  pHiiinl  coiiibu^lu  1 
rlmiTe>l.  ci>v<>Ved  witli  »  liiy<'ror  • 

\ ll.n  ..f  rii.'l  In  ,1  riiriiaiv.  Ill  will' 

f*?i ' 

A'  UW  parU  b){r  w«itr)it  of  nrixKl  irbi^  t 

I  i»rta  by  wv^\i\.  u(  vVkUcokV,  tul  «li 

iniLry  cow4V\vott  ot  VW»  '•»«A  »M»i^' 


CHABCOAL. 


641 


D^  Uie  partial  combustion  In  a  heap,  and  aboul  one  Quarter 
nation  in  a  retort. 

ir(s  l»y  weight  of  wood  In  a  retort,  I2J^  iiarlii  of  uowl  jmurI 
fuinnci?.  jfeuci?  in  ihis  proci'SH  the  wridle  cxpt-nitituie  of 
.  from  28  to  30  pnnH  of  cliarcoal  is  ll'JJi  tiarts;  sii  lliai,  if  Ihu 
coal  obtuineil  Is  conipareit  willi  i,Ii«  wlinle  wt-iuht  of  wood 
nouiit  is  from  2<iii  lo'iif;  oud  tlit-  prnporiloii  lost  isi  on  an 
fa:  14  —  0.3,  neftrly. 
Peclet,  sood  wood  charcoal  eontaiDs  nhoiat  n.07  of  its  weiglit 
jportlou  of  asli  In  peat  cliarodai  la  very  variable,  and  is  cs- 
iverage  at  about  O.^H.    (UHoltine.> 

Hloii  ooncprningri'liarcool  niny  In-  found  in  the  Journal  of  llie 
_  rorkeis'  AfSii.,  vol?.  J.  lo  vi.  From  Ihla  liource  the  tullowinf; 
een  tnken:  , 

r  CUarcoal  from  a.  Cord  of  Wood.— From  ih  to  50 
le  ci'i'l  in  Ihe  kiln,  and  from  30  to  a."i  in  tlit-  nieiler.  Prof.  EkIps- 
«.  A.  1.  M.  E..  viii.  Z'X).  lyiyt*  the  ylfid  fruni  liiliix  in  the  Ijike 
region  is  often  f  roiii  M)  to  CO  buslielB  for  hard  wood  aiid  50  for 
,he  averaue  is  about  .iO  liiLvliplw, 

Dt  yield  per  cord  depends  largely  upon  whether  the  cord  i»  a 
}  en.  ft.  or  not. 

auths'  lest  of  a  liiln  at  Goodrich,  Tenn..  Dr.  H.  Jt.  Pierce  found 
ollows:  Dimensions  of  kiln— iinside  diaraoter  of  base,  S8  fr,  8  ill. ; 
ing  of  arch,  26  ft.  8  in.;  heigtit  nf  nails,  8  ft.;  rise  of  arch,  6  ft.; 
cords.  HiKhe^l  yield  rif  charcoal  per  cnrd  of  wood  (iiieusiired) 
s,  lowest  50.14  b^l^llelK,  averaee  63.05  blLlhels. 
nrk;es  12.  leiiirlli  of  each  turn  o^  period  from  one  charging  to 
days.     (J-  C.  I.  W.,  lol.  vi  j)  26.) 

■  Irom  Different  nethodB  of  Cbarcaal-inakiiiK. 


^■ethoda. 


^  experiments 
rUi,  fuel  vjl 


E' 


Character  of  Wood  used. 


a 


ins,  fiiel  in- 

^eas,  av.  rMuItb, 

k,  av.  results 
lerw     excep- 

elleni,av.  rcsultx 
kilns,  av.  rmultH 
dlera,  av.  re- 


Birch  dried  at  280  F 

1  Air  dry,  av.  good  j'el-  I 
<  low  pine  weighing  - 
(      abt.  28 1 1)8.  per  cu.  ft.  I 

J  (iood  dry  fir  and  pine,  I 
I      mixed.  | 

1  Pool-  wood,  mixed  fir  t 
)     and  pine  f 

IFIr  nntl  wldtepine 
wooil.  mixed.  Av.  2S 
lbs.  per  cu.  ft. 
1  Av,  pond  yellow  pine 
J.  wei^hlnK  abt.  «5  Iba. 
I     per  cu.  ft. 


Yield. 


ES-ai 


.0 

05.8 

Sl.O 

TOO 
TJ.g 

sa  s 


as. a 

34. ^> 

37.7' 

•25  8 

24 

1R  3 
!».0 

17.1 


SI 
•S|| 

M 


64,3 

66.7 

630 
60  15 

4S.0 

a%o 


15.7 
1.S.7 
IS. 3 

18.3 

13.3 
IT  5 

17.5 


j(l4>ii  or  C'barcoal  in  Blaat-rnriiitcei*  per  Ton  of 

i}  averttije  coiiMiinpliuii  accurdiuK  tu  Cfiisus  nf  ItiWi,  ).14  toiiH 
fer  ton  of  pig.  Tlie  con^iinipiinn  at  the  l)esl  furiince^  is  iniicli 
average.  As  luw  tin  0  t>iH  ton,  is  recorded  of  (h0  Morgan  fuinnce; 
»>,  0.«W;  Klk  Uapids,  (l>iH4.    iIWW.) 

|»tlon  or  Wafer  and  of  Gaoe*  hj  Clmml^-SvedUiu, 
l-Ooi'k  for  clmrcual  burners,  pi'  :         '   '  " 

t:     KreHli   cijarconl.  aiso  reiieui 
■    hilt    ithrff    rnijlf'l   it    ninftrh': 

■'  ' '-     "  "^ty  cdiitain  c  ■     ■ 

f  c'Jtjtretifll  I:' 
or  a/)  n  i  r 


I 

I 


H.  Sauasure,  operaUng'  with  bIcNska  of  Una  boxvnwd  i 
burnt,  toanH  that  by  simply  placing  such  blocks  In  cootaM 
gases  tliey  absorbed  them  in  the  following  proporttoo: 

Voluniee. 

Ammonia  W.OO 

Hydrochloric  aeld  gas 8S.00 

Swlphtiroii«  aoiil fiS.OO 

SulphurT^tie.i  liydrocen     55.00 

Nitroai  ojcide  (iaughing-eas). .  40.00 
Carbonic  acid ...35.00 


Carbonic  oxide... 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Carburettevi  hjdrogiM. 
Hydrogen 


i 


Tt  is  this  enormous  absorptive  power  tiiat  rentlere  of  so 
comparatively  flight,  sprinkling    •■ 
preventive  of  the  escape  of  odor^ 

Inaboxorc»*e  contaiiiing-  oii' 
without  mectianical  compression  a  liult.-  jv. 
repre«ie»ting  a  nijwhanical  prf*t&ure  of  on^-  lit 
to  the  square  inch.     From   tlie  store  thus    i 
dravm  by  a  .>-niall  band-pump. 

CanipotttUou  of  Chareoal  Prod  need  at  VmtIobi 
lurea.    (By  M  Vioiette.; 


I 


Temperalure  of   Car- 
bonization, 


I 


Ont. 

lay 
ano 
«o 

800 

S!SO 

«H 

1<WJ 


Fahr. 

as» 

i& 

fi6S 

810 


Comiioiiilion  of  the  SoJM  Produel 


Carbon. 


Per  cent, 
■«7.51 
51.82 
65.S0 
73.»l 
T6.M 

ei.64 

81-97 


Hydro- 
gen. 


Per  cent. 

a.n 

S.M 
4.81 
4.SS 
4.14 
4.D6 
«.9Q 


Oxygwi. 


Per  cent. 

46.aa 
43.se 
x.vr 

81.90 
18.44 
IS. 94 
14.15 


Tile  wood  (fxpcriinenteti  on  vras  that  of  black  alder,  or 
which  riiriii.<>lies  a  charcoal  suitable  for  gunpowder.    It 
dried  at  ISO  de«.  C.  =  aoi  deg.  F. 


nnscELLANEors  solid  FrEI.S 

Dnirt  Poei  Dnat  Exploalona.  —Dust  when 
MUCii  exireiti*'  rapl'liry  ax  in  some  cases  to  cause  ex 
flour-mill'  '  ■  attributed  U)  tgoition  of  the  d 

Bxperini'  <<  <d  in  1876  on  the  effect  of  coal 

mines  gli  a  dusty  passage  the  flame  ftv< 

travel  5<)  V  in  I-;      iri>r.  F.  A.  Aoel  fTrans.  A.  I.  *'  '" 
duot  in  mines  much  promotes  and  extends  e\ 
ily  b*- hr*-Ki!ri»t  into  operation  a«  a  fler^i-ly  t»  i 

-    -    '•-   1  s  far  at  ita  ni i '"'■   i-     Tii-mm.  nii<i  ^_ 

though  ih>-  small  proportkn  < 

•  mine     Tb-  •■  of  theemnS    "" 


w-a.  tw     

»ca^v«n  CbB  v<>w*«' 


MISCKLLANKOCS  SOLID   FUELS.  043 

■-box.  When  Itiig  powder  is  once  Ignited,  aiul  it  \n  very 
'  first  laiHiiiK  iIih  lining  t«  a  lilgh  tetni>t;ratiire  bj'  an  opeii 
Btiou  eoritiiiui>s  in  an  intense  aud  r(>K»lur  inuoner  iindtr  the 
Brreni  of  air  wliioh  cairlra  it  in.  iM/m.  Hecnrd.  April,  1898.) 
Bl  Has  iisi'd  in  tliw  Crompton  rolarv  puddling-fumacf  ot 
nal.  England,  in  ISTS.  (Jour.  I.  &  S.  I.,  i.  I(^:S.  p.  91.i 
irft  as  usually  drimi  in  the  air.  contaiuH  from  °2:'^  ti>  ilO^  of 

I  must  ix' allowed  for  in  estimating  its  heat  of  conilmstion.  ThiH 
LIT  b*?en  evaporated,  the  analysis  of  M.  Ri'trnauli  eives.  in  100 
'ectly  dry  peat  of  the  liest  quality;  C  r>9i,  H  (i%,  O  SIX,  Ash  W. 
:uin  (ileA  of  peat  the  quantttv  of  ash  Is  greater,  ainuunting  to  TjJ 
les  tn  Uf. 

ic  gravity  of  peat  in  its  ordinary  state  is  about  0.4  or  0.5.    It  can 
ed  by  iiuiohinery  to  a  much  greater  dengity.    (Ranltine.) 
iiu-enp-ine.  i   61  ►  {pves  as  the  average  composition  of  dried  Iri>h 

II  Git.  O  -iyf.  N  1.2.^)(.  Asli  4%. 

Dillons;"-,  rorniula  to  tins  analysis,  we  obtain  for  llie  healing  value 
Jry  peat  10,-JiiO  heat  units  jjer  pound,  and  for  air-dried  peat  e<m- 
>f  moisture,  after  making  ailowance  for  evaporating  the  water, 
its  per  |)i:mnd. 

t  as  Fnel,— The  heating  power  of  sawdust  is  nntnriillv  llie 
und  as  that  of  the  wood  from  which  it  is  derived,  but  If  nllowed 
Kinore  like  spent  tan  (whieh  see  below).  The  contiilions  iieees- 
^K  sawdust  are  tlial  plenty  of  room  sliould  be  given  it  in  I  lie 
Btafflcient  air  supplied  on  the  surface  of  the  mass.  The  some 
MTingn.  refuBe  lumber,  etc.  Sawdust  Is  freiiuently  buitied  in 
0  .  »jy  beins  blown  into  the  furnace  by  a  faii-bliiBt. 
■•nnro  has  been  successfully  used  as  fuel  by  (he  Cab!"  Ball- 
'aieo.     It  was  mixed  with  soft  coal  and  burned  in  an  ordinary 

with  »  (ire- brick  arch. 

^tark  aa  Fnel.— Tan,  or  oak  bark,  after  having  been  used 

■  of  tanning,  is  liurned  as  fuel.    The  spent  tan  conKisis  of  llie 

[of   the  btuk.     According  to  M.  Peclet.  five  parts  of  oalc  bark 

Vt8  of  dry  tan;  and  the  heating  power  of  perfectly  dry  Ian, 

of  osh,  is  6I0O  Englisli  units;  whilst  thai  of  Lau  iu  an  oriinary 

HE,  rontdinine  305  of  water,  is  only  -I'^l  Knglish  units.     The 

ir  (vnpi'rated  from  and  at  212°  by  one  pDund  of  tan,  equiva- 

■  ;>■        :;>r  powers,  is,  for  perfectly  dry  tan,  5,4B  lbs.,  for  tan  w  ith 

is      ExperiineT)t»  by  Prof.  R.  H.  Tliurston  (Jour.  Frank. 

Ill   the  C'mckett  furnace,  the  wet  tan  containing  W*  of 

afji  Mtion   from  and  at  212'  F.  of  4.24  lbs.  of  water  per  piMind 

ail.  and  with  tiie  Thompson  furnace  an  evaporation  of  3.111  lbs. 

f  wet  tun  couiaining  .^  of  water.    The  Thonipson  fiiriiBce  eoii- 

:  fire-brick  ovens,  each  9  feet  x  4  feet  4  inches,  contointng  234 

of  grate  in  all,  for  three  boilers  with  a  total  lieating  surface  of 

feer.  a  ratio  of  heating  to  grate  surface  of  0  to  1.    Tlie  (an  wns 

holes  in  the  top.    Tlie  Crockett  furnace  was  an  ordinary  Are- 

re.  6  X  4  feel,  built  in  front  of  the  boiler,  irsteiid  of  under  it.  the 

line  surface  to  grate  being  14.0  to  1.     According  to  Prof,  Tbuni- 

■f  success  in  burning  wet  fuel  lire  the  surrounding  nf  the 

with  heated  surfaces  and  with  biiriiing  fnel  ihdt  it  may 

I  then   so  arranging  the  BppnrntHs  (lini  tborougli  coni- 

,-  tie  s"eiired,  and  tlmt  the  rapidity  (*(  combiisifoTj  be  precisely 

[  never  exceed  the  rnftidity  of  desiccation.     ^Vhere  this  rupidity 

1  in  exceeded  the  dry  portion  is  consumed  comiiietely,  leaving 

a«.K  nf  fuel  whieh  "refuses  to  take  Are. 

_'ael.   (Eiir/'r/  lUerliiniics,  Feb.,  1S93,  p.  .'i.'5,>— Kxperinieuts  in 

'  tliat  winter-wheat  straw,  dried  at  230°  F.,  had  the  follnning 

"    4li.I;  II.  5.0;  N,  0.42:  O,  -13.7:  Ash.  4.1.    Heating  value  in 

units:  dry  straw,  0290:  witli  6f  water.  S770;  with  ]0>  water, 

&«!!  of  other  grains  the  heating  value  of  { 

Iickwbeat  to  0750  for  Hax. 

I.  p.  (521  gives  the  nwan  composition  of  ' 
I  a  £:  O.  Sft;  O.  O.HO:  Ash.  4.7i;  water    IS.'" 
ID  /X.     The  lieatltifc  value  of  straw  fi  i 
l/orm/i/rt,  nnd  ilfiliii-ting  tlie  )ie,'ii 
•'f  iin/rx      Clark  nirnrit'niiiily  give-i  .  i 
'aet  in  Sag^r  Man nracla r<>      „ 


1 

I 


I 


1 


enuM  rw  «v«ry  iwiiou  ui  uuuud  ecuutuibea.  tbalKl 

UciioradiiK  tfllT.SJI  lient  uiiiU  uh  agaii.tit  3»5,-J(X)  «n  a  i 
t#  ill  fftvor  of  I  hi'  7«  bKBOsiiie. 
Assiiiiiiiis  tim  tcmiwratuiv  of  the  waRtc  (cm:  • 
suiTouuiliufr  atinosijlicri*  unJ  water  in  tin-  bu^; 
titv  uf  uir  ueccssary  for  tlio  coinbiiHlioii  of  oi  . 
ihe  iost  li«mt  will  bi'  as  follows:  In  the  wu8l«.>  nfl^'-*:,  li<-n| 
ViO'  F.,aiicl  ill  vaporiziiiB  ihe  moisture,   t-lc,    Ihe  OOS  lii 
114548  lu'ftt  uuits,  and  im.lBi)  for  tlie  T->^  UB(;a6iw< 

•'SiilitrnA.'tinKtht)seii>iantitie*  fiom  til*"  jibov. 
will  proiluce  ISS.'JSB  avuilablp  beat   uniln.  .u-   , 
bajjassfl.  which  givva  a9Il,0,')0  iiliitH.     Accoriliiigl  \ 
nt  B6f  mill  HXii-oulinn  will  piiMluce  C80  lbs.  buKas-..-.  _ 
abla  heat  iiiiiu,  wliilv  the  same  cano  at  T'ijC  extraul 
baznose.  (xjiml  to  IGT.'IOB.OOO  iiiiitji, 

•"a  aiiHllar  caliHilatlon  fur  iIih  oasa.  of  Lf'    ' 
fibre,  ami  lUjC  total  solids  In  tlto  juice,  a^r^ 
tliat  bajtaMRe  from  one  Ion  of  cane  eon: 
wliloh  5<i,U<v'i(W  have  to  be  iletliicleil. 

■'  This  would  iiialie  niich  lini:ai<iwi  wortli  tin  an  averaiK 
per  ton  of  can>;  ktohdiI.    Under  fairl^v  »r'>o<I  I'oiMltinnii,   1 

(irate  TH  lbs.  water,  while  tl)f  Wst  b'   ' '      ■ 

the  l»(t'isso  fnim  1  ion  of  can*.-  at  7.' 
IVSU  lbs.  luOia  lbs  of  WftltT.     Tbeji. 

ilfr  tlu^stt  comlitioiis  contain  IWiiJ  in-.  ..i  «jii,m.  ir  vn. 
water  abided  cliiriiitr  ilie  proci'i>»  of  manufacture  Ik  IM 
juice  mndii,  llio  total  water  liuudled  is  UIO  llj»,  ti"ipiii  Un 
III  tlilt  L'liHti,  the  coiiiinereial  inH>iB«cuit«  would  l>«  i 
the  orliflnal  mill  Jiili'e,  or  MAjr  -JiJ  lbs.  Snld  luill  Jm 
eijimls  HwOllw,  liquor  liniidlwl;  mid  Ittjil  lbs  .  Ukinus  a 
the  iiiiuiilit.v  of  water  to  be  e»ttfiorat*-d  diirinK  ih«»  pvoi!*. 
To  effect  a  TVj-lb.  evajKiratluu  ri-qiiiros  100  lbs.  <.ii  coul,  an 
111.  eviiporalion 

" To  reduce  16.V)  lb».  of  jiilue  to  Bjrnp  of,  aay, -r    ■• 
oraMoii  of  17TU  lbs  of  water,  leii»ui(f    IW  l'«.  '  ' 
C>^niplisbed  in  thi;  open  air.  It  will   reipibe  nl..  i 
bolder  evaporation,  and  IlTat  •"  "  ^_ 


odnetd  of  th«  IHstlllatlon  ot  Crade  Petrolenm. 

\  American  peti  uleuiii  of  ap.  gr  O.MX)  nuiy  t>e  spill  Up  by  fractiODi 
•Oil  OS  follows  (Roblnsou's  Uas  nod  Petroleum  KoKines): 


PETBOLECM. 


G45, 


Disllllata. 


RUiKuleite.     ^ 

(   hk  IliMiTi'lie.  1 


I  I  Polialiingr  oils. 
iKeioaene  (lamp-oil J. 


loll  111  spirit)... 
i(),  benzoleoe. 

uiba  B  

A 


I.iibricatiiip;  oil  ,.. 

ParaWne  wax 

RcKidiiit  mid  Loss. 


Pei-ceut- 


traces. 

1.5 
10. 
2.5 
S. 


GO. 

15. 
i. 
1«. 


specific    !«««U,',"e 


Gravity. 


.890  to  .(S6 

.630  to  .657 

.6«)  to  .TOO 
.714  to  .718 

.7!i5  to  .va 


.eaa  to  .83o 

.660  to  ,9iB 


Dcg.  V. 


lOo  to  vti\ 

230 


Per 

^n?- 

Per 

Sp. 

Per 

Sp. 

Per 

Sp. 

Per 

Sp. 

C«llt. 

cent. 

Gr. 

cent. 

(Jr. 

cent. 

Gr. 

cent. 

Ur. 

IH 

O.T-.W 

.M 

0.761 

SO 

u.soa 

68 

0.830 

88 

0.815 

ft) 

.rsi 

36 

.768 

58 

70 

.83i 

90 

.815 

a 

.730 

8H 

.T7i 

to 

.806 

7i 

.8:M 

1 

84 

.?!» 

40 

.77K 

S8 

7A 

.830 

921 

SA 

.740 

43 

.783 

00 

.800 

70 

.810 

100 1 

i!ft 

.749 

44 

.788 

03 

.804 

78 

.830 

)tO 

,1*6 

46 

.792 

64 

.808 

B2 

.818 

S2 

.780 

4H 

.800 

66 

.Slii 

86 

.BIS 

ut  Potrolenm,  produced  at  Lima,  Ohio,  is  of  a  dark  greeu  color, 

nrks  i»'  Uauinfl  at  l.^''  C.  (sp.  er..  0.7B8). 

'  I  in  fifty  purtH.  «acli  part  representlog  H  by  Toluine,  gave 

■       _         suits  ! 

tSp.  "p 

I 

^V  BETrRNS. 

■OTtenl  naplitlia,  70°  Bauui6, 

buniiug  nil. 

ilisiillntinii  Hiiirteil  nt  23°  C,  tliiti  being  due  to  the  iarKe  aoioiint  of 

Tii.  and  when  tKhC  wag  reached,  at  a  lempeiature  of  SIO"  C, 

rw  r<!ninliiin>;  in  itie  retort  were  dissociated,  then  kobbs 

dtsllllai>-,s  were  olirjiiued,  and,  as  usual  ia  such  uusen.  the 

.TfOsed  fniiu  310°  C.  down  >rradually  to  200"  C,  until  75*  of 

I.  and  from  tins  point  the  tern peinlure  remained  constant 

■  ■(  the  disullatiuu.    Therefore  iheKe  hydrocarbons  Id  lialM 

■.  fi  i.,iv>  !-■  I'd  iniicli  heat.,    u/oin-.  Am.  Chem.  Sua.) 

lae  of  Petruleuiu  as  Furl.— Thos.  Urqnbart,  of  Russia  (Proc. 

«.  E.,  Juu,  INi'J).  gives  the  folluu-in?  table  of  the  theoretical  evapora- 

t>»or  of  iwtroleurh  in  compariaoa  wlUi  that  o(  ooal,  as  determined  by 

a.  Karra  &  tiilbermann: 


6  per  cent  paraffloe  oil. 
10        "         r«sl(lu>iin. 


a 


of  I*  MM  at  t:  VW  diV.  gr  !■  per  ^y. 


Vor  fme  weHf  •  work  tSSI  i 
rmaatnt  for ft« «—  wmk,  Aowiam l^a htrwh oToa  I 
(oaoCoMi    WWioUat«eMl«M^tarT«lM«e<i«IMl 
•ltf«  CO*  ef  od  to  eiMl  to  a*  |lJI  to  ttiX    Ho 

Mil* 

M.e..z<u.«09v  feportsaMinaiof  trial*  wtthoaaaftelte 
op^o-tHwrtli  «t«^-tiimaeea,  ^id  in  nMas  vicam  vOla  nM 
r     -  '  tfx  wtrk'tbm  caaaamfliaB  of  ■■■'  - 

•.Uf  naphtJui  b^nK reaiorerf).  in 
.  ntMiut  eH  K>Jiona  per  loa  of  ' 
inmtux  48  ff^Ioaa  of  oQ  wec<r  .•>■' 
lal  Willi  Lima  oil  from  47  to  MnJIo: 

'.    4.  Ill  ■  six  month**  trial  with  gir 

.  of  Uma  oU  waa  8  nllona  per  ton  > 


IPUBL  a  AS,  G^fl 

cer,  and  by  ullUxiag  the  aeniible  heat  of  the  km  1^1 

•««.  It  «iieht  to  Ijo  uosdible  to  oxidize  one  out  of  eve^H 
with  QXTRen  derived  from  wsler-vapor.  The  theriit^H 
r«iioa  are  as  fulluws:  ^^| 

SO  O  lbs.  erasifled  with  air  aod  I  lb.  with  water; 

17,600 

Ich  fumijA  1.88  Iljs-  of  oxygen  to  combine  with  1 

>rb  by  dissociation lO.US 

«  «.»38  lbs.  CO,  0.1  S7  ib.  H,  and  13.99  lbs.  N,  heated 

D  and  Io«8 a,B]9 

la  blown  into  a  prodncer  with  the  air  la  almoRt  all  ron^l 
Ivlded  water  before  entering  the  fuel,  and  coasequvutl^^ 
ier  in  these  calculations. 

lor  liberates  .16?  Ib.  of  hydrogen,  which  is  delivered  to 
In  combustion  the  saine  beat  tliat  it  abBorbo  Id  ihe  firo- 
m.  According  to  tills  cnleulatlcm.  therefore,  W%  of  the 
abustion  is  theoretically  reco^'ercd  bj'  the  disiwcialioii  of 
all  the  sensible  heat  of  the  gas  be  counted,  with  radia- 
aor  items,  as  loss,  yet  the  gas  niUKt  carry  i  x  H.5(n  - 
tS  beat-units,  or  87^  of  the  caloridc  euei^ty  of  the  carbon, 
a  a  loss  In  conversion  of  13^,  without  crediting  the  gaa 
it.  or  chnrirfiig  it  with  the  heat  required  for  eeneratin( 
1,  ur  taking  into  account  the  i09<K  due  tu  oxidizing  oouii 
'j.  In  good  producer-practice  the  proportion  of  COj  ii 
rom  4%  to  7^  of  the  C  burned  to  CO,,  but  the  extra  ht-i 
diould  be  largely  recovered  in  the  dissociation  of  nior 
lereCore  does  not  represent  as  tnucli  loss  as  it  would  iutf 
tr  of  energy,  this  gas  has  the  advantage  of  carrying  4.4i 
ban  would  be  present  if  the  fourtli  pound  of  eual  tiad< 
ur:  aod  in  practical  working  the  use  of  steatn  redaceS 
wring  in  tlie  i)roducer. 

BS.— In  anthracite  coal  there  is  a  volatile  combustible 
y  froiu  1  t>S  to  overTS-  The  amount  of  energy  derived 
own  in  the  following  iheoretii-al  ga.-<lflcation  iimde  with 
upuiiiiion:  Carbon,  WS;  vol.  HC.  H:  ash.  KW:  BO  lbs.  oafv: 
burned  to  CO ;  5  lbs.  carbon  burned  to  CO,;  three  fourtlir 
7gen  derived  from  air,  and  one  fourth  from  water. 

. Products. 

Founds.    Cubic  Feet.    Anal,  by  Vol, 

) CO    188.66  3529.24  33.4. 

, ....CO,      18.38  157.84  2.0 

-.iM..,v,      6.00  116.60  1.6 

1,  of  which 

,. H        8.75  718.110  9,4 

..,„^....aliedwilh  N    301.05  4064.17  58.6 

B14.79  7S80  15  100.0 

ove  gas  obtained  from  100  lbs.  anthracite: 

Bftlbs.  CO 807,304  heat-units. 

00   "    CH. 117.500 

75    "        H    832,600  " 

1,157,304  " 

bfcgaspeTlb 2.248 

^FlOOlba.of  coal.. 1.349.500 

^pbe  conversion SfiK. 

>Bd  H  oxceeds  the  results  olitained  in  practice,    'T''*  "•" 

!ts  will  j/roJuiWraciviiinf  for  titis  di.icrepaiicy,  *,2i_i2 \^ 

a^ftuiae  tfie  pfWftihiltty  of  delivering  at  {vBA" 

■mcito. 

ym^—AJbeoretlcal  ganittiMUon  of  1001 

\^iff.°'  •;oV«r/te  c-PtnbU8tlble  (wh 


d 

i 


648 


FUEL. 


derlTod   from  steam  and  lhr«e  fourilis   frori'    ■"'•     •^••• 
valalilR  coml>ii»tibIe  Is  taken  at  £0,000  heal-in: 
lug  voliifn«>tric  f)ropoitirins  all  tin-  volatile  h 

condensing,  are  clHfis«?il  as  iiiarsb-Ras,  slncf  jt „ 

tive  ftssiimptlon  that  pven  an  approximate  idea  of  iJi-- roluu 
lion  can  t>e  rormud.    Tlie  energy,  liowever,  is  c-nlculat^  from] 

Pl-rxllKL 

Cubic  Fwt. 

15W.7 

157.<1 

T40.)i 

4TS.0 


Process.  Pounds, 

SOlba.  0  burned  to CO  llO.afi 

5  lbs.  0  burned  to CO,  18.33 

Bibs.  vol.  HC  (dlHtllled) 82.00 

90  lbs,  O  are  i-equiicd.  of  which  20  lbs., 

derived  from  IT,0,  liberate H  S.5 

80  lbs.  O,  derived  from  air,  are  asso- 
ciated with,,-. N  iOO.TO 


STOO.i 


1970.19  SM8.9 

Energy  !□  IK.MtbB.  CO NM.SM  bcAVuaita. 

"     83.00  lbs.  ToUHC...    MO.OOO  •'  J 

"        "      S.SOlbs.  H 1S6.000  "  ] 


I 
I 


I,S99,SM  ••  i 

Energj' in  coal 1,43T,B00         " 

Per  cent  of  enerj^y  delivered  In  gas , ,  90.0 

Heat-unitain  1  lb.  of  gas 8,Oi 

fVater-Kan*— Wnter-Kas  is  made  in  an  Intermittent  proceM,  t9 
lip  the  fuel-lwd  of  the  producer  to  a  high  state  of  lnc*ndgi3WBBI 
jtnine  cases  utilizing  tile  restiKing  gas,  which  is  a  lean  nrodllc«M| 
shurtinK  off  the  air  and  forcing  steam  thrnii)rh  (hx  fitrl,  «hl<4»  41 

the  water  into  its  elements  of  oxygen  and  byr!'  ■■ '  -  '■■■- — ■ 

Willi  the  cart)on  of  thi"  c^ial,  and  the  latter  heii 

This  gas  can  never  play  a  very  iuitK)rtiint  pm 
to  the  large  loss  of  energy  entailed  in  ll.s  pr^ 
and  special  purposes  where  it  Is  desirable,  evc 
unit  of  heal  over  producer-gas;  for  iusianoe.  i  _ 

naces,  where  mucn  regeneration  Is  impractiO' 
gas  can  be  used  for  other  pnrposes  instead  of  < 

The  reactions  and  energy  required  in  the  pr^ 
gas,  composed,  theoretically,  of  equal  volumeo  i,.  v^x^  . 

500  cubic  feet  of  H  weigh 

500  cubic  feeC  of  CO  weigh  


.         Total  weight  of  1000  cubic  feet 

Now,  BB  CO  is  composed  of  1'.'  pari,s  C  to  16  of  0.  I  ho  welslii 
lbs  Is  15.81  lbs.  and  of  0  21.08  lbs      When  this-  i-ilw 

It  liberates,  as  above^  2.635  lbs.  of  hydrogen.  le 

sorbed  in  these  reacUous  (roughly,  08  we  will  i  uiat 

ergy  required  to  elevate  the  coal  from  the  temperiiturc  of 
to  say  1800°)  is  aa  follows: 

i.6S5  lbs.  H  absorb  11  ".  y,  •BjOl 

15.81  lbs,  C  burned  r  

Excess  of  heat  111  _    i,  tit   

If  thin  excess  could  tie  made  np  from  L'  hiiriit  ii>  i  • 
•tioi),  we  would  only  bave  to  burn  an  additional 
heat,  and  we  could  then  malie  1000  feet  of  wot--  ■■ 
tKin  (equal  ^  lbs.  of  iK-f  call.     This  would  be  i 
aa  the  gas  would  contain  rt»il]y  the  siame  uaetr^ 

r*^ltii-H  ill  1\rni-]i,^i^  inAjf  rtnin 'ijouble  thK '"11, 

miw  of  the  fnfl  i 

f/ejK  r  v,a\  awA v. 

■'''■'    '             ■.  ..,..  ,,  ..,.■  -"'"  ■•'  ^''■>-' 
I  N.     Hut  \- 
jiiing  the   ' 
If  iifat  of  whk>  ■•■«i..    "     ■-  - 

■til),  .     . 

"        ■       |«l>ie  aliow»  w\\«  1' 


VVZh  GAS. 


fi4 


I  weight  oiiil  ouerey  of  lOOO  cubic  loot,  of  the  four  Ijrpes  of 
Iting  and  Uliiminatln^  purposes: 


r 

Sftturol 

0B8. 

Coal- 

Water, 
gas. 

Produoergaa. 

1 

Antbra.! 

Bitu. 



0.50 
a. 18 
03.8 
0.31 
0.20 
8.01 
0.34 

0.0 
40.0 
4U.0 
4.0 
O.B 
1.5 
0.5 
1.5 

45.0 
45.0 

"i'b  ' 

2.0 
0.5 

1.5 

*7.i» 

12.0 

1.2 

"a.i' 

57.0 
O.S 

27,0 

18.0 

O.S 

0.4 

8.S 

50.8     1 

' 

0  a  i 

* 

ibicfeet <«.(J      1 

sa.o 

43.0 

C5.6 

05.0 

Jcubicfe«t 1.100.0001 

736.000 

se3,ooo 

137.4.5.% 

I.V1,!»I7 

atnrml  Gas  In  Ohio  and  Indiana.                       1 

tEng,  and  M.  J.,  April  SI,  ]lftl4.) 

_ 

Ohio. 

lodiftiu. 

F08- 

lorift. 

1.04 

St. 
Mary's. 

Muacle 

Ander- 
'      son. 

Kolco- 
1110. 

Mar- 
lon. 

1.8S 

1.B4 

9.35 

1.88 

1.43 

i.ao 

Se.84 

03. Xi 

93.85 

00.67 

98.07 

01.18 

93.57 

. . 

.SO 

.35 

.40 

.84 

.47 

.30 

.15 

e.. 

.55 

.41 

.44 

.45 

.73 

.55 

.80 

b-  • 

.SO 

.25 

.28 

.85 

.as 

.29 

.30 

.85 

.39 

.85 

.36 

.43 

..■w 

.55 

S.Si 

8.41 

3.98 

3.83 

8.08 

8.80 

3.43 

de 

.15 

.30 

.31 

.15 

.15 

.18 

.30 

<odacer<H;aii  ttotn  One  Ton  of  Coal.                    -| 

Per 

'Cent. 

Cubic  P'eet. 

I.t>H, 

Equal  to— 

ss.a 

33,313.8.1 

2151.  M 

1050.51  lbs.  0- 

t- 1400.7  lb«.  O. 

S.8 

1S.077.7( 

03.5( 

63.56    ••    H. 

S.l 

4.000.01 

174.0 

174.00    "    Ci 

.. 

0.8 

1,060.» 

n.7i 

77.79   "    C,«4. 

8.4 

4,40S.5S 

5)0.0) 

141.51    •'     C  4- 377.44  lbs.  O. 

58.8 

70.404. 9e 

6059.01 

I    7850.17    ■•    Air. 

lOO.O 

J31.a»O.O0 

6919.8! 

J  this  basis,  tbR  131,380  (t.  of  gas  from  the  ton  of  coal  cod- 
LT.U.,  or  l.W  U.T.D.  per  cubic  ft.,  or  U2T0  B.T.U.  per  lb. 
1  of  the  coal  from  which  this  cn.s  was  iiiartc  wH.sas  rolKins: 
Uile  matter,  mtii;  (Ixed  oarbmi.  5:.W;t;  Bulpliur,  l>,ro)t; 
}a  voutaloB  1159.0  IIih.  carbon  and  734.4  Uis.  volatile  coiii- 
t  of  whieb  is  31,308,300  B.T.U.  Hence,  in  the  processes  of 
Scatlon  theru  was  »  Ions  ot  35.2%  ot  the  Kuergy  ot  l.\\« 

i  o/  rJw  liylrocArbona  In  a  aott  coal  ii  uncertain  and  K\\\\\»t 
jltlinaWHiialysln  of  tbo  nveraKe  coal  s1|i>w3   tUa*   ' 
f(r  ro  tin'  ivmiMisiiioa  of  VH,  (inansh-Kasi. 
•^''-^  the  foJlowmg  polata  aa  highly  ituport&t 


i 


I 


650 


FUSL. 


I 
I 


nnt.  That  a  laxse  pereeatage  at  the  enefBT  of  tbp  coal  la  J 

Sis  made  in  the ordisarr  low  prodnoer  aiM  cooled  to  the  I 
air  befode  beniK  used.    To  prereot  theat?  cooroes  uf 
ahould  be  placed  ao  as  to  lose  as  lilUe  as  poaaibte  ot  the  | 
gas>  aad  pte»ent  coBdewlion  oitbe  hjarocarbon  n 
■boiUd  be  carried,  keepiVK  the  producer  cool  od  top, 
bceakiog-dowa  of  the  brmvcanions  aod  the  deposit  of  i 
inK  the  carbonic  acid  low. 

Second,  lliat  a  prodncer  shoutd  be  btown  with  as  tnuch  Me 
tha  air  aa  will  maiatate  incaadescsoce.    This  reducta  I ' 
BJCrocea  aod  facreases  the  hj-drogeo,  thereby 
Tlie  t^nperature  of  tbe  producer  is  kept  down,  d 
try  radiatiOD  throotdi  the  wallo,  and  in  s  lare^  meA^urr  i 

V%e  CeaakvMtloB  of  Prednc«Vi«n-. 
A.  L  M.  E.,  xlx.  li&>— The  combuiitioa  of  ibf  <  of 

ducer-gas  may  be  represented  bj  the  foUowiiit, 

CH<  +  40=  co,-|-zB,o:     oo-|-o=  do, 

Atkraok  OoMPoemo!!  bt  Vovcitm  or  Pboo[XXb-<ias:  A,  mjlim' 
GkATss,  Ko  STum  uc  Blast;  B.  Opsk  Oaj.na,  SrKAMvrr  i 
Samples  or  Eaob. 

CO..  O.  C,H,.         CO.  H.  CH«. 

Amin 1.6  0.4  O.i  OI.O  5.8  i.» 

A  max B.6  0.4  0.4  84.8  8.S  ft.| 

Aavrraffe...    4.M         0.4  O.SI  «S.l  8.8 

B  mlD 4.S  0.4  0.2  SO. 8  6.9 

B  max 6.0  0.8  0.4  94.0  4.8 

Barerage...    i.»  0.S4  OM  a.T4         8.87 

The  coal  iu«d  oootained  carboD  8V,  tqrdrogen  i.7%. 

Tlie  foUowing  are  analyses  o(  producta  of  combuaUoo : 

CO..         O.  CO.        CH,.         H. 

Minimum 15.)!         0.8       trace,      trace. 

Maximum IT. 3  16  S.O  0  6  9  01 

Averatre 16.8  0.8  0.4  0.1  O.lJ 

17a«  of  Steam  In  Prodaeera  and  In  Boll«r>f 
W.  BaymoDd,  Trans.  A.  I.  M.  kl.,   sx.  686  )— No  poaible  u 
cause  a  gain  of  brai     If  .«teani  lie  Introduced  into  a  liod  of! 
carbon  it  is  ilecoiuposeil  into  bv>Ir'i».'f  n  nu'J  nxTiceii. 

Tbe  beat  absorbed  by  the  :  ,  ■>(  | 

much   greater  in  amount   t  ••i 

oxygen  thus  set  free  » ilh  c.-i  i  IhiuS 

acial    Consequently,  tlie  e(Ii-.,i  u'. 
fuel  Is  to  chill  it.     In  every  w»i. 

means  of  tbe  decomposition  of  «t<-.  lyl 

Ken.  th<<  loss  ol  heat  in  the  producer  an  ujiatcd  bf  I 

iue  deTlce. 

riiis  loss  may  be  recovered  if  the  hyil<  Mmm  >l 

burned,  to  form  Rieara  OKaln.     Such  a  i' 
teniplated,  in  the  case  or  fuel.^as,  assf- 
gas.    ABflUminfc  the  oxidation  i>r  n  I" 
cauKe  uelthnr  gain  nor  loa^ 
absorbed  b^'  Ht4:&m  decomP' 
In  pmclice,  it  may  bedoul>i 

But  it  U  WTiain   that  an  excess  of   steum  .  :  tbel 

Relher,  and  that  there  must  be  a  certain  pro. 
mita  the  realization  of  important  advanioges.  " 
heat. 

The  advanta^  to  be  secured  (in  iMiler  furnaces 
anthruciiei  oonsista  principally  in  the  Craniff^r  of  beat  I 
of  tbe  flre,  where  It  Is  not  wanted,  to  the  upper  siile. 
Till'  decomposition  of  the  steam  W^ow  cools  the  fuel 
irherHa.s  a  blasl  of  air  alone '<tou\AwcAvic«!,  «.\.\.\>»xv«j  _ 
tloa  (for-    -     "  tint  CO,\  to  the.\ttiUTv  ot  vVn«t«»i9,>!l»1 

*^^-^  -      jinQ»tecotwstnteB\>awA<« 

ItaeU  t\ietui.V\iTBot\iir»T««a^ 


ILLUMIXATINO-GAS. 


651 


re-bed,    are   /actors  affecting    the   problem.    (See  Trans. 
...  rx.  63.1  ) 

.■iBlyi>«i*  by  VAlume  and  by  'Weislit.— To  convert  an  an- 
i.  tnix«Mj  Kas  l)y  vuIiiiul'  iiitu  analysis  by  welKht:  Mulliply  tlic  per- 
if  eacli  const  it  ii>-iii  ansViy  tliedensiiy  of  ibal,  g«s(snep.  166).    DiyidaJ 
lucl  by  lb*?  wntn  <>f  the  prr«ltio(s  Loobiain  the  (x^rcenlageH  by  wet^liul 
lael     for    Small    Furnacea.— E.   P.    Iteichlielm  (Am.  ilnch.,' 
ItJOS)  discusses  Ihe  use  of  gaseous  fuel  for  forg-p  fires,  for  drop- 
in  anneAliiitr-oveiis  and  (urnaceH  for  melting  brass  and  copper,  for 
lenlng,  muffle-fMrnaces,  and  kilns.    Under  ordinary  conditlous,  in 
Daces   he   estimates  that  the  loss  br  draiif^lit,  radiatltm,  anil   tlie 
if  space  not  occupied  by  work  Is,  witli  coal,  &(H,  w  ith  pplroleuni  70;t, 
gas  above  the  tirade  of  produoer-gaH  25$.     He  Rives  the  following 
KMnparative  cost  of  fuels,  as  used  in  these  furnaces :  J 


I 


Kind  of  Gas. 


ms 1,000.000 

.  20  candle-power OrS.OtW 

terl  water-eas 645,000 

h  (sas,  iO  candle-power 690,000 

(from  coke 3ia,«t0 

I  from  bituminou.4  coal 377,(K)() 

I  and  producer-gaa  mixed.  .      185,0iX' 

-gaa  IM.OOO 

-gB8,  fuel  2>a  gals,  per  1000  ft       306.36' 

per  ton.  per  1 .000,000  heat-UDils  utilized 

Hroleum.  3  eta  per  gal.,  per  1,000,(100  heal -units. 


*B3 
O  3  U 

55 


3""  «  «>  5 


J.W.OOO 
606,i2SO 
•if^.&OO 
517,!)O0 
234,750 
383,7.'iO 
138,750 
113,500 
229,:74 


OS 


Was" 

-  d  y 


i 


Is.   |liiS_ 

<      q ^^ 

II.S9     92.48      ■ 

1,00     s.oe     ■ 

.90  ].T8  ■ 

.40  1 .70  ■ 

.45  1.50  ■ 

.-.>0  1.4t  ■ 


92.48 

S.oe 

1.T8 
1.70 
1.50 
1.4t 
1.83 
.65 
.73 
.73 


Blchhelm  Kt»es  the  following  flgiires  from  practice  in  melting  brans 
a  and  with  naphtha  converted  into  gas:  1800  IbH.  of  metal  r<-qiiiru 
of  coal,  at  S-1.65  per  ton,  eqiiul  to  ^.fil,  or,  say,  15  cetita  |>er  1U(I  lbs. 
report :  S500  lbs.  of  metal  require  17  gals,  of  naphtha,  at  6  cents  per 
aal  to  S3.8S,  or,  say,  11^  cuutit  per  100  lbs. 


I, 


ILLUMINATING-GAS. 


_  Is  made  by  distilling  bituniinoiis  coal  in  retorts.  The  rptort 
lly  a  long  horizontal  senii-cyliodrlcal  or  q  shaped  chatiiber,  hiilding 
10  to  300  lbs.  of  coal.  The  retorts  ore  set  in  '•benches"  of  from 
liMted  by  one  Are,  which  is  generally  of  coke.  The  vapors  distilled 
lecoal  are  converted  into  a  ftxed  gas  by  passing  through  the  retort, 
ishtaii-il  :iliiiust  to  whiteness. 

if  the  retort  through  an  "  ascenflion-plpe  "  into  a  long 
the  hydraulic  main,  where  it  deposits  a  portion  of 
■  nee  It  goes  into  a  condenser,  a  series  of  iron  tnbea 
n.Ji'.i  >ij  colli  water,  where  it  Ik  freed  from  cnndeiisalile  vnporK,  aa 
nlft-water.  then  into  a  vrnsher,  where  it  is  exposed  to  jets  of  water, 
ilo  II  s.iul.ijvr,  ,A  lorge  chamber  partlall.y  filled  with  trays  made  of 
trit.-  iig  coke,  fragments  of  biMclv  or  paving-stoneg,  which 

*•'  f  water.    By  the  wftsher  and  scrubber  the  gas  la  freed 

th*  '  11  of  tur  and  ammonia  and  from  noine  of  the  sulphur 

iinids.    Til"  t'a.s  is  then  finallj'  pnrjfled  from  sulphur  ci>n\v<)"«<\*  Vi'S 
g  it  thr..i«,'->;  Jiai^  or  oxide  of  Iron.     The  gns  is  drawn  f  rolu  t\u^  \iN- 
•otMo  and  fatved  tbrou/fh  the  n  asiier,  scrubber,  etc  ,  Viy  an     " 


633 


tLLDItXATI  KG'OAS. 


I 

I 

I 


Gft»oa«le,  etc. 


Pitlsburgli,  P«     ... 
West  mnfelninl,  Va 

Sterling, O 

Dt-spaiii,  W.  Va,.. 

Daiiinjiliin,  O 

i'ctjiiiia-  \V.  Va  .  . 
Groliainite,  W.  V*. 


c 

_3 

i 

s 

a 

•8 

s 

J! 

> 

k 

.W.TB 

st.ss 

9S.00 

se.oo 

STW 

se.w 

40.(» 

43  OO 

40.00 

46  00 

Jl.OO 

83.50 

41  Mj 

The  prodiiets  of  thedistlHation  of  100  lbs.  of  itrerft^  i 
follonrx.   Tliey  vary  according  to  the  quality  of  coal  ami  tkc  1 
distil  latjun. 

CoVw.  M  to  O.'V  Hw  ;  l«r,  6..S  fo  7.5 lbs.;  ammonin  lU^vior,  10  ) 
fleif  .:  ■<     "  •  ■  '  *  "•     ■  ■-■•  ■'-    nii.l  loss,  l.C-r  ■     "  '- 

T  '  uluiiie  raijK 

gft.  to  Hit;  ni: 

SU,ii--,i-v  1..1  ■iij-,  ftlijleiie,  j,.!..).,^  i-iif,  IP 

".6jf  to  4  &«:  run  ■'.«. 

In  llif  biiraii  _  liP  nltrnpi'n  In  inert;  the  hjrdr 

oxide  K'''*^  li*""'  7'V- '■^'■■iMpsUy  of  the  n«i»M 

composition  by  .  '-r'arbons  int<i  ll| 

and  carij'iTi.  Ill'  'in  a  state  of 

By  the  lieflt  of  il:- .:., ...^  i,,,^  ^iu,....i,-^l  carbon  U  tMwb^ 
uesii,  and  tlie  illnininaiiiiK  tifTe<.-i  of  liie  tlaoieis  due  to  tike  I 
ceiice  of  the  pai  titl«-s  of  carljon. 

The  atiaiiimeni  of  tlie  bi^bmt  decree  of  lumiDOaHy  o( 

upon  tlie  proper  Hdjiistiueut  of  liie  proportion  of  tlia  haatyl 
(iritb  <lii<'  rei;ard  lo  Uieir  iudividual  charftclT)  to  t)ie  naiiifp  j 
mixed  lliHifwUh. 

Invniii^falionK  of  Percy  F.  FraDlclaiMl  »liow  that 
hy(troe*'n  ceat^e  to  have  auy  Itiiiilnftiift  ifSTrtfi  n  li».i 
lei  le  doe*  not  oxpeed  lO^of  •'•■•  ■■  '■  '••     n..'..-. 
oxide  cease  to  have  niij'  lun: 
does  not  exce^'il  L'O:-,  wliiteti 
or  If-ss  luminous  efr>-ol.     Tl, 
marsh  (ta:*  beitit:  equ^  to  ,. 
anil  80*  marsh  ea-s  qImuiS.' 
alMf ■■  ■■ I '  ■■ 

I 
Hii 

M.it,  .   »^   . 
coal,  (;<il(''.  ur  I  . 
poird.  it>  livdi 
til.   ■ 

Ui>' 

PVirt. 


by  iroliirin"  It  l.«  cinnpoied  of  ci^ual  purls  of 
Wntfi   ir.K  Miiijitri'd  as  above  dwiTllKx)  Im 


WATBR-GAB  AKD  COAI.-AAS  COMPARED.  fio3 


llu-  |)rui-««iiof  T.  8.  ('  l^iwi-  was  iulroiluoed.    All  ibe  iBlt-r 
"S  art>  the   n        i  )i-i  or  Ijowi-'g.  l»m  isnoiitial 

uD  BptiarMi  'jt  a  gciicrutor  at)i1  Fiiuer- 

tJie  gn|ierlit  .  iii*au>il   hj-  Him  ko-'oiMiwy 

gtijerator.  the  licix  ^<'  t-lTi-d  up  lu  llii?  Iixiiu?  lirii;k  of 
J  HRPil.  ill  tlio  sei'onil  pan  uf  (1im  piocttk^.  in  llmllxliiK 
_  vrii  of  tliu   iiydj'ooarljuii  KU»e«;  ibu  wimiikI  ixirt  <<(  ilie 
„  111  the  passing  of  titjmm  tlii'uii|;l>  tlie  ^eiic-rator  Hrr.  and 
oil  L>r  hydrocarU'ai  at  boiiie  puiiit  between  the  lire  uf  the 
1)1^  iD'i^e  lUUiiB  of  llie  tiii|Hii'li«-aler." 
•f.  ^   thuji  Una  two  pepioiJK;  flrst  the  "  l)low,"iliiriii){ 

1  irfh  Itif  bed  coal  in  tlie  Kt'iiC'ilor,  and  thy  puriially 

-  Hre  coiiiplelely  l>uriiprl  (n  Win  sujHTheaitcr.  ^ivInK 
1   Ibt-ir  heat  in  tlie  llrehiick  work  coniaiiicd  in  il.  niul 
10  &  chimney;  second,  the  "rnn''  durinf;  which  the  nil'  lilii<'t 
^opeiiiiiR  tM  llie  chimney  closed,  and  cteaiii  Is  blown  thioiigh 

nt  bed  '►f  fuel.     The  leMiillJiiK  wiiler-j^iiH  pii^siii);  into  lliecar- 

Hb«"r  in  the  liaise  of  the  sutieiheatei'  hi  there  eliaifc-ed  wlih  hy- 
»r»,  or  (iptTiy  (aiirh  sk  naphtha  and  oilier  distillHies  or  cnine 
tlti'oiit;h  tlie  »ii|ierlieoter,  where  the  hyUrucurbon  vapcn«  be- 
1  into  flxed  llliiiiiiiiuling  gnseH.  yroni  tlui  sii|>erheBter  Uie 
i  are  passed,  an  in  the  coal-i^ns  pnjcosn,  tiirouf^h  washrrs, 
tu  llie  gas-hulder.  In  tliiti  ctt^e,  however,  there  is  no  aiii- 
pnoved. 
I'Aviiy  oi'  watergati  iiiureasos  with  the  iticrootujof  the  lienvy 
rhieb  give  it  llluiiiiuating  power.  The  f<iliowing  Inures,  tnkeb 
ButhoiHies,  are  given  by  V.  H.  .Slieltrm  in  a  pap«r  on  Water- 
re  Ibu  Ohio  Gas  Ught  AsKOeialioii,  in  1894: 

10.5      20.    22.5  34.        25.4    26.3    28.3    2«.G     ..10  to  81.9 

)..   .571     .S-*     .589      .«0to.e7    .04    .002      .70      .05    .65  to    .71 

Of  lVa(er-caa  and  CoaI»Kajii  Compared. 

■r  analyses  nr«  talten  from  a  report  of  Dr.  lildeoo  K.  Moore 
W«tep-g«»,  1885: 


Composition  by  Volume.        Composition  by  'WelKht, 


IftyUie  mulUplieta  given  below  (coin 


ILLCSriXATISO-OAS. 


J.  ThomseD),  and  raultiplriog  tbe  fmuU  br  *i»  ■t4tht  of  I  < 
mt  a^  v.,  and  aOnaspberic  proaure. 

Tbe  flame  temperaturfai  lUieoretical)  are  <ialeillal«d  OB  IteJ 
complete  combustioa  of  tbe  sas«  in  air,  withoat  ezc«a»«f  4 

The  eanille~p<}«er  was  delermined  by  pbotometne 
of  )4-iD.  waK^r-coIumn,  &  candle  connuiDpckMi  of  I9Q  | 
prr  hour,  and  n  ine(«r  rale  of  S  eu.  fL  per  bour,  Ute  r 

for  a  lemii^rature  of  &i'  F-  ind  a  barometric 

that  tlie  eamllepower  niaj-  Iw  r^^ulated  at  tj 
cliari^of  the  apparatus,  (he  range  of  candle-power  1 
cautilpx.  according  to  the  maaipulatkin  empiojrM. 

Calorific  EqnlTBlents  of  ConaUineala  of  Itli 

ema. 

Heat-uniu  from  1  lb.  Heal) 

Wawr        Water  Waft 

LJ<)uid.       Vapor.  ^lA 

Ethylene 3l.d94.4       9a,i»i.8    Carbonic  oxide. .    4.»J 

Propylene. 21.222.0        19,814.2    Marsli  Ras. 

Benzole  Tapor....  18.9.M  0        I7,S17.0    Uydrogen. 

Bfflciency  of  a  Water-gaa  Plant.— Tbe  pn 
iniiiniiiaiiui;  wntrr-gas  settiiie  l><  discussed  ia  a  pnT>«T^ 
(Ktik:.  .\iii.  itaslipiit  Assn.,  isSM>.  frmn  which  the  f  • 
The  r»-sulLs  refer  lo  liX.M  o4i.  ft.  of  unpunfle*!  car 
60'  F     The  total  aiithrBcile  charced  p»3i-  UVO  en.  f ; 
and  uttoonsiumeiJ  cool  r^Mnov<fd  a.U  Uw.,  leaTinu  loiaj  o.-in 
•JS.i  l>>s..  wtiicli  is  taki-ii  t,>  have  a  fuel-value  of  11500  BLi 
a  Uilal  uf  340,7»  heat.iiniljt. 


fC0,  +  H,8.. 

|8ff 

I.     Carburelteil         j  Ctl*  , 
Water-Ras. 


EFFICIENCY   OF  A  WATKK-OAS   PLAXT.  GH. 


1 


B  heax  canned  away  f  ram  the  shells  by  convectioa  (alr-currenU); 

IP  litNit  rendered  latent  in  the  fn>8ilicatiou  of  ibe  oil; 

k  sensitjle  heal  in  the  ash  and  ua(X)tisutned  coal  recover*^  from  t! 

lor. 

beat  equation  is  A  =  B+  C  +  D  +  E+  F+0  +  H-rI\  A  being 

.    A.  comparison  of  the  CO  in  Tables  I  and  11  show  that  -^, ,  or  {M.SjC 

volume  of  carburetted  gaa  is  pure  wat«r-i!aa,  distrilnitwl  tima  :  CO. 

»,  38.W;  H,  33.-l!f ;  N.  O.g* ;  =  M.5*.     1  lb.  of  CO  at  «)»  F.  =  13  531  c 

-.  ^,.-  -,>!()  cu  ft_  of  gas  =  380  -I-  18.631  =  a0.fl»4  lbs.    Energy  of  Ihe  CO' 

'  li  =  91,043  heat-units,  =  B.    1  lb.  of  H  at  W  b\  =  ISU.'J  ni. 

f   gas  =  884 -»- 189.2  =  1.7653  lbs.     Euergy  of  the  11    per  lb. 

■laiJK  -u  1  liomsen.  connidorine  the  sioam  Kencrateil  by  itM  cotiihiiiilion 

Ejidensed  to  water  at  75°  F.)  =  B1.5*l  B.  T.  U.   lu  Mr.  OlasKow's  ex- 

^Pb  the  steam  «ntereil  the  genfTniorat  3.11'  F.;  the  lieat  rw^iiirwJ  to 

PlBproduct  of  combustion  of  1  lb.  of  H,  viz.,  8.9S  Iha.  HjO.  from  water 

TO  Steam  at  331*  must  IhereforR  be  rifslncteJ  from  Thnnisen'e  lieu  re,  or 

I  -  <8.98  y  1140.2)  =  51  ,'.'H0  B.  T.  U.  per  lb.  of  H.    Eueruy  of  Ihe  K,  tlieir. 

!«  -^  r,i  .,65  _  go„'i33  heat-units,  =  C.   Tha  heat  lost  due  to  the  sensiUIo 

uiinating-gases.  their  teoiperature  belug  1450°  F.,  and  that  of 

:  i35»  F.,  is  48.80  (weight)  x  .4578(i  sp.  heat  x  I'JIO  (rise,  of  lem- 

,.. .,  -  ^  .,S64  beat-units  =  D. 

e(|]ecilic  beat  of  the  entering  oil  is  approximately  that  of  the  issuing 

»  ti->f  "r-rried  olT  in  1000  cu.  ft.  of  the  escaping  blast  products  is  8B.59a 
i:>  <8p.  beat)  X  1474°  (rise  of  temp.)  =  30,1HO  heat-uults:  the 
■'  thB  escaping  blast  gases  l>eint;  l.'iDO"  K.,  and  that  of  the 
--,,  ....  id'  F.  But  the  amouiil  of  the  blast  gases,  by  legistra- 
l>l  au  anemometer,  oliecked  by  a  ealcnlatlon  from  the  aualyses  of  the 
I  (Itn,  was  *i4fi7  cubie  feet  for  every  WW  cubic  feet  of  carburetted  gas 
».  H«nee  the  heat  carried  off  per  M.  of  carburetted  gas  is  .'50,180  x 
=  74,152  heat-units  =  E. 

iperiiiieiils  made  by  a  radiometer  covering  four  square  feet  of  the  shell 
M?  ni,i.,..,f„5(  f^ve  figures  for  the  amount  of  heat  lost  by  radiation 
liil.s  =  F,  and  by  convection  =  l.l.fiiie  lieat-uults  =  fi. 
i.Ti'd  latent  by  the  gaseflcation  of  the  oil  wag  found  by  taking 

u  ijetween  all   the  heat  fed  into  the    carburetter  and  auper- 

«»"  niiJ  ilie  total  heat  dissipated  therefrom  to  be  ia,8ll  heat-units  =  //. 
,*e««H>le  heat  in  the  ash  and  uuconsuiued  coal  is  9.8  Iba.  X  1500°  x  .26 
hi    i  .l"!-,'  Iieat  units  i--  /. 

ill  Oie  itemsB4-C+D  +  ifr+f-f  (J +»-{-/=  3-.;7.C95  heal- 
ustracted  from  the  heat  energy  of  the eouihustlble  consumed, 
i's,  leaves  1.1,466  beat-units,  or  4  percent,  unaccounted  for. 
i!"at  energy  of  the  coal  consumed,  or  340,750  heiit-unlts,  the 
\a  the  sum  of  items  I),  K,  F,  G,  and  /,  amounting  to  131878 

■  ■'<  per  ci^nt:  the  remainder,  or  a37,873  hcat-iinits.  or  til  per 
lized.    The  efBcleuey  of  the  apparatus  as  a  heat  umehlue  la 

■  cnt. 

'ir  35  lljs.  of  crude  pelroleuiu  were  fed  into  the  carburet ler 

■  if  gas  irmiie;  dewlucting  5  lbs,  of  tar  recoveied,  leaves  .SO  lbs. 
"O  heat-units  as  the  net  heuting  value  of  the  petroleum  used. 

Ill-  ii.-atiiig  value  of  tlie  coal,  340,750  B.  T.U.  gives  tUli.TW 

'here  is  found  as  heat  energy  in  the  carhuretle^l  gas.  as 

lew  hftti  units,  or  81   per  cent,  wliieh  is  tliecomnier- 

■'  apparatus,  i.e.,  the  ratio  of  the  energy  coutaiued  in^ 

nluci  t"  the  total  energy  ot  the  coal  and  oil  consumed. 


I'liwer  per  M.  cu.  ft.  of 
.1  liuretted  gas  is 


I  >;  .1  I7as0  X  8IS3S.0  =  303200 
1.0  y  .078100  X    4996-6  =    M1;!0 

in.o  y  autiio  X  SMOSi.o  =  ihssio 

<S«4)X  OOKIH  X  nSSi.0  =  tSSOiO 

:o.0  /     jooo.o 


The  heating  power  per  M.  of  tha  ^ 
uncarburetted  gaa  is 
00-   35.0 

CO   484.0  X  .078100  X   4896.«  =  li 
U      BI8.0  X  .006594  X  «1«!4.0  =  IT 


N      lao 


*»"'  rft«»o_ 

toMAw  ralue  or  tbe  Wumluaata  C,H».  ia  a&80> 


I 

I 


I 


65G 


ILLUMINATIXO-OAS. 


Tbe  caodle-power  of  the  gas  la  31,  or  C  3  onti<lle-t>uwa 
tisanl.     Tlie  calculated  speciUc  Rravity  is 

For  description  of    llio  operatiou  uf 
plniit,  Set>  paper  by  J.  Stfltox,  &i')'  ,    ji 

Space  required  for  a  ft'af     " 
10  riiiHlfrii   pliiiils  of  lliij   form  i  • 
average  lloorsjiaee  rvqulred  per  1'' 

Water-gas  Planlfi  of  d^apadly  Require  an  Arm  ot  I 

in  -H  hours  of  each  1000  eii.  ft.  < 

100,000  cubic  feet 4  aquare  I 

300,000    "         •'    3.5     - 

400,000    "         "    8.TB 

600.000    ••         " S  t«lt,5i 

7  to  10  lullllon  cubic  feet l.-Stol^St 

These  llRiirra  inclu<le  scrubbing  and  c  ' 
engine  rooms.  In  ooal-^as  ])lautsof  tlier. 
with  IC  beiioliesof  9  retorts  fo<.-h,  with  a 
a  I  tiours,  will  I'equire  4.8  aq.  ft.  of  snuue  i«.r'l 
benchBS  of  (1  retorts  each,  with  W.OOOcu.  ft 
quire  6  ."iq.  ft.  ot  space  ixsr  1000  ciu  ft.     Tlie  .- 
Kas-iiiuking  materlAU  la:  for  coal-gas,  I   eul>i 
i-ublc  feet  of  itas  made;  for  «ater-goa  made  f  ■ 
for  every  878  cu.  ft.  of  gas  made;  and  for  wm. 
I  eu.  ft.  of  room  for  every  6J5  cu.  ft.  of  gas  ui;4  Ij. 

The  comparLson  is  still  more  In  favor  of  watur-Kas  If  lliecdareltj 
of  a  water-^s  plant  ad(lt*<l  as  an  auxiliary  to  »ii  ^'.viriin^  i-tjatf.. 
for,  Instead  of  requirine  further  space  for  ~:  v*ti 

already  required  for  t^loiase  of  coke  prodiif-  "M 

cut  off,  by  reason  of  I  he  water-Rai)  pfaut  cr^a  •i«B 

more  or  less  of  the  eoko  so  produced. 

Mr.  Shelioii  ttives  a  caloulatiou  sbouiiig  (but  a  wat«'r-f;M  ofJI 
would  require  cas^-inaing  ei^ht  percent  greater  in  dUuiieier  tbaal 
quantity  coal-gas  of  .4'J5  sp.  gr.  if  ihe  ttauie  pressure  Is  ituUntalM 
holder.  Tbe  same  qumillly  may  be  carried  in  pipen  of  Utv  (mn*  > 
if  the  pressure  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  >|».^<.inc-  K"«"iiy 
same  pres.«iure  the  increo.'ie  of  caadlepuwer  m  -  ila 

Jlow.    With  live  feet  of  coal  gas,  (fivinK.  s»3',  ■  mt 

foot  equals  3.B  candle-power;  with   water-g  i^  w^ 

foot  equals  4.0  candle-power,  and  4  cubic  feel  jji-.  lot 

more  than   is  given  by  5  cubic   feet  uf  coal-ntts.    ^'  ..«f 

from  oveu-coke  or  gas-liouse  coke  as  well  as  from  n^  .1, 

gas  plant  tiuty  be  conveniently  run  in  coiiriecth^ii  u,. 
mirpTuB  retort  coke  of  the  latter  beinn  used  as  the  f 

In  Cnal-gAs  making  It  is  itupi-acllcable  to  enrich 
candle-power  without  cnuslng  too  Kreat  a  lendencj  ;<  j 

ot  as  hlRh  as  thirty  cainlle  power  h  quite  common  M 

uini  water-pas  of  a  hiuber  C.P.  than  'JO  am  be  ji.Uv. '  dial 

Pnel-v&lae  of.  IIIutulnatinK-i^'>^.  .<< 

Otiy,  January,  1S9-J|  de.wribes  F.  W.  Ha'  ig 

the  calorific  power  of  ga-^'-s.  and  Kive^  ' 
biirelted  waler't;as  made  by  the  miiuicipjil  i  ■ 
of  New  York.     The  tests  wei-e  made  from  ti:; 
years,  .ind  tl.r  flfiin^  t'lit'  thi->  tr'jit  units  j- 
inch-  '. 

7*1  ■ 
olh- 

tesi 

cslw  i-tliaoM 

ihi'-  (  i-  ^1.1  .m.rtij  iient-unlta.  wfc 

I J. .11  IHI. 


PLOW  OF  GAS  IN   PIPES. 


G57 


llTiiii'r-  u  .11  lid  Imve  a  heutiiip-power  of  ivboutSUO  iiuils  per  ciiUic  Tnot., 
t  s  per  1000  i:ruliio  ftwt  would  f  uniisb  6(10,000  udIis  for  Jl  00, 
'  '.H,4H0  units  for  $1  Oil  from  illiimlnttiiiig  gns  ut  Si  -S  iwr  1(100 
iumiiiatintr-gas  if  sold  at  $1.15  p,'r  tlioti!.anLl  would  tlicre- 
MOiiiical  bfactiiK  a^ent  ttinn  Die  fin'l  gas  mentioned,  at.  au 
I,  and  be  miii'h  more  ailvant.iiL;i'ous  ilmn  tliB  lulter,  iu  that 
,  and  iiit-rer  could  hv  used  to  furnish  gas  for  both  li(flitiii|; 

J  number  of  fiifl  ga-se*  if  stfd  by  Mr.  Ix>Te  cave  from  184  to  470  heat- 
f  foot,  with  un  averup-  of  --liKI  units. 

jtbe  cost  of  lii»«t  from  illuiniiiaiini;  )>a.«  &(  the  lowpst  figiire  giTpn 
Dve.  viz.,  $1.00  foiOOO.OtiO  heat-units,  it  ih  a  very  expensive  fuel,  equal 
I  $40  per  l^u  of  axJO  Ihs.,  the  coal  haviug  a  tMloriflc  powfr  of  ofl' 
ftt-imrtsper  pouud,  or  about  83<of  that  of  pure  carbon: 


»"K 


600,000  :  (12,1100  X  3000) ::  Jl  :  flO. 
FLOIiV   OV  UA8  IN    PIPES. 


Jlleof  flow  of  KOKes  of  difTerenl  deuMiiieg  thM  diameter  of  ptws  L_- 
i  Fic  ,  are  ^ren  iu  King's  'I'lvalise  ou  Coal  Uns,  vnl.  ii.  3T4,  as  1oIIo»h: 


f  r  of  onl^ 


|s  diameter  of  pipe  in  hiuhes, 
t  quantity  of  gaa  in  cii.  ft.  per 
hour, 
=  length  of  pipe  in  yards, 
=  pi'nssure  iu  inebes  of  water, 
^  fpecidc  KfATily  of  gait,  air  be- 
lug  1. 


irorth  g1»08  Q  =  lOOOi/ ^. 


<f  = 


f/. 


gut 

(l!lfiO)^A' 
Q'll 


(13S0)>d« 
!550(l» 


/dh 


jm. 


Am.  Gas-light  Jour.  18M,  giitm  Q  =  '"^^ l/rTqTd)- 


I 


orinula  is  said  to  l>«  based  on  experiuienlnl  ilnia,  and  to  make  alloir- 
Dr  otiKiriieiionK  by  tar,  water,  and  other  bmlles  tending  to  cliecl«  the 
'  li  the  pipe. 

I  Appleton's  Cye.  Mecli  for  flow  nf  ga.s  in  2,  6,  ami  li  In. 
I  on  the  sup|x>sition  that  the  quanljly  delivered  »HMes 
n.diameteriusu'ad  of  asiP  .<  \J,ot-  i  iT'. 
'-  a  flow  iu  larKe  pipes  much  iex.s  thati  that  calcul^ited  by 
L  „,~yn>  Kiven,aa  is  shonn  hy  the  followiu);  exaniplu.     Lvngtli  of 
Ijrda.,  eiieciflc  gravity  of  gas  .042,  pressure  Mn.  waler-cohnim. 


I=1850i 


e-in.  Pipe. 
18,368 


873 


13,605 


76,07%] 


tble  in  App.  Cyc  . . 


1110 


1290 


18,897 


11,(187 


93,845  > 


4n,a38 


Wortb. 


made  by  Mr.  (nopir,  in  l>ondon,  with  a  4-1n.  pipe.  G  nillen 
I  of  water,  Kpecifio  (fravity  of  ga-s  .3tW,  gave  a  ilischaTee 
.  /»  ot  8M'  cii.  ft.  per  hour,  after  a  correction  ot  Vi  iiv\,  t% 

.lA'f. 


■lent,  s  907.  trbiclt  correapoDds  nearly  wilU  tkiA  1 1 


J?t 


at 


i« 


3» 
MS 


St 
M 
VK 


m'  1«M 


L^rana  or  tte%  =  SH  Ta 


tr  l>»W»>er-giwn  IB  iBcbK 


STEAM. 


Lbkotb  op  Pips  =  GOOO  Yards. 


669i 


tv 

Pressure  by  the  Wawr-gauge  in  lochM. 

, 

1.0 

1.5 

S.O 

8.5 

a.o 

■ 

IIB 

116 

169 

tS9 

807 

■ 

.K9 

4IM 

465 

5iW 

560 

■ 

675 

KM 

0B5 

1067 

1168 

■ 

lira 

1443 

1667 

1868 

2041 

■ 

taat 

S377 

!QSg 

8939 

3220 

■ 

arsa 

8347 

3865 

48!J1 

4^34 

■ 

8818 

4674 

5307 

60:M 

6610 

■ 

5123 

osr4 

7iM5 

81(K) 

8873 

^ 

tern 

8165 

M29 

10541 

11547 

10516 

IS8S0 

148r'.J 

l«<i!» 

19^15 

.  C.  Hiimphrej.s  says  his  exp«rieuc«  Roes  to  show  that  these  table* 
V  small  a  flow,  but  It  is  dilfltMilt  to  accurately  check  the  tables,  on  ac- 
if  Uie  extra  frictloa  introduced  by  rough  pipeK,  bends,  etc.  For 
jnerule  Is  to  allow  1/42  of  an  inch  pres-sure  forfacli  right-angle  Itenri. 
c  tlierw  Is  apt  to  I*  trouiile  from  frost  It  is  well  to  use  no  servfci*  of  i 
meter  than  J^j  in.,  no  matter  how  short  it  may  be.  In  extremely  coldi 
klliis  is  now  often  increased  to  1  In.,  even  fur  a  single  lamp.  The  betifej 
'  i  the  U.  8.  DOW  coiidenma  any  service  less  lUan  %  in. 


STEAM. 


_  Bmperatnre  of  steam  in  coniact  with  water  depends  upooii 
Snire   under  wLicli    it  is  geueraled.    At  the  ordinory  aUtioBplierir 
re  (14.7  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  i  iis  temperature  is  212°  F.    As  the  pressni'e  f 
ed,  ns  by  the  ste«tii  liein^  generated   In  a  closed  vessel,  its  leuipera- 
lid  iliftt  "f  the  water  iu  its  presence.  Increases. 

inttcd  Steam  Is  stea.m  of  tlie  temperature  due  to  its  pressure— 
lerheut'd  , 

erheated  Steam  is  steam  heated  to  a  temperature  above  that  due 

Steam  'm  steam  which  coalaing  no  moisture.    It  may  be  either 

«d  -ir  Kiiin'rhented, 

I  Steam  is  Hteaiu  containing  intermingled  moisture,  mist,  or  spray, 
ilir  same  temperature  as  dry  saturated  steam  of  the  same  pressure, 
-.r  intrtxlntreil  Into  ihe  presence  of  superheated  steatn  will  (lash  into 
until  the  leuiperauire  of  the  sieaui  is  reduced  to  that  due  lis  pres- 
Water  In  ilie  presence  of  satumu-d  steam  has  the  same  temperature 
Rtaani.  Hli'inlit  cold  water  lie  Introduced,  lowering  the  leinpernture 
irbole  mass,  some  of  the  steam  will  be  condensed,  reduciug  i  he  press- 
1  temi>erature  of  the  remniuder,  until  an  equilibrium  is  estalilishe*!. 
uperatare  and  Preanare  of  Satarated  Steam.— Tlie  re- 
Ijtflw^en  Ihe  tenipeiflture  and  the  pref*sui"e  ot  Hfeani,  accordiug  to 

I > experiments,  is  expressed  by  the  formula  iBucliannu's,  as  (jiven 
2938  IS 
p  jTTa^Oj  ^  i„..  „  —  371.86,  in  which  p  Is  tbe  pre8.wre  in  pounds 
I  in 


'  6  19KiS44  -  log  p 

|lnch  and  t  the  temperature  of  the  steam  in  Fahrenheit  degrees. 
Hlh  iu.-euracy  lietweeo  120°  K.  aod  446°  F,,  corresponding  lit  pres- 
mn  l.OH  lUs.  to  445  lbs.  per  nquaiv  Inch.  (For  oilier  formula:  see 
1  Pwftbody's  Tlierniodyimniies  ) 

Heat  of  Satarated  Steam  (above  .13°  F.)  —  .^c 


.111.  .-xin-iineMiis,  the  formula  f-ir  toinl  heat  of  steum  tsfl 

' ' \v  liii.'h  /  is  temperature  Fahr.,  and  H  Ihe  hent-im 

tilers;  CInrk  giTes  lOfll  .16  inslead  of  1091.7  . 

-.at  of  Steam.— The  forniiila  for  Intent  In  ai 

me  i,ud  otbem,  laL=  1001.7  -  .mh[t  -  82° l.    t.' 
trwibeit  units,  ns  grlrea  by  Clark,  is  L  =  1008.0  - 


wltiUn  the  giveu  ranges  of  pi-essure  ^Clark,  S. 

From  14.7  Ibe.  to  50  lbs.  total  prsKsure  per  square  I 
From  BO  lbs.  to  'XKi  lbs.  total  presiiirei  per  squurc  i 

Heat  required  to  Generate  1  lb.  orsteam 

Sonsilile  beat,  to  raise  tin?  watt-]'  from  8:!°  (o  SIS'  =   . 
Lnleut  hetat,  1,  of  thu  (oruiaiion  of  steam  at  i!tv!°  = . 
tt,  of  «xpiuisiou  HKnioRt  lli«  siiiioxptw-rti 
premiin?, HiS.4 Hik.  I'er xqu  *KkWMc\i. I 
=  66,78li  foot-|K)UiK(» -!- I.B  = , 


Total  livut  abov«  Dii*  F . 


UB   I 


The  Heat  ITfklt,  or  Britlah  Tbennal  TTnlt.^ 

the  heat-iiiiit  used  in  liils  work  is  that  nf  R«nl«iiif,  (KivyilM 
writers,  via  ,  the  quantity  of  heat  roquiriM  !(.•  riil«e  llie  leu 
of  water  1°  F.  ot  or  near  its  t>-inperaiure  of  iiiaxiiiiu 
Peabody'B  deflDitlon,  the  lient  reijiiiri'd  to  rais^  a  poi 
to  eU"  F.  I*  not  Eenerally  aocepted.  (ftee  TlmrMon, 
zlii.  351.) 

Bpeclflo  Heat  of  Saturated  Steam.— Tlie  spra 
rated  steam  ix  .'Mt,  ihnt  of  wutfr  tieiii^  1 ;  ur  it  U  1  £81,  I! 
The  eipression  .805  for  si-vccittn  (iwit  Is  tnken  in  a  <v)m(>o« 
to  obauj;<-s  Iwih  uf  Tuluine  ami  of  pressure  wltioli  lakei  I 
tlon  of  leiiiperntupeof  satiimtwlslenm.    iflark.rt  Vi        i 

This  stattMiif  111  by  ("Inrk  is  nol  Klrictly  ■ •■  ■••       "i—- 

of  salumtcd  steam  is  e|pTat«»l,  water  b«-i' 
liitr  saliirnltvl,  vvalt-r  in  ernporat*'d.    To 
water  1*  I'',  rcquiri's  1  tberinal  unit.  "■■■'  ' 
n'(jiiir«  0.ISB5  Ifus  thermal  imlt,  the  :: 
iOK  O.ettfi  H  T  U.  for  each  iiiiTeasi- 
thf  Kpivillc  heat  of  water  and  its  siii,....;   ■■ 


8TSAV. 


1 


ar,  the  yolunia  of  water  being  measured  at  the  temperati 

he  relative  volume  is  found  by  (niiUiplf  ini;  the  volume  In  cu.  ft.  of 
^U-am  hy  ihe  we isrht  of  a  cii.  ft.  of  wiitf  i'  at  39°  F..  or  B3.4?5  lbs. 
>U(»  StouQi.  ^^  li<!ii  sat«rftfi!"l  Rl-'iiin  l«  !<ui«"i'hented,  or  siip- 
it  aclvaiict^ti  fioiu  ihe  cotiiliiioti  of  saturalion  into  that  of 
lit*  stuXts  is  only  airi»eil  ot  b.v  coiisidHrobly  elevatiriK  tlie 
:  siiik' Ihe  pri'fvsiire  remains  Ihe  same.  HIenm  lluis  hiiffl- 
iin;:in.'ii  in  fenowii  ns  traseou.s  sieom  or  Btenin  gas. 

At  of  CaACOQB  steam.-  ReKiiaiill  found  lha^  thi*  total 
eijixs  stejini  liit*rfiip(*il,  like  that  of  saturated  steam,  uniformly 
iiiperatiire.  and  at  the  rata  of  A'ifi  tlu'inial  units  per  pound  for 
ree  of  temperature,  uuder  a  constant  pressure. 
neral  formula  for  the  total  heat  of  Baseouu  Ktenni  produi'ed  from 
■"  wat«r  at  32°  F.  ig  H  =  1074.6  +  A7!it.  [This  foroiula  i.s  for  vtt|.  ~ 
I  at  32°.  n  is  not  tniis  If  generated  atSlS",  oratauy  other  touipei 
132".     <Prof.  Wood  )]  _ 

|8peclflc  Heat  of  Gaeeoua  Steam   Ig   .475,  under  oonstnnt 
",as  foimil  Ijy  Hotciiault.     It  Is  IdHiiiMr.-il  with   the  coefncieiit  of  In- 
total  heat  for  euili  degreiMif  teuiiieralure.     [Tliis  is  at  atmospheric 
rifl  'iVi"  feniperHture.     Ha  fuund  It  u.it  true  roruiiy  other  iirenBUi-fl. 
iicate-'  tlmi  it  would  !>.•  I.'s«  at  hiKlii'rl'>mpemtures.   iprof. VV'o<id.l] 
pecUlc  DeiiHity  ofeaMeoaa  Strnm  is  .d'ii,  that  of  air  heiiiK 
a  to  sav,  the  weight  of  a  euhic  foot  of  ^a»eouB  steam  is  almut  flvB 
r  that  ol"  a  culiic  foot  of  air.  of  the  same  pressure  and  temperature. 
ily  or  weight  of  a  eubic  foot  of  gaseous  at  earn  is  expretwible  bj^ 
arraulu  as  that  of  *lr,  except  that  th«  multiplier  or  coeflScieiit^ 
ortion  to  tlie  le&s  Hpecific  deoaity.    Thus, 


"^  ~        «  +  461 


1.68«p 


ii*e^^^ 


'  is  the  n-el^bt  of  a  cubic  foot  of  rt««eou«  steam,  p  the  total  pi 
^square  inch,  and  /the  temperature  Fahrenheit. 
"iw«ated  Steaai.  -The  aooi^e  remarks  conceniinK  gaseous  st««cn 
I  from  Clark'H  .Steam  enttlne.    Wood  gives  for  the  total  heat  (abo' 
rheal«d  atmim  H  =  UK)  1.7  +  0..1*<  -  83°). 

rl«ahridi;ed  from  Poabody  (Therm.,  p.  115,  eto.l. 
-■  r"rt  from  the  temperature  of  Baturation.RuperhealedRti 
perfeel  Kaw«  very  nearly,  but;  near  the  temperature 
tuie  from  those  laws  ia  too  great  toallow  of  cuiculations 
t;iMrcring  pur]H>8e8. 
ciflc  tieai  at  cniislant  pressure,  Ct,  from  the  mean  of  three experi- 
teennull,  Is  n  tHiiS, 
[  the  tatio  of  Cp  to  specific  heat  at  coDstant  volutiie: 


■e  of 


)p,  pounds  per  square  iuoh.. 
Ratio  d)  -»-  Cii  =  fc  = 


5  SO 

l.SSa  1.332 


100 
l.^U 


aoo 

1.31S 


F  UUcea  fc  as  a  sonstant  =  1 .  33S. 

kpictPiG  Heat  at  Constant  VoLtaiK,  Sppebdeated  Stbam. 


ure,  pounds  per  square  inch 5 

Oc  heat  0» 0.3.51 


50 
348 


100 
.316 


*)0 

.344 


30O 
.!M1 


I 


t  reasonable  to  asHume  that  Cv  ia  a  con»tanl  as  to  suppose  that 
Bt,  as  has  been  aasuiued.    It  we  take  C»  to  be  couslaut,  tlieu  C> 
r  M  a  variable.  .  . 
[prsssure  io   lbs.  per  %t\.  ft.,  v  =  volume  ia  cubic  fe«t,  and  T 
ar»  In  degrees  Fahrenhait  \-  460.7,  then  pv  =  93.5r—  mipi- 
T<>UIheat  of  sujierhealed  steam.  f7  =  0  4«(i3(7"  -  lO.SRpJ)  4-  RS7.'3. 

The    Kn<ioni>|iratioii    Of  Regnault'B    Experiment* 

;;ray.  I'roc.  In.-,!.  .11.  E  ,  .luly,  INK!).)- The  formal 
re  W;-/ft;j'empiV(faJ.  and  were  base\\  vuvVvvVk 
n„-n-Core  uoi  valid  beyond  the  tauge  ot  leiw 

rateca/ou/fttiou,  based  noto& 


r  = 

I 


lated  therefrom  wblcfa  show  solnUntiaJ  airrwment  vlth  I 
He  fcives  the  following'  ez«mpl«i<  ot  sc«km-pre!sure8  < 
tores  beyond  the  ranee  of  Ki>KiiauU'c  experimcDIs. 


Temperature. 


sad 


sso 


F«hr. 


Pounds  per 
Bq.  in. 


4<».» 
4S8.9 
679.» 
G»1.6 
MO.O 
I'^Cl.B 

ieei.9 


Thr^ei  preswurps  are  hieber  than  those  obtained  bj  Bei{naa 
whioli  Fivp5  for  ■115°  C.  <inlv  4C6V.1  lbs.  per  sqii&re  inch. 
Table  of  tlie  Properties  of  Satiirated  St«uB.- 

of  properties  of  sattirated  steam  on  the  following  pages  the  flj 
peratiire.  total  heat,  and  latent  beat  are  taken,  up  to  210  Ibi.  I 
5iir«.  from  the  tables  in  Porter's  Steam-eupne  Indicator,  whjl 
been  widely  accepted  aa  standard  by  American  englni  " 

total  heat,  given  In  the  original  as  from  0°  F.,  have  I 
above  :W*  F.    The  flgiires  for  weight  per  cubic  foot  and^ 
pound  have  been  taken  from  Dwelshauvers-Dery's  tabfa 
vol.  si ,  aa  being  probably  more  accurate  than  those  of  I 
for  relative  volume  are  from  Buel's  table,  in  Duboia's  t. 
bach,  vol.  il.    They  agree  quite  closely  with  the  relatlvei 
from  weights  as  given  byUery.     From  211  to  SI9  Ibd.  the! 
atiire,  total  heat,  and  latent  heat  are  from  pery'fi  lable;ll. 
lbs.  ail  the  flgureK  are  from  Buel's  table.    Thn  ntmrcM  l>«« 
out  to  as  many  decimal  places  as  they  are  in  i 
different  authorities;  but  any  flji^ire  beyond  ' 
unnecests&ry  in  practice,  and  bi-yon<l  tlie  linii: 
and  of  the  rormuiip  from  which  the  Qgiires  were  derived. 

Welolil  of  1  Cnbtr  Foot  of  Rteam  tn  Declmala  o^ 
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Weight  of  1  cubic  foot 

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110.8 

2  37 

.4400 

m 

382.0 

355.3 

.4 

fl4;ii 

UK.l 

2,38 

.4420 

am 

38-J.4 

a.w.H 

.8 

81^.8 

1S9.5 

2.25 

.4441 

903 

S8i.9 

3««.« 

7 

843  5 

138.8 

a  24 

.4402 

m 

388.3 

356.6 

'a 

IMS. a 

138.1 

2.23 

.4482 

SOS 

383.7 

357.1 

1199.0 

841.9 

137  5 

2.22 

.4503 

W6 

384.1 

3.')7.5 

.T 

841.6 

186,9 

2.91 

.4523 

S07 

884. S 

K7.9 

.3 

841.3 

isa.3 

2.20 

.4544 

£08 

384. 9 

358.3 

.3 

^41  0 

185.7 

2.19 

.4561 

SOS 

885.3 

3.W.H 

.5 

840.7 

135.1 

2.18 

.45a'> 

«10 

a»r..7 

a.'jo.-' 

.8 

MO. 4 

134.5 

2.17 

.4605 

S1I 

886.1 

8.19.6 

.7 

8<0.1 

1»).9 

2.16 

.4626 

sia 

386.5 

860.0 

.9 

839  8 

138. 3 

2.15 

.4646 

SIS 

386.9 

860.4 

.9 

839.5 

133.7 

3.14 

.4667 

m 

387.3 

380.9 

1300.1 

839.3 

184.1 

2.1.'! 

.4687 

K  915 

887.7 

SSI  3 

.3 

838.9 

131.6 

s.ia 

.4707     M 

■  sie 

8881 

381. 7 

.3 

838.6 

130. B 

2.12 

.4728     ■ 

■  S17 

888.5 

aas.i 

.4 

838.3 

180.3 

2.11 

.4748     ^ 

■  SIB 

888.9 

362. "i 

.6 

83M.1 

129.7 

2.10 

.4768 

■  819 

889.3 

36:>  9 

.  1 

aS7.8 

]'i9,a 

2.1IG 

.4788 

■  sao 

880.7 

868.8* 

19CX1.8 

83S.6* 

128.7 

2.M 

.4882 

■  S30 

S98.6 

866.2 

laOi.Q 

835.8 

liJ3.3 

1.98 

.5061 

■  £40 

397.8 

3700 

isoa.i 

833.1 

118  5 

l.M 

..V270      ^ 

■  »> 

400.9 

873.8 

1204. a 

830.5 

114.0 

1.83 

.5478     M 

■  «>o 

404.4 

sn.4 

1205^ 

827.9 

109.8 

1.76 

.5686    H 

■  870 

407.8 

880.9 

K'OC.S 

825  4 

105.9 

1  7U 

,   .nm  ■ 

■  S80 

411.0 

884.3 

1S07.3 

833.0 

102.3 

l.M 

\  •^^'''^^^1 

Fa»y 

ai.sj 

S8T.7     120S.3  . 

820.6 

99.0 

1     \.a8S 

\  .taM^H 

1  soo 

'L-* 

3S0.9     1Sm.-J  1 

818.3 

96  8 

\   i.^ai 

uJ^^I 

sso  1 

^s^.o  J 

408.3  1  1218.7  \ 

807.5 

aa.r 

\    1.9S 

(wo* 

fatsoe.i 

'  lbs.  gauge  are 

due  t< 

>theck 

kanpel 

■ 

Ik 

d 

l^^l 

-668 

■  i 


Prop«nl««  wr  Sa(«naeA 


Sffi.S 
MS.S 

ft%.8 

na^  s 

rwr>.» 
raa.a 

7(0.3 
Haii.3 

085. :{ 
SK.S 
IM5.8 


III 


440 

BOO 

uo 
ecu 
cso 

JOO 
700 
800 
BM 

WW 

1000 


8- 


444.9 
4S6.e 

4«7.4 
477.5 
48«.I> 
4M.7 

GM.l 
B12.1 
SIS.S 
CM.a 

633.7 
W0.3 
M8.8 


Tot&l  Beaf 
mborear  V. 


!-i 


In  the 
Water 

h 
H«at- 

uniu. 


419.» 
4K.S 

443.5 
464.1 
464.8 

4T3.a 

482.4 
490.9 
4W.9 

fiOO.7 

614.0 
BS1.3 
BS8.3 


B 
B«at- 
nniu. 


i»:.7 

ISM^ 

]tt7.a 

1230.5 
Ittl.S 

f.«.7 
1S8.0 
1440.3 
1342.5 

1*44.7 
1846.7 

1248.7 


iw.« 

TSS  1 

747.3 
74M 

TS.S 

730.8 

Ta$.4 
no.s 


ti.i 

.31  II 

a4 

ai.s 

•4  J 

.Ml 

38.0 
SI.4 

JK 
JH 

I 


VLomr  Of  STBAM. 

Flow  of  Steam  (broagh  •  Nojude.    (Frooi  Clerk 

riijdiif.i-  Tlio  Mow  uf  Htemu  ot  a  greater  pmsureiato  •• 
li-KH  pi'Muturii  liicroaaes  oa  th«  illfrerence  of  ptttmtrt  Is  iM 
i-vifi'iiitl  preuuro  b«ooni<>ii  only  f>S%  ot  ihe  abaoluto  arHaH*  A  < 
The  How  of  Bteain  is  neither  fiieri'ase<l  nor  diininiahM  kf  AtMl 
ifi'iiiil  prviwiiro  below  .58^,  or  aUnit  4/7tbt  Qt  th«  insid* prMMB<lk4 
i-KlfiK  gf  a  |H>rrw^t  vacuum.  In  flouiiiK  through  ■  aoaUct  Okl 
ilie  ■Ifiiin  expaiKlB  lo  the  external  pr<>«8ure,  abil  to  like  t 

(jrensiirn,  no  long  i\n  It  Is  not  less  than  S8|C  of  Ui«  lat«rBal  ' .     ^ 

■■xtuiiial  pressure  of  tiff,  and  for  lower  perc«nla|M,  tlte  ratie  "•  *V 
Ik  I  tu  1 .0^*4.    The  folloniiiK  tahle  i*  selected  from  Mr.  HmwnlM't  ■■{ 
lilifyiiiK  the  rates  of  diiicharKe  under  a  consUnt  Inteiniat 
>  arioiH  extei'iiul  prensiires: 

Outflow  of  8t«ain;  from  ■  Olr«n  Initial  rr«aa«r«il 
VartoUN  t.ower  Prcwattrea. 

Absolute  initial  prvBsurii  iu  buUer,  7S  lbs.  p«T  aq.  la 


AhKohito 

Extnmal 

Batioor 

V««lo«liy  of 

Act 

Pi'oiisurein 
Boiler  per 

Preaaure 

Expanalon 

Ouifluw 

Velo. 

per  aouare 
iuch. 

In 

atCoaatant 

Uut  • 

kni'b. 

Nonle. 

Deoatty. 

Ezpn: 

Ib«. 

76 

Iba. 

74 

ratio, 
1.013 

feet  M>  sea. 

f^jj-e      1 

7.1 

73 

I.0S7 

aM.T 

401               • 

75 

70 

1  Ota 

490 

Ml               ■ 

ta 

0.'. 

1   ISO 

eeo 

749               J 

^IM 

di.iM 

1.108 

7W 

vn         j 

(XI 

1  -.'111 

-m 

«B8              i 

^^^^^^B 

Ml 

1  4!V» 

ss 

ItSU              ] 

^^™- 

4.^ 

1 .57.^ 

1401              * 

1       ■li  lO     1 
1  \fi  II  (>i'nt  ( 

i.ett 

8B0.8 

1443.3           1 

^■^^_ 

\    1  Mt 

^^^1 

j,     1  oat 

PLOW  OP  STEAM. 


069 


ptii  at  rari'Ini;  Initial  rtretttures  Is  dlsi'tiargrd  into  the  almos- 

a  -'-Hi-e  Veliift  not  more  tlion  58*  of  the  liiUioi 

•\i  [Idw  Ht  cnDfttaDt  clentdiy,  xhtti  Is,  supjMisiiiK  the 

I  rill),  ig  givfa  liy  lh(>  furniuhi  V  =  a.firtS!  v'l. 

lity  of  outflow  in  feet  per  minute,  na  for  steAm  of  the  Initial 

Jht  In  feet  of  a  column  of  gteam  of  the  Kiren  ahmilute  initial 
lire  of  iiuifonn  tleiisity,  the  weight  of  which  is  equal  [i«  the  [ires- 
I  ilie  unit  of  base. 

Initial  pressure  to  which  the  formula  spplieii,  wbeti  I  he  steam 
1  into  toe  atinosphere  at  H.7  lb«.  per  i^quare  Inoli,  ia  (M.T  x 
S7  lbs.  per  ftquare  inch.  ExampleA  of  the  application  of  the 
given  In  the  lnt)l«  helow. 
M!oiit«niK  of  this  table  it  unpears  that  the  Telocity  of  outflow  Into 
jberf*,  of  steain  above  25  lus,  per  Aqtmre  Ineh  absolute  ftresMire, 
■"eoiive,  increaties  verj'  Hlowly  with  the  pressure,  olivimisl.v  de- 
ity, and  the  weiKhl  to  ho  luovejl,  iucrease  witii  itie  pressure. 
of  900  feet  per  seiKnid  nmv,  for  approximate  cnloiilntlniis,  lie 
s  veFocllr  of  outflow  ae  fur  constant  density,  that  is,  taking  the 
|Bhe  steam  lil  the  initial  volume. 

or  Sl«am  Into  tbc  Atmosphere.— External  in'rasiire 
ih  N.7  lbs.  abiwliiie.    Itatio  of  expani-iou  in  nozzle.  l.OUt 


hi 


tJoM 


feet 
per  sec, 
1401 
1406 
1419 
1439 
14*7 
1444 
1417 


lit 

Q 


=^i| 


5.;^  i 


5  1^:  = 


lbs. 
«.8l 

35  IS 
44  (W 
58  M> 

9J.07 


n.p. 

45  6 
68. T 
70.4 
RB.l 
105  2 
182.1 


|??i   $ 


hi 

Cj   -   s., 

iff 

G  "  »> 

>> 

hi 

o 
lit 

< 

t* 

-s 

- 

lbs. 

feet 

feet 

lbs. 

p.sec. 

per  see. 

90 

Bffl 

1454 

77  94 

100 

8»a 

1459 

Ba..-H 

115 

902 

1466 

9.s.7fi 

188 

908 

1472 

115.111 

155 

»I0 

147S 

1.1;  ji 

HID 

»K 

HHl 

I40.4« 

SI  5 

919 

1493 

181.. 58 

.p.  Si 


.^i 


n.p. 
I5s.g 
n-.',7 

197  5 
231  £ 
^1.4 


I  ApproxlniMle  Rule. -Flow  in  ponndti  )ier  second  =:  ab' 
ire  X  area  In  iK)iiKi-e  incheK  +  70.  Thiii  rule  gives  results  whiiJi 
ipond  with  tbo»«  in  the  aboTe  table,  as  shown  below. 

lbs.  p.  »q.  In.  25.37     40  OO       75         100  135         186  815 
pt  mln.,  by 

i. 23.81  35.18  89.59  05,30  80.34  118.61  I40.4fl  ISI.&S 

rule SI  .74  34.23  51.43  C4.39  85.71  11.5.71  141,48  ]84.!» 

»(Jy,  hi  Trann  A.  8,  M.  E.,  xl,  187,  repoi-ta  a  series  of  experi- 
»  of  iteain  Ihroiieh  tuben  U  inch  In  diameter, ami  ii,  ^,  and  1^ 
|lli  roini(li.><l  eiitrauees,  in  wTiieli  the  iciinjlvi  agreed  elosi'ly  with 
riila.  the  greatest  illfferetice  being  an  e.xressof  the  expcri mental 
lUlated  ri'Niilt  of  'A  '■!%.  An  pquatinn  ileriTetl  from  the  theorj-  of 
luieH  IB  given  by  Prof.  PeHbody,  but  IL  does  not  ai;ree  with  the 
I  re«ult«  as  well  us  Napier's  rule,  the  excess  of  the  actual  flow 

KleMni  In  Pipes.  — A  forimila  commonly  tnied  for  A-eloclty 
till  >ii  pipeK  Iri  the  sHiue  as  Mowninir'K  for  the  dow  of  water  in 


<n  pipes,  viz.,  r  =  BOi/^7),  In  which  I 


;  =  length  and  D  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  feet, 
p/o  of  ste*m,  of  the  preif.siire  of  tlie  8t«;aiit 


Kto 


STEAM. 


I 


whicb  would  produce  «  pressure  equal  to  the  dUTereoce  cf  | 

two  ends  of  the  pipe.    (For  derivation  of  the  coeAdeilt ! 
"  WarniiiiR  Buildiiiifs  by  Steam,"  Proc.  lust.  O.  E,  ififti.) 

If  Q  =  quiintitj  in  ctibiu  feet  per  minute,  d  —  diameter  In  1 
being  in  feet,  the  formula  reduces  to 

n^ene  formulee  are  applicable  to  air  and  other  ^ases  as  well  i 
If  Pi  =  pressure  lu  pounds  per  Miuare  inch  of  tlip  gtram  lori 
tratiet!  to  the  pipe,  p,  =  llie  preHsiire  at  llie  eiit.  then  H*;",  - 
eiice  ill  pressure  per  Hquare  foot.  Let  ir  =  deusity  or  weight  j 
of  Kieain  at  tlie  pressure  p„  then  the  height  of  column  eqa 
difff  reiiLv  in  pressures 


^jj^  I«IP! — P»},  and   0  =  M  X  .7W4  X  60n» 


/^ 


If  w  ==  weight  of  Bteam  flowing  In  pounds  per  minute  =  i 
taken  in  inches,  X  being  in  feet, 


W 


=  5e.88i/! 


d  =  0.199 


"Hpi-PiW*. 


I  =  M.flSi/i^ 


V^ 


tviPt  -Pi) 


=  0.199 


y  Pi-p% 


.«!« 


▼elooMy  io  (e«t  per  minute  =  r  =  Q  -*-  •78MjT^  =  lOSK 


/^ 


For  a  velooitj  of  6000  feet  per  [nlnut«,  d  = 


tel. 


8(P,  -  p»)' 


P\  -I 


H    aq. 


For  a  Telocity  of  8000  feet  per  minute,  a  steam-pr««ui<e  of  H9| 
K)  =.864,  and  a  length  of  100  feet,  d  =  - — '—^■,  Pi  —  Pi  =  ^. 


pi  -Pt 

rini 


pf|>e  1  inch  diameter,  100  feet  long,  carrying Me«m  of  100  lli«.i._ 
at  OOQO  feel  velocity  [xr  minute,  would  have  a  loaa  of  preeMirei 
■q  jare  inch,  while  gieHiu  travelling  at  the  same  TelociCy  la  a  | 
diameter  would  lose  only  1  lb.  pressure. 
Q.  U.  Baboocic,  In  "Steam,"  gives  the  formula 


^^wn-or,--and  tliis  value  ha«  been  reprinted  in  Cli> 
^^Eion).     It  is  apparently  iterived  from  one  of  the 
^^Of  water  in  pl[>e>i,  the  muliiplier  of  L  In  the  deni.: 
ezpreealou  of  the  increased  reslstauce  of  small  pii>r% 


in  the  form  Jl'  =  r  j/ 
of  tlw  pipe,  we  have. 


"■tP.  -  Pi'rf* 


j-*^^-'  —  .  In  which  c  will  v, 


L 


1 

W.7 


3 

««.3 


3 

BS.8 


I  coKBtant  value  50.6)4,  iriven  with  the  simpler  formnta' 
widely  accepted  formuLa*  fur  How  of  ■atorlir' 


ue«  raotrlng  from  C9  rot  a  H*aA  |l^<4 


FLOW  OP  8TEAM. 


giJnch .    UsioK  D'Arcy '«  ooeffldenta,  and  modifring  liii  fomiuUi  I 
'  to  stfAin,  to  th»  form 


r 


-y'-a 


p,)rf» 


wL 


or    W 


=v 


L 


Mter,  Inches \i         1  3 

;e 30.8      45.8      5S.: 


3         4         5         8         7         t 
Sa.I     5T.8    fia4    50.5    60.1    W.7 


Wter,  inches. 

'«. 


9 

ei.3 


10 
61.8 


13 

63.1 


14 
63.8 


IS 
62.6 


18 

89.7 


SO       83 
»;,9    63.« 


94 

I0.it 


absence  of  direct  experimpnts  these  coefflcient-8  are  prnbablj  i 
\m»  any  (hat  may  be  derived  from  formula!  for  flow  of  water. 


^■lessui 


re  in  lbs.  persq.  in.  =  p^  —  p^  = 


c'rf«  ■ 


«f  Prpndiire  due  lo  Radiation  ap  irrll  an  Friction.  - 

lidiger  {Meihunics,  .luiif  ;il,  ISNJi  Kiffs  tlie  follmviiig  fnriiiulip  Bud 
u>  flow  of  steAtn  in  pipex.  He  ial<ea  into  consideration  (he  losses  in 
>  due  both  l»  radiation  and  to  trictioo. 

W*fl 
if  power,  ej:pressed  In  heat-units  due  to  friction,  Hf  =    -^,  „. 

ae  to  radiation,  Hr  =  OSe&rtd. 

I  ICis  the  weight  in  1>I8.  of  steam  delivered  per  hour, /the  ooefll- 
(Motion  of  the  pipe,  I  the  length  nf  the  pipe  in  feet,  p  tne  abtiolute 

rare,  d  the  diamet«r  of  the  pipe  in  inches,  and  r  tbecoeffldeol 
^<8  taken  as  from  ,0165  I o  .Oi;,'>,  and  r  varies  as  follows: 
TABLE  OF  VALIJES  rOR  f. 


Pipe  Covering. 

Absolute  Presaure. 

40  lbs. 

flSlba. 

SOIlM. 

115  lbs. 

«lpipe •-••• 

wnent  composition 

43T 
146 
187 
ISO 
100 
61 
48 

665 
178 
192 
18fi 
Z-ii 
76 

680 
193 
S0i2 
W! 
145 
8S 

684 
300 

ibesloa                     .   

233 
310 

151 

93 

air  felt 

5« 

86 

78 

I 

I 

I 


Ipended  table  shows  the  loesdue  to  friction  and  radiation  In  aateam- 
Br«  tbe  quantity  of  gl«am  to  lie  delivered  is  lOOO  lbs.  per  hour,  I  = 
..  the  pipe  beinK  so  protected  that  tosa  by  radiation  r  =  64,  and  the 
>  terminal  pressure  being  90  lbs.: 


Plow  OF  STUAM, 


6?5 


kctttaaM  of  the  mouth  of  the  tube.     Hence  the  whole  low  of 

V* 

itranoels  1.305  —  .    Thia  resiitance  ist>qual  to  the  re»iat«Dce 

Uib«  of  B  leiiRth  equal  to  about  60  times  its  diameter. 
t  ecK'li  sharp  risht-angleil  elbow   la  tlie  game  as  io  flowlnif 
^h  of  straight  tub«  equal  to  about  -10  times  its  diameter.    For 
.  stAp-TAlte  Ibe  leaislaiice  ia  taken  to  be  11^  limes  that  of  tha 
ilbow. 

Steam-pipes  for  Statlouarf  Eiietne*.— Aurborities 
i-e-ugiiie  j5**iierHlly  agr****  that  slt^iii-pipeii  supplying  HiigitieH 
such  aizti  that  lim  luean  vrlocity  of  steam  in  them  dot-e  not 
let  per  minute, in  order  that  the  loss  of  prcBsuie  due  to  f rlcllon 
ccewve.  The  velogiiy  in  calculated  on  llie  aftjiuniptici)  (bat  the 
ed  at  each  stroke.  In  very  loii^:  iiines.  100  fec-t  and  upward,  it 
le  them  larger  than  thia  rule  would  giro,  and  lu  place  a  Inr^e 
r  on  the  pipe  near  the  engine,  especlully  when  (he  eni;ine  cuts 
«  stroke. 

1  Power,  May,  1893,  on  proper  area  of  supply-pipea  for  cng-ineii 
Ibowing  the  practice  of  It-adin?  builder.^.  To  racllitatc  com- 
le  engines  have  been  rated  in  horse-power  at  40  pouudK  luean 
•i|r«.  The  table  contaiob  nil  the  varieties  of  sunple  engloea, 
K*alTe  to  the  Corliss,  and  it  apiJ«ar.«  that  there  is  no  general 
lie  sixes  of  pipe  used  in  the  difrerniit  I.nies. 
M  selected  from  ibla  table  are  as  foUowa: 

Lin i    SU     3    SU     4      m     6       e       7       8       9  10 

sines  ...  SS    39      S«    77    100    1^    I.%    iK>5    306    400    506  6» 

rmnia  (1)  SS    36      51    70      »I     1 16    143    306    Z78    366    463  5TI 

nuula  (SI  24  37.5    M    73     96    ISl     160    316    a»4    384    486  600 
is:  1  H  P.  requires  .1375  aq.  in.  of  steam-pipe  area, 
is:  Horse-power  =  6d'.           d  =  diam.  of  pipe  in  inches. 

.137S  in  formula  0)  is  thus  derived:  Asjiume  that  the  linear 
»«ni  In  the  pipe  should  not  exceed  6000  feet  per  minute,  then 
yl.  area  X  piston-»peed  -»-  0000  (a).  Assume  ihat  the  av.  mean 
Hire  is  4OI0S.  per  s<j.  hi.,  then  cyl.  area  '/.  pistou-spced  •.  40  -^ 
i-power  (b>.  Uividing  ImI  by  iki  and  canorllhig,  we  hove  pipe 
n  .1976  sq.  in.  If  we  use  8000  ft.  per  lula.  as  the  allowable 
the  factor,  1:175  becomes  .10:il:  that  is,  pipe  area-t-H.P,  = 
area  x  .97  c  horse-power.  This,  however,  gives  areas  of  pipe 
ire  nsed  iothe  most  recent  practice.  A  formula  which  gives 
'  sigreeing  with  practice,  as  shown  in  the  aboro  table  ts 


ower  =  6d*,   or   pipe  diameter  =i 


:  =  .408  »'U.P. 


i»  Cti.iwi>kfib  coBKESPosntNo  TO  Various  Sizsg  or  Stkam- 
Kb  ON  Piston-speBd  Of  Enoihb  ok  600  ft.  per  iMisuTK,  a.vd 
X  Mbak  TKLocrnr  op  Stkam  ik  Pips  or  4000,  6000,  amd  8000 
m.     (ST«Aif  jir>Hf«Kn  T'i  nic  .Vr>HriTLi>  ni  itiMi   Fii.i,  Stbokk.) 


,  Inches S 


^  A   1^ 


4 

in  9 


4^ 

11  ii 


.1 

1'1  Q 


€76 


8TB  AU. 


^_^lnn  Is  followed,  the  pipe  flits  with  water  whpn<»»pv  tlil<  hnlterblj 
^KStid  the  others  arp  rtinniiifr,  and  brenkaije  of  lli  ■mu' wr"" 

^Bbii11,4.     Never  let  a  iunpliiiii-i>ip«"  run  inin  the  '■■  ■  iiitls  |itt*t 

^*  Into  the  siilf  i>r  io|i.     Alwo.v 'i*p  in  iinclc-vnlvc  •  ii,>-ut 

Is  more  room  in  tliem.     Ntver  use  a  gate  valve  uiiJei 
by -pass  l«  used  witli  It.    Never  0|>pn  a  blow-off  valw- 

tllien   shut  it;  if  i»  sure  tn  catuh  the  sediment  and  i 
well  open  befnrecliisliig.    Nei'*>r  use  n  globe-valve  oii 
water,  always  use  gate  or  iin(irle  valves  or  stopcock.- 
Bage.    Buy  if  piisstble  valves  wiih  renewable  disks.     I.^ 
£0  inside  a  boiler  to  work,  efip«i.-lallr  if  be  Is  to  buuiuiei  ou  IL 
bienlc  the  Joint  between  the  boiler  and  the  valve  and  (lut  a  (i 
between  the  flHii(t''S. 

Plaugea  Tor  Sicam-nozzlea  and  SteKm>plp«, 
Qill  Water-tube  iJoilur.  I'hila.,  lHVi. 

Flzeofpipe S  4  5  «         7 

Outside  diameter  of  flBnee.lDcbea,.  B  10  II  14  IS 

Pitch  circle  for  bolts,  d lam.,     "    ..  7  8  9  JO  It 

Ouisidediain.  of  Rackets,  "    ..  6ii  n4  TU  ni     t>4 

Ijni^idediam.  ofga-^kets,  "     ..  S^  4^  bii  <K      :it 

Number  of  bolts 5  fl  T  8         »      I» 

[gizeofpipe 10  11  U  U  14  tt 

I  Outside  diameter  of  flanKe,  inches..  16  17  18  19  »  a 

'  Pitch-oiicle  for  bolts,  diam.,     "     ..  14  15  18  17  ID  I» 

Outside  diam.  of  eOsUeta,  "     ..  12«  ISU  UU  15U  Itii  P 

Inside  dinm.  of  gaslieis,  "    ..  V)\i  llij  U>^  M\i  \IH 

NumberofbolU 18  18  l-l  H  18 

All  lioles  drilled  15/1"  in  ,  with  a  Jiff  accurately  laid  out. 
All  bolts  to  he  %  in.  diam.  by  3!^  in.  long  under  the  h4sa(l. 
All  bolls  lo  Imve  square  heailn  and  liex.'ifroo  nuts 
Xhe  "  Steam  Loop  ^)  In  a  system  of  piping  by  which 
'        densation  in  ^left^l■pl|les  is  automatlcflllv   r.iiirhi'.I  t.i  thn  U 

■  Rlmpleat  form  it  cc>nHi»la  of  three  pipes,  » 
Bontal.  and  the  drop- letT'    When  the  steu: 
holler  the  witter  of  cndensatiiin  and   ■ 
through  which  the  steam  ttows  to  ib 
erally  Bttaclied  lo  a  H'-parator;  tin 

the  horizontal,  and  frum  ihoncti  ■'•1 

itr>i)  lee,  which  i.'icoiiii-  - 

tion  is  fed  a8  soon  as  1 1  •  ■  '•■j 

the  sleam-presBurein  t:  '"* 

The  oi'tion  fif  Ihedevice  .Icpiriul.s  on  !lie  fiilln 
pressure  may  be  balan«ed  by  a  water-column    - 
to  the  point  of  lowe-t  pre.ssure;  rate  of  (!,.«  ,!  • 

iiure  and  iiiaHs:  decrease  of  sialic*  pres-n 
proportional  to  late  of  conden.^atioo;  ill 
riedor  swept  along  rapidly  by  friction, 
p.  SOT,  I 

Eioaa  iVotn  an  CueoTered  Steani-plp«.    (BJortlnr  < 
eueiiie.s.)— The  amiiiinlof  loss  bf  condensation  ma  gtr4u:i  I'lT'^' 
a  deep  iiiine-iihaft  has  been  •scertaiued  by  actual  pr:i 
Colliery,  near  Olieeterfleld.  where  there  is  •  pipe  TV 
ft.  loii|(.     The  loss  of  steam  by  condenaaUon  wa>> 
nienBiirement  of  the  water  d*po«ited  In  a  receiver,  atnl 
equivnleni  to  abr.ui  1  lb.  uf  coal  per  IH.P.  per  hour  (or  ••aTj* 
bteuni'pipe;  but  there  is  uu  doubt  that  if  the  pipes  had  Wen  >■  V^ 
ahaft,  and  well  covered  wiilin  ^ood  non-cotiductlnj;  mat«rtaLttet 
have  beau  tosa   UTor  6t«aiu-pipe  Ooieiiaga,  aee  p.  4M^  «a4*.> 


r 


THE   HORSE-POWER  OP  A  STEAM-BOILER.  67' 


THE   STEAM-BOILEn. 


/BorBe-poiwer  of  «  Steam-lioller.— The  term  borne  powB 

0  uit^niiiiig^^  III  ♦'ngint'HriiiK  :  -/•'"^^  't?i  tihstjlute  unit  '»>■  measuyc  uf  (h 
fiporli,  tliat  is,  of  the  work  done  ina  cei'taiu  definite  perloil  of  tinia 
uurt-e  of  eiierey,  as  a  steam-lmiler,  a  waterTali,  a  ctiirenl  of  air  a 

or  I)]-  a  firiine  mover,  hs  a  steaiii-eiiKiiie,  a  wal«r-w)ieel.  or  a  wiu(h 
Tb»  value  f>f  this  unit,  whenever  it  can  )i«  expressed  in  f>.(H-poiii)d 
rgy.  as  in  Ilio  ens*  of  steam-engines.  w«ter  wlieels,  and  nalerlnlls,  i 
ftK*t-]»oiiD(ls  per  niiniite.     In  the  ciise  of  Ijoilers.  where  the  woik  iloneJ 
iivi'rsiiiii  of  water  into  Rieani,  cannot  be  expresHed  in  foolpoiindx  o 
■V,  tlw  usual  vuliie  given  fo  the  term  horsepower  ia  the  evnp 
-.  of  water  of  a  temperature  of  100*  V.  into  fleBiii  at  '0  lti« 
'  thentnionphern.    Both  of  tlieHe  units  are  arbitrary ;  tlie  flni^ 
lout  pinind!*  j>er  minute,  Br^l  ailupted  liv  James  Watt,  beinifoousiderm 
Jent  to  the  power  exerted  by  a  good  L<wdon  drouBht-borse.  and  tlM 
of  water  evnjioraieil  per  hour  beiiiK  considered  to  be  the  steam  re^ 
Ikent  iier  indicated  horiie-power  of  an  avera^  engine, 
ncotid  deOnitioD  of  the  term  horse- power  is  an  vppruximaie  meaa^irt 
tixt,  capaeitij,  value,  or  "  rating  "  of  a  boiler.  ptiKiiie,  water-wheel,  or 
lourceor  conveyer  of  energy,  \ty  witich  measuie  it  may  be  described, 
t  and  sold,  ailverlised,  etc.     So  definite  value  can  be  given  to   lliis 
re,  wtajoik  varies  largely  with  luoal  cuutoni  or  iiidividnal  ojiinion  of 
sand  uxers  of  machinery.   Thetiearept  approach  to  tinifornuiy  wliloh 

1  arrived  at  in  the  term  "  horse  power,"  used  in  thin  .sense,  !.><  l.o  Miy 
boiler,  engine,  water-wlieel,  or  other  nintrhine,  "  rated"  at  a  certain 

power,  should  be  capable  of  i^teadily  developing  that  horse-p-iwer  for 
ueriod  of  time  under  ordinary  conditions  ol  ii.'-e  and  pmclice,  leaving 
if  custom,  to  the  Jiidgmentof  the  buyej-nnd  seller,  to  written  contraols 
chaiie  and  .>iale,  or  to  legal  decislouK  upon  giicli  <:niiti'act«,  the  inlerpre- 
of  what  is  meant  bV  th«  term  "ordinary  cundilions  of  use  and 
fp."    rXians.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vol.  vll.  p.  -m.) 

e  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  on  Trials  of  Steain-boilers  In  WiH  iTran.s., 

c'UKsed  t lie  question  of  the  honie-iioiverflf  iMillers  a«  follown; 

■  ■>■  of  Judges  of  the  C^nti'unial  Eiliihitinn,  to  whom  the  triaUi 

i["iri,;;  ln.ilers  at  that  eshlbltifm  were  intiu*<ted.  met  with  ihlsRnniai 

!fn.  and  tinally  agreed  to  solve  it,  at  least  ko  far  ns  the  work  of  that 

itt.^ir  wut  concerned,  by  llie  adoption  of  the  unit,  SO  Ibn.  of  water  evap- 

V  steam  per  hour  from   feed-water  at  100°  F..  and   under  * 

'■<.  per  square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  these  condllioni 

I  hy  tlieiii  to  represent  fairly  average  |iraclice.    The  qiian 
blinded  to  evaporat«  a  pound  of  water  under  these  coiulitioiii 

thermal  iinitK.  or  I.MIIB    units  of  evaporation.    The  unit  ofi 
I  is  thus  ei^iiivalent  to  the  development  uf  U3,<)05  heat  iiDiCS< 
iir, '  r  il.isa  units  of  evaporation.  .  .  . 

t  committee,  after  due  consideration,  has  deteimined  to  accept  tht 

Bnial  Standuril,  the  (Intt  above  mentioned,  antl  to  recommeiul  tnut  lit 

ndard  trials  the  commercial  horse-power  be  lalcen  as  an  evaporation 

be  of  water  per  liour  from  a  feed-water  leiiiiieraluie  of  ItX)^  K.  liitO"' 

at  TO  th>  gauge  pressiire.  wbieh  shall  lie  coiisi<iererl  to  ike  ecpial  Ut  'i^^ 

'.•tioii,  that  Is,  to  ■1414  lbs.  of  water  evaporated  from  a  feed- 

!  lire  of  i'Vi"  F.  Into  steam  at  the  same  temperature.    Thla 

il  to  S.3.;iU5  thermal  units  per  hour. 

II  of  I  bin  commit  lee  th.Tt  a  boiler  rated  at  any  staled  numlwr 
should  be  capalile  of  developing  tbut  power  wJlh  easy  Hriiig, 

;lit,  and  ordiiiiirv  fuel,  while  exliiliiting  good  economy  ;  and 

r.  mat  tne  boiler  should  be  capable  of  developihK  at  least  one  thiril 

ban  its  rated  ftower  to  meet  emergenuies  at  times  when  maximum 

ny  is  not  the  most  important  obji'ci  to  be  attained. 

t  Of  Braitoratiou.  -It  is  the  custom  to  reituce  results  of  boiler- 

9  the  lOHiinon   Biaiidanl  of  weight  of  water  evaporated  by  the  unit, 

if  the  c'.iMibiistible  portion  of  the  fuel,  the  evaporation  being  conaid* 

i.in  place  at  mean  almospheric  piessuie,  and  at  the  temperij 

I'i'esHure,  the  feeiJ-water   being  also  assumed  to  lia^ 

.    leuiperature.     TWs /s.  in  technical  language,  saHj" 

'■:u  ^^r.i/iifrarlon  rn'iii  ami  nt  lb<>  boiling' point  at  almiWiT^ 

"from  tad  «.*  a,"  F. "    This  unit  of  evapoftttlou,  or  oa 


I 

I 


678 


TUS  BTEAM-BOILSB. 


wal4fr  evaporai^d  from  and  at  212*,  is  equivalent  to  966.T1 

units. 
neaanrea  for  Com]iarina:  the  0at|r  of  Bollera,- 

ure  of  the  efticienoyof  a  builer  is  itie  niiiiiber  of  loiituN    f  » :>ur 

I  pt^r  pound  of  combustible,  the  erap"  " 
''from  ami  at  ili';"  that  is,  the  e<ju> 
temperature  of  i-'lS"  Bi".  into  steam  at 
Tlie  measure  of  tlie  capacity  of  a  buil.  r 
power  "  developed,  a  Jior»«-power  beiDgil'  iralK 

of  water  per  lioiir  fruin  100°  F.  into  steam  ;  "•.  or  I 

hour  fnim  and  at  iVi". 

The  nieaKure  of  relative  rapidity  of  steaniitu;  of  l>oilers  la  lii«i( 
pounds  of  nater  evaporated  per  oour  per  square  foot  of  waia 
raee. 

Tiie  measure  of  relative  rapidity  of  conibustion  of  fuel  la 
ix  the  DuiDber  of  pouDds  of  cohI  burned  per  liour  fier  square  I 
■urfsoe. 

8TBAn-BOII.ER   PROPOHTf OKI. 
Pro-portloiiB  of  Grate  and  Beatlnt;  •inrmre 
a  ultreu   Hor»e-power.— The  term  Ii-i-m 
io  i-v«p...raie  '50  lbs.  uf  water  from  \^*^'F..  !■  '  fp 

Kleaiii  of  to  llw..  fpiiiKe-pressure  =  'ii.i  lbs.  from '  F. 

Averaet-  proportions  for  maximum  economy  for  lantl  I 
good  niitlirucile  coal : 

I           Heating  surface  per  horsepower tLAI 
Orate           "         "             "            J/1 
Ratio  of  heating  to  ^rate  surface SU  J 
Water  evapM  from  and  at  SIS°persq.ft.  H-S-perbonr   t 
Combustible  burned  per  U. P.  c^r  hour I 
Coal  with  1  6  refuse,  IKs.  per  H.P.  per  hour tJt] 
Combustible  burned  per  sq.  ft.  grate  per  hour S 
Coal  with  1/6  ref UHe.  lbs.  per  «q.  fL  erate  i  ■ 
Water  evap'd  from  and  at$r.i*  per  lb.  coi 
"         "       "     "    "      "    "   cottL   

The  rate  of  evaporation  ia  moat  cooveuleutly  e iprg  lixl  ID  | 
rated  from  and  at  ^1.*°  per  sq.  ft.  of  water-healintr  Mirf «e«>  tier  1 

t  rate  of  combust  ion  in  i«)und»  of  coal  per  «;■   '•    -' — ■• — ti  ' 
Heatlne««Drrace.~For  uiaximiim 
"boiler   tiJiouTd  be  proportioned  »":»  that  u 
•urface  should  be  ^i^eu  for  every  8  I' 
at  tetii*  F,  per  hour.    Still  more  lib<  nmJl 

of  tba  beatiuR-Kurface  has  its  vi',  i>]»d 

heated  gases  to  short-circuit,  that  <^.  >"  ~-  ^  >  ' 
and  flow  through  them  with  hi|;h  velocity,  tu  in  t  ( 

»X.  Depodtion  of  soot  from  snioliy  fuel.    3.  Inci  i 
faces  are  clean,  and  the  beatetl  iraties  ^as»  o. 
increase  io  economy  can  be  obtained  by  mcreti 
yond  the  proportion  of  1  so.  ft.  to  everj'  3  lbs.  o/ 
with  all  coDdltioDS  favorable  but  little  d<^-r- 
if  the  pro|K>rtitm  U  1  sq.  ft.,  to  every  4  lbs 
vide  for  driTinp  of  the  boiler  beyond  ii- 
drorease  uf  ffflcieni'y  due  to  tlte  c*fttis»*s  n! 
*q.  ft.  to  3  !•  s.  evaiK-iralion  per  hour  as  il 
Where  economy  uiiiy  be  saoritlutvl  to  c^i i 

it  is  cuKtomary  to  proportion  the  heiiiiitg  : 

I  following  lalile  show^.  approximately  the  rrlii'> 
[jwoted  with  diffrreiit  rates  of  i'va|Hjrallon.  with 

Llw.  water  evn|Mir'd  frnui  and  at  at,"  iier  wj   fi    iit-rtiiUt; 
i  iZ         S  a.5         4  f>  «  7  • 

8<}.  ft.  bealiUK  Mtirfiiue  required  iier  horMe-p4iirer: 
'■'■      ISH         Il.r.         g.H         B«  (J.8  .Vlt  4.S  u 

I  of  beatint;  to  Krate  Mirfaue  If  1/^  cq.  ft.  uf  O.  H.  hi  I 

11 J     .11 .-.     ■--/ 1     -,V8     ao.4     KA     »a.r     itt 
wmjt^  «       m       m       n       n 

^^H^  -.«      1^      Wi 


erSAM-BOILER  PROPORTIOITS. 


679 


onomy  will  vary  not  only  with  the  amount  of  heatlnir-nir- 
.>ower.  but  with  the  ♦•fflclency  of  that  lieatjnc-surfnce  aa 
Tcity  for  transf^T  of  heal  frcitii  the  hpat«-(l  (^hrkii  to  ihn  water, 
^d  oa  Us  frei-dnm  from  Knot  and  iucrustalion,  and  upon  the 
lU  water  and  the  heated  Kas»-H. 

lis  coal  the  eftloiency  will  largely  depend  upon  the  thoroufth- 
the  coinhu!<lloii  is  effected  In  the  furnace. 
with  any  kind  of  fuel  will  (greatly  depend  upon  the  amount 
to  the  furnace  in  excesK  of  that  required  to  support  com- 
Btron^  drauirht  and  thin  llres  this  excesH  may  be  very  ^reat, 
js  loss  of  eoonoiny. 

tent  of  IIeatlnK»Barftace.  — Autlinritiea  are  not  agreeil 
iS  of  nieasiiririg  the  heatioK-Burface  of  gteamhnilers.    The 
consider  as  heating-surface  all  the  wirfnces  that  are  mir- 
ier on  ofie  Fide  and  by  llame  <>r  heaietl  pan^j^  on  tli*i  other,  but 
ince  of  opinion  as  to  whether  tuonlar  heatinfc-Kurfnce  Klioiild 
the  insicfe  or  from  the  outside  diameter,     Sunie  writers  say, 
ling  surface  always  on  the  smaller  side— the  lire  side  of  the 
ntol  return  tubular  boiler  and  the  water  side  in  a  wnter-tiilie 
would  deduct  from  the  heating-gut  face  thus  nieasured  an 
iitiona  supposed  to  be  inelTective  on  a<'count  of  being  cot- 
beine  out  of  the  direct  current,  of  the  (rases. 
of  unimrmity,  however,  itwould  appear  to  l>e  thehepiniethiWl 
I  aurfaces  aa  heatinfr-surfaces  which  transtiiit  lirnt  from  the 
I  to  the  water,  making  no  allowance  fnr  different  rleprees  ^>f 
also,  to  use  the  external  injftead  of  the  internal  diameter 
[reater  convenience  in  calculation,  the  external  diamf-ter  of 
dally  beiog  made  In  even  inches  or  half  iticlies.    There  wo'jid 
food  reastni  for  coneiderinp  the  smaller  surface  in  a  tube  aa 
■face,  for  the  transmlssiou  of  heat  through  plates  that  ara 
g7ile<l  on  one  side  doei  not  appear  to  he  pniporlional  to  the 
I,  but  rather  to  the  larger,    Tliiis  the  Serve  rilihed  i\ibe  trana- 
to  the  water  per  foot  of  length  than  a  plain  lulie  of  hams 
r,  and  a  ribbed  steam-radiator  radiates  tuore  heat  than  a 
Ting  the  same  internal  or  smaller  sur/ao^. 
ng  the  heatiug-siirface  of  vertical  tiil>u1ar  bi.>llers  :  Mtittlply 
ice  of  the  flre-box  (in  inches)  b.T  its  lieiKht  above  the  grate  ; 
il>itied  ciii'umference  of  all  thettilies  by  their  leni^th,  and 
ducts  add  the  area  of  the  lower  tube-sheet ;  from  this  sum 
>a  of  all  the  tubes,  and  divide  by  144:  the  quotient  is  iha 
■e  feet  of  heatingsiirface. 

in?  the  hxaiing-Rurfnce  of  horizontal  tubular  boilers:  Takn 

in  inches.    Multiply  two  lhii-d."i  iif  the  ciicunifeience  of  the 

th;  niuliiply  the  sum  of  ihe  circiinifei  ciiceK  of  all  the  tiibei^ 

length:  to  the  .sum  of  ihi-se  jiifMlucin add  t»o  iliirdx of  llie 

sheet.*;  from  thissiiiii  -iiibtrocl  luiietlii'coMibineitnrea  of 

.vide  the  remainder  by  Ul  loolilalit  the  result  in  square  feel. 

ling  the  square  feet  of  heating -surface  in  tubes :  Multiply  the 

by  the  diiuneter  of  a  tube  in  inches,  by  its  length  in  feet, 

rer,  Bnllder'a  Ratlnff.    Heatlne-aurfkce   per 

T«— It  Is  a  general  practice  among  hiiii^lers  to  I'lirnish  about 

heating.gurfnce  per  horse^power,  but  as  the  practice  is  not 

jid  contracts  should  always  specify  the  amount  of  healing- 

_,rDished.  Not  less  than  one  third  square  fooloC  grate-surface 

)sbed  |wr  horse-fKjwer. 

iJiewn,  July  5,  1S94,  gives  the  following  roiigli-and-ready  rule 
>roxin>ately  the  commercial  horse-power  of  tubular  or  water- 
:  Number  of  tulies  x  their  length  in  feet  x  their  nominal 
^es  -•-  80  =  nid  -+-  50,   The  number  of  square  feet  of  surface 

—  =  XS'  '"^  "**  home-power  at  12  square  feet  of  surface 
tae-power,  not  counting  the  shell,  -=  uLii  -t-  45,8.  If  IS  square 
of  tubefl  be  taken,  it  is  nLd  -t-  57.3.  Making  allowance  for 
^ace  in  the  shell  will  reduce  the  divisor  t<i  n1>oiit  ."iO, 

er  of  marine  and  Locomotive  BoUer*.— t\A 
'er  is  not.  geaemlly  used  In  cormection  with  builur*  kr  »•     '  •" 

lucoinaClrfH,    Tlw  boilem  are  designed  to  suit  tSw 

extent  of  grate  and  heatjng-aurfaca  only. 


6?0 


THE  STEAMHOILER, 


OratC*lllirface.— The  amount   of    gmtie-^tirttire 
power,  mid  the  proper  ratio  of  liearitig-im  r 
ti-enii'ly  vnrlahle.  ilp|ipndlii|f  chiefly  upon  tli.- 
th«<  rale  of  <irBii);ht.   Wiihenod  coal,  low  In  n- 
may  be  obtainwl  wiili  laii,'e  Rnile-diirfac*'  mm  ii-  i 
prate-siirfocfj  and  Btrons  <iranglil..  Dip  totiO  aiiaoiii 
VieinK  the  sanip  in  biith  cas»*s.    With  good  lifiiimiTi 
low  In  Hsb,  llie  l)e.HC  rtwiiUs  appnreiitly  are  ubiaiiir  "   »iui 
anrt  high  ratPK  of  combustion,  provided  the  prBteKurfiicr*  a 
ib«t  tilt'  tot'il  conl  liinnetl  per  lioiir  is  nut  loo  great  for  llw 
lieatiiTiii-.snifHie  Ut  nbsurb  tbe  lient.  prodiieed. 

With  coals  high  in  a.sb,  espeoliilly  if  the  ash  ia  euMI/ fti»H| 
cboke  the  (ffates,  Inrne  gratesiirfiice  and  a  slow   rale  of 
required.  unle.st<  means,  8ucli  us  slinking  ^^rates,  are  prorli' 
the  ash  as  fast  as  it  is  mnde. 

The  amount  of  grate  surface  reqnirfd  per  lioive-fiower 
dlUong  may  be  estimaledfroni  the  folloning  table: 


Good  coal 
and  boiler, 

Fair  coal    o 

boiler, 

Poor  coal  or 

holler, 

LlKDilp  and 
poor  boiler. 


10 
!l 

8  61 
8 

6 
5 

S.45 


«i  3 

J  ^  ^ 


3.45 

i.f» 

4. 

4  81 
4. OS 
6, 
5,75 

e.B 

10. 


Pounds  of  Coal  burned  i 
of  Grate  per  t 


a    10    19  r  IS    ao   a1 


Sq,  Ft.  armtf  I 


.4-1 
.48 
.50 
.M 
.OS 

ex 
.« 

.80 
1.2ft 


3ft 

.88 

.•» 

.17)  .{■ 

.38 

.W 

.YS 

.  ta^^H 

.40 

.S.M 

■» 

.^^^H 

.4a 

!» 

9J 

.40 

.41 

S8 

•  BO 

.4V 

..It 

^^^^1 

.S8 

4ft 

.W 

.i^^^^H 

.60 

W 

.40 

1.00 

.88 

.« 

■H  '5 

l.X»l» 


In  desigtiiuB  a  boilerfor  a  given  set  of  eonditions,  llie  Rral 
be  made  as  liljeral  as poKsilile.  sny  aiifllcietit  for  a  rnf«i  of  <■< 
IbB,  per  square  foot  of  grate  for  iinthraclte,  Bd<i  IS  |l>«  p>»r 
bituinlnoii!>  coal,  and  in  practice  a  portion  of  the  irraie-v 
bricked  over  if  It  la  found  that  the  draiij;ht,  fuel,  or  oilier 
it  advisable. 

Proportion*  of  Area*  of  Floen  and  other 
— Kulen  nre  usunliy  given  nnikiiiK  llie  ftre;i  of  ifus-pa! 
ratio  to  llie  area  of  the  grale-siirfaee;  thtis  a  uomnioa 
tulnilar  Ixiilers  is  to  make  the  area  over  llie  bridge  wi 
Burfnce.  the  tliie  area  1/f .  and  the  chiiiinev  aiva  }  fl. 

K..r  average  i.'Oiidilioiis  with  iiniii,ii...i u 

raleiif  eonibii.<!ii'iii  of  li  lbs.  ronl  | 

of  healing  lo  jirate  snrfiueof  30 

riom  lliul  if  the  dniiiehl  were  iiii 

of  94  lljs.,  requirinif  the  Kn\ie-«i.i  , 

areas  of  iias-pnsfsaKe"*  8iH*iiltl  noi 

face  is  rediit'eti.     The  co^il  Iturli'- 

tlous,  and  tbei-e  beinkr  no  reasi.' 

vHocity,  the  octnril  areas  >if  (lie 

rnllo  of  ihe  arerl  lo  the  Kliite..-ll[  :.- 

Mr.    Hiiiriis  Ktiites   (but    Hie    h'^lexi    •  flk'  ' 

olili'Inel  when  the  liilie  nrrn  in  1.0  lo  I    h 

bliiMiiipi.Mi,  ti.iii  >o..-n  II  i~  I  I,  I..  I  r.  r.'i-  II..  ..ft 


I  .  tl  lodile  L«>u  Uugm  u 
vwiuvvB  aud  ««e«^  (r 


uuit.>iiVy  tfMiuA.\nWn*m«MJ^v 


iDer  1 


PEKFORMANCE   OF   BOILEKa. 


uliiefly  tlirou);!)  tlio  upper  rowa  of  lubes;  gnmelimes  also  Id 

jlar   lioileiR,  h  hi-i  e   llif    Rnsrs  are  apt   to  pass   most  rapidly 

Itilit'K  iit*jiresr  to  rln*  fpiiirn. 
t4j;«M  thruutfb  Crate-bars,— The  usuhI  prnctict?  is,  air 
(  \'i  505  ••f  ni'M  "f  l\\v  Knue  ;  the  lorn*"!'  lli«  ln-lffr,  ro  avoid 
(]«  air  supply  liy  oliuk»*r:  but  with  coal  froe  from  fliiilter  much 

|)ace  may  lie  used  uitlioiit  delrimeiii.    Su'b  paper   liy  F.  A. 

»ns.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vol.  xv.  p.  M3. 

_         PI!RFOUinil.NC£  OF  dOILRRf4. 

tti^ani  eripiue,  vol.  i.  p.  3-T)  irives  tlifi  falliiiviiit»  rormutaa  for  lli« 
i.-€jttl  ani  water  coiisiuntHl  in  8t*;am-bi>ilers  per  square  foot  of 
Br  hour,  and  the  rnllo  of  the  lie«(mg-»urrn(»  to  tlii;  area  of  tlis 
TaCer  taken  as  evaporated  (roui  mid  at  2lii'  F. 

allers.. tr  =  .(h'g2r' -1-    B.Sfte 

, w=    .OIGr'-- 10.25c 

'Hisitie  boilers w  =    -OOSr'--   8.Be 

feTjoilers  leoal-burnltiR) to  =    .OOfli' +    0.7c 

»e  Ixjilersd-oke-buruiDg) ie  =  .0178i'' -(-    7.94e 

J  fit  =  WHight  of  waterin  pounds  per  squaro  foot  of  grate  per  hour; 
c  =  pounds  of  fiiHl  pi'r  Mjuare  root  of  grate  per  hour; 
r  =  ratio  of  heatinj;  to  Krate  siirfatp. 
ire  miiiimtim  rates  of  troiiFumptinn  of  fuel  below  which  lhes« 
are  tiot  appliealile.  The  limit  varies  for  each  kind  of  boiler,  and  it 
.h  the  surfancrnti",  U  is  Itiipiiwed  by  the  fact  that  the  niaxiuium 
ve  power  (if  fuel  Ua  fixed  ipiaiidty.  and  is  tuiluially  at  that  point 
•  re<liictir>n  of  the  rale  of  ennibiisliou  for  a  plven  ratio  procureathe 
n  Into  the  boiler  of  the  \i  hole  of  the  propnriiou  of  liie  heat  wbicli 
'lefor  evaporation.  In  llie  omnbuslion  of  icfod  coal  the  Itniit  of 
l»e  efHcieticy  may  be  taken  sg  nieasiuied  by  IS)^  lljs.  of  water  from 
12«  F  ;  niid  in  ibat  of  t"""l  '■•►ke  by  li!  lbs.  of  water  from  and  at 
3ased  on  thene  lorniuhK  (.lurk  tjives  llie  following  table: 

rative  Perforiuaiice  orsteatu-ballcm  for  Inrreaalue 
t«a  of  Combiiatlon  and  dlfl'ereiit  8urftic-e-ratloa« 

For  UestO'ial:  siirfaceratio  :w. 


68jl 

lao  In    H 
ipidly   ■ 

I,  air-   ■ 

I 

I 


Water  from  and  at. 
JWa*  F.  per  hour. 


Per  Bq.  ft.  of  Eiate 

Pmf  lb.  of  coal 

Per  sq.  ft,  of  erate 

PerU).  of  coal 

Per  sq   ft.  of  grate 

Per  lb,  of  eoal., 

Persq.  ft.  of  grate 
Per  lb.  of  coal 


Fuel  per  Square  Foot  of  Grate  per  hour. 
!u  pounds. 


Ili'i 
OS  S* 

.w 
to 

57 
1I.4 


10 

15 

lbs. 

lbs. 

111! 

561 

ll.fMl 

tO.HB 

117 

ICS 

n.ou 

]].-£> 

U.S 

i:)U 

U.3 

!l  01 

10-j 

151 

10.5 

10. ai 

so 

so 

40 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

•.Ml 

31  IT 

(IM 

JO.SG 

\0.& 

lO.OO 

iilU 

S« 

4-.'4 

lit  fl.i 

10  OH 

Itf.ttI 

IVB 

•M.-, 

3,-.l 

H.B5 

8..«3 

»", 

ai-i 

OTO 

:m 

10.10 

997 

».90 

50 


Surfaee-ratio  50, 
10 


Per  sq.  ft.  of  grate 
Per  lb.  of  coal... 
Per  Nj.  ft.  of  grate 

Per  lb.  of  coal 

Per  sq.  ft.  of  grate 

Per  lb.  of  coal 

Per  sq.  ft.  of  grate 
Per  lb.  of  coal 


loUcJen  (all  belovr  the  scope  of  the  (oruuhie  tor  J 
Hie  text. 


csa 


THE  STEAM-BOILBB. 

Siirfftoe  ratio  7&, 


Locomotive. 


ao       40       60      M 


H)s. 
Per  «i.  ft.  ot  Krste.  Hii 
Per  II).  of  coal 1  ll.Sfl 


lbs. 
10.97 


|I)S 

HI 


General  Coudltlona  irhlcit  aecare   Kron 

bollem.-  Ill  >!e<ii*i'il.  iliL'  hiKhest  rfsiiltK  are  inoliiooll 
turf  of  tilt*  c-8c».[<ing  ga«ps  Is  tii<?  least.     An  exniiiinatloa 
iiiaJi?  uj-  Mr.  O.  H.  Barms  in  his  Iwolt  on  ■•Boiler  Te«t 
tests  made  by  liiin,  six  lb  uiiintx^r,  in    which    the  leDi|i 
averacw,  that  is,  375°  K.,  and  coinpsringwltli  flvi?  trstst 
ftlurt!  IS  lens  than  87.%°.    The  boilers  are  all  of  tba  conin 
anil  all  use  anthiavite  coal  of  either  ef^  or  broken  hIi 
tt>Mi)>erature!i  in  the  two  a<TiA8  was  444°  anil  3i:i°  rrspt 
ference.  was  101°.    The  average  evaiioiotioiit!  are  10.401 
Kpectlvely,  and  the  lowest  reuull  eoriespouils  to  the  en 
temperature.     In  theiie  tests  it  npiicai-s.  therefore,  tlia 
In  thu  teniperaliire  of  th<i  waste  gases  secured  an  lucres 
of  (W.     This  result  corresponds  quite  closely  to  the 
temperature  of  the  gases  by  means  of  a  flue-bertU 
W  was  attended  b^  an  increase  of  7%  in  the  evnp- 

A  Hiniilar  cornnarison  was  made  on  horistontal  i : 
berland  coal.    The  average  flue  leinperatuie  in    1 
average  evajioratlon  U  11.94  lbs.    Six  boilers  hove  iliii| 
•  he  a»erftf?e  of  which  is  8W,  atiil  these  pi\e  an  jiveraite^ 
lbs.     With  67°  lrs.M  teiiiferature  of   the  escaping  j^asesl 
higher  by  about  4X. 

The  via»teful  effect  of  a  high  flue  temperature  is  exhibil<<it  I 
than  those  of  the  horizontal  tubular  class.     This  source  of  < 
to  lie  the  main  cause  ot  Ihe  lo»  economy  produced  in  Lhow  1 
whiL'h  are  deflcienL  in  healinR-surfaep. 

Hflation  hetii-een  the  Heoi imi-fwfncf   ami  date  (U^ 
Hiffheat  Efflciriiey.—X  comparison   of   tlin- 
boilers  with  anthracite  coal,  the  nitio  of  I  ■ 
l»iii(rS6.4  to  1,  with  three  other  tests  of  sin m 
waa48 to  1.  showed  nrnctically  no  difference  in  iji' 
8how8  that  a  ratio  of  36  to  1  provides  a  siifllcient  quaiitU 
to  secure  the  full  efflcieiiey  of  aiitliracin-  rr.nl  «li.'r.tliel 

10  not  more  thuii  IS  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.  of  f;: 
In  tejii.s  with  bitiimiuims  coal  an  inn 

cured  a  suioll  inipruveinent  in  iheevui 
lempernture  i»f  the  escaping    pases  tiidnM- 
wnul-l  l>e  beneficial.     Amone  the  hiph  resiili 

tal  tubular  boilers  using  htiiiiniuouscal.  111.  ^ 

is.vt.l  to  1.    This  bi Her  gave  mi  evaporatu'ii  ■■!  I-'  i;  ll*, 
lu'ller  riiriilslies  another  exanijile  ><f  liitch  perfurniniice.  an 
\1  ti  \U»   liaviug  been  obtained  with  ImIiiiuiiious  conl.  mhI 
nilliiisO&to  1.    These  exami>l'-K  indicnie  tliit  a  tni)C|  ~^ 
heailnesurfnce  is  required  for  uiitalninK  the  full  er 
conl  than  for  boilers  using  snihraille  onal.    The  tpint* 
itig  Eases  in  tiie  Kjiiiie  I  oiler  is  invnriiilily  bii 
liseiFthau  tvlien  anthracite  coal  is  nse.l.  Tb. 
when  bituinlDotis  coal  IF  us4.>d  Interferes  win, 
face,  and  md  increjised  area  is  deniiitrdeil  us  mh  '>: 
<lepofflt  occasions.    It  would  Neetii    iheti.  (hat  if  h  - 
for  nnthmpUe  coal,  from  4."i  to  Wi  shuuld  be  prov..; 
I"  1  '       !"'cl«lly  Incases  whtrrc  the  rate  of  «x>iiiiii-.i 

11  uf  grate  per  hour. 
►f  tiit<e9  cotklrola  the  ratio  t<elweeii  III*  «r 

111  '' -'     A.  cenalu  mlolniuiu  uikouiii  of 

wtili  nnthraolte  coat  III  ilie  eotwlj 
ratio  of  ni-ea  of  Kr«t«-«iuf«c»  I 
Tlie  I'lincliisloii  Is  dnmrM  llMt  I 
!•  obtat(\<<i  wtona  <.>>«  > 


PERFORMANCE   OF   BOILERS.  683 

ririus  coal  ts  biirni>d  the  requirtMiients  appear  to  be  different, 
lar^e  tulie  o|:i^iilnK  does  not  wem  to  make  the  exira  lubfw 
I  UituitiiDoiiA  conl  is  used.  Tlie  hi(ttie.st  re.siilt  on  any  lioilfr  of 
tubular  cla-ss.  tired  Willi  bimiiiiiiouBcoal.  ivus  nbtiiiiied  flhpre 
riK  w»8  the  larRe.sL,  This  gavn  ati  evapoiation  of  li.t'  lbs..  I  he 
kurfaoe  ro  tube-oiieiiiiiK  bein^  5.4  lo  1.  The  tifxl  higliest  re- 
H>8.,  the  raiio  l«iUK  6.U  to  1.  Three  liiKh  i-esuliK.  BVeragHiJT 
obtained  when  the  averaire  ratio  waH  7.1  to  1.  Wiihout  golnir 
he  ratio  lo  be  iJeKired  whi-ii  liitiirainouseoal  Is  lined  is  that 
lutje-openiiiB  haviu^  an  ai-ea  of  from  1/0  to  1,7  of  Ihe^rnle- 
mpplietito  medium  ratesof  coinliijslionof.say,  into  l£ll)y.  per 
her  hour,  12  sq.  ft.  of  waler-heaiiag  sui  face  being  aP  lowed  |ter 

D  of  results  obtniiied  from  different  typew  of  lioilen*  leads  to 
nclUBion  that  the  economy  with  whieli  diflferenl  types  nf 
iilepenils  much  more  upmi  their  proportion.^  avKl  the  i^ondi- 
liicfi  they  work,  thau  upon  their  type  ;  and,  moreover,  that 
)portlons  are  suitably  csairied  out,  and  H-lieu  llie  eonditiona 
the  various  types  of  boilers  give  snbiilaDiially  llie  siiiiie  eeo- 

Of  ■  Steam-boiler.— The  efflciency  of  n  b<<lter  is  the 

the  total  heat  generated  by  the  conibiiHti if  the   fuel 

Id  ill  heating  the  water  and  in  raising  steam.    Wilh  nnthraeite 

bg-value  o(  the  combuxtible  portion  in  very   nearly   H.nOil 

„  equal  to  au  evapuratioo  from  and  at  SI4"  of  It.SCO  -»-  'M6 

:er,     A  boiler  which  when  (estud  with  anthraciie  enul  showii 

of  12  U)a.  of  water  per  ii».  of  €?omhu»'litde.  hax  an  efflcieney  of 

a  flKure   which   is  apin-uximaled,    but  M'arrely   ever  quite 

best  practice.    With  bituininovis  oool  II  is  iieoes^nry  to  have 

of  its  hoalin^'power  made  Viy  a  coal  calorimeter  before  the 

boiler  xmitie  it  can  be  detennined,  but  a  close  e.sliinal'e  may 

i,tJie  chemical  analvslf  of  the  conl.    <See  CoftL> 

tts  between  the  efllcieiic*  obtained  by  leat  and  IOCS  is  the  sum 

pH  wastes  of  beat  the  clilef  of  which  is  the  necessjury  loss  due 

kture  of  the  chimney  k"^^"'     If  "e  have  au  aimlyNis  aud  a 

'^ ".errnination  nf  ihe  hcar-iiie-power  ot"  the  coa-i  ([ia-i>perly  Kant- 

»erii){e  analysis  of  the  cliimney-KH.sea,  Ihe  tiiiiounts  of  the 

be  determined  wilh  approximate  accuincy  by  the  method 


or  THK  Coil.  ^   Anai.tsis  op  thb  Dry  Cbiukicy- 
Seini-bituuiinouB.  OASEa,  ay  Height. 

80.!i5  0.         O.  N. 

4.50  CO,    =    13.0    =    8.71        !>.H!)  

2.70  CO      =        .','    =      M  .11  

1.08  O        =    1J3    =     ....      ll.^JO  

8.9-i  N        =    7.V0    =      7S.(» 

iUO.O  3.80    'Jl.aO  76.00 


lOO.OO 

.  of  the  coal  by  Dulong's  formnla,  1 1,'243  heatimlls. 

liiifC  collected  over  water,  Ihe  moisture  in  them  is  nut  deter- 

Itfuse  as  determined  by  boiler-test.  lO.'ii,  or  !<  nvire  llian  thai 
8ls,  the  difference  i>pi  L'sentiiig  carbon  in  ilie  ashes  obtained 

re  of  external  atmosphere,  80°  F. 

miidlty  of  air,  OOjt,  corresponding  (8ee  air  tables)  to  .007  lb.  of 

b.  of  air, 

lire  of  chimney -gases,  600"  F. 
iaulls: 

In  the  chimney-Kflses  beiniir  3.8jf  of  their  weieht.  the  tol 
pu»e«  per  lb.  of  cartion  biirtied  is  tOO  ■*■  3.8  =  26.3->  lbs.    Hini 
tied  is  HO,55  -  2  =  TS.K*  of  Ihe  weieht  of  (he  coal   -         -•■'ht 
»  per  lb.  of  coal  is  a6.:«  x  TS.Ni  -t-  llXl  =  •»  fi7  I' 
of  cool  furoishes  lo  tlie  dry  chimney -gases  .T$ 

~J^too=  .oei4  ib-O-.m  total  of  .8m,  mv  J 


'J 

•btV 


€64 


THE  ST£JLU-BOIL£B. 


I 


I 


me  n 
Rir  f- 

bunieij  coiiiUiUecJ  iH^  li>.  SI. 

bustion.    Of  ihii.  iXT  lb.  is  r 

come  from  ilie  air.     Thtf  qua' 

eootiiiiiiiieSK  I'J  weiclit  cf  oxjgeiit  ia  .SSi  t-  .;£J  ^  I.e.  »>.,  i>;^'lii 

the  19  S5  lljs.  olrpad;  foiind  pives  2t  39  Ibe.  as  the  qiiAMiljr  of  lilj  I 

plif-d  to  the  furuaee  per  lb.  of  cool  burned. 

Th*!  air  carried  in  as  Tapor  bi  .OTTl  lb.  for  each  lb.  • 
=  O.IS  ll>.  for  each  lb.  cf  coal.  Kach  lb.  of  coal  coi 
ture>  which  was  fTaimrated  anl  ra.  titO  into  tl.i?  •-i,ii, 
of  H  per  lb.  of  C'lsl  when  bill  ■ 

From  the  annly>ilx  of  tlie  r' 
the  carbon  in  the  coal  was  1)11 

We  now  have  (he  data  for  "alcuJaUui;  Ihe  various  lo«3  oft 
ftn-  each  pound  of  coal  bumea : 


a<).OT  ll>s.  dry  gas  /;  (500*  _  60-i    ■   r-y.  ii.-ni  <■  Ji  = 

.16  III.  vapor  in  air  x  (SdO*  -  tiU"  i  k  sp.  heat  .48         s 
.OAI  lb.  moisture  in  coal  hfBt>'fl  fn  :ii  w"  !o  -JIS*        -» 
"       evaporated  fi"  '•j;        s 

tteaiu  iheateO  .48  b 

.40fi  lb.  II,<1  from  H  ;  -    <«S  = 

A^%i't  III.  r  hiirn*^  to  (■«  ':  i"— -  i-v  iiir>'iiM'i''i*-  ooni- 

biisti.>n.  .WiT  x  (14544  -  4<5I  i '  = 

.(f!  lb  •■iMil  liMi  in  asbes;  .0^  x  !4.Ml  = 

Radlalifin  anil  iinaccoiiiitetl  for,  by  ililTeivnce  • 


Ullliz»il    in    ninkiiii;  Klfnni.  eqiiiralRnl  ernporaUou 

10  ST  lii»   froiri  HU<]  nt  218*  \vr  lb.  of  COal  «  lt,Pll  • 


Th<>  heal  lost  b>'  radiation  from  llie  bolier  and  fm  r 
mined  directly,  espeoiallj-  if  the  Imiler  is  enclooxl   i:. 
tectetl  by  ni.ii-oin.luclinir  coverins.    It  is  cnslomarv 
lost  l)y  rndijilion  l>y  dilTerenw.  tliat  Is,  to  clianer  radial 
lost  wliicli  i.s  tiDi  ollH'iivise  (icc<'unted  fur. 

Onff  nteihn.1  of  det^Tinlnlnc  the  losj*  i>y  radii' 
of  the  >:nite  surface  and  build  a  sirmll  (lr««  im  i 


TE8T8  OF  STEAM-BOILER. 


es5 


r 

m  of  hit  required  to  burn  a  pound  of  carbou  may  be  obtained 
B  ihe  analysis  by  volume  by  the  followingr  formula: 

If  air  reqiirretl  to  burn  (  _  i  1  JJ^CO,  -f  O)  -f  CO  ,(,.„. 

pound  of  carbon  (      8]         CO,  +  CO        |  ' 

COv  ami  CO  are  the  per  cents,  by  TOlume,  of  IheHererAl  eoa- 

Uienue  gases. 

fer  pound  t  _  .1  Lbs.  of  air  per  pound  I  „  J  Per  cent  of  carbon 
f      "I     of  carbon  f      (     In  coal 

to  volume  at  teinperalure  of  SS"  K.  make  use  of  the  foimula 
t*,  =  13.387  ,x  lbs.  oC  air  per  pound  of  coal, 

TESTS  OF  STEAira-BOII.KRS. 

«•«■    at    Kbe   Centennial    Exhibition,    Phlladel> 

r6.  -(.See  Reports  and  AwhkIk  i.Jnjiip  X-X,  JiiiLiiialionnl  lixliiln- 
167S;  nlso,  Clark  iin  ilie  StpauifHK'"'.*.  *'i'i.  i.  V^-V  '-i-'iS.l 
re  tests  were  made  of  fourteen  bdilers,  iikIii^  ^noil  nnlhinoite 
Mler,  the  Qalloway,  being  tested  wilb  both  nnilirnoite  ami  senil- 
fecoal.  Two  tests  were  lunde  wilb  euuli  boiler ;  one  oalle<l  llie 
mi,  lo  deleiuiine  the  economy  and  cnpocity  at  a  rapM  rate  of 
ffthe  other  called  tbe  economy  trial,  to  d».terniln<*  the  economy 
p  at  a  rate  6iippost;d  lo  lie  near  that  of  innximuin  et-onoiny  ami 
;iir.  The  followinK  table  Kives  the  principal  resulu  obtained  In 
ly  trial,  t'jgeilier  with  tbe  capacity  and  evoootny  flgurea  of  the 
iai  for  compH.i'iS'jii. 


Economy  Teats, 

Cftpaeity 
Tests, 

C  i. 

P 

ii 

£| 

3  i- 

lbs. 

i 

a 
'S 
» 

c 
a 

■3 
< 

a 

s 

1 

EC 

fcx 

1£ 

3fe 

fix 

6 

i 

5 

s 

I 

a 

s 

03 

£ 

9 

1 

i 

0 

1 

i 

o 

u 

» 

k 
O 

X 

is. 

, 

p.Ct 

llw. 

Ills. 

deel   % 

(leg 

n.R 

H.P. 

lbs. 

v.'.'.'.'. 

IU.3 

0.1 

10.4 

a. 25 

iv'.OTi  ■■m:... 

41.4 

*i  15 

119. S 

07.«i 

148.0 
68  4 

10.441 

12  0  10.4 

I.IVH 

U.W,s 

415  .   .. 

11.0*4 

1  >•  •  -  .  ■ 

30.6 

n  8 

11. a  i.sr 

ILttiJ 

■S&    ... 

0.4 

47.0 

69.3 

u.ica 

H.8 

lu.i 

II.12.4J 

I1.0O6 

411    1.8 

09. H 

125. <P 

11  0-.'.', 

^itoox 

.'J7.7 

10.0 

11.0'.'  4a 

ii.s-.'a 

SWil  8.7 

i.'ffl.n 

IHr.fi  lo.!WO 

33,7 

O.ii 

11.1  3.68 

11  583 

SOD!  .. 

1.4 

loa.a 

lt:i.}<]ll  216 

l"^\ 

28.7 

7  9 

s.ss.ao 

13.125 

325   0.8 

90. 0 

125. 1 ,11.609 

1.^.8 

8.0 

lo.a  •.'.;« 

11.039    420^   ... 

Tiir 

fi.li 

.W  :    »  745 

^7.8 

U.I 

H.5  S.75 

10  fl*)    517,  O.B 

82  4 

]«.'<  4    0  8K9 

«>.7lta.3 

&.b  3. so 

lO.S^Hl  M4I....I90.5 

147. r. 

iiw.N'  n.t4S 

-p« .  >  . 

17.5 

».: 

9.8  l.dt 

lO.HlH 

417i....iI5.7 

88.0 

l.-K.h,  11  .^68 

SW.9 

10.  H 

9.0  .l.RJ 

lo.aia 

6.6    .. 

81.0 

iiii.9  M  sin 

>»>•••* 

88.5 

9.S 

11. •!  1.38  10.041 
11.0  4.44  10  (Wl 

4.30 

4.81.... 

78.1 

lOh.n,  11.1174 

...... 

14.0 

8.0 

374 

6.»i  ... 

51.7 

II?. nI  0.a«6 

19.0 

8.6 

9.93-12 

9.cia 

574 

11\- 

45.7 

d7.2|  9,*J^ 

ii.ias  .. 

a-).o 

tlO.8 

-0^ 
I'rnj 

triaon  of  the  cc'Uomy  ami  L-apaciiy  trlnls  sho 

«s  1  ha 

1  iin  :iv 

•pacily  of  'M  y-ei  cent  wn...  .ittrnde.l  Ijy  n  cli- 
^  but  the  rrliilirtn  of  ecouuniy  t-i  rale  of  <lri 

crease 

In  -.■ciiioti 

■inc  v« 

rii-il  (/real 

nil  Uillers.     Id  the  Kelly  Uiiler  iin  inoim-p  ii 

eupju 

)!.-      '  ."^  11' 

Iniled  by  a  decrease  in  ecorioin3*  of  over  \H 

twv 

'wUJi  na  Increase  of  sa  per  ceut  iu  caiific 

vsl 

Oitoax 

V 

» 


686 


THE  STEAM-BOILEb. 


I 


One  of  the  most  Important  lesKOOs  Eained  froro  lli«  above  | 
thpre  Is  no  Decessary  relation  between  tlie  tjpe  of  a  I- '     -    -'' 
the  five  hollers  that  gave  the  bej*t  results,  the  toi  ■ 
tween  ihe  highest  and  lowest  of  the  five  hejui;  onl' 
tube  boilers,  one  was  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler,  oi 
bluation  of  the  two  types.  The  next  bollpr  on  the  ii 
Internally  fired  boiler,  all  of  tlie  others  beinfr  extern- 
la  a  biief  description  of  the  priDCi|ial  conslructiTC  f^. 
boilers: 
!,-.»  j  4-ln.  water-tubes,  inclined  SO*  to  h 

^"^^ 1     draught. 

Firmenlch 8- In.  water-tubes,  nearly  vertical:  revrrtnlil 

Lowe Cylindrical  shell,  multitubular  flue. 


Bmith. 


Cylinilrical  shell,  multitubular  flue— -«■ 
side  flues. 
BalH!0ck&  Wilcox....  ■j«>f:^n^«'^r;yjbes.  inclined  I6»  to 

Gallovay CylindriL-al  shell,  furnace-tubes  and  i 

Andrews Square  fire-box  and  double  return  multl 

n.rrt.on  J  8  slabs  of  vast-irou  spheres,  8  In.  lu 

uarnson ■<     versed  draught, 

WWand U-in.  water  tubes,  vertical,  with  lnc< 

Anderaon 3-in.  Hue-tubes,  nearly  hori?. 

g  ]._  I  Sin  water-tubes,  .-llKhily  II 

' )     internal  diaphraeni  tu  pn 

Exeter 2T  lioUmr  reeinri({ulnr  on.ii.  iioii  ^lHll> 

Pierce Hotatinfl^  horiz'inlal  cyliniler.  M  iili  fiup-nit'T^ 

Rogers  ft  Black ...    Vertical  cylunlrical boiler, nit h  •■■^■•-\u:,\^n't 

Te*ts  of  TnbnIoBS  BoUers.— The  followin 
H.  Lewiianl,  Assl.  Enjir.  U.  S.  N.,  in  your  Am.  Hoc.  , 
testa  were  made  at  different  limes  bv  l>oard^i  of  V   .s   .»ii«ni  rm-i"- 
eept  the  test  of  the  locomotive-iorpedo  boiler,  which  wim  maOe  la  E 


d 

Evaporallou 

from  and  at 

Weight*,  lbs. 

ti 

sia«  K. 

i 

Type. 

a 
E 

i 

■"3 

u 

CS 

I. 

1 

r 

? 

i^ 

r 

sS 

i 

804 

68.9 

BellevlUe.. 

18.8 

10.4V 

5  S 

0.4 

E  40,670 
S  4«.I70 

10  t 

Kai' 

a 

HerreshoS 

i    g.a 

85.8 

10  23 
8.68 

8  1 
6 

«.l 
28.8 

IS   tf.MS'  08 
S    3.050  30 

14.8 

4.8 
18 

Jrt 

3 

Towne 

1    4.3 
84.5 

|!t4 

6rr 

8.7 

63 

10 
80.4 

E    1,880  ITS 
S    1,640   56 

81.8 

8.1 

S  Ii 

1 

4 

Wunl  

T.B 
•     15.5 

10.TT 
10.01 

17 

5.8 
11 

E    1.883!'5* 
S    1,930.^ 

Wt 

62.5 

7  01 

10 

»1.S 

B 

Scotch..  .. 

J    34.8 

u.n 

8.8 

11 

E  18,900  t» 

88 

l».06 

\t.% 

16.8 

g  80,000:  go 

e 

Loco  tn  Hive 

DH.S 

17.1 

80S 

i;  r 

\\ 

torpedo. 

1lJ0.8 

•.H).0& 

36.8 

\i 

A 

7 

Wart  

55.01 

8.41 

0.47 

8S.I 

I.S 

■ 

/ 

Tbomy- 
erott.  fP. 
S.&CuBh- 

)• 

V 

T\:. 

1 

l\«TX«<tat4 

M 

^Hii  mot 

■ 

hi 

,•... 

otlMini 

tkO« 

.KV" 

ea. 

d 

r 


TESTS   OS   STEAM-BOILEBS. 

DmSSIOHS  OP  THX  BOILKHS. 


687 


Klin. 


I.ft. 
ij;: 


3 

8'  B 
7  0 
11   0 
615  S 
SJ.IT 

804 
23.5 


9 


4'  B"    3'  B" 

3  8      S   6 

4  0      3   8 
69. B    i!0   3 

B        4.S» 


SOS 
SS 


75 
17.6 


8'  2" 
1    T 

7  a 

42.7 
8.68 

140 
39.S 


V  0' 
9   0 


57a. ."i 
31.16 


133.3 


16'  8 

e  1 

7    8 

630.3 

IS 

lt]6 
311.8 


JO'  3 

4    6   t 
1)    S 
729.3 

ce.5 

2490 
37.4 


8 

10'  0"t 

r  oj 
»  ut 

SBOt 
38.3 

2375 
63 


*  Diameter.    +  Diam.  of  drum.    |Approxinialt>. 
per  I.H.P.  is  estimated  on  a  banie  of  80  Ihs.  of  water  per  hour 
wxp«H:iini:  the  Bcotcb  boiler,  where  25  lbs.  have  beeu  usea,  as  ihia 
Iniited  to  BO  Iba.  pressure  of  Bte&m. 

ling  Approximation  1b  made  from  the  large  table,  on  tlie  assiimp- 
eva^Miration  Tariea  directly  as  the  conihustioo,  and  ib  lbs.  of 
foot  of  grate  per  hour  used  aa  the  ujiit, 


toiler. 

Com 

busiioii. 

Evapora- 
tion per 
cu.  ft.  of 
Space. 

Weight 
per  lb. 
Water 
Erapo- 
rated. 

0.50 
1.00 
1.00 
l.W 
8.90 
S.SO 

0.50 
O.IB 

i.ao 

0.44 
O.Sl 
0.S8 

8.02 
0.72 
1.18 
9.40 
8.70 
1.27 

2.10 
0.60 
0.67 
1.61 

o.ao 

9  so 

0.90 

1.30 

; 

8.30 
8. SO 

1  S3 

iflle  boiler  has  no  practical  adTantn^e  over  the  Scotch  eitlier  In 
pled  or  weight.  All  the  other  liihuloiin  boilerii  given  greatly 
bcotch  ill  these  advantages  of  wfii^lit  atid  space. 

trb  Ratea  of  Eraporatlon.— fug'!/.  May  9.  18^,  p.  4IS. 

Locomotive.  Turpeilo-lKiBt, 

eroq.  ft.  H.8.  per  hour.  ...     12.5"        13  73  \■^.^^       20.74 

lb.  fuel  fromaiidatSlB".      8  23         8  94  8.97         7  04 

t  traiiBf'd  per  eq.  f t.  of  U.S.  1S,14S      l.V'iOS  1S,I13     80.034 

580  .637  .542        .408 

jful  K  these  flpures  were  corrected  for  priming. 
bjr  Kliccted  by  Hcatliis  the  Air  SappUed  to 
trnaces.  (Clnrl!,  ,S.  li,)— Meunier  and  SLheiiriT-Kestiicr  ob- 
[11  7%  (ti»-nter  evaporative  elllciency  In  summer  tlian  in  winter, 
4ne  lioilnrH  imder  lilce  coiiillti'ins,— an  excess  whiclu  had  been  ex> 
Ihe  difference  of  lo!!S  by  rndiatioii  anil  conductiou.  But  Mr. 
iiiirmi<imK  tliat  the  tr^iii  tiii^^it  be  dne  lu  fianie  degree  also  to  the 
iperatui^  of  the  air  in  sinniiuT,  ninde  coMi|»«rative  trinlH  with 
of  three  bollerR,  each  working  one  week  with  ilie  heated  iiir, 
ft-week  with  cold  air.    The  following  were  the  aeveral  elHclen- 

Irill 
BCOll 


|f  tRST  Tbials:  TaKKE  Boilkrb;  Roncbahp  Coal. 

Water  per  lb.  of    Water  i>er  lb,  of 
Coal.  CombiiBtlble. 

eated  air  <ia8»  F.)  7.77  lb«.  B.95  lbs. 

r  colli  air  (68° .*» 7.38    '  6,68  " 

ereoce  in  favor  of  healed  air  ...  0.44  "  '* 


oxa  Thulb:  Sauk  Coal;  Thbbb  Otshi 

»t«1i,lrfIX'.4F.) 8.70  Iba. 

1aJri7S'.-j}  6  09   " 

»to/«roro/lie«tod'i]lr'.*.'.!i  oie:   '• 


THE  STliAM-UOlLER. 


I    These  results  show  ecoDoinlas  in  favor  of  beatiiig  th»  «lr  <>f  V I 
Sir.  PoupartJin  believes  that  thp  cain  in  eflU-lenpy  In  iJoe  < 
better  coiiiliusilion  of  the  gasf^s  Willi  hnatod  air.     It  nus  otorrr 
heated  air  the  flames  were  much  shorter  iiiid  whiter,  ajitl  tlutl 
tootnbly  less  smoke  from  thechlniiiey. 
•    All  exteiiBive  fierles  of  espeiiiiienig  viae  made  by  J.  C.  Ho 
Jl,  S.  M.  E.,  Tol.  vi.,  6T6)  fju  a  "  Warm  -  blant    Ai.iiMniiiiii  "  (q 
heat  of  the  waste  Kases  in  heating  the  air  iiupp 
paratiis,  a&  applied  to  an  ordinui-y  hoi'lzoritnl  > 
81  feet  lone,  with  65  3!!^inch  tilht'S,  cODsiste.l  ol 
throuBli  whioh  the  hot  pose.n  pMsed  while  ih<- 
The  net  Bavliip  of  fuel  effectea  hv  the  wann  bl:i 
the  fuel  u?ed  with  cold  blast.    The  eomparntivr 
toUowa,  in  degrees  F. : 

Cold-blaHt 

I  Boiler. 

f  Inheatofflre »JB3 
At  biHd«;e  wall 1340 
Insmnkebor ,,,.  378 
Air  admiiteii  to  furnace  S 
'  eteain  and  wr.ter  in  tKiiler 900 
GBBes  esoapinB  to  chimney 873 
External  air 38 
* 


With  anthracite  coal  the  evaporation  from  and  at  S19*pi!r  fb.< 
Ivan,  for  the  cold-blast  boiler,  dayH  10.85  lbs.,  days  and  nigtiU  101 
It^ie  irttrni-bliii<t  boiler,  days  ]\.H^,  dayn  and  oiehts  11.03. 


Results  or  Tcato  or  Helue  IVater^nbe 
DlfFereut  Coal*. 

(Conimmilcated  by  E.  D.  Ueier,  C.E.,  ISM.) 


Number. 


Kind  of  Coal, 


rtr  et-nt  anh  ., , 

leatiiiK-aiirfnee,  so.  ft. 

Irnl^'-Kiirfae'e.  sij.  ft 

iBaMo  11  B.  toO.S  

ICoal  per  »q.  ft.  Q.per  hr. 

fti'ster  pf-rsq.  ft.  El.S.per 

hr.  finni  and  at  312°.... 

ITater  evap.  from  and  at 

S12°  per  lb.  coal.  . 

Per  lb.  combustible. 

Temp,  of  chimney  erase* 

faloridc  value  of  fuel.  . . 

tfflcieticy  of  Iwllcr  |i»tc. 


BOILERS    USINO    WASTE   GASES.  C89 

Boiler   Efflcleucy  tvlth  Cniuberland   Coal.— 

1.  of  vvatei-  pfi-  111.  <!uinljii>iible  from  uiirl  nt  ^'l"-i"  is  ubollt  the 
lOration  tlinl  can  In*  oUlaliiod  from  Ijie  beitl  Hlrum  fiifU  ill  the 
0,  such  as  L'liiiiliOilaiHl,  r'lX'ahOriliis,  and  C'learflc-ld.     In  t^xcep- 

SS  lbs.  has  befii  n'nchi-iJ.  ami  one  ttut  Is  on  reooril  (F.  W.  Dean, 
Teh.  1.  1894)  ijiviinr  iS.vJM  llis.  Tlie  boiler  was  intwrtiallv  tlrtd, 
re  type,  B2  inclies  diameter.  31  feet  Inn^.  ultli  160  3-iiien  lubes 
^  Heating  surraff.liiSS  sqiisiffeet;  Kruiesiirfaoe,  15  square  feet, 
ne  ihH  I^Kl  lo  Wlii  wjuiiie  feel.  Double  fiiriiaee,  with  (Ire-briclc 
longciiinbiistioii  ciminber,  Feed-wtticr  Iwster  in  smoke-box, 
[  are  ilie  priDciitnl  results  : 

iBt  Test.       £d  Test. 
Bed  per  !>q.  fl,  ofKraleiwr  hour,  lbs 8.85  16.06 

Bcr  sq.  ft.  of  beatin^-»iirfaee  per  hour,  lbs    1.C8  8.00 

roiii    and   at  :^1^  per  lb.  coiubiislible,  in- 

ed-waler  heater 13.17  18.88 

■ted,  excliidinir  feed-water  heater 13.H8  1«.90 

►  of  gases  after  leaving  heater,  F 360*  4W 

BOI1.KBS    rsiKO   WASTR  GA.SB8, 

loning  Bollem  for  Blaal-Furnace*.— <F.  W,  Qor^on, 

■^  Trans.  A.  1.  M.  E.,  vol.  xii.,  18tK).) 

^'»  recouiiiieLdatioii  for  proporiloiiiiiK  boilers  when  properly  get 
blastfurnace  K°*  i**^  f°''  coke  practice,  30  sq.  ft.  of  heating-8ur- 
of  iron  |>er  J4  hours,  which  tlie  furnace  in  ex-j>eirtcd  to  make, 
llie  beBtiRK-surfftce  thus:  For  double-flued  Ijoilers,  all  sheli- 
ped  tn  the  g&Keit,  and  half  the  flue-surface;  for  the  French  type. 
■ed  eurface  of  the  upper  boiler  aud  half  the  lower  bo'iler- 
crlindriual  boilers,  not  more  than  00  ft.  long,  all  llie  heating- 
re  must  be  added  a  battery  for  rela;  in  caseof  cleaning,  repairs, 
n  tluuione  battery  extra  in  large  plauta,  when  the  water  carries 

lite  practice  add  liOf  to  above  calculations.    For  charcoal  prac- 

if. 

I  to  the  author  in  Ma.v,  1801,  Mr.  Oordoii  BayK  that  the  hlagl- 
Uce  at  tlie  time  when  his  article  (from  which  llie  above  extract 
written  was  very  different  from  that  exisliiip  at  the  prtisent 
^  more  ecououiicul  engiueH  are  beiug  introduced,  »o  that  lesw 
^  of  boiler-Kiirfrtce  per  ton  of  iron  made  hi  'J-1  hotn-K  may  now  i>e 
ft  aays  further:  Blast-furnace  gaseti  are  >ielduin  used  for  other 

ErequireinentH,  which  of  course  Is  throwiiiK  away  good  fuel.  In 
rnoce  in  an  ordiaary  good  condition,  and  a  eondillon  where  U 
I  maximum  of  blast,  which  in  in  the  neighborhooil  of  'X)0  to  225 
inoffpberic  nieasiireineut,  per  m]-  ft.  of  Keclional  nrea  of  hearth, 
te  the  necessary  H.P.  with  very  small  heating-surface,  owing  to 
M  of  the  escaping  goseii  from  llie  boilei-H,  which  frequentFy  U 
I. 

I  making  SOO  touK  of  iron  a  day  will  coiwiirae  about  COO  H.P.  In 
i  eugine.  About  a  pound  of  fuel  i»  required  in  (he  furnai'e  per 
;  metal. 

» it  requires  TO  cu.  ft.  of  air-pl&ton  displftceuient  per  lb,  of  fuel 
rSi3,4<KJcu.  ft.  per  minut«  for  'JOO  tons  of  metal  in  UIM  working 
_Jay,  at,  say.  10  lbs.  discharge -pressure.  Tlib*  iH  eqoal  loOU  lbs. 
!e  Bteoin-plstoii  of  e<|iial  area  to  the  lilant  pistou,  or  fMK.ll.H.l'.  To 
for  hoisting,  punipinnand  other  piirpose»  for  wtmli  xieam  Is  em- 
ind  blast  fumuces.  ami  we  huTe  IIUO  H.P.,  or  &iiy  51^  H.P.  per 
fcr  day.  EHvidlnu  tliit*  into  30  give.*  approiimately  5^^  ^''ll-  "•■  f'  ^B 
■icp  o'r  hniler  per  HP.  ^B 

fbbe  Bollern  ubIuc;  Blasurkirnace  Gascn.— D.,Q^H[ 
tDS.  A.  1.  M.  K..  xvii.5Uin?[H)rrK  a  lest  of  a  water  tllbt' boiler  iisiu(^Bl 
:e  ga:«  as  fuel.  Tlir  heating  surface  waK £S8&|^^|^|^drvrl<i]M<< 
fDtennial  atandardi,  or  .'i.OI  llw.  of  water  f^^^^^K^  '^  '"* 
»tlng-H"irfBce  |>er  hour.    -Some  of   ili  ""■ 

!■:  Ciilorinc  value  of  I  lb.  of  tlie 
initial  lemjierat UJ'e.  which  wiis  li 
f  the gna  =  0.iHh.    C/ilmney  ilniUL'lit    ;'. 


690 


THE  STEAM-BOILBB. 


gMet,  T7B*  F.    Efficiency  of  Uie  boiler  calcnistod  from 
and  analrses  of  the  i^»es  at  exit  and  riitraiice,  61^.    TIm* 
were-as  rollowa.  hydrocarbons  being  included  in  tlie  nil 


By  WeishL 

1 

At  Kolrani-e. 

At  Kxit. 

A«  Enti 

CO...  

10.69 

.11 

ac.71 

2.M 
11. 4A 

M.S7 

3  OS 
1.78 
IM.80 
7.19 
.7« 
7.M 

o 

CO 

ClnCb, 

CInCO..  

Total  C... 

steam-boilers  Fired  with  Waste  Gases  (Vooi  Pli44 
and  HeatlU;:  Purnacea.— The  Imu  Aae.  ApHI  O.  l^tUS.  cunla££«*( 
of  a  iiuiiitier  or  tests  of  8CeaDi-lM>iler»  iitiliziDK  the  waM^  brat  Iimii 
dliiig  and  lieatint;  furnaces iu  rulliiiK-uilUs.  Tlie  followltie  pni<«p«l<lll 
selecied:  In  Kos  1,  S,  and  4  t)ie  boiler  is  a  Bnbooek  i  Wikw*  MM 
boiler,  and  in  No.  3  it  is  a  plain  cylinder  biiiler.  43  in-  dlam  »ut  ff  fl 
No.  4  boUer  was  connected  with  a  beaiing-fumace,  Lbe  otiirrs  attk  fal 
tiiraaoea. 


I 


«o.l. 

Not 

Ko.* 

109S 

riM 

la 

19.9 

18  • 

ll« 

S3 

»;.« 

Ml 

Mao 

2!e» 

im 

3.3 

I. If 

ItT 

B.9 

«.£« 

•Jl 

.... 

7.W 

«Ji 

Heatlng-surraoe,  ko.  ft 

Grate-Burface.  sq.  n 

Batio  H.S.  to  U.S 

Water  evap.  per  hour,  lbs 

per  sq.  ft.  H.S.  per  hr..  Ihe... 

"       "       per  lb.  coal  f  rum  and  at  21£*. 

"       "        "     '•  comb. 

Id  No.  2,  1 .38  lbs.  of  Iron  were  puddled  per  lb.  of  ciial. 
In  No.  .?,  1.14  lbs.  of  iron  werr  ijuddlttl  p<'r  Ih.  •>(  oonl. 
No.  3shn\vs  tlinl  an  Insnfflcienl  Hmnunt  of  bealingaurtaoa  ••■  |Hl 
tor  the  aiuouuC  of  waste  beat  available. 

BVLESPOR  COIVDVCTING  BOILKB-TSSTi. 

The  Committee  of  llie  A.  S.  M.  E.  on  BoilerteKlA,  LnatUUmttt  V*  I 
(chairmao),  J.  C.  Hoadley,  R.  H.  Thurston.  Cha*.  E.  Enerr.  i>*  fm 
Porter,  recommemled  the  following;  code  of  rules  fur  tetbkn^tB^ 
Tol.  vi.  p.  856): 

PnsuMtMBii*  TO  A  Tsar. 

I.  In  preparing  for  and  conducting  triaU  of   steam-boitan  ( 
Lobjeet  of  tne  proposed  trial  sliould  be  clearly  <leflned  aoil  ( 
l^iew. 

II.  Measure  and  record  the  dimensions,  |x«ltiun,  etr..  iif  craMtl 
►tag  inirfaces,  llue«  and  ,■>■■  — -■•^-^  ...^...-^rtlon  of  air-space  ta  t^Jf 
[face,  kind  of  <lmiielit.  1 

III.  Put  tlie  boiler  lij  j  lAve  beatiue  kutfaf**  i 

,..!   .„,,     ,.,.„,..  I..,,..  „„  ...„    I. 1 ,    4q 


riioK.t  fuel  nini   iMiiiiedinleiy   cluaiug  daui{trr. 
I  llirouf;h  ilif  leakK. 

'    ftve  an  Ul"'i..i  <;uiuHni.  H  il»,  111..  l...ni..ft    III    ...... 

Dade  aa  to  I  i 
vet.  a  aaiui 

f,f  III. .!,<:> 


•  VV>u  -aiAto^at^  Vut  1 


EULE8  FOB  CONDUCTING   B01LEB-TE8TS.  69 


illff^hsny  Mountains  and  «Mt  of  Che  Missouri  Rirer,  Pittsburgh  lum| 

J  bt"  used.* 

all  important  tests  a  sample  of  coal  should  be  selected  for  cbemii 

stablixh  the  correctness  of  all  apparatus  used  In  the  test  for  weiRhing 
Muriup.  These  are;  ].  Scales  for  wi-ighing  coal.  nshe*.  and  water. 
■8.  or  water-meters  for  measurliiK  wnli-'r.  Water- mi-ti'rs,  03  a  ruH 
only  tx?  (used  &»  a  ch»?ek  on  other  moasiirHiiients  For  accurate  norli 
crslinulil  bt*  weighed  or  mea&ui'ed  in  a  lank.  3.  Thcrnionielors  and 
iters  for  taking-  ternpcratui'es  of  air.  Rteaiii,  feed-water,  waste  gases, 

PrfSsnre-cauKes,  draiight-gauces,  etc. 
Bff'Ti-  neKiniijdg  a  test,  the  boiler  and  ehimney  should  lie  thoroughly 

tn  th-ir  usual  working  temperature.  If  The  uoiler  ia  new,  it  should 
mtiiiuous  use  ut  Ir'ast  a  week  before  testing,  so  as  to  dry  the  murtar 
]:hl.v  aud  heat  the  wall9. 

B-fore  IicgiDUing  a  test,  the  boiler  and  connections  should  be  free 

'''  all  water  cotiuiHilious,  iDclii<liiig  IiIdw  aud  extra  feed  pipes, 

iiiected  or  stopped  with  blank  naui^es.  except  the  particular 

inch  water  is  lo  be  fed  to  (he  boiler  during  the  trial.    In  lo- 

wliii<e  (he  reliabihly  of  the  powerisso  important  that  an  extra  feed- 
UBt  be  Ijept  iu  poKliioD,  and  in  general  when  for  any  other  reaiioa 
pipe*  oih>T  than  the  fe''d-|:>ipcs  caiiiio!.  I)c  di>i- 'nnected,  such  pi|iea 
kdrllle<l  »o  as  to  leave  opeiiing!^  in  their  lower  Hides,  which  should  be 
pnt  throughout  the  test  ns  n  inean.s  of  deceiaiog  leaks,  or  accidental 
itburi^ed  oiiening  of  valves.    Duruig  the  test  the  blow-olT  pipe  should 

iyi  used  it  mtist  receive  steam  directly  from  the  boiler  beingj 
.'i  orn  a  steam-pipe  or  fi  oiu  any  other  boiler. 
bH^  pipe  i.s  {jo  arranged  that  water  of  «.*c>ridensatlc>u  cannot 

eh  i  >'r.    If  the  sieaiu-pipe  has  Duch  hm  iiK'Iiiiaiiini  thai  th>i 

M  e-  I  :i  from  any  portion  uf  tlie  ¥ieam-pipe  sy.stem  nmy  rnit 

Ito  the  iMller,  it  must  be  trapped  so  as  to  prevent  this  water  getlhig 
«  builer  without  beiug  measured.  < 

BTAaTI.VO  AND  StOPPIKO  4  TCST, 
<t  should  last  at  least  ten  hours  of  continuoai  running.  And  twenty- 
Oiirs  whenever  practicable.  The  condfliona  of  the  boiler  and  furnace 
'aspects  should  be.  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  saiue  at  the  end  as  at 
■iDDiae  of  ilie  test.  The  steam -pressure  shoultl  he  tlio  same,  (he 
ievel  the  same,  the  flie  upon  the  grates  should  be  the  same  in  qimn- 
Id  condition,  and  tliu  walls,  fliie».  etc..  .olinuld  be  of  the  same  leinpera- 
To secure  as  near  an  approximation  to  exact  unlforiiiity  as  possible 
iditions  of  tlie  fire  and  in  temixTatures  of  the  walls  and  dues  the 
Ing  method  of  starting  and  stopping  a  test  should  be  adopted 
Slandiirrf  Jfef/u/rf.— Steam  being  raised  to  the  working  pressure,  ra., 
npldly  all  tlie  fire  from  the  grate,  close  the  dumper,  clean  the  ash-pit, 
J  quIcKly  as  possible  start  a  new  Are  with  weiglie<i  wo<jd  and  coaU 
the  time  of  alartlng  the  test  and  the  hei^jhi  lif  the  water-level  while 
Iter  Is-  in  i  quiescent  state,  just  Iwfore  ligliling  tlie  lire. 

St  remove  tlie  wholf  fire,  clean  the  grates  and  ash-pitt 

■•1  when  the  water  Is  in  a  quiescent  state  ;  record  the 

^eas  the  end  of  the  lest.     The  water-level  slionld  lie 

lie  same  a.t  at  the  beginning  of  the  lest.     If  it  is  not 

should  be  made  by  computation,  and  not  by  operat- 

-  t'ompleteii.    U  will  generally  be  necessary  to  regulate 

•'ii-.iMi  from  the  boiler  leKted  by  inesiis  of  the  stop-volve 

(Ires  are  being  htiuled  at  tlie  ijegiiirdng  and  at  the  end  of 

■  tr-i  keep  the  Bteam-pressure  in  the  builer  at  those  times  up 

■  I  ho  test. 

"(.—Instead  of  the  Slanilard  Metliod  above  descrif 

•mployeri  where  local  coiiiliitions  render  it  nece 

Icing  and  cleaning  (Ires  liove  them  bui-ned  rat 

ining,  and  then  thorongldy  cleaned  ;  note 

„'raw  as  nearly  as  It  can  Ije  estimate<l ;  note 

Me  coats  are  selected  because  they  are  about  llie  onl;  c 
It  the  esMnttals  ot  excellence  of  qiiallev,  adaptability  to  * 
mem,  grates,  bo/Zera,  avd  metboda  of  ilring,  and  wide  dA 
•seeumtbon^  fii  tJie  msrketM.  , 


icalH 


I 

1 


602  THE  STEAM  UOILBR. 

pressure  of  aleam  ami  the  height  of  the  woter-lvTcl— which  < 

Tiiedliim  helKlit  to  lie  carrit-d  l.liruiif;liii(tt  the  lesl     'H  i'—  —4 

note  tliis  timo  as  the  lime  of  stailiiiK  Ihe  test.     Fr 

weicheil,  should  now  b<?  fliwl.    TIih  nsli  pits  sboiil 

al  oiicp  after  stnrtliiK,     Before  ihe  ruil  ■■'  t1i,-i.,i  i 

liiM',  jiiKt  as  befin't!  tlie  alnrt,  aii<l  the  fi 

leiiv*.-  the  same  aiiiotuit  <>r  tire.  uiKl  in  ih 

tlie  dlart.    The  water-level  and  steumj^^.  ,.  .   ... 

same  pnint  iisat  the  iitart,  ami  ilie  ihue  vi  Ihe  tfUtliitg  of  UteMatl 

noted  jusl  before  fresh  coal  is  fired. 

DrRtKO  THE  Test, 

XII.  Keep  the  Conditions  Uniform.— The  boiler  jihouM  be  m 
oudly,  without  gtnppiiiR  for  iiical-timeM  or  firr  li..^  ,,r  roll  of  m 
steam  due  to  change  of  deinund  for  stedm.      i  '  lielli(M 

the  rate  of  eraporHiion  or  combustion  desir.-  •-  tna  b  ' 

should  be  retained  constant  duriuK  the  test  b>  hm  itanipi 

ir  the  hollur  is  uot  connecletl  to  thn  same  ^  trt 

an  extra  outlet  for  st«um  with  valve  iu  same ->  • 

ca.se  the  pressure  should  rise  to  that  at  which  .  _.  .^  ^  .«« 
lie  reduced  to  the  desired  poiui  hy  opeuliig  the  extra  uultei,  »wiMi 
Int;  the  fires. 

If  the  boiler  U  connected  to  a  main  steam-pipi*  uiil>  I'thrrbd 
Bafelv-valve  on  the  boiler  heini;  tested  should  lie  s  iu| 

than  those  of  the  other  Ijoilers,  so  that  in  case  o:  rti 

other  Ijoilers  m«.v  blow  olT,  ami  the  prejKure  be  !■  _  ...  .  ,  .^J 
dampers,  allowiuK  the  damper  of  the  boiler  being  tented  tu  {«■■ 
nad  lti'inf;a.s  u.»iml. 

All  the  coiuliljous  should  be  kept  as  nearlv  uniform  an  mutU^ 
force  of  droiiKlit,  pressure  of  steam,  ;i  '! !» 

cleaninp  the  llre_s  will  depend  upon  the  i  ri| 

combustion,  and  the  kind  of  grates.    W  -4, 

combustiou  uot  too  rapid,  a  ten-hour  tf-  r.f 

of  the  grates,  oiher  than  just  l»efore  tli-  "i 

of  the  test.     But  in  case  the  grates  havi  ? 

intervals  between  one  cleaning  and  another  t>li<<iiid 

Xin.  Ktvpinn  Ihr  RerortU. — The  coal  should  lie  " 
the  llremeu  iu  equal  poitlons,  each  sufflcient  fur  a 
a  fresh  portion  should  noi  be  delivered  until  i 
Bred.    The  time  required  to  consume  eaeh   i 
lime  being  recorde-l  at,  the  iiistaiii  of  th'in.;  il 

Is  desiral>le  that  iit  the  same  tini-  .^^d  ilUAtjl 

should  be  accurately  noted  and  p  •■Jute all 

in  I  lie  boiler  and  tlie  average  pr--  i 

during  the  lime.    By  tlius  recording  ihe.  umuuni  u(  ixuer 
suucessive  Fiortii>n»  of  coal,  the  jvcord   of  Die  test  may  I 
several  divisions,  if  desired,  at  the  end  of  llie  teol,  to  OIsoot 
of  uniformity  of  combustion,  evaixiiation,  ami  ecoaom;  al  r 
of  the  test. 

XIV.  Pi-iming  res/*.— In  all  lests  in  which  accuntcv  ><t  i-nulli  ll 


tant,  calorimeter  teste  sboui 

■f  thepercei 
,'.    Al  least  ' 

I  im 

steum,  or  of  tlie  degree  of  ■ 

'  dl 

made  during  tliL>  Iriiil  .r  tl 

-o  iimnv  a> 

I 

average  error  lo 

test  ttirrected  u. 

On  (I'.Ti.iiiit  • 

est  < 

Tin' 

8CUI'> 

Akaltses  op  Oabks.— MEAscRcalK^^  or  Alli-krpri.T.  rrr. 

XV.  Iu  te-^l-s  for  piirp«iSHN  of  scifottflf   re^.^nii-h    In  nhi'-b  th»  < 

Uon  of  all  I : 
•bovUbe 


I 


aj..la  ot  il»«l 
ullun,  uf  lb'  •■ 


:S   FOR  COXDUCTIUG   BOILER-TESTS.  693^ 

«aiii  made  by  thn  boiler^  of  the  lotsl  bpat  imparted  to  th^^H 

the  flne-eascs  is  an  ei^ifclAlly  valiiatile  iiipthod  of  dpter- 
■e  value  of  dllTepent  methods  of  UriiiK.  <""  of  differeul  kinds 
naVini;  flieiw*  »iiulyi<es  great  cant  Khoiilil  lie  talceti  In  pro- 
ipleB->iiice  llie  ctiinp^isilion  Is  Hft  lo  vary  at  diiTerent 
and  the  analyses  !ilioiild  Iih  intnislwl  oiiiy  to  a  thoi'<>ii|;lily 
!t.  whfi  is  provided  with  '.■oniplete  and  accurate  appsratufi. 
inatioiiv  of  the  other  variables  mentioned  above  are  not 
laken  except  by  engineers  of  hifb  scieiitiflo  attatniiients. 
for  iiinldiig  them  is  likely  to  be  irnprovod  in  the  course  of 
I,  it  it!  nut  deemed  advisable  to  include  in  this  code  any 
)  for  making  ihe'ti. 

RECiiitn  OK  TBK  Test. 
af  the  le«t  uhould  be  kept  on  properly  prepared  blanks, 
ig»  »»  follows: 


r«8. 


Temperatures. 

FueL 

tf 

p. 

1    ■ 

,  fe 

g 

a 

i^ 

1- 

OS 

9 

i 

Feed 

water, 


Rkpohtino  thb  Trial. 
al  reBUlts  should  be  recorded  iiim<ii  a  properly  prepared 
d  Include  ax  many  of  the  foilowitii;  ilem.s  as  nrn  adapted  for 
H  for  which  the  trial  is  made.  The  Items  marked  with  a  • 
for  or\Jinary  trials,  but  are  desirable  for  comiMiiiisoD  will) 
u  other  soiircea. 

lt«of  the  trials  of  a , 

rai.....,.,.,., 

itemiine 


|5 

I 


I 

irtel 

tOXB  AKD  PBOPOHTIONa 

complete  description. 

w — wtde....1ouer area 

DKBurfoce 

K  surface 

ter-heatinx surface  to  gratesur- 


BliaOS  PnESSt'RES. 
lire  iu  boiler,  l>y  flange, 
lain-prtosure.. 


0  preasumi,  p(>r  barometer.. 
MiKbl  In  inches  of  water..  . 


|JU»  temperatukes. 
air... 


laMiL.. 


hours 


See  nB/ereutw  la  paragra-itU  |>rc«vdiDg  Ukl 


'I.  •■•  — - 


'•  ■■    ■■•      .    ..  /(      /. 

I ■         I     ■■      •  !•                      I'.iii'i!       fMlc-r  "f  •in;! 

"■  "■     ;•'•■•  I  I.  I  II  (III  III  III     ;  .  11  .',. 

' '"-I-  III  I  III  III  I'l  III  ill /- O.MWj. 

,,        .         ,  .  \>im''B       \Xvu\«> 

"""'     "••••' """•••■'        .uv.  ••"-»5»- 

If  -\.\n,\\-\\\ 


LEB   FOE  CONDUCTING   DOILEB-TBSTS, 


695 


water  evaporated  per  pound  of 
from  aiirt  M'iVi?y.f 

water  evaporated  per  pound  o( 
Ible  from  Hiid  «i  2Ii*  F.  S 


atSROIAI^  EVAPORATION. 

t  water  evaporated  per  pound  o( 
with  one  sixth  refuse,  at  TOpoiimlR 
ressure,  from  temperature  of  100" 
a3x0.7-J«9 


IT«  or  COMBUffnOM. 

tiiallj'  liuriiril  per  oquare  foot  of 
rf uc<?  per  hour 

IPer  BD.  ft,  of  f^rate- 
surface  
Pertiq.  ft.  of  watei- 
boatlne  surface.. 
Per  sq.  ft.  of  leHSt 
area  for  draught 

JkTE  or  EVAPORATION. 


.porated  from  and  at  SIT'  P,  per 
Matlog-Aurface  per  hour.. 

evaporated  1P^;„«^^°'K"'«- 
'  iTTno.'^IJlI'ersq.ft  of  Water- 
.mofTltaf  lieatiDK  surface  . 
esaiire.  |         j     ^^^^  ,^,,  draught. 

mWMtmS.  B0B8B-PUWKR. 

( thirty  pounds  of  water  per  hour 
pei  from  temptToture  or  lOO*  F. 
am  of  70  pouiidsi  RauKe-pressure 
lbs.  from  and  at  Jli*)  8 

er,  builders'  ratiug.  at square 

boraa-power. 

le*eloped  above,  or  b«low,  ratinf({. 


Iba. 
Ib«. 


lbs. 

lbs. 
lis 
lh«. 
Iba, 

Ibe. 
Iba. 
Iba. 
lbs. 


H.P, 

H.P. 
per  cent 


ffBraporallon.-Ttie  table  cm  the  follnwin^  paKes  was 
nsbed  bv  llie  auihur  In  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  B.,  vol.  vl.,  1H84.  under 
es  for  Facilitating  Calciilations  tit  Boilertc-Kts.  The  table 
ira  for  every  3°  of  t<^iuper&lui-e  of  feed-water  from  3x'°  to  314' 
rjrtwo  pounds  pre-ssure  of  meam  within  Ibe  limits  of  unMB|r}' 
i-preasures.  ^^^Sl 

Kin  the  factor  corrcspundlne  to  a  differt'oce  of  .1°  ti'mpenM 
always  either  OMl  or  .008-.;,  For  interpolation  to  find  u  factor 
er  teinpeiBture  between  fi'i"  and  iVi".  not  given  lu  the  table, 
r  for  the  nenresi  teniperalureand  add  or  !>i>l)ti'nct.  as  the  case 
if  the  iliff-rent-e  in  .tK«l,  and  .OUI 1  if  tlie  difTemrme  is  .Un3«.  As 
sea  a  factor  of  evaporatioM  Ui  three  deeinml  places  is  accu- 
ly  error  which  may  be  nindu  in  the  fourtli  di-clmal  place  by 
8  of  no  practical  importancr. 

■ed  In  calculatiiie  these  fautornof  evaporation arn  th'i.se  gl** 
Porter's  Treatise  on  the  Kichard.s'  Steaiu-enelne  ludlcatoFi 

Vactor  =         .  ,  to  nh/eJi  jEf  is  the  tolal  heat  ot  ateavw  aX^ 

anJ  A  Uie  total  {test  of  feed- water  ot  iba 


5W 


Tire  STEAM-BOILEB. 


™              TACTOBS  OP  BVAPORATION.                        6d1^| 

■M.,  Il«.  M  +  i  M  -f  1    «»  +    1   M  +  1   M  +  1   M  +  1   n+\   3t  +  1   74+1   :•  +  "^^ 

h^oa»..T>.|  7S     In      In     In     Iss     l»     \  a     |ii'|»i 

If"   1                                                        KtCTOna    OF   EVAPOK*TIOJI. 

ic 

I.0-J9S 

i.oani 

1.0807 

1            1            1          ^ 
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THE  STEAM-BOILBR. 


I 


I 


STBENCi'TB   OF  STKAIH-BOILEBS.     TABIOI 
FOB  COSSTBrOTION. 

There  is  a  preat  lack  ■■f  iraif''rmitr  in  the   nil.'>  pr*>i 
eot  wrile.T 
In  the  Ui 
corJiDK  I" 

Insptfirtors  of  S;»-aiii  \v>^'E>;  hi  ' 
S»vy  Dt'nartiiier.l,  nml  in  some  c.t 
Od  land,  in  .«t>ine  places,  as  in  I'l. 
P'Temed  by  local  laws;  Imi   . 
and  i)4iilers  ftreooii!*inietei:i  .- 
boilrr  Tiialrprs.    In  Europe  t; 
(rem  laws.    Tlie   rui>-s  ..r  uif   1., 

Stj-i'  li*"  Briiish  Lloyd's  nnj  Boani 

Veil'    -  -  liennaii  Lloyd's  are  ably  r>'< 

Kolry,  -M  iii-t  -V.-ival  .\rchil»'ci.s,  etc..  read  at  iiif- 1  i.iciikoJ 
icreiss.  Division  ot  Mariue  aud  Naval  Eneiiit^eriue.  KroinT 
towing  nntes  are  takt-n.  chiefly  wiUi  rcferfiice  to  the  V.  9i,J 

iAbbyerkiliont.--T.  S.,  for  teiutile  «trengtli;  El.,  rloitg 
ii-aciioii  of  area.) 

Hj°drmallc  Ttcmtm,— Board  of  Tt-nde,  LXoihTa,  >))><I  tfxr 
Twice  the  working  pressure. 

United  SInlf*  Slafittes.—One  and  a  half  linieK  the  woriilfvt i 

Mr.  Foley  proposj's  thnt  the  proof  pressure  islimild  l)e  IVf  U^ 
ine  prcasure  +  one  atiiio-spfiere.  «  ' 

Batabllalied  Nominal  Factor*  ot  Safelf.  So-ut 
4.n  for  a  boiler  of  model  ate  Ieii>(tli  and  of  the  heM  con«trw«lf 
manshlp. 

iiojicr'n.-  Not  very  api<arent,  but  appears  to  lie  b' 

United  Slate*  S<«f«ff».— liideiiuUe,  becaiise  the  .- 
not  uongidered,  except  by  the  broad  dlsfincUon  betnren  sin^ 
livello^. 

Bureau  Veritcu:  i.i. 

German  Lloiid's:  5  to  4.65.  BcconiliiK  to  the ''     '     -         "  '" 

naterial  lor  Blvetlnif.    Botmi  of 

riret  bars  betwrt"ii  -M  HtiJ  30  tons,  el.  in  10"  ii'..  .  .1* 

area  not  less  tlinn  50t. 

IJotid's—T.  S  .  'ifi  to  ao  tons;  el.  not  leas  tbiiD  30*  In  K".  Vu  I 
tnuijt  stand  l>enili"S  l"  a  curve,  the  inner  radius  of  vrnk'h  •«  not  gnm 
IVi  times  tile  thickness  of  the  pinte.  after  havinf;  hnvn  uiilfurmly  i 
m  low  cherry-red,  and  <]ueuclie'l  in  water  at  !W**  F. 

Uiiitrd  stntftt  Stntjdcs  —'Si'  >iiPoiiil  i>r«Ti«lon. 

Bulea  Connected  Willi  Bivetlns.-  ''       ■    -  ^-     <      <-> 

iiig  refcislaiice  of  the  rivet  steel  tu  be  taUen  nt 

be  used  f*ir  the  factor  of  safetj'  indej»eudeiitl> 

for  the  plailng.     Rivets  in  iloi'ible  uliear  to  li.i 

lu^'lion  taken  in  the  cnlciilntioii  inKtend  of",'. 

than  the  Iblcknes^  of  the  plate  And  the  pilcli  j 

tlilrknes.1^  of  double  biiK-stmps  <eiu:hi  not  to  be  u-^>  iij»u  -^^  ii«-  ■"»« 

iJie  plate;  single  liiitt-slnips  not  les,i  than  ft  8. 

DlBlance  from  centre  of  rivet  to  etige  ot  hole  =  illlMiieter  of  rt»rt,J 

Di!«tnivce  between  n>W8  of  rivets 


» 


=  S  y  diain.  of  rivet  or  =  [(ilianL  X  4)  -f  I] 


Di,-. 
IJ 
Ink' 

nil-  r 

upni. 

{»■  f,i 


_  %  Uplich  X  11)  +«ll»in.  y.  41]  X  (pitoh  -f 

10 

C  +  diain.  •»:  1)  +  10. 
-beur  to  have  only  I  7" 

■lid  of  -3.    Theubentlnir 
1.   S.   of  tl(. 
'■  he   louxllli 

ilian  Klvei. 


-N»i  r;v\e*  .  _     . 


STBENOTU   OF  STEAM-BOILERS. 


1 

!8  •!•! 


soy.    Strips  8"  wide  should  stand  beading'  unlil  the  sides 
|*t  n  dktauce  from  e«ch  other  of  not  more  (ban  three  tlrne«  the 
blckncs!!. 

j^pT.  S.  between  the  limits  of  £6  nnil  30  tons  per  square  Ineli.     El. 

>80X  Id  t»".    Tifst  strips  lit-atpd  to  a  low  cherry-red  and  plunged 

9S»  F.  must  Btand  •••'iniiiift  to  a  curve,  the  Inner  radius  of 

greater  than  lU  times  the  plate's  lliickness. 

V». — Plates  of  \i"  thick  and  under  shall  show  a  contr.  of  not 

when  o»er  J.^"  and  up  to  J4",  not  less  than  -l."!*  ;  when  over 

ban  4M. 

s  comments  :  The  Buard  of  Trade  rtiles  seem  to  Indicate  a  >.tecl 

iT.  S.  when  a  loner  and  more  ilurtile  one  can  lie  (fiit  ;  the  lower 

*"i  shoulii  be  rediieetl.and  the  hendinRtesi  niiehtwith  advantage 

tempeiinp,  and  niiule  to  a  smaller  radius.    Lloyd's  rule  for 

more  satisfactory,  hni  the  tenijier  test  Is  not  severe.    The 

StAtntesare  not  sufiHclenlly  siringent  to  Insnre  an  enlheiy 

r  material. 

J.  .  BUKKeats  a  material  which  would  meet;  the  following:  Si  toni 

ill  In  tension  ;  ■■S}%  in  S"  luiiihnuin  elongatioti  ;  rudlus  fur  hem"' 

rteinjierluj;  =  the  ptale's  tliiclcness. 

•plate  Fornialae.-  iSoarrf  of  Trade  i  P  =  ^^/^y^^- 

llameter  of  lioilei'  In  inches  ; 
Kprktng-pressure  in  lbs.  per  square  iocli  ; 
i  in  inches ; 
age  of  streneth  of  joint  compared  to  sulltl  plate  ; 
iatrentcth  allowetl  for  the  material  In  lbs.  per  square  inch 
of  safely,  being  4.5,  witli  ceriaiii  addilhms  depending 
'nMhod  of  construction. 
C  y.  H  -  S)  X  H 

blokness  of  plate  in  sixteenths  ;  B  aud  D  as  before :  C  =  a  constant 
liiirin  Ihe  kind  of  joint. 

I     '  I'ul  !X*ani;  liave  double  buttstraps,  C  =  '10.    When  longl- 

k  ••  duuhle  hull  straps  of  unequal  width,  oidy  covering  on 

1  H-ed  section  of  plate  nt  the  out<?r  liiieof  rivets,  6' =  IM, 

I  (he  |iin;;itudiii/il  seams  are  lap-jointed,  C=  18. A. 
[.9fnf  "»*•«.— Using  game  notation  as  for  Board  of  Trade, 

t  y  i  y.  T 

—^ i—  tor  single-riveting  ;  add  2(»<  for  dauble-rlvetlog  ; 

/>  .■-  0 

is  lb«  loweail  T.  S.  stamped  nn  any  plate. 

lef  criliid.ses  the  rule  of  the  United  States  Statutes  as  follows  ; 
itorHR  the  ri\eting,  exo'pt  tha^  it  distliiKuislies  Iwlween  single  and 
giving  the  latter  M*  ailiiiiirupe  ;  Ihe  ciiciiinfereritinl  riveliiii;  or 
se<im  is  altogether  Ignored.  The  rule  tnke.s  no  aecoiinl  of  workniaii- 
metliMl  adopted  of  coiisirui'iing  the  joints.  The  factor,  oiiesixtli, 
covers  the  actual  nominal  factor  of  safety  as  well  as  tlie  loss  of 
at  the  joint,  no  matter  what  its  percentage  ;  we  may  therefore 
It  as  unsAiisraclory. 

Cl^-l-lC" 
M  for  Flat  Platen. -i?o«rd  of  J^ade ;  P  =  -  — -  —  . 

P=  wo  king  pressure  in  lbs.  per  square  inch; 
S  =  surface  supported  In  square  inches; 
(  =  thickiierui  in  sixteenths  of  an  Incli; 
C  =  a  constant  as  per  follovi  lug  table: 
rplates  not  exposed  to  heat  or  flainu,  the  stays  ntted  with 
I  washers,  the  latter  at  least  three  times  the  diameter  of  the  sU 

l9ti  tiie  thickness  of  (he  plate; 

ITS  for  the  same  condition,  Ijiit  ilie  washers  %  the  pilch  of  i 
diameter,  and  thickii-.ss  not  iis«  than  plute; 
W  for  the  same  fi/iuliiit-rj,  bin  iloiiliUiig  plates  ill  place,  o!  <no 
'  '/  of  wliifli  in  *j  ll!f  pitch  ami  thickness  the  saline  I 
.'/it^smmeoiiiiinon,  but  the  stays  wiili  iivits  oiikv 
xponed  to  liiipavr  or  heal  or  ifatne  and  steainl 

—""•^ortiip^ia^,  aad  *j  the  plate's  thicktietas; 


i  ions 
ndlQ^ 

i 

ant 

ugl- 
on 


THE  STEAV-BOILEB. 


C  =  rtr !"» fin-  iliH  KHiiii^  »x)ii(iiri"ij.  i)i»t  sia\  s  flttr'l  w  i»ij  jiiit? 

C=  '■       ■ 

Cs  '■   ;  ■-:;-.. 

(T,  5.  Slatutet.—Vsiag  same  nolallon  as  far  Board  of  Trade.  P  =  - 
whare  p  =  grealesl  pttch  in  inobe«i,  /^and  t  as  above; 

C's  118  for  platpii  T  16"  thick  and  under,  flitcd  wi(h  screw (tir 
Biid  tiiKy,  nr  plain  boll  ilUe<l  wiUi  Kln^^k*  uut  aud  well 
riveted  liead  an<l  ioclcet: 

C  s  l!!0  for  plal<^  above  7.  16".  under  llie  game  condllions; 

C  =  140  for  ttat  Mirrscvs  wlierc  tli«  «ca3'i*  are  dtleil  wiUmaB 
and  outside: 

C  s  200  for  lla(  surfaced  under  tile  same  Condition,  but  Willi  llx 
tlou  or  B  woMher  riveted  to  the  plate  at  leaatJiiplste'fl 
IIC8S,  and  of  a  diani>-t«i'  equal  to  2/&  pitcb. 

N.B.— Plates  fitted  with  double  anKle-lroua  and  riveted  to  plate,  «ii 
at  least  ^W  the  thiclCDriiLS  of  plate  and  depth  at  leawt  !4  of  pitcli.  Ton 
ulluvted  ihe  same  pres-sure  as  delertnined  by  foniiiila  for  plate  wlltin 
riviMed  ou. 

N.B.— N»  brace  ur  stay-bolt  nse^I  iu  marine  boil«t-s  to  have  B  gi'eitir 
than  lOV^"  on  flrc^boxe*  and  back  conneotloh*. 

CVrtftin  rx^ieriineutR  were  carried  out  b.v  the  B<'>anl  of  Trade  wliich  lb 
that  tile  leviKtauot!  to  buli;lnf;  dues  not  vury  as  Uie  square  of  ilt<|li 
Ihiekness.  There  aeenis  also  good  reHKnii  to  believe  tlmt  it  is  not  in' 
an  liie  m)nare  of  the  nn-atent  pitch.  KeaririK  in  uilml,  says  Mr  V<^- 
uiuiheiiiailcians  have  siKiially  failed  lo  ^ive  UK  true  theoi 
for  oalculatlnK  the  reslKlaiice  of  IxxlieK  fiibject  to  the 
slresseK,  «e  ihereforv  caonol  expect  much  from  their 
Miatier  of  Mat  plates. 

The  Uoard  of  Traile  rules  for  flat  surfaces,  beinjr  based  <jn  actual <i 
iiient.  ni>!  especially  woriliv  of  respect;  aouod  Judgment  appeui 
have  liix'ii  used  fn  frninln;;  tlieni. 

Foriiare  I'oriuulae.— Hoard  or  Tiuoe.— Long  fStmaeti.— 

P  =  J,  but  not  where  L  isshnrterthan  (ll.Sf  -  1),  at  wWdill 

the  rule  for  short  furnnees  comes  Into  play. 

/*  =  workliiK'pressure  in  pt>unds  per  square  inch;  t  =  thickness iit 
P  =  outside  diameter  in  inches;  /.  —  length  of  furnace  in  feet  up  to 
C  =  a  consiani ,  a.s  per  following  table,  for  drilled  holes  : 

C  =  99,0IX)  fur  welded    or    butt-joliited   with    single    straps,  d( 

riveted ; 
C  =  KS.OUO  fur  butts  wiili  single  straps,  sini^le-Hveted; 
C  =  IW.OOO  for  butts  with  double  straps,  single-riveted. 

Provided  ahvnys  that  the  pressure  so  fouud  does  out  exceed  Ibatcll 
Die  tullowing  formula*,  which  npply  also  to  abort  furnaces 

O  X  ( 
P  =      ■      for  all  the  patenl.  furnaces  named; 

f  =  ^  y  .)(  S  -  g=-^p — -.  )  when  with  Adantfton  riaes. 

0=    H,Sl>0  forplniu  fiu-nacp»; 

C  =  H.COO  for  Fox;  nilulmuin  thlckuess  5/16",  greatest  J^' 

in>r  til  ejccHcd  rt''  In  length; 
C  =  IS.SWi  Tor  Miirlson:  iniiiiniuin  thickness  5,  10",  greatest  Jj'l 

port  riot  to  excertl  U"  in  lenplh ; 
C=  N.mKJfor  Piu-veB-Briiwu;  liniils  of  thiclrnesaT/iS"  andM": 

part  0"  in  length; 
C  =    8, two  fur  Adaiutioii  rings;  radius  of  flange  tiext  Ore  ])|". 

U.  S.  Statitbs. — Omo  Funirtces.— Same  notation. 


p  = 


89,t«10  X  /* 
i  X  o     ' 


but  /.,  not  to  exceed  8  ft. 


W.B.—Jf  rings  of  wroun'hl  Vrcm  ar«  (ltt«d  and  riveted  on  properif  •< 
•Jid  to  tile  Sue  insucb  Si'n\&uneTV'bas.\.\i«\ttixiW«ts^v«saoii  tha0>«(* 


■•  •  WftWW«»  'OT  OTlAM-BOnjBHB. 


708^ 


I  lbs.  pnr  wj'.  ill.,  the  distance  between  the  rings  shall  be  taken 
I  of  the  flue  In  tlir  fui-miiln>. 
naces,    Pliiiti   and   Patent.— P,   as   before,    when    not   8  ft. 


o   • 

■  when 

f  =  14,000  for  Fox  corrugations  where  D  =  mean  diatneter; 
|r  =  14.000  for   Purves-Brown    where  D  =  diameter  of  flue; 
}  =  6677  for  plain  flues  over  10"  diameter nnd  Ipsb  than  40",  when 
not  over  3  ft.  len^tbg. 

CoinnieiitR  on  the  rules  for  king  fiirnau^-s  an  follows;  The  Board 
teral  formula,  where,  the  length  is  a  fnctor,  Ims  a  very  limited 
L  viz.,  10  n.  as  the  extreme  leDflh,  and  l.'ia  lhlclcne!i.seH  -  13", 

CxO 
,  limit.     The  original  formula,  P  =  = j.  In  iliat  of  Sir  VV, 

nd  was,  I  believe,  never  Intended  by  him  to  apply  to  short  fur- 
5ie  very  face  of  it,  it  is  apparent,  on  the  otlier  hand,  that  if  it  in 
Jerately  long  furnaces,  it  oannot  be  bo  fui-  very  Jong  ones.  We 
•e  driven  to  the  eoncluKion  that  any  forniul*  ivhioll  lnclud«w 
W  factor  must  iM  founded  on  a  wrong  basis. 

R-alirB  form  of  the  formula,  namely,  substltutinE  (/^  +  It  for  L, 
pear  BiifBclently  8ntisfact.ory  for  practical  purposes,  and  in 
r  as  can  be  jmlged,  tally  with  the  it'sult^  obtained  from  ex|>eri- 
riy  as  could  be  expected.     The  experiments  to    which  1    refer 
Tiumber.  and  of  great  variety  of  length  to  diameter;  the  actual 
afetj'  ranged  from  4.4  to  0  S,  tho  meHn  bteinif  -l-'i^,  or  practically 
3  tome,  therefore,  that,  within  iha  limits  pres(?ribed,  the  Board  of 
ula  may  be  «ccept«l  as  suitable  for  our  requironient*. 
I  States  Statutes  Kive  Falrit.iirn's  rule  purj- and  simpi*,  except 
feme  limit  of  length  tov^hichit  applies  Is  Hxed  at  8  feet,     .As 
De  seen,  uo  limit  for  the  sliorttisl  length  in  prescribed,  but  the 
ire  by  no  means  clear,  flues  and  furnaces  being  mixed  gr  not 

|i-i|lW<t. 

I    for   Stays. —The  qtialities  of  material  prescribed  are  as 

Trade.— The  tensile  strength  to  lie  between  the  Iltnlta  of  87  and 
guare  inch,  and  to  have  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  'lOf  in 
lays  which  have  been  welded  or  worlied  in  the  fire  should  not 

IB  to  30  ton  steel,  with  elongation  nt>t  less  than  SOt  In  S". 

»<*».— The  only  conilitloii  is  that  the  reductiou  of  area  must  not 

40t  If  the  t»'st  bar  is  over  ^"  diameter. 

Uo^vcd  on  9t»ja,—Iiii(irdof  7>-firfe.— OOftO  lb«.  per  square 

eil  on  liie  net  section,  provided  the  tenailB  strength  ranges  from 
Steel  Btavs  are  not  to  be  welded  or  worked  in  the  fliie. 

Tor  .sere IV ed  and  other  stays,  not  exceeding  IJ-b"  diameter  elTec- 

,  per  square  inch  is  allowed;  for  stays  atiore  IJ^",  9000  lbs.    No 

be  welded, 

tes.—  Braces  and  stays  shall  not,  be  subjected  to  a  gi^aier  stress 
E  per  square  inch. 

|B-  E..  p.  450.  says:  "  Tho  Iron  of  the  stays  ought  not  to  lie  ex- 
Kreat«r  wori<ing  tension  than  3000  lbs.  cvn  the  smiare  Inch,  in 
mde  against  their  Iwing  wenkened  by  corrosion.  This  nmnunts 
■le  factor  of  sMifety  for  the  working  pressure  about  20."  1:  is 
trever,  that  an  allowancif  in  the  factor  of  safety  for  corrosion  may 
be  decreased  with  increase  of  diameter.    W.K.] 

c  y.  d'*  X  t 
.,— Board  of  Trade.    P=  ^^^  _    ^^^      ^.      P=  working  pres- 

per  sq.  In.:  W  —  width  of  flaine-b.)r  in  inches;  I,  =  length  of 

^es;  p  =  pitch  of  bolts  in  Inches;  I)  =  distnnce  betwren  icirders 

l»>  centre  in  Inches;  d  ~  depth  of  girder  in  inches;  I  =  thick- 

jf  smne  in  inches;  C  =  a  constant  =  OUOO  for  1  bolt,  9flO0  for  3 

11.-«0  for  4  bolts. 

lesanie  foniiiila  and  constants,  except  that  C  =  11, 000  for  4  or 
I  for  8  or  7,  and  It, 880  for  8  or  more. 

L—Tbema/ter  appears  to  be  left  to  ti»e  Uesignerft. 


[ 


:o4 


l-HE  STEAM-BOILER. 


I 


I 
I 


till   -    rf,     .     '.«lllX 


Tnl>«*riatei».— flouH    of  Trade.      P  = 

horiK'»ntol  <listiuic«  between  centres  of  (i]bp¥  In  JMf 
of   oriUiiur3'  tulirs;    /  =  IliickneiiS  of    tMbe'|>ialt- 
width  of  ojtnbuslion-box  in  iDebe«  fnim   front   !■ 
iKJJi,  or  distance  l>etwHen  conibiisiioii-box    tubej'.. 
doiibli>t?iided  Hiid  (lie  Ipox  cniunion  to  boi  li  enOs. 

The  ci'iishiD^  slirMi  »u  tiibo-plates  caused  by  tljt:  pnwuw  Mill 
lioi  I'lp  is  to  b)-  linilit'cl  to  lO.iKW  llis.  iif  r  sqnnri'  incli 

material  lor  Tube*.  -Mr.  Kuley  prop.  -  '  " "" 

quality  to  be  ^\\ii\\  as  to  ^ivrai  k>nst  22  iouk  |" 
tensile  BtreuKlh.  with  an  elonitJitioii  of  not  les 
elonBalioii  to  be  not  J.ss  than  aW  ni  W  for  the  nui 
Into  strips;  and  after  tempering,  the  test  bar  lo 
together.     Provided  the  titeel  welds  welJ,  there  dut; 
jeot  in  j)rovidlufr  Iriisiie  Itiiifts. 

The  I'nds  shonid  beanupAled  after  manufacture,  ami  Klaf-latrfl^ 
lie  annealed  befoiv  seii-H  int;. 

HoldlnB-potrer  of  BatIer-tiihf-«,     '■- -•     -—<-'■ 

ing'tuu  NavyVurd  s-how  Lliat  wiih  'Jt^jiu.  I  ■ 

jiower  less.  rouKbiy  speaking,  tlian  6tW  . 

of  SO.OOO  ll)S.     It  was  nirl her  shown  thn;  ...,,,  ,,,r-' 

flLion^,  quite  as  f^fXKl  re^ulli>  IjeiiiK  obtained  wjrij  lu) 

(he  tulHj-plate  and  Htted  wiih  a  ferrule.    When  uuls 

(hot  they  drew  otT  without  injnriiiB  the  ilueadx. 

In    Messrs.  Yairon's  exi>erimeiit9  on  iron  atid  sterl    ' 
riiiiMieter  the  Hiiit  5  tuben  ^aiti  way  on  au  BTerni;eor2M,7< 
iippeur  to  be  about  a^  llie  idtiuiate  i<treni.th  of  the  tube' 
these  ca.4es  the  hole  throiigli  tlie  tub«  plate  was  parallel 
to  it,  and  a  ferrule  ns.s  diiven  into  the  tube. 

Tectj;  of  the  next  5  iLhes  were  made  under  the  noit-    • 
i,  with  the  exception  tlmt  in  this  case  the  ferrule  » 
Inc  simply  expanded  into  the  pl»ie»    The  mean  pnl 
or  considerably  Ichs  than  half  the  lilliuiute  gtrv   ■' 

Effect  iif  bendiiiy  Die  lubes,  the  lioles  throne  : 
ferrule-*  ondttad.    The  nienn  of  the  (irst    .'i. 

klMd,t;ires  iS.STO  lb.s.  as  their  hpldint;-|io»er,  i.: 

pared  with  23.740  lb«.  for  the  tiilieg  fitted  wilh  r 
liKiit'e  in.  however,  mainly  duo  to  an  exceptional  c 
power  iri  greater  thnn  the  nverage  strengili  «f  '  !■-  ■ 

It  is  disadvnntaKWiis  to  ei^ne  the  hole  ihnn 
yliarp  e^ljfe  Is  removed,  as  the  retsUllK  are  nui- 
witli  pnrnllel  holes,  the  mean  pull  b.-inK  but  '■ 
Itiir  iniide  with  lubeH  ex|innded  and  femde^l  I 

111  ex|'>erinienls  on  liibeH  exp»iiiled  into  in; 

lined  "lib  ff-rrnlej',  the  net  ie>ull  is  that  Ibr  1, ,   , 

experimented  on,  uhoul  jki  of  llie  leusile  »trrli|;lii  vl  ihe  n 
iLini:  SH.T»(  ll>s. 

With  lubes  expanded  into  tapere<I  holes  aiul  slmplv  i 
results  were  obtained  th.iii  with  ferrules;  In  thr:w>  en 
edKe  of  the  bole  was  rounded  oCT,  which  appeara  In  , 

effect. 

Ill  one  pnrticular  Ihe  eiperiments  an-  Incimiplnie.  a>  n 
repio<luce  on  a  innchiiie  tlie  ntckiii);  ihe  tubo'  get   by  1 1 
boiler  a^  H  iiii  hented    up  mid  co<»le(l  ilow  n   aafain,  and   It   i-    ^ - 
ilierefori',  lliar  Ihe  fnstenins  frivine  the  b<*st  reHulla  on  th«-  iimim 

mav  not  provM  uo  efBci'-ni-  in  lU'in'tioe. 


8TBENOTH    OF  STKAM-IIOILKKS.  '.O.*! 

. furiuce,  msdc^  r^lioi.  ami  (h«ii  fllppsil  i"  wnior.    Tin 

IST^  at  s  teuiTH^rature  of  4t>°  K, 

la  was  twice  rfpealfd,  with  renults  •»  follows 

Steel.  Ici.ii. 

M>.406  ill.  55.405  ill. 

.052  ••  018  •• 

.0000067  .000006-2 

.007  ill.  .oo;Jiu, 

.(Ul  In.  .00*  in. 

.017  in.  .ooein. 

.<Kf'  ill.  .013  in. 


F.;  Increane 

ex|>HnKi'wi  per  tleRreo  F 

bt  nii'i  liijip^'l  in  wBt<T;  decrease 
P](  mid  conllng.  decrpase 

and  cooling,  decrpaKe 

rautioii  


jalMic    — 


hrk  «rll«-«  :  ThftI  ovfchfiiifine  of  IiiIm*  enils  Is  llii"  caii«e  of  tlie 
■  liiht's  In  iM'ilers  is  provpil  hy  tlie  fact  Hint  Uie  fiTrnlea  at 
by  Ui*-  Admiralty  prevent  it.  Tli'."se  not  by  Kliieldinft  the  mix" 
faction  of  the  tmme,  ftnd  consequently  reducing  evaiioralion, 
lig  fnee  access  of  the  water  to  keep  tliciii  cool. 
wor  caiiHes  contribute,  iliere  Keenis  no  ilotibt  that  thick:  tube- 
leAra  Hiiare  of  caiiKinir  the  mischief. 

Conntnirtioii  of  BoilerM   in   ITIcrcbant  V«Miels 
In  the  t'niled  Ntatois. 

11  Genernl  Kulexnnd  KeKiilalioiis  of  llie  Board  of  Superviisilig 
e«tors  ut  Steniii' vessels  (as  aiiieuded  IfiOUund  IHOt).) 
Itrenetb  of  Plate.    (Section  3.)— To  oncertniu  the  tensile 
oUier  <|iialitiM)  of  iioii  plate  there  ftball  be  taken  from  each 
ri»rk  slu'i-r  lobe  iimM  in  shell  or  other 

,  f~'  "1 ,     pans  of  boiler  whii'li  ari?  siilij^ct  lo 

V>  tensile  strain  a  test  piece  prepared 

111  form  accnrdlng  lo  the  rollun-inf; 
diagram,  vix.:  10  itielies  id  leuKth,  'i 
iiiciies  In  wlrlth,  cm  otil.  in  the 
rentrc  in  thn  maimer  indicated. 
To  ascertain  the  ti«nsile  strength 
klities  of  Rte«?l  plnti\  there  A\a\\  he  taiteii  from  each  Bheet  lo  l>e 
>r  other  partA  of  ln.iler  whlcli  are  subject  lo  ftiNilest  ruin,  u  test- 
ed hi  form  acroriiiiiK 
iiK  diBKi-ani,  llio  leiiglli 
trt  in  centre  varyiiu;  -is 
diftereDt  tbickiiew  of 
tollows: 

t  portion   shall   he  in 
t  eight  tinieti  the  width  multiplied  hy  the  tbiclcaess  of  said  pail. 
iluctioii  of  srea  as  cjilieil  for  hy  the' present  rules  of  the  Boanl, 
,ttnn  of  nt  lea«i  i'%.  The  sua  gilt  pan  shall  be  of  a  width  uf  i 
ule  to  take  elTect  on  and  after  July  1,  1894. 
hat  where  contracts  for  Imllers  for  oeeantfo'iK  steamers  re- 
©f  material  In  compliance  with  the  British  Board  of  Trade, 
I'a,  or  Hureau  Veritas  rules  for  ttt.itinB,  the  Inspectors  sliall 
a  in  compliance  with  the  followini^  riile^; 
aball  in  allcaxcK  tohaveaii  ullinmte  elniif^ation  not  Icm  than SQ)( 
8  inches.     It  is  to  lie  capable  of  being  bent  to  a  curve  of  which 
^^18  is  nut  (greater  llian  one  and  a  half  times  the  thiclcneiw  of 
tier  baviiig  been  heated  uaiformlr  to  a  low  cherry-red,  and 
"^  ater  of  82*  F. 
^1  the  shape  of  feM  piece  for  steel  wo-citlic^aineaslhat  for  iron, 
fed  shape.     This  nhape  ha-s  Iweii  condemiieil  hy  onthoriiies  on 
■  Is  for  over  twenty  years.    It  ahvayn  Kivtjs  resul)i<  which 
ror  sonielinies  amomitinK  to  iS  per  cent.    See  uatfmt  24i,,-j 
Bneth  of  Materials,  W.  Kent,  Van  N.  Science  Series  No.  <lt, 
I 'Wrought -Irun  and  Chain  Cables  ] 
,    (Section  0.)-To  nscerinin  the  ductility  and  other  lawf 
I  of  4S.000  Ihs.  leiidile  .•i(.ren*.'/)i  sliall  hliow  n  COnlracVVon  ot  ft.Te» 
ain1  i-ach  Hdilltionnl  1000  lb:),  tensile  gtrenRlh  8\ulW  aXWN*  ' 

"racr/oaof  area,  up  to  and  Incluiliuu "" 

-nsilt,  Htrj'nKlh  nnd  iipnanls.  showU 
"  •  ilfcmetl  to  have  the  luwful  •liwnil 
,  rt„cA;wss  «„d  ,m,ier  shall  «bow  a  TOiitracUk 


:l,»J;«J      III 


ni'. 


NL 


708 


THE   STEAM-BOILEft. 


Ua 


Diameter  (n  Inches. 


54 

to 

OS 

1 

IB-S* 

34. e 

IS. 3 

« 

83.4 

29. ? 

•••6  S| 

8 

48.6 

43.7 

3D. 8 

4 

64.8 

S8.S 

m.Q 

6 

81 .0 

72.S 

6C.3 

« 

DT.i 

87.5 

79.5! 

7 

113.4 

103.1 

K.8i 

B 

]».6 

119.7 

106. Ii 

• 

14S.8 

181, -J 

119.3 

lU 

Itti.O 

J45> 

133.6, 

11 

1T8.S 

1150. ,1 

145.8 

ts 

l»l.4 

175.0 

159.1 

la 

210,7 

isw  e 

iTi.t 

11 

eai  9 

i»4.-J 

185  6 

15 

£411.1 

ilH.r 

198  ft 

1« 

lf.VI.3 

233  .<i 

SlS.l 

TO    ^8       84       SO       «6  I  IM 


IS. 2 
24  8 

36.5 
4S.6 
60.8 
73.9 
Sfi  1 
97.2 

ioa.4 

1-.'1.5 
183  7 
146.8 
158.0 
170.1 
lf«.3 
1W,4 


10  4'     ',1.7 
at  HI  19.4 


'.5I1M  7  IV,  r.,n,-,>  m; 


Rule*  soveming  IiMipcttloii  of  Bolirr*  la,J 

111  i-viiiuatiii|;  the  lilivUKll'  "f  the  longitudinal  a«aii_^ 
shells  of  boilers  the  inspector  Khali  apply  two  fonnuli^ 


..{ 


PHeh  of  rivetB  ~  «ll«uiet<!r  of  holco  punched  to  rac<<*aj 
pitcti  of  rivets 
lieiwntage  of  streni^th  of  Um>  i 

I  Area  of  hole  fllleil  by  riv<4t  X  No.  of  rows  of  rUels  In  i 

■( ing  streiigtli  of  rivet 

'      pilch  of  rivets  XtbleknuMi  of  sbtft-t  X  tfiisile  Mrractti^ 
iwrcentaf^e  of  strength  of  the  rivefl 

take  llie  lo«-««t  of  the  ptrct-ntaKes  as  found  fay  fonuiil 
apply  that  p«re<*nlai;r<^  on  the  "  8tren([lh  of  ihe  s««iiljj' 

fominia  C,  wliii'li  ilHteiiiiiues  tlie  strenRlli  of  tlie  Knigltu 


O.    I 


1  Tlilckiiesi*  ot  sht^i  in  part*  of  inch  y  stneo^lh  t»f  i 
/    hy  formnia  A  or  B  X  ultimate fiu>BnKth  of  iron  ata 


intern.'il  rudiuik  of  boil«r  iu  iucbe»  X  5  •■  a  fa 


TikBi^  or  Pbofobtiomb  axo  SiTB  TVoRKiNo  Pasaana 
AMD  C,  iSi  ao.OOO  I.I1S..  TJ8. 


INainrt^  of  rivet 

%" 

ll/IO 

]^0 

IM 

r>l«nieter  of  rfvetbole. 

11/18" 

N 

li 

Piioli  of  rlvei.s 

■■i" 

3  i/;o 

^ 

im 

Sti>'ii^th  of  .««-ani.  ](..  .. 

.KA 

.aat 

M 

Thickntwa of  plate.     .. 

W" 

8/T6 

H 

^ 

UlaiiiHirr  i>r  boiler,  in. . . 

Safi'  Wor 

ItliiR  Pr<«8 

iirx  niib  l4^^l 

SI 

iiglt-.(ivo|ai^^ 

i4 

187 

188 

ite 

a 

30 

1119 

lU 

IM 

*Q 

3d 

104 

I«4 

144 

Mi 

M 

90 

117 

laa          iM 

M 

«\ 

i       \\<J 

V      *»           »ffi 

m             S8 

at 

\        \(JV 

\     ^*    \     'fl 

1           ^ 

L         7*4 

\    ^^\1 

F       ^    .^ 

^» 

\      \\ 

M    ^^^U 

^■k 

\          « 

I    \       "^    \ J 

STBJEKGTH  OF  8TEA1I-BOILEBS. 


709 


of  rivot 

W" 

11/16 

li/Vi 

18/16 

M 

Of  rivel-bolB. . 

u/ie" 

« 

1 

WIS 

Ivets 

of  seam,  t 

.77 

^ 

% 

% 

1  of  plate 

H" 

S/IB               % 

7/16 

a 

of  botler.  In. .. 

Safe  Workin|7  i'reiisure  witli  Lonfrltudliial  Semms, 

Double-nvpleil. 

£4 

160 

188 

235 

^9 

305 

ao 

isr 

158 

188 

ai5 

£4S1 

B8 

lis 

148 

170 

aw 

SSS 

,,    34 

112 

140 

1(16 

lOO 

SIS 

IDG 

13a 

150 

1T9 

20S 

|C 

101 

145 

US 

170 

lOii 

96 

iia 

141 

161 

188 

K 

87 

lOB 

ISS 

l-tT 

166 

■1 

78 

OB 

118 

1S5 

1» 

■t 

70 

88 

104 

ISO 

18B 

P» 

» 

7fl 

94 

108 

1» 

tnd   Tube*   for  Steam-bollerB,— (From  Rules  of  U.  8. 

line  liiHperiors.  bteaiupre.-surKH  per  square  iuch  allnwable  on 
unif  lap-wel(]<-d  fliifs  made  in  Beciions.  Extract  frojii  table  In  Kules 
Supi!:i"vi^i'iK  Inspectors.) 

■ast  thickness  of  inuicrial  allowable,  D  =  greatest  diameter  In  ii»che«, 
iwable  press-uro.  For  ihicUnpss  ereat.er  thno  T  with  same  diameter 
IWas'Hl  111  Lbe  ratio  of  tlie  IhiulCDess. 

^b  »  0  10  11  13  IS  U  15  16  17  18  19  30  21  S!i  0.1 
^H  .SO  .81  .SI  .a  .33  .S3  .24  .23  .S6  .27  .28  .»)  SO  .81  .3i  .88 
^■B  184  170  174  172  168  152  147  143  ISO  186  134  131  l-.>e  KHI  li»  Ui 
Hsi  95  86  27  38  S9  80  SI  32  S-")  34  35  36  37  88  89  40 
■.54  .S.'i  .3f.  .37  .SS  .39  .40  .41  .48  .4.'}  .4-1  .45  .46  .47  .48  .49  ..V) 
C^ai   120  IIB  117  llfl  115  115  114  lis  112  110  110  109  109  108  108  107 

liatneters  not  ovor  10  Inches  tli«  ereatest  lengtli  of  eectlou  allowable 
t;  for  diamclera  10  to  33  inches.  8  rB«-t^  (or  diameters  'JS  to  40  inclies.  30 
it  leiifctbii  ot  Hceiioiis  are  greater  lljan  these  leni^thg,  the  allowable 
i»  U  r»*ilticcLl  projwrtioiiatelj-. 

■  e  ...1,.  f„|.  eorruftnted  flues,  as  amended  In  1801,  is  as  follows:  Rule 
lie  eti-ength  of  all  corruKated  fluea.  when  used  for  FuniaL-es 
■•\'S  (corriiKHtion  not  li'8.stban  11^  inches deepnnd  nntexcned- 
...ii,-,  ii.jiii  centres  of  corriigBtlon),  and  provided  that  tliK  plain  parts 
fml*  do  not  excoetl  6  inohej*  in  ieUKth,  and  ibe  plates  are  tiol  lew  than 
rh  thick,  when  new,  corrui;aied,  and  practically  true  circles,  to  be 
Itcd  from  the  following  formula: 


I 


14.000 


X  r  =  pressure. 


J 


Uikikiiess,  in  Inches;  0=  mean  diameter  In  laches, 

M  Fluea. — The  Hame  fonruda   is  given  for  ribbed  fines,  with   rib 
nioiis  nut  less  than  1^  Inches  deep  and  not  more   than  9  inches 

It  lUared  Snrfacea  lu  Steani-boIIerii.— liulo  11.,  Section  6,  of 
I"*  iif  tT)e  U.  .S.  Siipfrviaing  liispertors  provides  oa  foliow.s: 
li'aces  or  stays  hereafter  einplored   in   the  construclion  of  boilen 
Ik-  allowed    a   greater   strain    than   6000   lb».    per  square   inuU 
(1. 

t  h,  !.:„  iieatioe  on  the  Pleam-enRine,  also  in  his  Pocket-book,  gl^'l 
:  iiuda:  p  =  iO'tit  -t-  d,  in  whlfli  p  la  the  inlemal  preiwllrt 
"e  inch  thitt  will  Biraln  tlje  plates  to  their  elR»iV'  HmU.  1 
r  thf  plant  In  liirhea.  ft  H  (lie  distance  betwef t\  1*0  vo** 

clear,  Hitd  a  ia  the  tftmile  Ktrcss  i!i    the  lAiU*- 
v/re  inrh,   at  the  elastic  limit.    Subsi  iuu.li 
""'  '■•^'PP^i-,  tg,  u,  and  8  tons   r«ip«>cUvoV} 


710 


THE  STEAM-BOILER. 


Tofonut  roR T7LTOU.TB  Eiustic  Strss-otb  or  Plat  9t^iiu  $rt 


Iron, 

8t«el. 

~  sooo 

^       fiOOOt 

n  ^ 

P 

pxrf 

~    fiTW 

d  = 

P 

TblolcneH  of  plate. . .  

Fitch  of  bolts 

For  Diameter  o(  tbe  Stit]r*boUa,  Clark  giteg  it' 


»«^' 


Ml^ 


I 

I 
} 


I 


In  wkioli  d'  =  cliaineter  of  screwed  boll  at  bottom  of  ttimJ,  /*  =  M 
nal  and  l"  transvei-se  pitoli  of  Btay-bolts  l>etw«trn  ct-iiltT»k  f  = 
pressure  in  lt».  per  M).  in.  ttiat  will  stralu  the  plate  lo  In  <;\mk)e  M 
elastic  streiiKl-li  of  the  Blay-bolt*  in  llis.  j>«t  uq.  in.  TklciDi;  «  =  A  | 
tons,  respectively  for  Irou,  steel,  and  copper,  we  have  | 

For  Iron.       d'  =  .00009  sTFpTfiT  U  P=  P;dl'  =  .OOOM^lj 
Forsteel,     d'  =  .00064  \  Pfp,     •'       "       d' =  .muf^ 
For  copper,  d' =  .00084  VP/^p.     "        "        tl' -    rt--.:"! 
lo  using  these  formulas  a  lur^e  factor  of  safety  i'liouM  ' 
for  re-luctioii  of  si«e  by  cori'osioli.     Thurston's  Slaiiu ill  ■' 
114,  recniri mends  ttint   the  factor   be  na  large  as  i' 
Steiim  BoilMi  lusp.  &  Ins.  Co.  recouiincuils  not  less  '  ■■ 
Streugpth  of  Star*.— A.  K.  Yarrmv  (A'lipr,  .\i  . 
fuUowing  rtffiults  of  experUitenta  to  as^certain  the  sitri<>;tli  ^r  »*» 
stays : 


DescripUoii. 


Hollow  stag's  screwed  into  I 
plnleK  and  hole  expanded  1 

Solid  stays  screwed  inloj 
plates  and  riveted  over,    "i 


Lengrth 
between 
Plates. 


4.75  In. 
4.6110. 

4, no  in. 
4. SO  III. 


DiODieter  of  SLa;  o*t( 
ThrewU. 


lbi.(ho)e  T/ie  In.  iukI  VI* 
1  iii.tlMiie  9/16  lb.  Mid;/I«fei 

In. 

la. 


\i\ 


Tlie  above  are  taken  as  a  fair  srera)^  of  numerous  tests. 
SteT-bolts  In  Cnrred  Sarfkcca,  ni  In  Watcr-I«ct 
eal  Boilera.— The  rules  of  the  U.  S    - 

follows:  All  vertical  boiiei- furnaces  c  ■ 
plates,  and  having  a  diameter  of  over  4. 
■itayed  with  bolts  as  provided  by  (  6  of 
iLk'knesii  of  material  reiiuired  for  the  .-: 
tcrmineil  by   the  distance  bet\vi'"Ti  Tlif^ 
nace  and  in't  in  the  !.hell  ■  ' 
shall  be  delermineil  by  the   i 
auii  the  dinin>.-lerof  such  sr:> 
The  Hartford  Sieaui-boil^; 
/Loco»i"fiff,  March,  1892^  a> 
compiitinl  flin  same  as  t1 
.st»\  ■  "  ■"  ■       " 

hen  I 
of  til-  L 
jueltJD^-P' 


J 


IMPROVED    METHODS   OF   FEEDING   COAL. 


.  tubular  boilers  use<i  for  marine  purposm  shall  hav©  a  fusible 
erted  in  one  of  the  tiit>€s  at  a  point  at  least  2  in.  below  tlte  lower 
ek,  and  said  plus  may  he  placed  in  tlie  upper  head  sheet  when 

■-dome*.— Steam  domes  or  drums  wero  formerly  almost  univer- 
I  OB  horizontal  boilers,  but  their  use  ia  now  |f>*nerally  discontinued, 
ire  (■■iiiriKlered  a  useless  appendage  to  a  sttvim-boiler,  and  unless 
[^ designed  and  construuled  are  an  element  ot  weakueiss. 

of  Farnace.— }{eLt>nt  practice  in  the  United  Slates  makes 

:  of  furnace  much  grtau-r  than  it  was  formerly.     With  large i«lise8 

cite  there  is  tio  seriouH  objection  to  having  the  furnace  as  low  as  IS 

,  measured  from  the  surface  of  the  grate  to  the  nearest  portion  of 

f  surface  of  the  boiler,  but  with  coal  oontainiuf;  much  volatile 

moisture  a  much  greater  distance  Is  desirable.    SViib  very  vola- 

I  the  di>tnnce  may  be  as  great  ns  4  or  5  ft.    Rankine  i8  E..  p.  45") 

dear  height  of  the  "  crown  "  or  roof  of  the  furnace  above  the  sriate- 

lAeltloin  less  thnn  about  18  in.,  and  often  cousideratily  more.     ]n  the 

1  of  iocotiioiiveg  it  is  on  an  average  about  4  ft.  The  height  of  IS  in. 

I  where  the  crown  of  the  furnace  is  a  brick  arch.  Where  the  crown 

nrnace,  on  the  other  hand,  forms  part  of  the  heat.ing-surfnce  of  the 

^rreater  height  is  desirable    in  every  case  in  which  it  can  be 

:  for  the  temperature  of  the  boiler-plates,  being  much  lower  than 

leflaiiie.  tenUK  to  check  the  combustion  of  the  inllamniable  gases 

«  froin  the  fuel.    iSs  a  general  principle  a  high  furnace  is  favorable 

!  combustion.  .^_ 


[PBOVBD  raETHODS  OP  FEEDIN6  COAI.,        ^ 

hanlcal   Stokera.    (William  R.  Roney,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  K.,  ToJ. 

!liaiiii'Al  sti>t<t'rs  have  been  used  in  KuKland  to  a  limited  extent 

In  thai  year  one  was  patented  by  James  Watt.    It  was  a  simple 

•  pash  the  coal,  after  it  was  coked  at  the  front  end  of  the  grate, 

vards  the  bridge-    It  wan  worl<ed  intermittentlj'  by  levers,  and  was 

primarily  to  prevent  smnke  from  bitimiinoua  coal.    (See  D.  K. 

reatisn  on  the  Steam-engine.) 

be  year  18411  many  slyle-s  of  mechanical  stokers  were  patented  In 
,  bnt  nearly  all  m  >■  re  variations  and  niodlflcations  of  the  two  forma 
I  pnteiited  liy  John  Juke."  in  IStl.  and  bj*  K.  Henderson  in  1843. 
les  stoker  consisted  of  longirndiual  flre-l)ar.'<,  eonnecled  by  linkii, 
>rni  an  endtesH  chain,  similar  in  the  fatiiiliar  treatimill  hori^e-power. 
I  C'lal  was  delivered  from  a  hopper  on  the  front  of  tbie  boiler,  on  to 
',  which  slowly  moving  from  front  to  rear,  gradually  advanced  the 
)  iii»>  ftii-iince  and  disciiarged  the  ash  arid  clinker  at  the  back. 

^'olter  consists  primarily  of  two  }iorizontal  fans  revolving 

^.  which  -•w.-tttter  the  coal  over  the  Are. 

in  riu'ohanical  construction  and  in  operation  have  limited 

lid  other  mechanical  stokers.    The  first  American  stoker 

'oker.  lirought  out  in  1878.     It  consists  of  two  coal  n)aga- 

.side  walls  of  the  boiler  furnace,  and  extending  back  from 

tr  (roul  ij  or  7  feet.    In  the  bottom  of  these  magazines  are  reotitugu- 

l boxes,  which  are  move<I  from  side  to  side  by  means  of  a  rack  »iid 

Uid  nerve  to  push  the  coal  up<>n  the  grates,  which  incline  at  an  nnglr 

t  Si'  fmni  the  loner  edge  of  the  coal  magazines,  foriulug  a  V-shaped 

ele  for  the  burning  coal,    Tiie  grates  are  cotnposed  of  narrow  parallel 

» arranged  that  each  alternate  bar  lifts  about  an  inch  at  the  lower 

hileat  the  bottom  of  the  V,  and  filling  the  sfiace  between  the  ends  of 

Ue-l)ars,  is  jilaced  a  cast-iron  toothed  bar.  arranged  to  be  turned  by  a 

Til-  I'Mf. ■..;,.  of  thin  bar  is  to  grind  the  clinker  coming  in  cont£"*' 

tped  receptacle  is  sprtmg  a  fire-brick  arch.  " 

ii-al  stoker  the  fuel  to  be  huriied  is  dumped  ifl 

lit.    Set  in  the  lower  fjort  of  the  hopper  isa     pus 

Itttcheil  the  "  feed-plnte  "  forming  the  bottom  of  the  nopS 

'  by  a  vibratory  motion,  carrying  with  it  the  "  (ee>i  V****3 

w  tha  fuel  over  the  "  rlead  plate  ''  and  on  the  RVfive.    'vn 

lieir  ncrmal  cnndition  form  a  Si>iies  of  stoves   lo  Uve  VoV  ^^ 

r  fert  from  thf  "  dead-pjate."    Each  b&Ki^^^in  »  coWftl 

T,  ABd  Jk  CAfiabler  nf  n  rocicins  tnotioD  1"    ^'^^^™""  »- 

t g-nttf-banf  are  coupled  together  by  a*J 

'-forth  motion  being  given  to  thj?  ' 


T12 


THB  STEAM-BOlLMfl. 


•ad  tM>«  iLppwminating  %<■■ 

tegniuft,  like  sliingin  on  > 

wuit«iMl  to  work  down  ir 

die  ban  rmrk-  back  r- 

breaUmrup  ibecak" 

of  air  Uirr.uirh  Ih-*  ::   - 

strokea  i  -  • 'Ouidwic  lo  liio  kiuU  uf  c<mU.     Ihiti 

■Bdebec  <*  c<^tiBuous,  aud  QiuUly  laodi  the< 

U>ediu>i(>ii>  .  'low. 

Mr.  I{ou«y  git<»  ihe  follovin^  record  of  tix  teats  to  ( 
parmtiTe  «coaaniy  of  tbr  Booey  mechanic&t  stoker  and  f 
Oibolar  boilers,  00  incho  x  ai  fe«t,  biiming'  Ctimbtrlai 
dTHClil.    Bating  of  boilM-  ai  12.5  square  feet,  105  U.  P. 

Three  tests,  haad-Rriag.     T 

=^s??rSSi°.sr.t^.^lii^!- '«-«  '»"  "•«    ' 

B.P.  deretoped  above  rating, ;(       S.8      13.5        68  i 

Results  of  comparatire  te«ts  like  tbe  abore  t^hould  be  u«*' j 
in  drawing  eeneralizatioos.    It  br  no  rueans  foUony  froiu  tb 
a  stoker  will  alwajs  Fhow  irach  comparative  excellence,  . 
results  of  hanrt-flrlnit  are  much  below  what  may  be  obl| 
ablp  rimimsiances  from  hi»nfiftrlt>p  with  iriiod  I'umberll 

Tbe  Hairley  Doirii»4lraiicl*t  Pnritr^tv 
Uie  ordiiiurj  ^i-ate  there  is  carried  a  seconil  . 
water  tuiies.  opening  at  both  ends  into  Bt«eldr 
water  is  circultttt'd.    Tbe  coal  is  fed  on  this- 
tlally  eonsiimt-d  falls  through  It  U|>onthe  lo« 
iaconipleted  in  the  ordinary  manner.    The  di 
tapper  grate  Is  downward  throueli  the  c -' '  '■■  ■ 
are  therefor-*  carried  down  Ihrotigli   It 
ouphlv  heated,  and  are  burned  in  th«- 

exoesa  of  Imt  nir  drawn  ibn.nph  the  I ,,,, 

Chicago,  from  SO  to  i^  \hs.  of  oiinl  were  burned  iter  nquaral 
this  svMem,  with  good  economical  results.  (See  caialo 
Down  DraiiE'ht  Furnace  Co  ,  (''hirn_"^    '^'^» 

1Jnder>f^ed  Stofeern.— R'  ~ 

with  iliiunniirddrauclit  ureobtAti  .ii| 

bed.  push  me  nnwara  tlie  coal  nl  ■  ■ 

matter  disiillfd  from  It.    The  v<  1 

has  to  pajw  tbroueh  a  body  of  iu 

dar-feed  Stoker,  Fraser  Jt  Chainit-^   .     ......^   

SnOKR  PBBVE1VTION. 

A  committee  of  experu  ^^ 

smoke  problem.    Aaummtt: 

7,  I8!I8.    It  describes  the  d ' 

smoke,  Aiich  as  f^HH'fuel.  ^i 

holhiw  malls  for  pi'elir>atlUL' 

tion  furnaces,  nndaiKomai  r 

leaa  efffCiiTe  In  diuilniKhint;  siiioli-.',  iIihIi  •  ■ 

upon  the  skill  with  whlrh  tliev  nre  operated  : 

tory.     Fuel-w  l«  nlijipctionntl.-  eini-tly   on 

average  quality  of  fiielgas 

Illinoi!!  coal.  III  a  well-de>li." 

i.'43.19I  hcat.iinlt.i  per  KHWn 

p'T  III.  of  coal,  whereas  by 

coal  (rave  ll,K'.>  h>-at-iitilis 

orailon  nf  ii  ■,«  ]h^_  wn'tT 

evap' 

ferl 
of  fA  • 

JW<.  niiil  (>(|iiiri  il  iiliiiulj 
<re«ni  /»-l«i  the  fuel  ( 

.Ttvt. 


SMOKE  PKKVEXTlOJi'.  Til 


m 


i-botlers,  the  object  must  be  attained  by  one  or  more 
eiea: 

I  {«t(lng of  lli» boiler-plant.  Tlilt.  implies)  proper  (;rat« 
elit,  the  iieccsaary  uirspaite  betwern  graleuarg  and 
fample  cumbiiMiloiiruoin  uniltr  Ijiiilrrs 


uu         I 

■  of  firing  that  is  beist  mlapteil  to  rtu'h  pariioular  fiiroace  fl^^B 
Bl  cnmhiii-rii^ii  of  bitiiminouii  ci>al.    Tins  may  Im  eitlter:  (^^^| 
W  ctiarttJiiK  all  coui  into  tin?  from  of  th«  fiiriiaca  iinlii  pa^^^ 
pii  pu&liiii;;  bacic  anil  spieutliu);;  or  {l>i  "alleriiatu  side  flr- 
Ireadliig,"  b.v  wliicli  the  coal  i*  spif  ad  over  tlie  wliolo  grate 
Ifonii  layers  at  eacli  clinrKiiij;. 

|Dn  of  air  throiuclt  the  f aniai:e-door,  brldee-nall,  or  side  walls. 
p.iid  other  artificial  means  for  tiiurouKldy  luixlnifltiiB  air  and 
»fes.  J 

the  cooling  of  the  furnace  and  boilers  by  the  inrush  of  ci'^id       \ 
fnace-doors  are  opened  for  (Charging  coiil  and  handling  the 

g  a  gradatioD  of  the  f<i;reral  steps  of  comljimtion  bo  that  tlie 

U'KM,  dried,  and  wanned  at  the  coolest  part  uf  tlie  furnaor*. 

a  by  !n]ecea6i<'a  steps  to  Hie  hottest  place,  where  tiie  dual 

Ihe  coked  coal  i»  completed,  and   coiniHfUInK  the   disltUed 

•en  to  pass  through  tliis  Ixittest  part  of  the  lire. 

{the  cooling  by  radiation  of  ilie  unbiirned  con>bu8tible  gases 

jxing  and  coiiibiisllon  bare  been  acoouipliithfd. 

B  supply  of  air  \<>  suit  ilie  periodic  variulioti  in  demand. 

tution  of  a  continuous  uniform  feeding  of  coal  instead  of 

in-King- 

bght  burning  or  causing  tlie  air  to  enter  above  the  grate  aitd 

pgh  the  coal,  carrying  toe  distilled  products  down  to  the  high 

^ne  at  the  bi.ttoui  of  the  lire. 

ipf  smoke-preventiou  devices  which  have  been  invente«l  is 

[classiflcatiiin  is : 

■  I  stokers.  They  effect  a  material  saTing  iu  the  labor  of 
[efflcient  smoke-preveuters  when  not  pusheil  alxive  their 
nien  the  coal  does  not  rake  badly.  They  ai  e  rarely  suKcepti- 
|en  changes  in  the  rate  of  <}ring  frequently  demanded  in 


i 


side  H'liil^.  bridge-wall,  and  grate-barH,  through  which  air 

Cheated.  Tlie  results  are  always  beneflcial,  but  the  flues  are 
clean  and  in  order, 
fches.  or  spncps  In  front  of  the  furnace  arched  over,  in  which 
k  coked,  buth  to  prevent  coohiig  of  the  diittiiled  gnses,  and  to 
tAKS  through  the  hottest  part  of  the  f  urnai'e  just  beyond  the 
tlt«are  good  for  normal  conditions,  iiut  int-fiective  when  tb« 
^.  The  arches  also  are  easily  burned  out  and  injured  by 
le. 

jpi  r.,  n  r,.  .rtlon  of  tliB  grate  next  the  furnaoe-doors,  reserved 
he  coal  before  it  is  spread  over  tlie  grate.  Tiiese 
•■'<  furnace  Ib  not  forced  above  it^  normal  capacity, 
i„  ...  L..  J.J  of  "coke-flring"  mentioned  before, 
(light  fiirn.iees,  or  furnaces  in  which  the  air  is  supplied  to  the 
Kr«t<*,  unil  the  products  of  cimiinistion  are  taken  nway  fron» 
Itp,  thu.i;  causing  a  downward  druught  through  the  coal,  carry- 
i  gaseKdoun  to  the  higlily  h.'ated  iiicaudeseent  coal  at  the 
layer  of  coal  on  the  grate.  Thl^  is  the  inoiit  perfect  manner 
OinbiistioD,  and  is  ahs<:»]uLeiy  smokeless. 
to  tr>  draw  iiir  in  or  inject  oir  into  I  In-  furnace  above  the  grate, 
i  the  air  and  the  combuHtible  Ku-ses  together.  A  very  efncienl 
er,  but  oue  liable  to  be  wastefiil  of  fuel  by  inducing  too  rapid 

tten  pla<>ed  in  the  furnace  above  the  Art  to  aid  in  mixing  lb* 

Isi*?.  wir  ii  t  hf  air. 

!•  'i  there  are  two  different  styles;  the  first  ofc, 

i  "low  the  first  ^rale;  the  cool  ia  coWeAoutt*' 

■  „  .  s  ttie  distillvd  gases  are  made  to  \.i\s»  ov»< 

r.  nitfif  iticj  mi-  lutiititl  and  burned;  the  coke  tcoi-. 
oato  Ihf  aecuiij  tKiatf.  a.  very  eflicleut  aud  '^^ 
V^ni^tJier  complicated  fo construct  and  main) 
^^■KaorcooabustJoji  trota  tiie  flrsL  turu«Mo« 


1^ 


714 


THE  STEAM-BOLLKB. 


(he  grate  and  &re  of  the  seooiid,  each  furnace  iyeing  chwxwl  i 
when  needed,  the  latter  Reuerully  with  a  snio)i«lea«  c««ror< 
tioniil  and  unpioiiiislnij  method- 
Mr.  C.  F  White,  CoTiKiiliJiii;  KiiRinecr  to  the  Cbic-«go  8od«t! 
vention  of  Smoke,  writes  under  date  of  May  4,  IBM  : 

The  experience  liad  in  CtiicaBO  ha*  shown  pinliilv  th«t  It  l«  i 
to  equip  steam-boilers  with  furnaces  which  nhali  Imni  i>idli«r|( 
such  »  manner  tiiat  the  making  of  amolce  dense  eriongU  lu  ubtU' 
shall  be  confined  to  one  or  two  tntervalB  of  perha|)8  a  couph 
duration  in  the  ordinary  day  of  10  hours. 
GsH-dred  Stcain-bollera.— Con< 
producer,  before  liurniD);  ii  under  the 
Hfiioke-preveniiun.  but  Its  expense  has  li.  i  I 

duclion.     A  series  of  urticleri  on  the  BUlij-'cr,  ilin^lnit mna  l_ 
devices,  hy  F.  J.  Rowan,  Is  published  In  the  Collin  y  Eiujinrrr.  \ 
also  Clark  on  the  SteanieniKtne. 

FOBCED  COnBCSTION    IN  STKAITI'BOILl 

For  the  purpose  of  increjisilni;  ilie  amount  of  steaui  tJ»ai  t 
by  a  boiler  of  a  (jlven  size,  forced  draught  is  of  great  ' 
universally  u.sed  in  the  locomotiTe,  the  draught  toeing  ob' 
Jet  In  the  Rnioke-stack.  It  is  now  largely  u.sed  in  ocean  t' 
in  shi|>g  of  war,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  stationary  tioilHr 
ia  f^nerally  not  attained  lay  ItH  UMe,  iu;  advntila^eA  twll 
ftecuring  or  increased  capacity  fron>  a  boiler  of  a  givi'ii  b( 
The  subject  of  forced  drauKht  la  well  treated  in  a  paper  i 
entitled,  "Foixjed  Coinbiisiion  in  Sienin-boilers"'  tSecll< 
Conereasat  Chicago,  in  ISMi,  from  which  we  atiairsct 

Edwfn  A.  Stevons  at  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  in  '  ']»! 

America,"  fitted  the  boilers  witb  closed  ash-|i 
Ciuslion  was  forced  by  a  fan.  In  1S.'8  Ericssoi, 
at«amer  "Victory,"  commanded  by  Sir  Jcplin  K-'S-^ 

Messrs.  E.  A.  and  R.  L.  Stevens  c-inlloued  the  use  of  foi 
a  coosiderable  p<;i'iDd,  during  tvhich  they  tried  three  difTeraaCt 
the  fan  for  promoting  cumbustiou:  I,  blowing  dirrot  i 
2,  exhausting  the  bane  of  the  funnel  by  the  suotlou  of  t 
into  an  aii-tiKht  boiler-room  or  atoke-hold,    Rach  of 
was  attende<l  with  .serioiiK  dilTlcnlties. 

In  the  use  of  the  closed  aKh-pit  the  blaat-preasure  would 
the  gases  of  comhusiiou,  in  the  shape  of  a  8errale<i  flanM. 
around  the  furnace  doors  in  go  great  a  quantitj  as  Itiaffncti 
cieucy  and  health  of  the  firemen. 

The  chief  defect  of  the  second  plan  was  the  prf»«t  n\ri^  of  (h 
to  produce  the  nwesaary  exhaustion.     T'       '-      '  ' 
rapidly  increasitig  ratio  as  the  combust 
erealer  air-supply  and  the  higher  exit  t. 
the  wa.sle  gas<'s. 

The  third  method,  that  of  forcing  cold  air  by  the  fan  Inb 
iMDller-rooin— the  present  closed  stoke-hoUl  syt^m— tliouK 
dlfHcultles  in  working  belonging  to  tin'  •  -      '  -  •      "     t 
defects  of  its  o\>n,  as  it  cannot  be  W'  , 
lioUor-coustriiction,  much,  it  at  all,  hi 
draught,  in  most  boilers,  withnut   ' 

Id  isr.'i  John  1.  Thornrcroft  &  i 
torpeilo-boats  with  boilers  of  the 

coiubustiuu  was  attained  by  meauri  11   u..-  [.M-n^ni  n. m 
air  was  forceil  by  means  of  a  fan. 

In  188S  H.B.M.  ships  "f^atellite"  and  "  Oom^tumr  "  ir. 
system,  the  for"'—- '• '■'■■!■"■"" -'I-.    '■■'■' '  "  ■•       ■  i 
oladof  4.M10I.H 
Co  three  hoiuH  ■ 

wjnare  foot  of   i.i-    ^,.,,-    ,,,  ,,.,,     ._■.., r..i.<.-,      «...  ,  1...-.I    i 
ipieror," 

fionif  of  the  short  tHalh  at  these  vatM  of  c^mtiusliAn  ^ 

/.,(„,•,-,..,/.,.....,,,,„.,,„)     ,„1, <     ,1...    l....V„,„      V.,„     ,i...     _. 


iMftUVJHguk  > 


FITEL  ECONOMIZERS. 


1 


d 


ikiiie.  there  being  either  excessive  smoke  from  bituminous  coal 

'  -rative  economy. 

'iiwden  designed  nn  arran^menc  intended  to  overcome 

>  tlie  dusted  aiih-pit  and  closed  Htoku-tiuld  siyutems. 

lii'  Utjiii  reservoir  or  chamber  is  placed  on  the  front  end  of  the  boiler 

jrroiindinK  I  be  furnaces.    This  reservoir,  whirh  pngcets  from  S  to  10 

I  friiHi  the  end  of  the  boiler,  receives  the  air  under  prestaure,  which  t» 

t)y  the  valves  into  the  ash-plta  and  over  the  fires  In  proporlioi 
I  to  tlie  kind  of  fuel  used  and  the  rate  of  combustion  reqiilre<i.  Tl 
..li  nl>Mve  the  fires  is  admitted  to  a  space  between  the  outer  and  Inn 

^    the  inner  havinj;  perforatious  and  an  air-distributing  box 
the  air  passes  under  pressure. 

'  the  balance  of  aii'-proRSure  above  and  below  tlie  fires  lUl 
"•  fire  to  blow  out  at  the  furnace-door  is  removed. 
^  the  admission  of  the  air  by  the  valves  above  and  below 
'^t  raf«  of  combustion  possible  by  the  air-pressure  >ised  ei 
r.-tiid.  atul  iu  same  manner  the  rate  of  combustion  can  be  reduced  to 
elow  that  of  natural  drHu|;ht,  while  complete  and  economical  conibus- 
HI  nil  mtew  is  secured. 

fcftture  of  ilie  system  tfi  the  combination  of  the  heatius  of  tht?  nir  of 
>«4lion  ii3'  the  waste  g^ses  with  llie  <-oiilroIled  and  regulated  adniiH.si<>ii 
r  m  ihc  furuaces.    This  arrangement  ie  effected  most  conveniently  by 

•  it   nr«-e:aseB  after  they  leave  the  ixiller  IhrouKli  Btiuiks  of 
nclosed  in  the  uptake,  their  lower  ends  teing  inimedirttely 

l;e-b<)X  doors, 

on  Howden'g  system  have  hitherto  been  arranged  for  a  rate 

locfive  at  full  sea  power  an  average  of  from  IS  to  'H  I.H.P. 

•  i  of  lire-g-rafe  with  lire-l.>ar.s  from  5'  0"  to  5'  G"  in  length. 

1^  tvlijved  that  with  suitable  arrangement  of  proportions  oven  30 
P.  [>er  squai-e  foot  can  be  obtained. 

•r  an  account  of  recent  uses  of  exhaust-Fans  for  increasing  draught,  see 
irby  W.  R.  Roncy,  Trans.  A.  8.  M.  E.,  vol.  xv.  « 

FUEL  EroivomizicHs.  1 

Teen's  Pael  Economizer.— Clark  givex  the  following  averagu  re- 
Sof  comparative  trials  of  three  boilers  at  Wigan  used  with  and  without 
Bomicers : 

Without  With 

Kconomizera.    Koonomizers. 

Coal  per  square  fool  of  grate  per  hour. 21.6  21.4 

Water  at  100°  evajiorated  iM^rnour 73.155  79. -W 

Witerat  «ia°per  i)ound  of  o^>al 9.60  10.56 

.:f  iu  liurnfiit<  equal  quantities  of  coal  i>er  hour  the  rapidity  of 
iiicrea«e,l  B.Sji  ana  llie  efjlciency  of  evnpomtion  lOi  by  the 
'^tr  eoononiiaer. 
ih'  Average  temperatures  of  the  gases  and  of  the  fee<1-water  iiefore  and 
r  paning  the  economizer  were  as  follows: 

With  C-ft.  grate.         With  4-fl.  grate. 
Before.   After.  Before.   After,' 

!  temperat tire  of  gases 648  340  501         HI 

I  temperature  of  reecl-water,        47  157  41  187 


I 


ter,^| 


.kitig  averages  of  tlte  two  grates,  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  fi 
•r  100"  the  gases  were  cooled  down  HRO'*, 
<  r~-.  I    ,>auoe  of  a  Green  Economizer  ivllb  aSmoky  Coa 

'"  CireeD'«  ICcononii/.er  was  lesteij  by  M.  W.  (Jnis-^eteHte  for  a. 

■'-  weeks.    Thf  appaiutiis  consists  of  four-  ranges  of  vertical 
iiigh.  -3^  inches  in  diamclproiitsltle.  Dine  pipes  in  each  rani 
•  P  and  bottom  by  liorizontal  pipes.    The  water  enters  all  ' 
iw,  and  Innves  tfieui  from  above.    Tlie  system  of  pipes  is 
nek  casinif.  into  which  the  gaseous  products  of  combtlft' 

■  from  abiive,  and  which  they  leave  from  below.    The  pi] 
soot  externiiily  by  uutoniaiic  scrapers.    The  cfc^'^cVt^ 
■/c  feet,  and  thf  totnl  external  heatlDg-surtace  \&  'i"*if " 

lint  us  U  placed  in  connection  with  a  boilei  hav\i\K  %A 

b^.'cl^a^jJ^f'L  'f  """■''  'T  "^'^n  weeks  conUnuow^- 


716 


THE  STEAM-BOILER. 


Mh,  when  iu  performance.  In  the  lame  condition,  w 
l>r(.*ek.  Durinp  tbt-  second  week  it  was  eleaii>>J  twice  frr_ 
jllie  tliird  week,  after  Imvlne  Iwrn  cleniitd  on  MotiJaj' 
]  ivoiketl  tontlniii.nsly  wltliout  fiirtlur  clennlui;.  a  stnoWe-i 
llised.    Tht'  cousuminioii  was  jnaliuaiued  8ensil>Ii-  CQDtMuit  1 

lORsaM's    ECOSrmiZKR.— KeSI'LTS    op    ESPKRIMEKTS    0!C    ITS 
jklTECTBD  BV  THK  STATE  Oy  THB  HfHTACE.      (W.  O 


Tnu 

(FebruBry  »nd  March). 


!8tWe«k 

Sd  Week 

»d  Week— Monday 

■|m  -tidy  ...  , 
i'.  iiir'sday. 
i  linr.-ilay .  . 


ynd 

8«CBI 


iroi>y.. 


Teniperalui-u  of  Fead- 
waCer. 


Tempenil 


Enter-     I.,6av- 

ing  iiir 
re»d-  1  Fneil- 
h«a(«r.  heat<er. 


Fahr. 
73  5° 
77,0 
73  i 
T3.4 
79.0 
80.6 
80S 

no 


Fnhr. 

iei.&° 
saoo 

IM.O 

mi  4 

ITfl  0 

iro  6 

109  0 

:7a.  4 


DffTeis 

I---- 

f 

euee. 

1 

"5 

Kahr. 

1 

88.0* 

iU'j' 

•M* 

153,0 

RRi 

or 

IW.O 

SSI 

2l$i| 

108.0 

671 

90.0 

Oil  0 

gse 

l^^l 

88.4 

BSi  J 

^^^H 

9S.4 

Mil 

^1 

lat  Wrt-lt.  9d  ■ 

Coal  consnmed  per  hour SMIbs.      i\ 

Water  evaporated  from  ii'  F.  per  hour..  1184  IKS 

Water  per  pound  of  coal (.65  T  01 

It  is  apparpDt  that  lh(^f*  Is  a  jre*t  advanla^  In  eir-antitr  '■^ 
—tlie  elevation  of  temiieralurc  liBviuir  been  iiu'  "'  .  '    ' 

In  the  third  week,  without  cleatiinp,  ibe  elevoi 
In   three  days  to  the  level  of  the  first  ivcfk;  ■ 
quickly  reduced  by  as  much  as  half  the  extent  i>r  i  >-i)ii...> 
pipes  daily  an  Increased  rlevation  of  tempt  rntiuv  of  ftV 
Trnllst  a  g-nln  of  6f  was  effected  in  the  evaporative  efllcie 

INCRV8TATION  AND  CORROillO?!. 

Incrnatatlon  and  Scale.— Incruslation  las  diati  .. 
mere  !iKdiiiieuiH  due  to  dirty  WKter,  which  are  eoxlly  blown  out, 
up,  by  nieaiiF!  of  sediment  collectcm)  in  due  t»  the  firriaanc*  of 

feed-water  icarboualei  i   wi.it. i,..t..«  .,*  li «t.,i  m...^....-,.  tnt  ik< 

part),  which  are  precii 
posits  upon  the  l>oil>T  ; 

Where  the  quaulily  i.  ;..  „. 
aay)  scale  pieVHMilvcs  may  be  fuiv 
either  ftmii  with  the  salts  other  - 
ihetn  in  the  form  of  soft  mud.  wl.u 

b«  washed  out  from  fiuie  to  time.  The  tirieeiitw  of  ilir  i-tHinl 
iiend  upon  the  cniiipo!<ition  of  the  water,  aod  11  iJiuiild  >i*  Inn 
Ikriv  aitli  tiix  f>-»ii 

Kx 
Kuir,; 

fnll-.i.      ..    ..:    „._...    .  .    ..,._  a,.:....    : , 

bluwu  uui.  or  ^'uthei>nl  ailuaeUiiiieut  cuitect<.: 

Sulphate  nt  lime  4- Carlionat«  Of  «o<U  =  Sulphu' 
CaSO,  .N'»,CO,  Sa, 

Sodium  phogphatc  will  decermv""*  ♦*>»  •>i<\\H».«»^  «>'  Mitw  mat  [ 
Ru/nbai*- of  ]iiu<> -<- Sodium  1  «*> 


.  ofniMniMt* ji 


JRtrsTATIOX   AXD   COBBOSIOK.  71' 


ty  of  sails  ia  Unce.  scale  preventfTMi  arc  not  of  much 
■    ■*  -iipply  miiRt  be  Houcht,  or  the  bad  water  imrlfled  j 
I  be  boilei's.    TUf  ilaniaip?  done  lo  boilere  liy  un«, 

I •iMjLiiimt  by  oulli'dinir  rain,  or  condfUslriK  sU'ft'n  ti/l 
ornleuaers.  The  wnlcr  thus  tiblaiiietl  sliouUI  be  nil.xi'ai 
Iter,  or  triisled  wiili  a  Utile  nIknLi,  b.<^  iimliliilei),  |>tir 

or.  after  t-acli  i«*rioOic  tieaiiiiig,  llie  bad  iiiay  IjeiioeAJ 
put  R  skill  iipuu  thf  pUtrii. 
and  niiiKneiiMu  may  \ir  precipitated  eith<>rby  lieatiiii;  tlu 
milk  of  lime  (Purler  Clarli  process)  wlili  It,  llie  MatHfl 

produced  by  the  iigo  of  pure  water,  or  by  the  prtuwnoo' 
r,  caused  pcrbape  in  tbc  eiiKlie-cvliiider  by  tlie  actli'iti  of 
1  upfwi  Uif  grease,  resulting;  in  llie   production  of  fatly 
liiflv  lie  n'.'Utr«li/,yd  Uy  tht'  ajdili'iu  nf  lime 
ttfimeDt  which  may  collect  In  a  IW-H.P  steam-tH:>ner| 
a».   of  walt-r  p<'r  hour,  the  water  containing  differeuij 
,y  iu  solution,  prurlded  iliat  no  water  is  blown  off: 

trttien  per  U.  S.  galloii: 

!»  40         SO  60         TO        SO        »0         IIH) 

'  100.000: 
Sl.tti      C8  :^    85  Tl     lO-J.tS&      l-iO    137. 1     151.3    i;i.4 

la  I  boor,  pound*: 
H     y.hti      V.OM!    '.'.571       8.0e5    H6        4.(1      -l.ftl      .>  1 1 

iirs,  pounds: 

^   15.«      i050    25.71      30.85    80.0      ill       IU.3      M  I 

bra.  pnuiids: 

W.y>    133.4    164.8      186.1    «I6  0    248  8    r.'iM    XM  a 

ler  Ins  I'JtW  sq.  ft.  lientfdjr  surfnce,  one  »i-cL'»  iiimiinit 
BT.  Willi  u'uler  coniuiiiInK  100  ^inlnit  of  snhd  Iliiilter  per 

wotild  nialit-  a  wnle  nearly  .O-J  in.  thick,  if  evenly  depus- 
eatinc  siirfwe,  nMinniin^  the  scale  10  Jtave  a  Kp.  Kr.  of 
J.  fu;  -02  A  l-:00  X  15C  A  1/1*  =  Sli  Ibn. 
Compoandai— The  Bavarian  Steam-boiler  Initpectioa 
1*.*J  us  folbiwii: 
Li:»naJ  sutihtances  in  water  can  be  retained  in  ftcjliilde  furni 

luud  iiy  adding  cauDtiu  tsoda  or  lime.    This  is  especially 

boilers  have  siiiall  Interior  spaces. 

Iliave  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  water  in  urder  to  fully 
l  and  qiuuility  of    the  preparation  to    be  used  for  lh« 

tinds  for  reino»InB  boiler-.scale  kIiouM  be  aTolded.   (A  list 

ida  manufacture'iand  sold  by  Oeriuan  flrins  U  then  given 

tiBlysed  by  the  aHsociatiou.) 

■rations  are  either  noiisenplcal  or  fraudulent,  or  contain 

ivo  Bubslancei  recoiiiiiieuded  by  llic  association  for  re- 

ratly  soda,  which  Is  culoird  to  conceal  its  preueuce,  and 

aled  with  naeless  or  even  injiirioiiH  matter. 

■swell  aa  RlvinK  the  compound  bouih  airan^.  fanciful 

Imply  to  deceive  the  boiler  owner  and  conceal  fmin  hlni 

buyinfc  colored  soda  or  Bimflarsubstauces,  for  which  be  ia 

Lilt  price. 

wuultee  *  St.  P.  R.  R.  uses  for  the  prevention  of  scale  Id 

an  alkaline  cominiuiid  consisting  of  3750  gals,  of  water, 
.slicsoda,  and  lliOO  lbn.  oT  !i9%  soda-ash.  Between  Milwau- 
h«  water-supply  contains  from  1  to  4,lgll)S.  of  liicriisling 
(.,  prlucipiilly  calclnin  CAibonate  and  sulphate  and  raag- 

ihe  atnfiiint  nf  compound  necessary  to  prevent  the  m- 
o  '  pintj)  pi-r  IrtKi  ««l.s.  of  waier.  This  i*  really  only  one 
.tity  needi'd  for  i:hL'iiiical  conibitiation.  but  the  action  of 
vifi^iifratiyi',  7^-j  sin-]ti-RHh  fsodiuin  c.vrli'iuu^*'^  »^x\Ti^c.t.% 
f/  ibe  carlyiitiiieH  ot  lime  ami  lu,  ■, 'aV-^ 

rorw.     The  bicarboiiatt;  of  sod 

la  by  the  hpal.  aud  Is  a^alu  cliu:  „. 

■eiicsUjr  Oils  Mctloo  mlglt  coMtiniTo  lm»» 


i 


720 


TDK  STIiAM-BOlLEB. 


so  strouK  as  Id  the  case  of  Uie  lart^r  tulie,  so  as  to 
eomriiCUnif  the  effective  area  hy  drfiosit  from  tliti  solution: 
of  Ihe  sulutioii  will  be  just  siiRIcienl  to  iieutnilixe  any  wiilllj 
ilron  A'je.  Nov.  C,  1893.) 

Ui»e  of  SElnc— Zinc  is  oflfn   «i*e<3  in  b-'lli-i--  (.■  [v 
action  of  wut«r  on  Uie  nietAl.    Tbtr  action  n]M 
Ibe  iron  l>pinK  one  pole  of  Ilie  iiftlteiy  ai<il  i ' 
liydrogeji  Koe«  to  i  tie  iron  tliKll  auJ  escapf,-   ■ 
oxjifen  Boea  to  the  zinc. 

On  nccumic  of  this  action  it  in  Keuerally  bt-lievetl  liiat  zln 
preveut  corrosion,  and  that  it  cannot  be 'lidiiiirnl  to  (In 
Some  exp^Tieuceti  go  to  dii^prove  ttiis  (lelief.  :>  r 
not  only  oren  of  no  u»e.  but  lia«eren  bt^u  b 
lioller  bad   been   troubled  with  a  deposit   of  t 

^anic  matter  and  lime,  and  zinc  nas  irieil  nr. 
action  of  the  zinc  was  so  obvious  ihat  iiii  l 
frequent  openinu  of  the  boiler  anil  ileaninp  .  ■ 
Ibe  old  scale  »liould  be  removed  nnd  tbe  Imiijei'  )»•< 
months  later  the  water  sujiply  wa-s  cliaM?i*d,  it  b' 
another  si  ream  supposed  to  be  free  from   ttri>-  mi 
iimlter.    Two  or  tliree  months  after  i 
were  found  to  be  coat4>d  with  an  obstin  . 
xinc  oxide  and  tbe  orennic  mutter  ci 
deixisit  bad  IxH-'onie  so  ueav\-  in  places  as  !■■  churh  ovitI 
of  tliH  plateK  over  Ibe  ftre.     (  7^(<?  L*>i'>*ninUx'r  i 

Bflect  of  ncpoHit  on  Flues.     iKnnliine  >— .\n 
carb»»nureon.'*  kinrl  is  often  deposited  from  the  flam-  \i 

naces  in  the  Hues  and  tiil>es,  and  if  allowed  to  acoi'- 
ihe  economy  of  fuel     It  U  i-eniove.t  from  tiine  to  ti.i 
and  wire  bnishes.     The  accumulation  nf  tliiK  cnit^t  is  iii>-  ir 
tbe  fact  that  in  armie  liteamsbips  tlie  consuniplion  of  cm 
horse  power  yer  hour  ko««r  on  irnidually  InoreaKlnc  nnlb  il 
a  half  time.s  il,*;  nrieinal  anionni,  ami  K^imeitnie^  rn<0'e, 

OaugorouH    Stcain-boller*   dlsrovered    bjr  lai 
The  Ilartforil   Sleam-lMiiler  Insiiection  ami  Insurani'-  t'n 
inRpeclorfi  durinp  Irt'.W  examined  M"ia..VJ^   boilers.    [ 
both  internally  and  e.ttenially,  subjected  T"')!  t.i  I. 
found  597  unsafe  for  further  use.    The  whole  nnui^ 
was  1'2-J,'*!)9,  of  which   lU.SlMI  were  coimidered  dangeroilKt  . 
given  below.     i77ir  I,oco»ioficr,  Feb.  18M.)  '^ 


Si'Miuav,  OY  Dkpects,  ros  tbe  Tkab  It 


Nature  of  Detects. 


Whole    Dan- 
No.    geroii-i 

deposit  of  sediment 9,T74  M8 

Inorustfitlnn  nnd  scale. .  .18,369  StK 

Internal  Krooving 1,S49  M8 

Internal  corrosion 6,852  Iff 

Kxternal  corrosion 8,600  .^38 

Iief'tive  braceK  nnd  stays  1,998  IW 

SetlhiRg  defective S,0!M  K 

KurnaceB  out  of  shape...  <,57S  i'. 

FVnctureil  plates S.B88  r,i 

Burned  plates S,T63  3i^ 

mistered  plates  8,3S1  K,i 

Defective  rivet* 17,415  l.r^O 

Pefective  heada 1,3J57  ajo 


Nature  of  Dnfec^a 

Iyeaka^< 
LeakBK; 
Waters 
Blow  o. 
r>t?Hob  1 
Rafel\ 


Squire.- 

rnclassifled  def>«ta . 


Total. 


Thn  alM>vi>.named  company  piibllKhes  nniiiinltT  a  ««laa!i*fl«l  I 
f»xr' "'■'•■         •n piled  cbieflv  from  new:: 
W  -iin.s  lake  liFane  in  tbe  1 

'iOo  '.s,  and  iiijurinf;  from  Si> 

to  b I  ■■  '•  ,  and   mny  iueludr  only  n 

explftMiiitm. 

M««in«bolI«n»  aa  naKactneo  of  «.-Ki>^o«\-<t« ' 

JC.    I!    Th'intott  (Trans  .\ 
tltli^.  jiifM'iiiM  calciilation 


of   carl 


U»  R 


Ii.,  he  says:  Tt  bi  60  iucL«8  In  diameter,  contaiultig  fiO  ^iiicikl 
15  feet  lon^.     It  has  85(1  feet  of  heatineand  HO  feet  of  gralt 
«e<l  at  BO  horse-iwiwer,  hut  iftofteiier  (Iriren  up  to  75;  welKlia 
aii<l    uKUtaius  uenrly  its  own  weiRht  itt  water,  but  ouly  'i\ 
)f  stfani   wh('n  uiu.ler  a  pirtwiire  of  T.'i  tioundB  per  »gunre  iiicli^ 
Ik-Iow  its  saft?  allowaiict'.     II  stores  .VJ.IXW.OIXI  ftvjl-puiiods  of  fu 
wbicti  <>iit  4  per  cent  i»  in  llie  8t«-ani,  and  tliis  is  eiiuiigli  to  drlva 
«r  ju»t  about  one  oille  into  the  air,  wiili  an  Initial  velocity  of  nearl] 
sr  8<!Cond. 

SAFETY-VAItVES. 

itlon  ot  fVeleltti  etc.,  for  Lever  S«fet)'«valvea. 

welglit  of  bail  at  end  of  lever,  in  pounds; 
V  =  w«"iKht  of  lever  Itself,  in  ponnds; 
f  =  wt^JKbt  of  valve  and  spindle,  in  pouiida; 
L  =  tlistaiice  t>t!tu'e(>u  fnlcruin  and  uentru  of  ball,  in  iiicliM); 
1=        "  "  "  "         '■        ■■  valve,  in  Inches; 

g=       •'  "  "  "        "       "  gravity  of  lever,  iu  in. 

A  =  Area  of  valvp,  in  square  inclips; 
p  =  pressure  of  steara.  In  lbs.  per  nq.  in.,  at  wliicli  valve  will  open. 


SAFETY- VALVK8. 


per  84 

1^' 


Tlien    PA  Xl  =  W  y  L  +  wyg+V  xl\ 


wtaence    F  = 


W  = 


£,= 


Al  ' 

PAl  -wg-Vl 


PAt  -iFg-yi 
W 


Knx.— Dlatneter  of  vftlre,  4";  distance  from  fulcrum  to  centre  of  ball^ 
o  oeotre  of  valve,  4";  to  centre  of  gravity  ot  lever,  15^";  weight  ■ 
uid  Hpindle,  8  IbR.;  weiiiflit  of  lever,  7  lbs.;  required  the  weight  of  Ix 
ke  the  hlowing-ofr  pressure  80  lbs.  i>ev  Hj  in.;  area  of  i"  valve  =  I3.5W] 
Then 


PAl  -  rty  -  VI 
L 


80  X  18.8t6  X4-7X1^-»X4 

3G 


=  108.4  lbs. 


,tbUowlns  mien  governing  the  proportions  of  lever- valves  are  Riven  by 

'.  S.  Stmervlaonj.    Tlie  distance  fnnii  llin  fulcrum  to  the  valvp-Rteni 

••  btt  lens  than  Ibe  dlintifter  of  the  valvc-o[HMnnK;  tb"  leiixrii 

^t  nut  be  niLtre  than  ten  times  the  UiMliiihOe  frtiiii  the  fnlet'uni 

i-m;  the  wrddi  of  llie  lienilnFrii  uf  the  fuloniin  nnist  not  lie 

liuii  Uiive  quarters  of  an  iucli ;  the  letiKth  of  the  f  nierunilink  imiMi  not 

■»  lliau   four  Inches;  the  lever  ami  fuleruin-link   must  be   made  ol_ 

elit  iron  iir  »t4.-el.  and  the  kiiife-ed^ed  fnlernni  piiinis  and  the  beuringg' 

heiie  iifilhts  mu-st  lie  made  of  steel  and  hardened;  the  valve  must  be 

"'I  by  its  Npltidle,  i>oth  rtb<>ve  and  l>ekivv  the  tfround  Heat  and  nbove  tijit* 

fiKh  supportM  either  made  of  com  posit  iun  ixnn-metal)  or  bushed  ^ 
a  the  spindle  must  fit  loosely  in  llie  Ijearings  or  8Up(>ort«. 
Raleii  for  Area  orsarcty-valvea. 
T.  S.  SnpervlslnK  Inspectors  of  Steam -vessels  (as  amended  1»I9I).)F 

'•r  iiafet.v-valves  to  be  attached  to  nmriuc  boilers  »liall  have  an  area  of 
"w  than  1  M).  In.  to  3  sg.  ft.  of  the  larrate  siuTace  in  the  boiler,  and  thi 
of  all  <iiieli  «af>'iy -valves  shall  liaveau  aiiKlcof  inclination  of  45°  lot' 
*  line  of  I  heir  axes, 

•Ok  limdt-d  B»if-ty.vHlve»  Kliall  be  rt:qiiireil  to  have  an  area  of  not  __ 
'  «1  In.  to  3  Ml.  ft.  of  Krate  KiH'fftce  of  the  boiler,  except  as  hereluafl^ 
*i«e  provldeif  for  wnter-inl»e  or  cft'il  niid  sectional  boilens,  and  ei 
S-tonilpil  inhf  slmll  be  mipplieit  ivitli  u  lever  thsi  vb\U  ra\s*t\x»>" 
rrtftra  iJifiniiiv  of  not  h'an  tliAii  that  equal  to  one  e^^^\^V\\  t\\e  *V 

vetr  rairea  for  WMer-tube  or  coll  uDd  Sectional  boV 


W4 


TUB  CTBAM-BOILKft. 


ff  «"  ciiiiitiitip  (liih  fi>ri)iiila  wltli  tlio  fiiriimlfv 


•  Iiiiy  va.!ve  llian  ritlieroJ  thoicaiJL'M( 
.  -  .omiif)  !<  115  >:  S.33  X  6I.«  =  (ICIflS- 


I 


Diuueler,  iiicliait  ...     1 
Flow,  lbs.  per  lioiir..  ?M 
Horse-power SS 


I^       2        -•«       3       M4       4         5        6 
1100    J4M    ITS    901B    S^    «34    SSOO    «« 
37        47       fiS        67        7<6        »        88      IJO 
the  burs»-i>ower  Xifing  utktm  •«  so  eva|if>r«tion  of  SO  lbs.  nf  water  perlmid 

If  we  solrv  Uie  t-xaiiiple,  ab<>t-«  ifiven,  of  tbt>  boiler erjipui-atitig  MOO lti(.( 
vairr  per  hour  hy  this  titble.  «re  flml  it  requires  oii»  '-incli  valvf.  nr  ttT' 
'JUid  n  S-inoli  mlvf  coriibiiifd.  Tlie  7-iiicli  vulve  has;  an  area  of  HHSvq.! 
■nri  tiK'  >wo  siimlli-r  viilvi>u  ink)*!!  topFtli«r  have  an  area  uf  ouly  U«{.f 
*n   "  '  "'      t'      ;  lity  of  couiiidtfrinc  the  area  uf  disk  u I 

fi>'  larily  of  the  vjUv«». 

1  t  in'ii.s*  sttfrty-TaWwi  of  ifreatrr  dta 

Ihjin  <  Ml.     II    II  kii  111' '  uuiiiiiMii-  Ik  rallrd  for  by  the  rule  that  U  i 
tlii»ii  two  i)r  iiinTM  v:i!v»'».  iiri«  iiH»^i  iii^^tejid  <»f  one, 

MprlUK^IoBded  Sal<i*t}'-valV«m.— Invtead  of  weiKhta,  sprin 
ADiiiriiiiies  ciiiiili'yt' 1  to  Jiiilii  iliiuii  safeiy-valren.  Tbe  OBiciilaCio 
alniiUu'  I'l  ilio.^e  I'oi'  li-vcr  hafctv-valvea,  tlie  leiisiouof  tlie spriDg eon 
liijf  U>  a  ^iv«'ii  riMi  iM^itifc  first  found  by  experinmut  (se<?  Sprfnie:*. 

Till."  \\ii<:-  "f  th«  I'.  S.  Sin>errfR«>r«  ttlliiw  ao  area  of  J  aq.  in.  nl  thrl 
to  3  N().  ft.  of  f;riilf\  iu  the  oa^o  of  spriiifc:-loadtf<l  TiilTefi,  except,  in  watel^ 
ooil,  or  sectiniml  iHillers,  in  tvliich  1  1^4.  in.  to  6  8q.  ft.  of  grate  igallixfcd^ 

Spriue-loudetl  iufelr-valveu  aiv  iibuaUy  uf  the  i>wct ionary  or  "pop" 
ill  whioli  the  e«(L'af>e  of  tlie  steam  is  oppnsecj  by  b  lip  abore  the  vaJn 
■fniiiHt  wliicli  the  esenping  Hieam  reauti,  eauaifis  the  valTa  to  HHt 
than  the  ordinary  valve. 

A.  O.  Brown  gives  the  followiiij;  for  the  rise,  efTectire  area,  ami  qu 
of  sceain  dlachnrxed  per  hour  l>y  valves  of  the  "  pop  "  or  KloJjaixbos  I 
The  effective  i»  taken  at  only  Mf  of  tlie  actual  ai-ea  due  to  tbe  riae,  oaa 
of  the  obstruction  which  the  lip  of  the  valve  olTer!)  to  the  e»cap«  of  steML  1 


OijL value,  in 
Uft,  lucbas. 

1 

.\^ 

.173     .iwO 

3 

an 
.aw 

4 
J7o 

.^'.^ 

\U 

Area,  «q  In. 

.IW 

.SM 

.600      .Tffi 

1.OBI 

UI75 

i.-m 

3.1-.>1    £MIIJ| 

Oatige-pres., 

S(«<un  di«c-lwiK«d  per  hour,  Ibe.                 1 

aoibs. 

474 

86« 

ino 

1897 

9603     SSJ5      4178 

S19H 

3 

SO 

6S» 

1200 

1878 

WHO 

Sa»      4)595  '  5901 

7W2 

m 

70 

861 

1556 

S417 

s4ao 

40(0     61  (i      75IW 

ma 

lli« 

m 

00 

1060 

1W7 

S847 

4W7 

8690      7770      9»)<> 

I1.SS5 

IIMi 

m 

ICO 

1114 

^oaa 

sdoe 

4.'iB0 

cifw  1  s«a  ion*  i-,>sr5 

"^H 

1» 

1*H 

SItB 

3736 

sns 

7303  1  9S1J    IITS.")    14410 

in^H 

140 

161C 

2738 

4i&4 

6070 

8;.'W)  it 0635    i:(.'S«i.i 

16405 

100 

low 

30M 

4780 

6794 

9I7S    IISOO    1 40:* 

16%& 

ISO 

ItMS 

S400 

tstm 

7540 

10180    I3«60    l«iW 

jQsn) 

mo 

8062 

3rj4 

5786 

8e>8 

11150    11165   181TS 

-«ifl 

9 

If  we  take  30  ilw.  of  xteain  per  hour,  at.  100  Ihii.  {;auge-pressiir«  =  I 
we  have  from  the  above  table: 

Tiiaineier,  iuchesi...    1     lU     3      2U      3      3|l{      4      4W     6      ' 
Horse-pon-er tt8    G^   107    l.'iS    aOO    277    S36    4U    4M  0 

A  nafetyvnlvp  should  Iw  capable  of  diricharEiuK  a  much  greater  i|i 
of  Bteani  than  that  eorre.spoucliJiK  to  iht*  rated  lii>rse-power  of  a  Uiilir. 
a  boiler  liaving  ample  ifrate  surface  and  s(  roiiK  <lraut;h(  may  Beoei»le 
than  double  the  quautii}'  of  steAiii  ilK  raiiai;  culls  fur. 

The  Conwilidnted    Safety-Talve  C<j."»  circular  gives  the  folloKiiif 
capacity  of  its  nickel-Heat  "  pop  "  safety-valves: 

Bolter  J  from     S      10     *f     85     60      P       100     J«     l9)     17!    » 

H.p.  }     to  10    15    80    SO    n    100    las    150    175    no  li> 
The  Spires  in  the  lo«rer\\D«  tmm%Vnc\\\A^VacV\.\uchiaive, 

Ibeforuiala  U.V.  =  EiO<.dlaHi(:tfiv  -  \tac\vv 


1. 


SA*ETT-TALVKS.  723 


„ br  Raukine  !h  1.  ISO  to  1/180  of  tli«  number  of  pounds  of  w«le 

tttid  (K-r  hour,  pqtinis  fur  the  above  cane  27  to  !!0  sq.  m.     A  culiiuilin 
Ptiirer.  Jiilr.  ]S9ii.  K'if*'-'  two  oiher  rules: 

1  sq.  iu.  dlBk  area  (or  3  sc^j.  ft.  ^ale,  « liicb  wnuhl  give  13.3  sq.  in. 
^  sq.  in.  (JUk  area  for  1  s(|.  fr.  grate,  wliich  u-oitltl  ^ive  .10  itq.  in.;  litiH 
grate-surface  wen?  rix)iice<l   to  30  sq.  ft.  on   acoiunt   of  inoreoti^iM 
n,  these  rules  wuiiltl  make  tlie  di.sk  area  otiiv  W  autl  Stf.S  sq.  in., 
tlvely. 

Fhiladelphia  rule  for  100  lbs.  gauge  pressure  given  a  disk  area  of  O.i  _^ 
for  each  mj.  ft.  of  >;rate  area,  which  would  ^'ve  au  area  of  SA  sq.  iar 
•q.  ft.  grate,  and  only  0.3  sq.  in.  if  the  grate  is  reduee^l  to  ."JO  mj.  ft. 
oraing  tothe  rule  ibis  aggregate  area  woiiid  have  lobe  divided  l)etween 
Bl«rB.  But  if  the  tx'iler  was  driven  by  foreetl  draught,  then  the  in- 
x  "  niiiBt  estimate  the  area  of  grate  at  1  SM).  ft.  for  each  IC  lbs.  of  fuel 
dper  hour." 

JerthI*  condition  the  actual  grate-sur-fai-e  might  tw  cut  down  to  400  -;- 
t&>q.  fi.,  and  by  the  rule  the  combiued  area  of  the  two  safety-valves 
1  be  only  '25  '.'  O.'Jl  =  o.'-i^  st^.  in. 

rtrom'-i  Po.k'-t  iicinl,.  edition  of  1891,  gives  *f  sq.  in.  for  1  sq.  ft.  grate; 
Ij.  vol.  ii,  IWHW  of  the  heating-surface.  Thi.s  In 
,i<W  =  .4  sq.  ft.  or  57.6  sq.  In. 

I  give  for  the  area  of  snfetv-valve  of  the  same  100- 
•-(iQwtr  Ix'ilt-r  resnlls  rautctiig  all  th^  way  from  S.ti.'i  to  57.6  sq.  in. 
of  the  rules  above  quoted  give  the  area" of  the  disk  of  the  valve  an  the 
:  tobeaxcertained,  and  it  is  thi.4  area  which  is  s^uppoeed  t(«  bear  »onie 
t  nuio  to  the  grate-surface,  to  (he  heating-iiurface,  to  the  water  evap- 
■d,  (•ic.  It  is  diffleult  to  see  why  this  area  has  l)eeu  considered  even 
'illinal'ly  proportional  to  these  ciuantitieft,  for  with  small  lifts  the  area 
iiig  bears  a  direct  ratio,  not  to  ine  area  of  disk,  but  to  tlie 

i'jus  djometers  of  valve  : 

leiet 12  3  4.  6 

^ 785      S.14      7.07       1S.57        lU.Bt        ai87      38.48 

tofweix* 8.14       8.38      (>.4«      1S.5T       15.TI        18.85     iJl.M 

nn.  X  lift  of  0.1  Id 31  .63        ,94        l.SC         1.37         1.S9       2,20 

>1o»rBa 4  .a         .13  .1  .08  .087        .057 

"  ■••'  -•    .-^.  therefore,  are  therefore  directly  proportional  to  the  diaiu- 
tciuuference,  but  their  relatiou  to  liie  area  is  a  vaiTlug  one. 

■  1  iljaiiieier,  then  tlie  opening  would  be  equal  to  the  area  of 
■■^.1.  IN  I  ucunifereiice  X  }i  diameter  =  area,  but  huch  a  lift  is  far 
"<1  the  actual  lift  of  an  ordinary  f!afet.v- valve. 

•Correct  rule  for  size  of  safcty-viilves  should  make  the  pnvluct  of  tlio 
'_6l«r  and  the  lift  proportional  to  the  weight  of  gleam  to  be  discharged. 
'UigicBl'"  niethoil  f*jr  caUMdating  the  size  of  safetj'-valve  is  given  in 
'«n>inofii>r.  July,  IWi.  based  on  thea.5sumption  that  ihe  nclnal  opening 
'W  te  fufBclcnt  to  discharge  all  the  steam  geiiernled  by  the  hoiter. 
wr'a  nile  for  flow  of  steam  Tb  taken,  vix.,  flow  Ihroiich  aperture  of  one 
"■  in  lbs.  per  second  =  absolute  pressure  -e  70,  or  hi  lbs.  [ler  hour  =  51.13 
WOlute  pressure, 

>••«  angle  of  tlie  Beat  is  4.'>'',  as  specified  Iti  the  ndea  of  Ihe  U.  fi.  Super- 
Si  the  area  of  opening  in  m],  Iu,  =  circuiufereia-e  of  the  disk  X  Ibe  lift 
I,  .71  being  the  cosine  of  45" ;  or  diameter  of  disk  v  lift  x  a.U3. 
Q.  Brown  In  hig  book  on  The  Indicator  and  its  Practical  Working 
<ii3ii,  IS94)  gives  the  following  as  the  lift  of  the  ordinary  lever  safety- 
>for  100  lbs.  gauge-pressure: 
)iBni.  of  valve..       S       3^        3       3^^       4        4)^        S         6     inches. 

Use  of  valve 0683  .05i>3  .0607  .040-^  .04';8  .0462  .0446  .0430  inch. 

illft  decreases  with  Increase  of  steam -pressure;  thus  for  a  4-ln(:li  valvej 
prewure,  lljs.  45  6.',  85  105  115  136  IS6  175  195  OT 
■e-pregs.,lb«..      30        M        70  90       ICO      120      140      100       IfO 

Inch 1031  .0775  MX)  .0517    .0478  .0413  .n3(i,-|  .0327  .0-J90 

'etTective  area  of  opening  Mr.  Brown  takes  at  7<i:4  of  Ihi?  rise  niiilllt 
e  circumference. 

approximate  formula  correHjKindlng  to  .Mr.  Brown's  figures  for  ( 
between  ^  and  8  in.  and  gaiiKe-pressureg  between  70  andj"" 

3  (.0009  -  exaJtO  x-r — '^ ,  lu  which  d  =  dUni. 

*O0.  pivgaurv 


1 


r 

I 


^24 


rnS  STEAM-BOILKft. 


If  wfl  combine  this  formula  with  the  foriiiiilot 

Flow  in  lbs.  tKjr  hour  =  area  otofxyninR  in  mj.  in.  ■  M 

Area  =  (liiimeter  of  Tal»t"  ;<  lilt.  X  '-•■•!!<.  we  i>l- 
Hiillior  suiri?i-sls  as  priilMbly  a    more  correct 
capacity  of  tlif,  orrfiiiary  le»t'r  «afdty-T«l»e  thm 

Flow  in  lbs.  {>*>'  hour  =  d<..Cie<B  -  .Wiid}  x  Ha  >.  3.33  j^  il.«  =  I 

From  which  we  obtain  : 

Diameter,  inches  ...     1       1<^       3       v!H       S       SM       4        fi 

Flow,  lbs.  per  hour..  754    1100    14a8    1^    8016    !  . 

Horse-power S5      3i        47       58       67       76       M      H 

ll>e  bortie-powpr  behig  tulo'ii  us  an  evaporation  of  30  lb*,  ntmitrfit 

If  ve  aolvH  the  exaiuple.  abi>vc  Kivrn,  of  the  boiler  eTii|K>i*illir*W 
wAler  per  hour  by  this  taijie,  we  fluii  it  r«<4uireis  one  i-inch  < 
nud  a  S-iiich  valve  combinej.     The  Tinirli  viijve  has  au  i 
aoJ  lh<>  two  suialler  valve«  tulceii  tu^'etlier  hare  an  arval 
anotlier  eviilenco  of  the  absurdity  of  c<jn«iderlnK  the 
factor  which  deterniinetl  the  cni>acity  of  the  valve. 

It  is  cuBtoiiiary  in  practice  not  to  use  safety-valves  of  grenu^  U 
than  4  in.  If  a  greater  diameter  Ik  called  for  by  the  nile  that  ittt 
then  two  or  more  vnlies  are  li»ed  instead  of  one. 

Nprlus-loaded  Saretyvalvea.— Instead  of  weiKhK.  *f^ 
poiu'l lines  eniploye'l  to  hold  Jowo  safejy-vaWeii.  The  caleiii*t«> 
dinilar  lo  those  for  level'  i>«fet.vvalvei<,  die  tt'nsioDof  liie a|>i1DK aun 
ingto  a  i;>ven  rise  bciri);  Hrst  fouuii  br  experiment  (see  Bprlnip,  |Mi 

The  niles  of  the  U.  S.  Siiperviwira  allow  au  area  of  1  »]  In.  "( •»« 
to  3  Hq.  ft.  of  k'rate,  in  the  case  of  spriotloadeil  »alTe,«  "  '    x'Mf 

'.'Oii,  or  sectional  boilern.  In  which  1  wt.  in.  to  $  iq,  ft  .Jii« 

Sprin^-loudeil  safetr^valven  are  iixuuUy  of  lb«  rmc  p* 

in  which  theescaiieof  lliestearn  is  oppo.sed  by  a  lip  ium .^^•  oirtlJl 
against  which  the  escaping  sieain  reacts,  causiOK  Uie  ralra  la  lift 
than  the  ordinary  valve. 

A.  G.  Brown  gives  the  following  for  the  ribe.  eflfectire  area.  mhI  i|I 
of  8t«aiii  discharged  per  hour  by  valves  of  the  "  jiop  "  or  RlriiardMI 
The  effectlTe  Is  taken  at  only  'M);%'  of  the  actual  area  due  lo  tiM  rli*,«< 
of  the  otwtrnetioD  which  the  lip  of  the  valve  offers  to  the  escape  «" 


I>ia.  value,  in 
Lift,  incbea. 
Area,  sq  In. 


8M| 


Gatige-prea. 


.ia)    .ITS    .ml  xt!,     .«u 

■  354      .650  1    .7851  1.061  I  1^1 
Steam  iUsc-luirg«d  i)er  b 


<H 


1897 
MW 
3400 

4907 
4580 

ecrra 


9M9 
8030 
4IW0 


SSiS  4178 

4009  S«OI 

«l<4  TSM 

7W  I  tma 


It  we  lake  30  lb>i.  of  steatn  per  hour,  a  I  100  1U>.  K'^iytf  t 
we  have  from  the  above  table: 

Dianietor,  inches...    I     IVi     2      iU      S      JH       i 
Hoi^-po>ver 3S    09    107    i:»S    auc    JT? 

A  aafetv-valve  Mbonld  Im*  inkpable  of  ilis<-lifirLrlng  a  ■ 

of  s<....  ...'.I....  .1," ,1..,..  ,    .  i> ...1  1.   ... 


11" .-.....,     ......     ...     ,.,,..1.,,.     j;i.r-j    till 

CHpncityot  Ita  nickel-seat  ••  p^vp"  «\ti-t\->i«k\xar. 
Boiler  I  fVom     H      to     «     »     *"     "'L    ^    "^S. 
I  As-ui^^^^Bfifclllve  from  1  kwtVi  U>  Ik  Vmi^.' 


THE  IJTJECTOR. 


725; 


THE    IKJBCTOB. 

Bqnatlon  of  the  lujrrtor, 

!  numbt^r  of  potjiiiiH  of  strain  useil : 

umber  of  pouiicl4  of  water  liftvJ  aiid  foiopd  into  Diif  bollfCi 

eight  in  fw5t  of  a  cuiuiiin  Qf  water,  eqiiival>^at  u>  Ilin  nlwfiliiif 

Bsiirr  in  thu  boilBr; 

eiRlil  In  feel  t)if  water  is  lifted  to  tJii<  iiijectur; 

cmpoiaiuit  of  the  water  before  it  enters  Die  injeotor; 

eiMi)eratuiv  (if  i)ie  water  after  Ivaviiij;  ilie  injeflor; 
total  heat  atxjv«  Si"  F.  iu  one  puunil  uf  steuiii  in  the  lioiler,  In 
lettt  units; 
» lost  work  in  fricUoa  and  the  equivalenl  loeil  work  due  to  radia- 

I  and  lost  beat; 

Declianiual  equivalent  of  b«aL 


r-(f, -*f)]=  wt;'. -f.)  + 


(W+Sih  +  n-ht  +  L 


Dt  foruiula,  neglectini;  Wh,  -|-  X  as  small,  ia 


S==[m<,-f,)  + 


fV+S 


PT-=i 


s  = 


VFldi  -  t,)d  +  -IBSlp] 


78jH-  (f, -as*)" 


_  fi -(f,-33«)d-.1851iJ 

ll  =  weiplit  ot  I  cu.  ft.  of  water  at  Icinperattiro  f,;  p  -  abfiolnt« 
if  steam,  ll)H   persq.  in. 

•  (or  finding  the  proper  sectional  arpa  for  the  narrowest  part  of 
Bl  given  as  followB  by  Bankine,  8.  B.  p,  477: 

,     ,          cubic  feet  per  hour  (trosa  fwd-water 
I  squarfi  Inches  = -—^  ■ • 

800  t  pressure  in  aliiKwipbereii 

at  condition  vrliich  mnat  bo  fulfilled  in  nrdfer  that  the  inj«?tor 

I  that  Die  Bupply  of  water  must  l>e  witflcieiit  to  condensp  the 

[the  terrifieratiire  of   the  Kuiiplj'  or  feed-water  i?(  lilgher,  the 

Inter  requii-ed  for  condensinj?  purjwses  will  be  greater. 

kbeluw  sivea  the  ealeulated  value  of  the  tiiaxiniuni  ratin  of  W'ater 

iUn.and  the  rahiefi  ol>tn]ned  on  actual  trial,  also  the  bigiietit  adiiilK- 

rature  of  the  feed  water  as  sitovrn  by  tiieorv  and  the  liiitliedl 

nd  by  trial  witli  several  injectoi-s. 


r 


"t'ZS 


THE   STEAM-BOII.RR, 


STBA9I    SKPARA'TAR!*, 

r  ini.iUl  steam  flowing  At  n  liiifli  vt'l. 
Jr-iily  chftiiK«'>3.  '''«'  pai'lidesof  wat^r  »: 
llif  ir  oriRinul  iliiectlon  apiiiiiBt  tlif  heii.l 
II  which  the  fhaiike  of  (Hreellou  talEfS  |iliiot.     l(>  indkiij^  jir 
For  ilrawini;  otT  the  water  thus  isrparated  tbe  slemit  may 
greater  t»r  [ess  oxtont. 

For  ioiip;  Ktfaiii-t>i|ic'H  a  lai'^f  drum  shoiilJ  be  |iru(-|d 
tor  truppiiiK  tlie  wat«r  o<iiideiisw-il  in  llie  pipe.     A  ilruin 
tcec  hit,'",  h(iB  Bi*'f"  good  results  in  separatiiiK  ilje  WBier< 
a  stt>am-i>ipL-  10  inolifs  diamfifr  ami  SOU  feet  loup. 

■Sfflclenry  of  Steam  Separator*. -Prof.  R.  C. 
mtiUu  a  scrit'g  of  testn  of  hix  xlt-aju  ht'paralora,  /uriii«hiiiK  I 
uontaiiiiiii;  iliETfienl  peicentaKes  of   uioiature,  and  teisttiic 
steam  btfon.-  fiilviing  and  after pas^tiiig  tbe  8**p<irator.    A  COB 
of  (lie  prlncM[>al  ivsuha  is  ^iveii  hulnw. 


Test  with  BtPBtii  of  about  10*  of 
Moisture. 


Quality  of 
Steam 
before. 


87.M 

90.1 

80.8 

uo.e 

88.4 
88.8 


vercent. 


Steam 
after. 


OS.Si 

96.0 

96.8 

98.7 

90.3 

99.1 


90.8 
80.0 
fi«.e 

iia.o 

15. S 
1H.8 


Teet*  with  Varjiag  Ik 


Qualltr  of 
!^t«am 
before. 


flO.1  t^>  9T  UST-Slo] 
BI.9  ••  98 
9S.1 

9fi« 


Ta.s 

67.1 
68.6 
10A 


any  uf  llw 


CoDcluBioDS  from  tlie  te^ts  were:  1.  Tl' 
rnliiineof  the  several  i*ep«iati>r»  and  tl. 

i!.  No  iimrkeil  dt'civajse  in  pieesine  «.i 
I  he  most  beinp  1  /;  IIjs.  in  F]. 

3.  Allhoiit;li  clianiieil  direoli>in,  re<liioed  velocity,  and  |i«rba}a< 
force  are  necessary  for  koo«1  iwparation.  still  Kome  iiieana  miitit  hf  p> 
lo  lead  the  water  out  of  the  eiiiTeni  of  tlie  Meam. 

The  hii^li  etneieuoy  obtained  from  B  and  A  wa»  lari^ly  due  lo  Iha  fl 
111  B  the  mtnrioi'  .surfaces  are  uorrneated  and  thus  catch  the  wUrrl 
out  of  the  stua:ii  and  readily  lead  it  lo  tbe  biilloni. 

In  A,  OS  iWKiu  as  tbe  w«lj»r  falls  or  is  (ireoipilated  fixnii  lliesfrnin.  H 
in  contact  with  the  (lerfmaled  ili«pliiii(.-'"thr"iit-)i  wliich  If  piti  Hi 
space  l)elow,  when' It  is  ii'it  subjecled  lo  ; 

In  U,  the  neiil  In  enU'ieucy,  IliU  U  acC' 
diaphragm  which  throws  llie  nntor  bad 
of  hteaiii. 

DKlTIiKiniNATION    OF    TIIF.    mOIMTl'RE    IIV  STK 
STE.tm   t'ALORI.nKTKRs. 

In  all    boiler  tests  it  is  iiiipnrtniil   to  nscertnlii  »t. 
i.e.,  1st.    wbelher  the    aienm    is     'snliiriited  "  or 
uf  heat  due  to  the  pressure  nooonling  to  slandiirrt  e\  > 
the  nimmilv  of  heat  is  dencient,  So  ihiil  lli>'  slenii. 
the  heat  is  in  excess  aurl  the  Hieaiii  »u|H*rlieute't.    'II 
tftlnitiK  (he  qimlitv  r,r  il...  vi^Mn.   i^  .ii,,l,,ni.t..,ii.   ii 
mlllee  wliicli  )• 
icri--',  of  ivldcl. 
evRp.i'/ii.'.l  i.v 
coil'- 

the 


kW:\.  xn**  •!  \"! 


INATION   OP  THiJ  MOISTl'RB   IX   STEAM,  *29 

■•"-  ■  ni  V  '^r  allowing  the  watpr  to  flow  to  waat«,  and 
•!.e  wtttrr. 
rrcl  1«  fll!«l  with  water,  th«  weight  and 

-;uwii  tlinniiiU  the  hni^e  oulsido  the  barrel 

IK  '  "aimwl    whpn  tfiM  hos«  is  suililciily  thrust  hilo 

til-  ■yn-rat^a  until  thf  t«-iiipprature  of  the  wattr  tK 

tlie  1... ,    .i.t,  say  about  110°  iiKuall)-.    The  liose  is  then 

I  qtilL-ltly.  ihe  U-iii|jerttturB  noted,  and  the  welpht  nKUin  taken. 
'  of  I/H>  of  a  (Kiiitid  in  wreiphiiip  the  condensed  steaui.  or  an  error 
.  in  the  teiuprraiure.  Mill  cause  an  error  of  over  1<(  in  the  calvu- 
tftge  of  moisture.    See  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vl.  288. 
Xioa  of  the  perceutaisR  of  niuiuure  is  made  oa  below: 


«  =  rH[I""-"'-^''-''4 


'  of  the  at«&in,  dry  Baturat«d  ateam  beitiK  unity. 
t  of  I  lb,  of  steam  at  the  observed  prenure. 

water  at  the  temperature  of  Bteam  of  the  cb- 

aerred  pressure, 
condensing  water,  original. 

'       "  "      final. 

ight  of  uondecisln^  water,  corrected  for  water-equlvalem  of  the 
ppamtus. 

i^hl  of  the  steam  voudenaed, 
ajteof  raoisturo  =  \  —  Q. 

tn-aterthan  unity,  the  Hteatii  Is  superheated,  and  the  degrees  cf 
tli.c  =  -J.iWiW  17/  -  T)IQ  -  1). 

ullT  <>r  <>l>la.lnlng  a  Correct  Sample.— Re<.'entezp>eriraent8 
i  .  i'lans.  A.  S    M.  K  .  xvi.  KMT.  i-hrnv  tliat  it  is  practi- 

nu  a  true  nvcniKe  snnipii^  of  the  sleam  flowing  In  a 
t-rniinations  all  tlie  sleom  miKle  by  ilie  boiler  slicmid 
.1  ;h,iiu»li  .1  .-ipniHtor,  111"  water  sermnited  stioulil  l>e  weiKhi'il.  aud 
ueler  lest  niadH  of  the  steam  just  lifter  it  Ims  pusst-il  the  jit-parator. 
Calorimetera.— Inatend  of  the  open  barrel  in  which  th^  st<>ani 
!ii»-ii,  a  coil  actliiK  as  a  surfari> ondeiif^er  may  be  u.sed,  uhieh  is 
n  iho  biirrei,  the  water  in  roil  nnd  liarrel  Ifeinff  weighed  wpnrately. 
lii.na  I  .,f  III!  apparatus  of  ibiitliiiul  designed  by  the  author,  which 

■  sult-H  with  a  probable  error  nut  eiiceedlnK  ^  per  cent 

■  A.  8.  M.  E  ,  Ti.  aw.     This  cnlcrimeler  may  tie  iiseil 
d,  instead  of  iiilerinitteiilly.    In  this  case  acontinu- 

--  water  into  and  out  of  tlie  l>arrel  must  be  estaidlahed, 
<if  inflow  and  outflow  and  of  the  condensed  steam 
-  .if  time 

EillUns   Calorimeter.-  For  percenta(£i*s  of   nioiHtjire  not  ex- 
3(H'rcenl  tlie  IhiottliiiK  cuioriiiieter  iu  uiokI  UKpfiit  iiinl  convenient 
larValily  flr»:un»t,-      In  litis  inslrunienl  the  ste/iTii  niiich  reaches  it 
i  by  an  oiitlce  1   ItHucli  dinmeter.  npi'iiliip  Into  a 
!  CO  the  iiMiiosphere.    Tlie  Kteiiiii  in  this  chani- 
1  nearly  or  quite  to  the  jMesHiire  of  tlie  atiiioH- 
'tl  b,-ai  in  the  steam  before  llirMttUii(c  euuKex  the  t^team  in 
lie  superheated  more  or   less  according  to  whether  the 
;    Itling  wan  dry  or  contniiied  moisture.     The  oni3'  obserra- 
se  of  the  temperature  and  pi-essure  of  the  steam  on 

la  for  re<lucing  the  observations  of  the  tlirottling 
'Wt  IS  ii.-i   f  Hows    (Experiraentd  on  Throltiiug  Cnlorlnieters.  Am. 

Act  4,  ISM):    ir  =  IW  X  ^  ~  ''  ~j^'^  ~  ''.  in  wiifch  w  =  percent- 

'  in  the  steam;  B  =  total  heat,  nnd  F.  =  latent  heat  of  stesB 

■■:  h  =  tot«l  heat  due  the  |jrrs.«iiie  in  the  dischart;e  sidei 

—  ]  Mil  I",  at    atmriRplieric  pre.«isui*e;  AT  =  specific  heat  off" 

•  ratiire  of  the  ilirottled  and  siiperlicated  «W 

/t'rafure  due  the  pressure  In  »V«  ejjlortmtj 

ire. 

£-ir  c./A/iH,/  rJiofiri-asiire  In  the  liiscbarice  side  ot  the  C&VxUn^ 


\hrrie prtfaurit,  the  furniiila  J><>coiiie 
briii,iUj/ie  foJIomiag  telito  is  ^ 


I 


730  THE  STEAM-BOILER. 

MoiBTURS  Iti  Steam— DsTKiuiiiciLTioWB  bt  Tbhottuko 


~1 


i 

Oauge-pre«stire«. 

ta^J, 

1 

o3« 

fi 

10 

SO     ao 

40 

60 

00 

TO 

TB 

W  1  A 

lU 

JH 

■ 

a 

Per  Cent  ot  Hoiature  In  Bt««ni.         ^ 

0* 

o.i;t 

000 

1  (54 

S.Ofl 

2.50 

2.90 

1       1       1      1 

8.24!  3  W    '  -    ""  ».l 

lO" 

0.01 

0.39 

l.OJ 

1.54 

1  97 

■i.da 

3.71 '  S  "                       3.4 
2.17    2   1-                        JJ 

20* 

.51 

1.0-2 

1.45 

um 

30» 



,00 

.50 

.92 

i.na 

1.04 

40* 

,,,  i 

,  ^ 

.}» 

.77 

>   10 

1    1 

50° 

.  •-  • 

.IM 

.57 

J. , 

60° 

. .  t  ■  * 

•  * 

-  .      -  . 

.  ■  •  . 

.08 

:m     .. 

TO" 

.roai 

Dif.p.des.' 

.osm 

.0S07 

.nsts 

.Of.26  .0f>3l 

.n5*i 

.0M«   Of^ll       ...^ 

i 

Gauee-pressiireg.                       ^| 

3  ^Bo' 

^^H 

05  ?t' 

100 

no 

ISO 

ISO 

140 

ISO 

ido 

m 

180 

"^ 

r^ 

1 

Per  Cent  of  HoisUire  in  SlMim. 

0» 

4.30   4.03   4.R3 

6.08 

5.89 

5.49 

8.68 

6.87]  6.091  6  tfl  1.1 
6.W   S.Ss.WIJ 

4.74    4.91    5.08.  J 1 

10» 

3.84   4. OB 

4,:» 

4.68 

4.78 

4.98 

6.11 

SO" 

3.29   8.52 

3.74 

3.06 

4.17 

4.87 

4.58 

80° 

2.74 

a.tf? 

3.18 

3.41 

3.ai 

3. HO 

3.99 

4.17'  4  34    4  5l'«4 

«• 

3.19 

3.12 

li.63 

8  85 

3.00 

3.34 

3.43 

S.«V  !1  7«'  S  (M   «  ' 

80* 

1.64 

1.87 

U.Oft 

2.29 

2.49 

2.6H 

3  !^    "  ~      " 

«0° 

1.09 

l.SS 

1  52 

1.74 

1  98 

2  12 

2 

70« 

.55 

.77 

.97 

I.IN 

i.a« 

I  M 

1,;. 

80» 

.00 

.« 

.42 

.63 

.83 

1.0(J 

I.IS     l.:i4     1   .- 

90° 

.07 

.26 

.44 

.611     .781     .'.>: 
.05*      •! '      ": 

100* 

110* 

V\t.p.ifK 

.0549 

OMl 

.05.M 

.0586 

.0559 

.0561 

.a'... 

84)par«ttn|{  Caloiimet«ni.~ror  percental 
the  rangt)  of  the  throtllinK  calorimeter  thp  »ei>ar!ii 
whioli  is  sinipl.v  a  steam  (wixirHtor  on  n  -       ' 
lbl8  caloriinfler  io  drsfribeil  by  Prof,  <   i 

For  ftilJer  iiiforiuatioii  on  various  ki; 
Prof.  Peabodv.  Prof.  Carpenter,  ami  Mr 
X,    xi.   xii,  l6S9  to  1891:    Appendix   li 
A.  S.  M.  E.,  Tol.  vl,  18»l:  Ciiciilur  of  S.  i 
riinrtiTs.  Throttliiicaii'i  Spimiailii;:."  In:'! 

■denUBcatluu  of  Dry  Steam  by  Appearaoe«  af  » 
Prof.  iK'iiliiii  n'raiis.  .\.  .s.  M.  I;.,  vol.  x.i  roiiml  Hint  Jum  of  hCmin  ti 
iiilstiiLnbW  cImuKx  of  up)>v«i7iDC«  tu  tiip  «)e  whvii  Memn  varus  k* 
fniiii  tlie  conilltioD  of  aaluraiioii  eltber  ill  ibe  illrcctlon  of  ir«tlM<ai<> 
lifiiiiit?. 

'' ■  '  •'•■-"  -v  from  a  boiler  iiilo  I'     — 
'H-s  of  lieat  occur- 
•  •   IliH  ftriflr**.  or     . 


CHIMNEYS. 


lommoD  bru8  peM!oc1;  may  be  used  as  aii  orifice,  but  it  should,  if  powst, 
le  set  into  the  steara-drum  ot  the  boiler  and  never  be  placed  furtliei 
'  from  the  latter  llian  4  feet,  and  then  only  when  lUe  interiiii'dialf  rei«al< 
ir  pipe  is  well  coveretl. 

inal  Amoant  of  Iflolatare  In  Steam  KHcapiiis  IVom 
ler.— In   the  coiniiion   fi.jnns  of  linraiiixul  tuljiilui    luiiil  (luilHrB  niH 
rtiilMi-  ImilerK  with  ample  hi>i'izi>iitul  druoiis,  anil  Mipplieil  with  wal« 
From  KtibsUnces  likely  to  caiiiie  foamiuf;,  the  iiiuiKturu  in   the  tueun 
not  generally  exee«Hl  3i(  unless  the  boiler  is  overdriven  or  the  wat 
luacried  too  bigta. 


CHOnfEYS. 


llmney  Draafcht  Theory,— The  commonly  accepted    theory  of 
Hey  draui;hl,  Imsi'd  on  PecliH's  mid  Kankine's  hypotheses  (see  Kaukine, 
1,  M diacuBsed  by  Prof.  De  Volson  Wood  iu  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol 
■Mt  rvprewDUd  the  law  of  draught  by  the  formula 

'■ig^  III-' 

lleii  A  ia  the  "  head,"  defined  as  aiivh  a  height  of  hot  fi:aHeB  ay,  )f  addi 
to  tiie  cohinvn   of  jjases  in   the  cliiinney,  would  produce  the 
aame  presKure  at  the  furnaee  as  a  culuinn  of  outitMeair,  of  llm 
aame  area  of  biu*e.  and  a  height  equal  ui  that  of  the  chimney 

u  Is  the  required  velocity  of  g:ases  in  ilie  chiitiney; 

O  a  cotiHtant  to  represent  the   resistance    to  the  passage  of  al 
through  the  coal ; 

J  the  lenfrtb  of  the  dues  and  chimney; 

m  the  mean  hydraulic  Uejith  or  the  area  of  a  croee-Bectton  divl 
ded  by  the  perimeter; 

/a  couutant  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  surfacesover  which 
the  ffoses  pass,  wiielber  smooth,  or  sooty  and  rou^h. 

aktne's  formula  (Steam  Engine,  p.  '288),  derived  by  giving  certain  valui 
eoonstantg  (so-called)  In  Peclet's  formula,  is 

^(o.oeo:) 

Udi  B  =  the  heiglit  of  the  chimney  in  feet ; 

,  =  ISB"  F.,  abaoliiie  (lemiieratuiti  of  meliiiifr  Ice); 
=  absolute  temperature  of  t)ie  gases  In  the  chimney; 
alHtoiute  temperature  of  the  external  air. 
food  derives  from  thLsaslill  more  compies  formula  which  eivM" 
Mglit  of  chimney  required  for  tiuriiinii  a  given  qnantiry  of  pojiT  per 
KI,  and  fniin  it  hecalciiluti-!!  the  follouin);  ttttjle,  fihowlng  the  height  I'f 
ttey  required  to  burn  respect  ivt^iy  24,  20,  and  10  lbs.  of  coat  per  ttquari^ 
>f  grate  per  hour,  fur  the  several  temperatures  of  the  ch(nin«"y  gHis-'s 


J 

t 


UdiH 


ids  Air. 

Oblmney  Gas. 

Coal  per  $q.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour,  liui. 

24                     'iO                   !S 

n 

Absolute. 

Temp, 

Fahr. 

Height  If,  feet. 

tao* 

TOO 

289 

SSO.O 

157.8 

BT.B 

■lata  or 

soo 

389 

178.4 

lis. 8 

66.7      m 

t>r. 

1000 

539 

140.1 

100.0 

48.7    1 

1100 

isag 

148. a 

Bft.a 

488    ■ 

ISOO 

789 

15«.0 

100.8 

49.1  m 

1400 

93a 

150.9                 lOft.T 

n*^ 

1600 

J/S» 

iflK.H             n\  0     \  .^^^m 

1 

xooo    y 

1539        j 

«06.5        1        \UMj 

»  hen  thf  oul!>i<J»  t»'niprr»lo'^  i>  00°.    Prof.  Wood  wrs;  "  Tni«  i 

a  fix>-<l  Tslitr.  hill  depamirrd  from  tbeor;  io  practice  do  ao(  iS«^l  tto* 


Unruly.    T 
iDg.  a  ten.f 
far  f rriDi  t : 


Tly  coDslrucied  rktmu^i, 
iim  liraughc*  and  ibat ' 
^'j,  alti>oo(;h  in  apecial 


A 

ieal 

Sibil. 

(S««»  Trans. 


apM  twm 
(IteM 


.  ttam  a  practiiiil  (onuiiia  for  cbimiieTa  npM  < 
l'eel«t  and  Bankitw  have  (Aile<l  on  accmutt  ui  U|.l| 
iiiifT  ciirrvci  v:iluc-<>  [o  the   so  called  "coo«H»W'i 

.     .  M.  E  .  xi.  ^M.  i 

Force  or  Intensity  of  Drmueht.— Tbeforer  oftbrdniit 
1olh<J  ilifffi->?me  hHHrecn  ibe  Wright  ut  t\i-  •■r.uu,,,.  ,.r  u,.i  caa*«  i 
cWninirj'  aud  tii**  w»*igbt  of  a  cohiinn  uf  '  'h*  i 

II  <a  measared  by  a  draueht-iraai^.  usiia  MIM  tAkt 

oii«le(;  coDtirct«d  bya  pipe  to  tbe  inten^i  ..  ._. — i  aieoUiefif 

the  external  air. 

If  />  Is  till?  density  of  tbe  air  ouuide,  d  tbe  density  of  Um  botli»j 
ill  Ills,  per  oiibic  fciot,  h  the  heipbl  of  tbe  ebiinney  In  feel,  and  .1 
for  convertliiK  pressure  in  lbs,  per  »q.  ft,  into  lDi;be*  .>f  water  c 
the  forinula  lor  tlie  force  of  druuKhl  espreNted  in  inches  of  w« 
F=  .\«i)i(D-  d). 
The  density  varies  witb  the  absolute  lemperstun*  Cam  Raoldnei. 

ii  =  ^O.0M;    i)  =  0.090?  ^A 
Tl  U 

where  t.  Is  the  absolute  leni|>eratiire  at  32"  F..  =  <B3  ,  t,  Ui«  i 
perature  of  the  chimney  fcaaaa  and  r,  tliat  of  the  exlerual  air. 
these  values  the  fotuiulu  (or  force  of  iliaiieUt  becouie^ 

F=  .193*(«»-^  -   i'^)  .  1.(1^  -  ^). 

\      T,  Ti      /  ^    r^  T,    ^ 

To  fln<l  tlip  muxlmiiin  iiitensity  of  dmuEht  for  any  w'lfrn  r1 
healed  eoliiinn  beine  A00°  T  ,  And  the  exteinal  air  i 

nbnve[ji  jiie  In  feet  by  .41078.  and  rhe  product  Klbi^ilr 

Selehtof  Water  Column  Due  to  UubBlu.xit.s.<.:  J.'^^ 
Chimney  100  Fe«t  High.    (The  Lueum-tMtM.  i* 


Teuiprratiire  of  Ibe  External  Air— 

Bait)inet«r,  I4.T  (ba 

0" 

10° 

90° 

ao° 

40* 

Kf 

tay 

70°  >| 

.453 

.4-.D 

.884 

.xa 

.831 

.S9e 

.i&l 

.8S4  ,    ««>l 

.4A8 

.4^3 

.418 

.388 

.855 

SS6 

.•JOS 

tm 

.... 

,(W0 

.4.'« 

.451 

421 

.8tf8 

V<9 

ao 

.«i 

.KB 

5i8 

.484 

.45.3 

.480 

.8IW 

.Mt 

.S8I 

.584 

.M« 

SIS 

.48S 

451 

iH 

.DM 

.M9 

^tu 

.611 

.578 

,Stl 

.511 

,478 

.449 

.«ao 

,m 

.s*; 

tra 

.MW 

.588 

.SOS 

.470 

.447 

.419 

^^H 

.em 

.(MM 

.ri93 

.58S 

,!>!» 

.501 

.478 

.-MS 

s 

.«HT 

.ms 

.018 

.888 

.555 

..li-O 

-4«7 

.408 

.;ii) 

.(ITS 

.nil 

611 

57S 

..•kI9 

.'.•JO 

.4a> 

^^H 

.■n-j 

.avr 

.0»2 

.633 

.508 

.670 

541 

.618 

^^H 

TM 

.7I« 

.084 

.651 

.«ao 

.5»l 

IMS 

5»i 

]^^| 

774 

.789 

.705 

.074 

.041 

.618 

.581 

.»» 

^^H 

.798 

.TftS 

.7*4 

.691 

.(WO 

«»! 

.608 

.574 

^^H 

.8111 

.770 

.741 

.710 

.078 

.844 

.oao 

Z 

^^^H 

fWtl 

.7ni 

.780 

780 

w>r 

eat 

.BW 

JH 

OHIMffEYS. 


.polbrr  bright  of  cbltnnejr  than  IflO  ft.  the  Iteifrht  of  water  coUitnn 
Brt'hy  simple  propoitinn.  the  ht-ipht  of  water  ooliiniii  bviiiir  ilireclly 
irtiniit^  111  thi'  lieiKhi  of  chimney. 

wlcuUilonn  hftvp  b<'«n  iimiit^  for  n  cbininey  Hm  ft.  liiuh.  with  varixiM. 
ntureii  oiitRide  mid  inside  of  the  tlu«,  niid  on  the  HuppoKition  thai  Ihi 
trature  of  the  chiinnry  ia  uiiiriirra  fn'iii  top  to  bultoiu.  ThiH  U  thAl 
on  whioh  all  calculnliorif:  r(«|>rciiiiK  the  di-nuglit  pow**i'  of  i.'hiiiit>«.vi 
Iweii  moUx  l>y  Rimklue  and  other  »rlteif<,  but  it  ix  vi-iy  far  from  tlia 
In  mckst  castw.  The  difft^rt^iice  »vili  i>e  Khuwii  by  cuttipai'lu^  liie  reHd- 
llie  Jraiijtht-fi^auge  nitli  th>-  table  Kiv^'i-  ^n  <"'>' *-'»'**}  i^  cbiiiitiey  yjS  tL 
ihowed  a  ienipei-Blui«  at  the  base  of  S^H)*,  and  at  the  lop  of  aXf, 
',  bi  hia  "  Trratise  on  Heat,"  givus  the  followluK  table : 

MT  PowsRs  or  Cbiunkvs,  ictc.,  wrra  tbk  Ixtebnal  Aih  at  SSS°,  and 

W  EXTSaKAL  Ala  AT  112°,  AMD  WITH  TBK  DaMPKR  NEARLV  CLOBBO, 


78M 

y 


•m 

Theor<?tlcHl  Vt-loclty 

•S    M     V 

in  feet  per  swolid. 

1^5 

Woo 

Cold  Air 

Hot  Air 

Entering. 

at  Exit. 

(^ 

.073 

1T.8 

3S.a 

.U« 

iiS.S 

50.6 

.218 

81 .0 

62.0 

.398 

as.T 

71.4 

.mn 

400 

80.0 

A-M 

43. S 

87.  (i 

511 

47.S 

94.6 

bis 


80 
]*)0 

200 


.6S5 

.857 

.730 

.S7B 

1.09S 

1*77 

1  460 


Theoretical  Velocity 
in  feet  per  second. 


Cold  Air 
Entering. 

88.7 
56. n 
62.0 
09.8 
74.3 
SO.O 


Hot  AJr 
at  Exit. 


101  .X 
I0T.4 
11S.0 
1S4.0 

iiM.e 

140  « 
ISO  0 


I 


le    of    CombnaUon    Sue    to    Height    of    (^Ulniney,— 

irhlfto'i' "  Heat  and  Heal  KngineK'' ^^Ivtw  itie  I'oUowiit:;  talHt;  showini; 
4^18  of  chimney  for  pr^dncine  oenain  rates  of  combustion  per  sq. 
leetion  of  Ui«  chiiiinoy.  It  ma\  be  niiprDximately  true  for  anibracite 
lerate  and  larj^  9lze>i,  hut  g'realer  helt^hta  than  are  tr'^'en  in  the  table 
■efled  to  aecure  the  (riven  rates  of  cnmbnstion  with  snmll  sines  of 
wile,  and  for  hiiuniinoiis  coal  smaller  Iiei(;hr8  will  niifnce  if  the  coal 
DDably  free  from  ash— 5$  or  less. 


hU 


Lbs.  of  UonI 
Burned  per 
Hour  per 

«q.  Kt. 

of  Section 

of 

Chimney. 


Lhs.  of  Coal 

Burned  p<-r 

Sq.  Kt,  of 

Orate,  the 

HlMKllt.-i 

Ratio  of 

In 

(irate  to  Sec- 

feet. 

tion  of 

Chlnini-y  h»' 

itiKH  to  ]. 

7.5 

TO 

8.5 

75 

S.5 

eo 

10.5 

85 

U.8 

Wi 

Vi  4 

«5 

IS.l 

100 

13.8 

lOTi 

14,5 

no 

16.1 

I-bf5.  of  Coal 
Buriieil  per 
Hour  jier 

H<j.  Ft. 
of  Section 

of 
Chlnmey. 


126 
131 
135 
189 
144 
148 
152 
150 
l&O 


Lbs.  of  Coal 
Burned  pnr 

Sq.  Ft,  of 

Grate,  the 

Hatlo  of 

f J  rate  to  Sec 

lion  of 

Cliimney  be- , 

iDR  S  to  I. 


Ifi.B 
16.4 
16.0 
17.4 
18.0 
lfl.5 
19  0 
19.5 
SO  0 


nton'M  rule  for  rate  of  comhutflion  effecte*!  by  a  ^Iven  fteight  of  chini* 
"rails,  A  S.  M.  F...  xt  9I>I)  Ih:  Suhtraer.  I  from  twice  the  square  root  of 
Igbl.and  the  result  is  therateof  coiiibiistion  In  \xniT)rts'peT  w\\MXV«tf^~' 
M»  per  hour,  for  muhraclii'.    Or  rate  =  2  \h  -\    lu  ^bViiVi  li  \*  ' 
Jaieft.     This  rule  givi-s  iht)  follOKliifi: 
'=00        ao        70        uu         SO      JOO     no        VJ6        1M        \'!&       «» 
=  lXJf    U.49    JUTS    16.B9    1T.»7    19    19.J17     Sl.Sft     aa.4a     »•** 
>n,  ,gr^  eloMeiy  ».,fj,  Trowbrtdge's  table  Riven  •■bove. 


734 


CHIMNEYS. 


lie*  tlie  lileb  rat<>«  at  combustion  (or  hi^h  chimneys  given  by  the  fonni 
are  not  (ci>nrrallT  ol>t«lnoil,  for  the  i^ason  that  with  hi(»h  ehinineys  there 
usunlly  loiiR  luirizumal  fluen,  *erviiiK  iiinny  boilers,  and  the-  frk'tioii  and 
inu»rf»r«'nc«  lif  ciirri'UtH  frotii  the  iwTeral  boil<?r*  Atv  apt  to  eaus*?  the  inl 
nity  of  ilrauifht  Ui  the  branch  tluea  leiidine  to  «ach  holler  to  be  much 
than  that  at  the  ba»e  of  the  chimney.    The  draught  of  each  boiler  is 
UfliiaUy  restricted  hy  a  daiiifjer  afid  by  twuils  In  ibo  ^s  passH^eis.    In  a 
tery  oi  tieveimi  iMiller'ti  rtinnec'teil  to  tt  I'liiiiiney  IM'i  ft.  bit^ii,  the  author fi 
adraueht  of  t4-inch  waler-ooliiinn  at  the  iMtiler  nearest  tite  chimney, 
only  tj-iiich  at  Uie  Imller  farthest  away.    Tlie  first  tioller  was  wastiiiR 
from  Kw)  hlKh  teniiieraliire  of  the  oliiiiineyuases,  SCiO',  bnving  to<5  lsrg»|| 
grate. Kurfaee  for  the   drangbt,  and  the  last  l>oiler  was  wirkinK  belotr 
rated  capacity  and  witli  poor  econoiuy,  on  account  of  insufficient  dnuighL 

Tha  effect  of  ctuuiKiiie  the  length  of  tbe  flue  leading  Into  a  cliimne;  " 
hlsh  and  it  ft.  S  in.  square  ts  givea  in  the  (oltowiug  table,  from  W 
"  Heat  ■• ; 


length  of  Fluo  in 
feet. 

Horae-p«w«r. 

Length  of  Flue  in 
feet. 

Hone-|l^^ 

BO 
iOO 

aoo 

400 
100 

107  8 
10O.O 
86.8 

n).8 
es.s 

800 
1.000 

1.500 

e.ooo 

3,000 

St.* 

S1.7.  J 

The  teniperattire  of  the  gnapH  in  this  chimney  waa  annmed  to  bet 

and  that  or  the  atinoHphere  6°J*. 

H1kI>  l'l»lmney»  not  Nece«»ary.-C'1iiiiiney(i  above  150  ft.  Iiil 
are  very  contl.v,  and  tlieir  jmreHseil  cij«t  is  rarely  justifled  by  incnsM 
flciency.   In  recent  practice  it  lias  l»eooine  goniewhat  common  tobuildl 
more  .mnaller  chlniney»  instead  of  one  large  one.    A  notable  ezamplel 
SpreckeLs.Sngnr  Refinery  in  Phiiiulelphia,  where  Ihre«  separate chinux 
used  fi>r  one  boiler-plant  of  "iiOO  HI'.     Tlie  thro*  chimneys  are  said  t 
coat  scTeral  thunnand  dollars  less  than  a  single  chimney  of  their  coi 
capacity  wonlil  have  co«t.    Very  tall  chimneys  have  been  characceri 
one  writer  as  "  monuments  to  the  folly  of  their  buililers." 

Helglita  of  Chimney  reqnired  for  DidTerent  Fnela.- 
ntinlmiini  In-iKlit  necessary  varies  wiib  tJie  fuel,  wood  retpiiring  tlie  i 
tlieii  good  biluininoiiK  coal,  nnil  line  itire^s  of  anthracite  the  grosti 
also  varies  with  the  cliarncteruf  the  boiler— the  Muallur and  morefir 
the  gaipaosageg  the  higher  the  htack  ret|ulred;  also  with  the  DUB 
Ixillers.  a  sli]gle  boiler  re<|uirliig  lesn  height  than  several  that  i"* 
into  a  horixontal  flue.    No  geuei-al  rule  can  be  giv<?u. 


8IZB  OF  CHIMNKYS. 

The  fiiniiula  given  below,  imd  the  uble  calculated  therefrom 'or  d 
up  to  !W  in.  diameter  and  WO  ft.  high,  were  firt^t  published  by  the 
in  1884  iTrauR.  A.  S.  M.  R.  vl ,  81).  Tliey  have  met  with  much  api 
Bince  that  diite  by  en;;ineer8  who  ijavB  used  them,  and  have  ijeen  fre 
published  In  hoiler-niakein'  catalogue*  iind  elsewliei-e.  The  table 
extended  lis  cover  cbitiineys  up  to  I'J  ft.  iliftineterand  300  ft.  high.  Tl» 
coirespomling  to  the  given  commercial  liorse-power.s  nie  Ix-heved  t 
rtinple  for  all  cases  in  which  tlio  draught  areas  tiiiough  the  boiler-fluet 
connectiuua  are  sunictenl.  saj'  not  loss  limn  '.iO%  greater  tlian  the  area  of 
chimney,  ami  in  which  the  draught  l)eiwe«n  tbe  boilers  and  chimney  i» 
cliucked  hy  long  horlKunlal  pii.'isages  nnd  right-angled  bend!;. 

Note  that  Ihrjignie)  in  the  tiiblrcorveapond  tonctxil  conjntmpiiOHOj 
trf  colli  per  tiorsij  priiiu'r  per  (loiir.  This  liberal  allowance  is  made  to 
lliecoutingencfes  of  |>oor  coal  being  uaed,  and  of  the  boilers  Ijeinei 
beyond  their  rated  caimcllv.  In  large  plants,  with  economical  boifen 
euglney,  goofl  fuel  niid  other  lavniuUle  couditioua,  which  will  redoes 
maxlnium  rate  of  cal  consiniiplioii  at  any  one  litne  to  less  tl\an  5  Ibn. 
H.  P.  per  hour,  the  (Igtnes  in  the  (able  may  be  multiplied  bv  the  raiioof 
the  majtiliiiim  expected  ooal  consumption  per  H.P.  per  lionr.  Tines, 
trooditioDft  which  make  l\>e  maxunuHv  coal  cuuaumption  only  25  lie. 
Iimir,  thn  chimney  300  ft.liiitU  v.  Vi  U. <Y\».uveV«t  6\(ivjA.V«. «iftfeleiit  1"T 


dliri 


BIZK   OF   CHIMXBYS. 


saast  fiK%3  Rsss  ssse  aisii  sg^i 


1  iiii  i§l§ 


iiii  iillilillili 


-Il§  IISI  lllgij 


:  is§g  isig  ||li  I 


•     :  ':  ■  ':     i  ;»*   5sS§    SlfJ    llll 


II 


;  j  i  :    i  i  i  ;  SSSi   Sill   nil   g||§  I 


i  i  n  Ns3  ii§i  m%i  |§|| 


:  issB  siSi  g§iS 


8    I 

d 

3    I 

d 
s 


i  i ; ;  asis  §iss  ig 


!:*=  SH5I  sass 


SS3S  esss 


B3S;!  ssss  g 


HfiiP  ssz 


S83S3    X 


F 


5   ^  . 


I 

O 

bssR  ss'-;!s  stss  uiRn   ssns  ssss  | 

■_;««    K-^^ri    >^32«    saji^    3SS3    SESS    u 


K=2g  a«&j?  ssss  sss«  Sftss  M'iSiV 
-"■»"'  -■<='<—'  »sg2  asiiR  sasa  ?.«.*'5-\ 


CHIMNEYS. 


I.  The  draught  power  of  tlip  clilnmey  varies  as  the  i 
height. 

3.  The  retarilltig  of  tliB  ascending  eases  hy  friction  timjf  I 
equivalent  to  a  (iimiuutioii  of  the  irta  of  the  chlmuej-,  or  ti 
fbininey  by  a  liij-w  of  gas  which  baa  no  velocity.  The  (hi(| 
litiinc  is  assumed  ti:  lie  2  inches  for  all  cliimoeys,  or  1ln«  iliinld 
equal  lo  the  perimeter  x  3  inuhes  (neRln:liiiK  Clie  overt  ipplug  it 
of  the  linine).    Let  Z>  =  ilisiiieter  in  feet,  A  =  urea,  and  £  =  t 


In  $<|uare  feet, 

Fi>r  square  uMmueyH,  E  =  V  ■ 


^^-  A-^VA. 


For  round  chimeyg,     ^  =  jC""  -  ^)  =  A  -  am  \ 

For  BimplifyidK  eultulallon-*,  Ihe  ooeffloienl  of   \  A  iiiay 
for  both  Kqitare  and  round  clilmiK^yH,  and  the  fornujla  become 

A'  =  .4  -  O.tl  S  A. 

3.  The  power  varies  rtlreL'tly  as  I  his  elTectlve  area  K. 

i.  A  chimney  nhouUUii'jiroponioiii'd  so  as  to  l>e  capable  of  | 
«lrau^ht  to  cause  tho  Vjoiler  tu  dcvHt4ip  nuich  more  tliaii  its  i 
cii<«  of  emergencies,  or  to  cause  Ihe  combustion  of  5  Ibg.  of  I 
horsepower  of  boiler  per  liour. 

."i.  The  power  of  the  cliinmey  varying  directly  as  tjie  elTecUv 
as  the  square  root  of  the  heiglit,  tJ,  Ihe  fLirniula  for  linrve  po** 
a  ffiven  size  of  chimney  will  take  the  form  II  P.  =  ■ 
ciinstant,  the  average  value  of  which,  obtained 
obtained  from  numerous  examples  in  pructiee,  the  n 

The  formula  for  horse-power  then  is 

H.P,  =  3.»3£  y'H,    or    H.P.  =  a.33(a  -  .0  ^^A)  vi 

If  the  horse-power  of  boiler  U  ^ven,  to  flni]  Ihesise  of  ciilaia 
tielug  assumed, 

For  round  chinmeys,  diameter  of  chimney  =  dlaiii.  ot  S-\-i 
Tor  s<lUare  cliimneys,  side  of  chitiliiey  =  ^K-^4". 
If  effective  orea  fc'ls  taken  in  square"  feel,  the  diameter  In  I 
tZM  V  A*-|-4",  and  the  side  of  a  square  chimney  in  inches  iii  «  : 
If  horse-power  is  given  and  area  assumed,  the  heiKhl  '/  : 

III  proportioninK  ohimnoys  the  height  in  generally  llrst  ( 
I'ousidertition  to   the  heif^nts  of  siirroinidiKt:  biiililiu^'v  •• 
proposed  chiiiuiev,  tin*  len^h  of  iiorixontal  tluei^.  tit" 
iiHeil,  etc.,  and   llien   lli«  diameter  reipiiietl   f.ir  it 
Iiorwe-pow»'r  is  cftletdart'd  tiy  l|»*-  fxniiuhv  t.r  tnkeii  ' 

The  Prolertioit  of  Tall  Cliiiunvy-ahari-^ 
— C  ^lolyiieiix  nml  J.  M.  Wooil  ijuditxii  irx.  .Maieli 
tAll  cliimnevrt  the  u*e  of  a  coriinal  r.;-  t',^a\  v  li.ii..!  .. 
wiibcpper  puiiit;!  1  ft.  iu  lielKhi    ■ 
feiviiee,     i'lie  points  Hliiiiild  be  gi 
proved  fniin   of  coiiduclor  is  n  ■ 
weit"!  p.T  ri.     If  il-i.n  is  us.-, I  i; 

t>ci  iii4t  lie  III!  liKiilnlioii.  ai   > 

U>  I  .    witli   liuldriisiH  if   111' 

JOtj.     .\ii  ailowance  tor  expaiiN- 
40  ft.     SIlRht  U-uiW  Uv  t\ie  ' 
llf»    *'nrt)i   lei  inietil    ri   \^\,vt,- 

111/ 


SIZE  OF  CHIMNEYS. 
Soaae  TwM  VHok  Clil«na«]rt. 


781 


h 


HUlte,  Sax. 
llMjtow..  •- 

»KOW 

'low,  Bolton, 

I  Oo.,  BoHton 

Co.,  Newark, 

» '  -  •  • 

Bil/OWl.Mam 
Mills,     Lavr 


|]s,  Maiiches- 


E.    L.    Co., 

,B.T  ..- 

lUllii,  Law. 


ilyu.Twoe'chi 


460 
454 
4» 

ton 

888'9" 
SSO 
SSO 
389 
314 

aoo 

150 


Outside 
Diameter. 


Capacity  br  the 

Aut£or* 

FormulA. 


18.T' 
18'' y'' 


18'  ST" 
11 

11 
18 

10 

10 

U 

8 


83' 
83 
40 

as'io" 

80 
98"  V 


RO'' 


9 

Kiao' 


!1 
14 


each 


H.P. 


Pound! 

Coal 

per 

hour. 


18,3S1 

9.T98 

8,SM» 
6,568 

5,485 
6,980 

8,S8» 

8,88* 

7,6« 

3,848 

3,771 
1,M1 


60,103 

48,979 

4I.a4B 
ar,790 

87,175 
■.•0,900 

i9,ies 

llMtt 

87.676 

11, «0 

13,865 
7,705 


I  Abovr  Chihnetb.— 1.  This  chiinuey  is  situated  near 
rtght  bank  of  llie  Mulde,  at  an  ok-vatlon  of  219  feet  atjove 
Iry  works,  so  (hat  its  Wiilal  height  abi>ve  the  sea  will  be  711^ 
I  are  !iUuat<>d  en  thn  buuk  of  the  river,  and  the  furDaoe. 
•ed  across  llie  river  to  tlwS  chimney  On  a  brldKr,  flirouph  a 
e^n/tli.  tt  is  buUt  throughout  of  briuk,  and  will  coKt  about 
Id  Btdr. 

he  fact  that  it  was  struck  by  ligbtnlnK.  and  «omewbal 
■ecaTitionary  iiieaaiire  a  copper  exteoHion  subsequently  was 
(ne  Its  eTitire  height  498  feet. 

were  built  of  tneRP  great  helKbl'S  to  remore  deleterioua 
^gtiborfaood,  as  well  as  for  draught  fur  boilers. 
re  reKt.s  on  a  nnlld  granite  foiindatiuii,  55  x  30  (ert,  and 
its  construction  there  were  used  1.700,000  hricliii,  i!(X)0  tons 
rrel"  of  mortar,  1000  loads  of  sand,  1000  barrels  of  Portland 
estlniored  cost  Is  JlO.OOO.  it  in  arranacd  for  two  flues.  8 
6  feet,  connectinK  with  40  boilers,  uhiuh  are  to  bo  nm  iti 
four  triple^eipanslon  entliies  of  lllO  l>"irBe-|>ower  each, 
(form  tiatter  of  'J.83  inches  to  etery  10  feet,  1/ettigned 
t  300  R,  P.  each.  It  is  surmouoced  by  a  eaat-h-on  cop:, 
he  afx  tons,  and  Is  composed  of  thirty-two  sectioi 
9  tog:ether  by  inside  flanges,  so  oh  to  present  a  «nioo 
fflnridatiun  is  in  concrete,  composed  of  crutibed  llnii 
laiid  3  parte,  and  PortkoJ  cement  1  purl.  It  lu  40  fe( 
»et  deep.  Two  qualltlej<i  of  brick  were  UKe<i;  tlie  oui 
!  fhe  Rrst  qufllity  .VortU  River,  and  the  tackiOK  up  was  of 
Ir  Jersey  brick.  Every  twenty  feet  in  vertical  measurement 
ttches  wl-lA  nn.l  *4  to  J^  inch  thick,  placed  edi;ewi»e.  «  mm 
lUls  n'  s  from  the  outi<r  circle      Ab  the  cbinine' 

l>ase  I  The  outer  wall  is  .5  feet  i  inelie*  '«>  \Y\\«ii 

of  t/ii-  I  wall  10  //lolies  tliick  and  npaceid  ott  «il 

»/a  nail     I'r.im  tlu>  interior  surface  of  the  niaVn  wivW  i_^ 
•rrfr-,/.  orarlr  fr,ucl)/iJ«-    ijjis  inner  or   inuiti    ttiie  XiXV 
vJJ^Jti'^i    "■  '".'"' ,'."  ™?-     Tlie  interior  -wniV,  «i 
men  it  /«  dtmlnisheJ  tn  8  incbeB.     At  165  Tee\  \^ 


led  I 


738 


CHIMNEYS. 


r 


1 


•nd  the  rest  of  the  ohiranr^y  is  without  Uoing.    The  UAaX 
BflT  and  foundation  in  5000  tons.    It  was  completed  In  bepietiii 

I,  Connected  to  IS  boilers,  with  ISOO square  leelotgnlf  •nirfi 
g«iijrp  1  9/tO  Inches. 

8.  Connected  to  8  boilers,  6'  8"  diameter  X    18  feet, 
square  feet. 

8.  Connected  to  61  Man iiinf;  vertical  boilers,  total  prrtte  »irr.tr< 
Designed  to  burn  18.000  llw.  aotliracite  per  hour. 

10.  Deaiicned  for  la.OCK)  ll.P.  of  engrines:  (oornpounil  coii>> 

II.  Grate-surface  4S4  square  feet;  H.P.  of  boil.T>  .fJiiilr 
13.  Eieht boilers fwater-lubf) each 4.WHH.;  I, 

deaig-ned  for  »6.(KX)  inoandesoent  llfrhts.     For 
wall  is  28  Indies  thick,  then  lit  inches  for  20  i  ■ 
inches  for  SO  feet,  and  12  inches  for  'JO  feet.    Tht*  int-r^ 
thick  of  fire-brick  for  60  feel:,  and  theu  8  iacfae«  thick  of 
next  -30  feet.    Illustrated  in  Iron  Agr,  January  2.  1«(K). 
A  number  of  the  ahovechiiiineys  are  illu.strat^d  in  /VnAe>,  TWc, 
Chimney  at  Kiioxville,  Tenn.,  illu.siraled  in  ifti^'y  JVeir*,  No*.  ^ 
6  feel  diauieler,  120  feet  liigti,  double  itall: 

Exterior  wall,  height      20  feet,    SOfeet,  SO  feet,  *rt  f»e« 

"  "     thickness  21Hi  In.,  17  ill.,    M  in.,  8U  in.;  | 

Interior  wall,  helRht      85     ft., ."» ft..    29  ft..  21  ft  ;  i 

"      thlcKnesslS^jIn.,  8tiiD.,4iu.,  0. 

EJiterior  diameter,  15'  6"  at  bott.om;  batter,  T  Hi  mru  Ic  TllnV-'  fn 
torn  to  8  feet  from  top.    Inlerinr  diameter  of  i 
top  of  liitarlor  wall.    Space  between  walls,  16 
to  Oat  top  of  tnterinr  wall.     Tiie  interior  wall  i 
of  4  inches  of  (Irfbriclc  for  X)  ft-i-t  from  bottom. 

stability  or  Cblmuera.— Chimneys  must  b«>  dei>l|cii«dl 
miixiuium  force  of  the  wum  m  the  locahrv  ht  whiili  liiejM" 
iiVeak  Chimneys,  below).    A  general  ni 
chjiiineys,  approved  by  many  years  of  \ 
Statea,  is  to  make  the  diameter  of  the  h.i 
chiiuney  is  square  or  rertan^ilnr,  make  the  diaiuiji 
of  tlie  base  one  tenth  of  the  heieht.    The  "  baiter  ' 
should  be  from   l/l»  to  J4  iueh  to  the  foot  on  -•«. 
shouli)  be  one  brick  (8  or  S  inohesi  thick  for  th-  - 
creasing  ^  brick  (4  or  4^  inches)  for  each  ">  !■ 
If  ibe  insi'le  diameter  exceed  5  feet,  the  top  If  n.. 
if  under  3  feet,  it  may  be  W  brick  for  ten  rf*-!. 

fFiom  77i«  Locomotivf,  iSw  and  1886.)    Forcnimnejns  of  foMf  I 
eter  and  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  upwards,  the  best  form  t*e 
a  stralKht  tiAtter  on  theout«ide.    Acircular  chlraneyof  thls«ia^ll* 
to  being  cheaper  than  any  other  foriu.  is  lighter,  Mroagvr,  tai  t«^ 
better  and  more  shapely. 

Chimneys  of  any  connlderable  height  are  not  I 
from  lop  to  bottom,  nor  with  a  uniformly  Tarv 
wall,  heaviest  of  course  at  the  base.  Is  reduc>e.t 

Where  praciicable  1  he  load  on  a  cliimnMy  fouiululion  1 
tons  per  square  foot  in  compact  sand,  gravrl,  or  lonm. 
bottom  is  available  for  foundation,  the  load  may  bo  vr 
the  rock  is  ^'loping,  all  uiisonnd  portions  should  t>e  rennt* 
dressed  to  a  snries  of  horizontal  steps,  so  that  there  aluUl  I 
slide  after  ihe  stnn-tiii-e  is  fliiislii»d. 

All  iKiller-cliiniucys  iif  any  oonM 
Htaok  of  fiiifncienl  strength  to  giv. 

stock  or  C"re  inile|iendeut  of  the  "i  i>fl 

extended  up  to  a  help  tt  of  but  fjO  or  <)0  f»-ei   ft  "in  i  ii.-  h;(M 
but  thb  belter  practice  Is  to  run  It  up  Hie  whole  helsht  of  1 


iriftN  !■• 


st..rc-i 


ff.  siiv,  ac"u)>le  feet  lii-lou  Mio  i 
[    the  core   but  the  I 
>li  and  not  cc>\^X.rA«- . 
'  le  core  at  \\«u\'V> 
Till*  han  IvTU  l^'"^*^^' 
'•^11  the  f  »pikn''Vo»>  <*^ 


lui  ih'  ■■<)» 


SIZE  OF  CHIUNETS. 


i,t..i.  „„.i  o  hichps  IhlclC.  Tlt4^»e  ar«  the  mlnlmtuii  thloline9w« 
if  tliiK  lieifrht.  and  the  hatter  i^bniiM  hn  not  leas 
ly.     ITie  •■iTc  sliouWl  a)so  be  biiili   In  Ihive  gttrps 

,,,^ ,.  .Miit  iioe  ihirtl  thn  height  of  thc^  ohli'inpy,  the  lunifHi 

,  Hie  iniiiilli-  S  iiiclie".  «nd  llie  upper  sie|>  4  iiiche*  lliick.  ThiK  will 
good  soiitid  coiv.  The  top  of  n  ohimnej-  ma.v  be  proiecleil  by  a 
'  cap:  or  perhaps  a  cheaper  uttci  eqiuilly  px»d  plan  is  to  hiy  the 
"  ■  part   in  some  good  cenoent,  aud  plaster  the  top  with  tlie  same 

Clitmney>> — James  B.  Franeis,  in  a  report  to  the  Ijiwrence 

II   1973  tEitti'ij  NficH.  Aii(r.  VS.  1880).  gives  Rome  ealciilatioriii  cun- 

he  probable  effects  of  wind  on  that  compmiy's  chimney  as  then 

IlH  itiiter  fihell  iff  oiHai^onal.    Tlie  intier  t^hell  is  cyliiidrie&l, 

Br-itpace  lietween  it  nlid  tlie  niiler  shell;  the  two  slietls  not   being- 

Wher,  except  at  the  openings  iit  the  lm,'e,  but  with  pnijectioris  ia 

rbrk.  at  intervals  of  about  'JO  fl.  in  heitrhl,  ro  afford  lateral  sim^ 

ntact  of  the  two  shelis.    The  principal  dlmeuaious  of  the  cblm^^H 

iK  'ottheBrouml fill  ft. 

I  circle  of  the  octagon  near  the  ground .  15  " 
!  circle  of  llie  octa-foii  near  Ihe  lop...     Iflft.lViln. 
M  cf  the  i^uti'r  slirll  nenrihe  base,  9  bi1clt8,  or...   ...    W8U  in. 

I  of  the  outer  L-lieli  near  the  tup,  3  briclis,  or JIH  " 

1  of  the  Inner  nhell  iienr  the  base.  4  bricks,  or I.')      •' 

I  of  the  inner  «lieli  near  the  top,  1  brick,  or •'<K  " 

Ith  of  the  lieight  for  the  diameter  of  the  liase  is  the  rule  conitnonly 
The  diiimeierof  tlie  lu.scriti«d  circle  of  the  Ijaxe  of  the  Lnwreiice 
.tiring  CViiopany's  chinitiev  Iteing  15  ft.,  it  is  evidently   much  iesa 
Bual  ill  H  chiiniiev  of  that  iieiglit. 

Jter  the  chimney' was  Ijiiilt,  and  before  the  mortar  had  hardened,  it 
pd  that  the  top  had  swayed  over  about  yi)  in.  toward  the  east.  Thl» 
tutiy  due  to  a  strong  «e.«tei  ly  wind  which  occurred  at  that  time, 
ion  hroiipht  back  to  the  perpendicular  by  sawing  Into  some  of  the 
art  other  means. 

ihiliiy  of  the  chimney  to  resift  the  force  of  the  wluddependgmaiuly 
rtKht  of  lis  outer  shell,  and  the  width  of  ii$  bn-^e,  Tlie  coheskin  of 
kr  may  add  cunsiderably  to  ilt>  strength:  but  it  is  loo  tJiiorrtain  to 
(upon.  The  Inner  shell  will  add  a  little  to  the  Ktahilily,  hut  H  may 
tA  by  the  bent,  and  its  beneflciul  effect,  if  any.  It<  too  uncerlain  to 
ttnto  account. 

Btof  the  joint  action  of  the  vertical  pressure  due  to  the  weight  of 
■iiey.  and  the  horizontal   pressure  due  to  the  foix-e  nf  the  wind  is  to 
>c<*iitre  of  pressure  at  the  have  of  the  chiinuey.  fniiii   llie  axii!  to- 
eitide.  the  extent  of  the  shifting  depemliiig  uii  the  reliUive  iiiagni- 
tile  two   forces.     If  the  centre  of  pivBSiue  is  brouglil  too  near  the 
EJUie  chimney,  it  will  cru>h  tlie  brickwork  on  that  side,  and  the  cltini- 
1  fall.     A  line  drawn  thiongli  the  centre  of  pressure,  perpeiidiculiirio 
tkin  of  the  wind,  must  leave  an  nren  of  liHckwork  between  it  and 
►  of  the  chimney.  miBlcleiil  lo  support  half  the  weight  of  tlie  cliim- 
!  other  half  of  the  weight  being  supported  by  the  brickwork  on  the 
Mside  of  the  line. 

eiit  expcrimenterx  on  the  strength  of  hrickwoik  give  very  different 
.    Kirkalilv  f-iund  the  weights  which  caused  several  kinds  of  biicks, 
pydmiilic  lime  mortar  and  in  Roman  and  Portland  ceineiit.",  to  fail 
/.  to  vary  from  10  to  BO  tons  (of  aiOO  lb.s.  I  ner  sq.  ft.    If  we  take  in  this 
I  tons  per  sq.  ft.,  as  the  weight  that  woiilif  cause  it  to  begin  to  fail,  we 
i-nily.    To  support  half  the  weight  of  the  outer  shell  of  the 
-s.  at  this  rnte,  requires  nn  nrrtt  of  1"3  88  sq.  ft.  of  iirick- 
•  ilnta  and  the  drawlicgH  of  the  cbimney.  Mr.  Francis  eal- 
a  of  13. SS  so.  ft.  is  coiitnineij  inn  portion  of  the  chiiiiney 
»)  from  one  of  its  octagonal  sidi»s,  and  that  the  limit  to 

f  presiJfire ma^r  beshiried   is  therefore  fi.CTj'i  ?\.  trotn  V\\ia 
yoiid  chif.  Iin'  says,  on  tlie  os,sumptiovi  ot  llftft  »\-v«t\i%.\\i 
|Ajyii.<o(i.  jV  fflll  cnish  ntiil  the  eliimney  vtill  fall 


I 


CHIMNEYS. 


ne«re,  Id  ScotliiDd,  for  1887-68,  si«t9:    "1»  V-  >  r^--^' 

bv  Dbseivation  of  the  Buccefis  and  ralliir- 

of  tho»e  which  renpectiTCly  suxkI  oml  t- 

that,  ill  order  tlmt  a  r<iuml  «bliiint*y  mm      ■ 

should  be  xiioh  iliat  a  pi'i*88ure  of  wind.  <i(  al>.  i 

aurfncp,  directly  facinR  the  wind,  or  aTH>  lbs   j 

tion  of  a  ovlindrical  surface,    .    .    .    eholl  noi      _        , 

At  any  lied- juint  to  d«TlKt«  rroin  tlie  axis  of  llie  uiiuunry  by  i 

quarter  of  die  nulside  diameter  at  that  joint,'* 

Aocording  tn  Raiiliiue's  rule,  the  Lanrt-ocv  iltg.  Co.'n  rhiini 
toa  inaxiinuin  ijrt>stiui'a  u(  wind  OD  aplane  aviiog  on  the  whd 
18.80  lbs.  per  8q.  ft.,  or  of  a  prewure  of  Sl.TOltui.  prriiq.  ft 
uppermost  141  ft.  of  the  chimney. 

Steel  Clilnineya  are  largelv  cominjf  Into  use.  ■ 
ney»  of  iron-wurlcs,  from  ISO  to  900  feet  in  heijriit.      1 
are:  Krealerslreuf^lh  aud  safety;  auiaUer  ti|>a<'"  r. 
90  to  &0  per  cent,  as  coiiipai-ed  with  brlclc  c n  ; 
tion  of  air  nod  cnrisequeiit  checlting  nf  tlie  dr 

neys.     Tliey  are  n.suallv  made  cyliiidricnl  In  -hi,        a  j 

(or  10  to  85  feet  at  the  bottom.     A  heavy  fflptiri.n  tmt.-  nL 
whicli  the  eldniney  is  riveted,  and  the  plule  is  »efurvd  lol 
tion  by  holdln(£-do>vn  holta.    No  cruys  are  used.     F.  \V  (Jo 
Eneineerln^  WorlcH.  gives  the  followint;  melhud  of  oitlcuUtlscI 
anee  to  wind  pressure  (forcer,  Oot.  1893) : 

In  tents  by  Sir  William  Falrbairn  we  find  fom-  piiiprim 
the  strength  of  tliin  hollow  tubes.  In  the  taljln 

with  Ihcir  breaking  siram.    These  tii lies  we i.  •«* 

and  tbe  welkins  suapended  at  the  centre  from  u 
the  tube. 


/••« 


I. 

a. 
III. 

IV. 


Clear 
Span, 
ft.  in. 


17 
1& 

'HI 


7« 

0 

5 


Thlok-      Outside 

uesslruDii  Uiamo- 

itx.  t«r,  in. 


.087 
.118 
.0631 
.119 


18 
1S.4 
17.68 
18.18 


Sectional 
Area. 

iu. 


1.S90I 
4.3660 
8.487 
6.74 


Br- 
W 

J.. 


e.;o4 

11,440 

a,4V0 

14.?« 


Edwin  Clnrlrc  has  formulated  a  rule  from  expsrin 
during  his  Invealigatlona  Into  the  use  of  iron  suo 
bridges,  which  Is  as  follows  : 

Areaof  material  In  aq.ta.  X  MOP  depth  In  la.  Xftg 


a 


Clear  span  in  (ret. 


Center  break-   1 
lu^  Ioad,iii  tons,  i 

When  the  constant  used  la  l.S,  the  calmilalion  for  ilie  tubM  r 
upon  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  are  piven  in  tlie  lji*t  r.iliiiiin  .-f  liw  t.- 
Clark's  "  Kules,  Tivblea.  and  Oaio."  pai: 
as  follows:   H'=S.11i)»T«-t-L.     11'=  bi' 
/>=!  extreme  dianieier  iu  Inches;    r=i 
tweeii  supports  in  inuhes;  6'  2  ultimate  in 
Taking;  .':i',  the  ivtrenKlh  of  a  eouare  iij< 
per.  n(\  iu.,  cliis  rule  tlKureg  as  follous  ' 
ment^Ml  upop  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  ;  I. 
Tills  shows  a  ekise  approximai 
exiK*niu<:'iitn  and  Lhat  derived  front    : 

that  this  ay  stem  uf  cjU>-' 

.  safe  when  «  lariie  ttu: 

t  ohlmney  may  be  ataui!  : 

.1^  like  the  strain  Uuceti  aa  the  luvki^ 

square  toot.   V9\sA  v<c«M\ur«  M.  ntty  poiin 

._ J  J  to  be  trttiie'iWnB.  \n  »  ^'>-'^''^■^^"-^'' ■^■"'•t'l 

Bcity  (rora  the  tov  ' 
OB.     If,  however. 


SIZE  OF  CHIMNEYS. 


m 


1  (  vmiiT.Ii'  n  li'=-fnot  iron  cfalimtey  at  PoURlik.vimie.  N.  V.,  llie 

i'  Till   nmy  plKV  wilt   llnfrpTore   Iwf  Ti^  Unii>H  l'.'A 

I   I'V  Ml  ({ivM   B    tcrtal    wind    fnrce  of  a3,<M7 

ney  to  hivnkinp  iiciti*h  the  top  of  i1k> 

>  ■  1»,  diameter  of  hanv)  y  .w  ,-  sri.fHXl  + 

•  iitirH  fortv  (if  llif  wiml.     We  multiply 

■iiM>ve  t.titi  jouit.  Ill  tiK-i!>-^   '"<«-   i>\'  I    )  ''OAutM*  tlio chluiiii^v  hi 

Ked  beam  witii  a  kMul  su^l'  I   ■  1    ■!  ■    .-.lul.    In  calculuiiiig- 

w«y  up,  wo  have  a  !■■  n'li  ■■!  Un-  ~iiiii'.<  clinrnclpi-.    ]i  in  a 

I  Uiio  half  way  up  tlie  cUiiuiicy,  wlu-iu  it  in  UO  inelieu  in  liimii- 

Dob   thick      '1  akini;  tlie  diametrical  sectifjii  nlim-e  iliis  Ih)**, 

isooiiofnirat-?!!  in  theceniro  of  it.  or  half  way  iip  finm  the 

Iriiitleraiiiin,  its  breaking  strenuth  is:  3.H  X  ttO'  x  .\X7  -.  ;i,'i,<HX> 

'O.'-^Si;  nn<)  t]ie  force  ol  the  wiiid  tc  te«r  it  apitrt  ilimuub  Itn 

Vi  X  6-'!^  X  50-»-3  =  ll,35i,  or  a  little  oiotb  than  one  l*ntji  of 

tile  stitck- 

&  Wilcox  Co.'s  1>oofc  "  8t*am"  irlugtrBtes  a  steel  flitinn«ty 
ilie  Miirvluiid  Steel  Co.,  HpniTOw'H  Polul,  Md.    It   Is  'i2.'i  ti. 
",  with  hitemal  lirick  lining.'    IS' 9"  unlfunn  iitcide 
ft.  <liain.  nl  the  liiiM'.  iniHTiiii;  In  a  curve  to  IT  ft. 
■      !ice  tapering  almost  Inipercppiibly  to  U'  8"  nt  llie 
-  W  Cet-t  is  of  U-locli  ulat«8,  the  next  luur  sectioiiB  of  40  ft. 
Jvely  9/S«,  V'*.  "/"-.  »«"'  %  inch. 

m  of  Fonndatlona  for  Ste^I  Cblitinejra. 

ted  from  circular  of  Philii.  Eintineeriii>c  Works.) 
HALr-UacBO  Cbivxevh. 


■.feet. 


..    a 

too 

'  foniulaUon..  IS'D" 
HiMlation 6' 


ffoiittdattoa... 
iidatJon 


4 

low 

IV 


■JO'i' 

»• 

£00 

S8'8" 

iiy 


0 
l.id 

ano" 

8' 

as' 

10' 


130 

aa'T" 
ft" 

2»'«" 


0 
IM 

a«'H" 
10' 
jiiro 

Xi'C" 
13' 


M 

JO' 

aoo 

80' 

H' 


.  »f  8beet>lrou  SiuokefttavkM  per  poot, 

(Porifr  Mft?.  C>>.) 


WeiRlit 
p«>r  ft 


7.20 
8.M 

0.fia 

18.T5 
I&.OO 

le.ss 


DIatn., 
lucliHu. 


an 

30 
10 
lit 
U 
16 


Thick- 
nessR 
W.  G. 


Ho.  16 

«• 

No.  » 


ieMrvn  €litniney«. 


iney, 


Thlck- 
neHR     W>l|^lit, 
Irnn.  lbs. 

B.  w  a. 


Vo.  10 

•■    Jfl 

•'      JO 
"     IB 

••    M 

*     M 


100 

aeo 

TOO 

8-6 
900 


:i2 


THE  STEAM-EKGINB, 
THE  STEAM-ENGINR. 


^ 


Ezpanolon  of  Steam,   ■■othernial  «nd  Adtkbatlc. 

ini;  II)  -Mai  itiUt^'a  Uiw,  iUk  vuluiiie  ot  u  |wi  Ipcl  K'^'><  'L><^  lriu|H-iau 

kept  ooiiHtaiit,  vii'ies  iiivenc?;lj'  M  lU  prensure,  or  p  x  -;  yv 

Tlit^  curve  coimlnict^iil  froin  llilx  fui'miilu  iscalltNl  ihe  iiutS 
oiirvt*  of  t'liiml  leniperatures,  and  is  a  coiiiinon  or  nrdanipil^ 
Thi'  lelaikiii  <>r  t1i>^  preHMuiv  am)  volume  of  gatunued  •te*n' 
from    Ke);iiaiilt'!i  expHriiii«nt<<,  and  ns  given  in  Sleani  t«bla 
■lately,  HCconlitig  to  Ilunkiiie  (8.  E.,  p.  103),  for  pressures  atA* 

I  -  IE  }1  I.M» 

It*.,  |i  T      ,,.  orp^  •'        ,or;>r'     —  [>v  =  n    i->ii>stiuii . 

roiiiKt  that  the  exponent  1.0(146  gives  a  closer  approxiuiatiOB. 
When  st-eatu  expands  In  a  closed  cylinder,  a»  lu  au  eBfia 

Haiikiun  (S.  E,,  p.  385),  the  approximate  law  of  tha  vxp«ml(M^ 

/•  ».  r~V.  ■«•;.(•'■'"    .  a  coimtant,      The  curve  co 
inula  is  i-alleii  tlie  iitiiiihdlic  curve,  or  cui-te  of  no  : 

IVuhoily    Therm.,  p.  Hi)  say«;    '"It  is  probabu-  I'li 

oliiaintMl  by  iXJULpuiin^  the  expansion  line^  on  a  Liit .  '  ^ 

iliintfiiiiis. '.  .  .  TliKie  (l(H>s  nut  itppear  to  lie  any  >;• 

ex[M>n<'ntlal  eqiiiilii/n  in  thisooniKX-lint anil  the 

■•tiKine  i-yliiider  iH  far  f'um  beiuM  aiHabdiic,  .  .  .  V^i   k'' 
Jiypei-lKila  is  ihe  iiest  curve  for  conii^iiirtoii  with  tiie  ex|M:.  - 
imiiciilor  i-Ri-tl.  .  .  ."     Wulff  and  Denton,  Trann.  A.  S     y. 
■  iToui  anniiilH-j'  of  oaitls  oxainlueii  from  a  variety  uf  swam  •-"i-  •• 
rem  use,  we  Hnd  that   tlie  nfti>i)l  expanKioD  line  varies  U-lwern 
uiiinhnlii;  eiirvit  an*!  the  Mari'itte  curve.*' 

I'rof.  Thiii>iroii  (A.  9.  M.  E  .  li.  a08»,  sayn  he  douuts  If  ''  

beeomes  the  same  in  any  two  ell^nes,  or  even  in  the  Km 
fereiit  times  uf  the  day  uiiil  iiiKler  varvine  cunilitioim  of 

Expdnnlon  of  Strain   Krcordlns  to  narloi: 
to  the  Adlabatic  I>aiv.    iTrans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  il  1'< 

jiv  -  pii'i;  vulue.«  faloulated  from  formula  —  =  — il  +  i 

pi       ^ 
R ~  Vt-^-Vf,  j)|  =  aliKolute  initial  nreusnre.  Pm  —  absolii 
t>|  =  initial  volume  of  steam  Incyiintlcr  at  pretsure  ft,,  r,^  I 
Ktenm  at  nnal  pre«8iire.    Adiabalic  law:   dcV  i-  im<,V;  « 


from  (oi'uiulu- 


»if-V. 


jiri 


p,i-, 


Batiu  of  Mean 

Ballad 

lo  Initial 

Ratio 

tul 

Pres«iii». 

<.vf 

Exiwn- 

Pw 

Mar. 

Adial.. 

sioii  H 

]Ur. 

.6S4 

400 

«. 

.Ml 

.«U 

.MX) 

«« 

Ul 

.605 

.VW 

6  .'j 

.iH 

.597 

.sn 

0.T5 

.III 

.aw 

..v» 

7 

.«H 

.swt 

..SM 

T« 

.«! 

.«w 

.Ma 

T8 

.#• 

.M4 

.&» 

7,r» 

M 

.^* 

.SJO 

A 

.M 

.M» 

.5« 

Be 

tn 

Ml 

.ai« 

8.5 

m 

fi>i. 

50» 

».» 

m 

\    .rf»  \   .-At.  \  ^ . 

sa 

\     «i  \    .Vfc  \  >».«. 

^^\^ 

\      V*  \     .V^  \  %i^ 

\  -1^  "W^ 

^H  TERMINAL  ABSOLUTE   PRESSUBES.     743 

HB   ot     Expanded    Steam.- Kor   calculations  ot 
Ihilly  a.s.>iiiiifil  ihal  Memu  i-j;punil:.  ai-conlinR  to  .Maritilti-'n 
[llie  rxpAnsioii  linp  Ijeinjf  a  hyiitrlKiIu.    Tin-  tiican  |irei>iiiirn, 
^Mmun,  is  ttiea  obtaiiif'd  from  the  fontiula                              ^i 

PenbAolute  mean  presaiire.  p,  the  absolute  Iniliiil  prrdmire 
up  to  the  in-iiil  of  cut-off,  and  K  the  raliuof  rx(ian8Joii.    If 
>ke  to  tke  cu'.-olT,  L  =  total  stroke, 

MhypV'Bj       ^  ..„     L     ^       _  i  +  l.jpiog« 

rTermiiial    Abitolnie     PreBBiil-«ti.- Marlotte** 

jUfs  lu   th«  following  table  art;  ba.seil  on  Aluri<>i:e's  law, 
'i  Isstcoluiiio,  which  give  the  mean  pressure  of  Kupe rbeaie<l 
^x>rdine  to  Rankiae,  expands  in  a  cylinder  dC<iordinK  to 
n.    The«e  latter  values  are  calculaint  fnim  ;ii<*  formula 

-.   S        itMiy  be  found  by  extracting  llie  atiiiure  root  of  ^ 

»  the  mean  abaolnte  prettsurea  given  d-idnct  Ihe  mean  liack 

te)  to  obtain  the  mean  effective  presKurt-.                                            [| 

Ralto  of 

Mean  to 

Initial 

FretBure. 

Ratio  or 
Mean  to 
Tei'inina> 

Pressure. 

Ratio  tf 
rerntlnai 
to  Hean 
Pvessure. 

Pjttianr 

liiiUal 
til  Mran 
Presstin-. 

Ratio  of 

Mean  to 

Initial 

Dry  iJteam. 

0.1467 
'    0.1547 

o.ieas 

0.1741 
O.ISSO 
0.1908 
O.Slfll 
0.2858 
0.2473 
0.2599 
0.-J61W 
0.2742 
e.2001 
0.3089 
0.33U3 
0.3552 
0.3810 
0.4210 
0.4.H47 
0  46S3 
0  4807 
0  5218 
0.5008 
0.5065 
0.0308 
0  6015 
0  699S 
0.7171 
0.7440 
0.7B64 
0,8095 
0.8485 
O  87811      1 

O.aoea 

0.9187 

s.aau    / 

W«5       / 

4.40 
4.85 
4  38 
4.18 
4  09 
4  30 
8.89 
8.77 
8.71 
8  64 
8.60 
8.56 
3.48 
8  40 
8.30 
3.90 
3.06 
2.95 
2.90 
2.79 
S.74 
8.61 
2.50 
8.39 
2.29 
2  20 

a.io 

8.05 

1.98 

1.91 

1.80 

1.89 
1.00 

l.Sl         / 
1.47        / 

J.Hfi          1 

0.227 
0.281 
0.285 
0.289 
0.244 
0.250 
0.256 
0.265 
0.269 
0.S73 
0  279 
0.S8O 
0.287 
0  2B4 
0,303 
0  312 
0.321 
0  33» 
0.:M5 
0.36O 
0.364 
0.383 
0.400 
0.410 
0.487 
0.454 
0  4T8 
0.4K8 
0  5*15 
0.323 
0.(M 
0.591 
0.626 

o.ma 
O.oeo 
o.oog 

0.718 

s.as 
e.46 

«.ll 
h.7.^ 
5  ita 

5.00 
4  68 
4.21 
4.05 
3.85 
3.72 
3.65 
3.44 
.^21 
3.03 
2.. SI 
2.00 
2.37 

s.a 

2.15 

a.08 

1.1H 

1.78 

1.88 

1  .58 

l.M 

1.43 

1.80 

1.34 

1.31 

1.24 

1.18 

l.U 

1.10 
1.09 
1,07 
1.0& 

0.136 

"'oiiaa"'" 

o.at 

0.814 

0.370 

■"'6.«7  " 

0.508 

0.688 

0.948 
■■■  6.707"' 

6.7M        ^J 

^^                                                                                             ^ 

:44 


THE   BTEAW-EK 


Calrnlatlon  of  neAn  KflTBCtlTe  Vrt^nnare,  nra| 
fomprpimlon  CotKildered.— In  ihe  arin 

-cv-  I- -J 


Area  of  ABCD  =  p,a  +  c)(l  4-hypl<«  j^); 

B  =  pj,(i  -  as); 

C  =  pcc(l  +  hyp  loj  ?iS.)  »|)^to-t-c)^l' 

0  =  (Pi  -  J'f)*'  =  Pi'  -  Pt,(«  +  e)- 
Area  of  A  =  ABCD  -  (B  +  C  +  0) 

=  p,(J  +  0(1  + hyp  log  4^ ) 

-  [p(,(t  -  X)  4-  p(,(«  +  c)( I  4-  hfp  lOK  ^^^7^)  +  Pi* 

■P,('+c)(l+lij-plog  ji{) 

-  PbU^  -  "  +  <»  +  «j  •lyp  loff  '-^ 

area  of  A 

ExjmPLB.— Let  Z.  =  1,  I  =  0.8S,  *  =  0«V.  c  =  0.1,  p. 
Area  A  =  e0(.85  -f  J((l  +  JijTp  log  H.) 

-  S  [d  -  .»)  4-  .»S  Ijyp  k«  ^] 

o9i(i  4.1.145)  -a[.75  4-»x  i.asaj  -  » 

=  IS.OIS  -  2.177  -  ti  =  86.088  =  mean  ^ff.-.  tlTdl 


EXFANSiON   OF   STKAM.  14^> 

riotte's  law,  jjv  =  ft  conMant,  and  (lie  iieoeasary  eorrecHons  «pe 
r  cleoraneeanil  compri^simi,  tiiepriwcind  mean  prpRflurt- In  priiotlce 
fouiiil  b}'  inulliplviiig  ihn  calculated  rwfuUs  by  the  factor  iu  iha 
g  f'^''*  occoicliiig  to  Sealou. 

^^  *         Particulars  of  Engine.  Factor. 

Bwve  eogine,  special  calve-erar,  or  with  a  separate 

t-ott  TaWe.  cyliiuliT  jacketed O.M 

■aiiKlve  eug^iiie  having  liirge  ports,  etc.,  and  good  or- 

nary  valvtii,  cvliiiders  jacketed.   .  . 09toO.BS 

aiisivc  engines  with  the  ui'dtnary  valves  and  Rfar  iw 

(teiieriU  prn<Hice,  anil  unjttckete<l 0.8  to  0.89 

ipouud  ent'ines,  with  expansion  valve  to  li.p.  cylin- 

ir:  cylinders  jackeitf>l,  and  with  lar(»e  jwirts.  etc 0.9  10  U.9S 

npounJ  entwines,  with  ordinary  slide-valves,  cyliiidem 

caeted,  and  go*id  porl«,  etc 0.6  lo  0,86 

ipouiul  engines  as  in  general  practice  in  the  merchant 
rvice,  with   early  cut-off  in  both  cylliid*»rs,  without 

ckeia  and  esuaDsion-valves O.TIoO.8 

t-ninnlne  engines  of  the  type  and  defil^i  usually  fitted 
war-«brp8  O.etoO.6 

r»rrectlon  I*  madK  for  clearance  and  cnmprpsgion.  and  the  enfdne 
jordance  with  peneral  iniKlein  practice,  the  theriieticnl  mean  pres- 
ly  be  muUiplied  by  OM,  and  the  product  by  the  proper  factor  iu  the 
9  obtain  the  expected  mean  preasui"e. 

I  tli«  Initial  PresKnre  and  the  Avcmgc  Prcwaiire,  (o 
■d  tlie  Ratio  ofExpaaalon  anu  tlic  Period  of  Admia^ 
n. 

P  =  initial  absolute  prejisnie  in  llw.  {ler  »q.  in. ; 

u  =  average  total  pressure  during  stroke  In  lbs.  per  sq.  in. ; 

I,  ~  lenfrth  of  stroke  in  iiiclie.>:; 

t  =  period  of  ediniiwion  ijieasured  frombeKlSDlDgof  Btrnke; 

c  =  clearance  in  inches; 

Jfs  actual  ratio  of  expansion  s -T-^- ,   .    .    .    < (I) 

W  +  hyploKft 
R 


r 


rd  arerase  pressure  p,  takinn;  account  of  clearance, 


f«-|-«-)+nf-f  cjhypl.gfi-iV 


pL  +  Pe  =  P{l  +  rH\+  hyp  log  fl)  j 
J.yplo«fi  =  ^^^- 1  =  ^^-1 m\ 


^nnd  P,  to  find  R  nn</  1  thy  trial  and  error)  — There  beln^  two  un- 
4Uaiitities  Rand  /,  assuine  one  of  thein,  viz.,  the  peilod  of  ndnitsjiioii 
itniR  it  Id  equation  l.i)  and  solve  for  R.    Siibxilliite  Ihiii  value  of  A  in 

nula  (I),  or  I  =  — J-, c,  otitained  from  formula  ili.  and  find  /.    If 

ill  Uirreat«ii  than  the  aRRiimed  value  of  /.  then  the  acMumed  value  of 

od  of  admission  ia  lou  loittr;  if  li!a.«.  the  aiisuiniMl  value  Is  loo  short, 
a  new  valoe  of  /,  sunstiliile  it  in  fnrriiiilu(.S)  ua  before,  and  continue 
melhud   of  trial  and  error  liil   the  required  values  of  A  and  (  niu 

1 

HM.—P  =  70.  p  =  la.TS,  L  =  60".  c  =  »'■.  to  And  I.     XssvtTO*  I  a  -i.\  \^| 

^=  -TF^  -  '  =     '  tl  +  9 1  -  1.6W  -  V  »  Si^\ 

m  .tea,    wbenca    R  =:  tM 


£ 


BAK-s^em. 


>-«* 


Theretore  It  =  IS.  aad  I  s  VS  iaeitei. 

Ptriod  of  Admittivm  St^ftitrd  for  a  S*wk»  Attftai  Hat—  V  J 
»=?^^- eta  !•<««• 


Jn  perc«auige  of  stroke,  I  := 


l»5-pi.ct< 


—  p.  ct 


Trminnl  prtmurt  = 


P(t4-c) 


/^'e««Mre  of  any  olkrr,Poi»t  af  tftc  JbpumH^m. — Vtt  Li  < 
U)>  to  the  giTen  point.  * 

Preasure  >t  I  be  given  point  = -; — -^.  . 


r  WORK  OF  STEABI  IK  A  SITtCLB  CTLKl 

To  fncilllate  calculations  of  «train  rx|iani1nl  m  cTtMKlKrc  l%»  I 
next  \»te  is  abridee<1  from  Clark  on  the  Stratu  ■•■.',ei"r. 
of  pzpansion.  c -lUDio  I.  ranice  from  1.0  i' 
lOKaritliniE  are^reo  in  column  '.!,    The  S^i 
adniisaion  ivIaiiTe  tr>  the  actual  ratioi*  of  ' 
•iroke.  oulL-ulaied  by  formula  (.'>)  abore 
of  the  ineao  pivaitnr-8  relative  to  the  initm 
as  1.  caloiiLutt^i  b;  rormuia  (2|.  In  the  calcv 
Inceix  taken  inin  account,  and  its  amoiiDi  is  ei>.>^ijiii- 
the  Flnnl  preasure-i,  in    the  BIh  column,  are  8uch  as  \ 
tlie  continued  exiianHion  of  the  whole  of  the  steam  t' 
'  the  hiitial  pressure  b'-ing  equal  to  1.    Th^-y  a,w  ii 
•  if  ex|>aM!>ion,  column  I.    The  6th  coluain  i-uui  ' 
forin.-ttu'es  of  raual  weif^ht^  of  xteAm  worked  wn 
^■■Df  •>xpiinsiun:  the  total  perfonnance,  <frhen  strani  i^nw 
^■»f  the  sirukM,  without  expausioa,  lieine  equal  to  1.    The.r  i 
^Htfivi'llnir  the  tli^urefl  in  column  t  hv  th"*^  In  ('oliimn 
^K^  The  pitTi»ure!<  have  l)efn  call-    ■  itl 

^^■teain.  duriui;  its  adtuisKiou  li< 
^^Vu  I  til  IK  off.  ami  ibnt  III-'  i^xpai. 

Rlrokf.     The  relalivp  ptMfi»i  nwiiic*'K  i:;n  f  i»'4'tj  cjjruijn^'  !  wuIm 
liiice  for  tlip  effect  of  coinpre»Kive  nctioii. 

The  cnlciilinioiiH  have  h.-en  made  for  periods  of  ».1tTi»«tiit  i 
^00](,  nr  the  w  hole  of  the  stroke,  to  !).«.  or  I   l«  ■' 
nmiiiitily,  tlii-  eipanxlon  in  It  lime*  In  the  iaxi 
tliiien.  nn  jcivHO   in   Ibe  first  column      The  c^ 
uiiilOHl  anil  the  ai.-lnal  rntloa  of  •  v 
thh'h  Ik  equal  to  T$  of  the  Mroke.  hk 

1lHit(e>l.  iiBMiely.O  tS.lolMs  auiro'-  f( 

jIJh.  tor  exinHL'^iuu.  NVneu  vivk  ~ 
,iili  Im  only  i  tluieav  wbett  CJA  ' 
III  i>tT  lit  5.^.  tUee«p»ufclon\«SWjv 


OP  STEAM   IN   A   SIXOI.R  CTUXDEH.         747 


rorklne  of  SCeam  .triaal  RalJoa  or  Kxiiati- 
I  tJie  BelatiTC  Period*  at  Adn»l*al*n,  i>rrM» 
Performance. 

lk)8.  absolute.    Cl«^arauce  at|each  end  of  the  cylloilrr  7t 
(BiNOLa  CrusDKR.) 


IMOI 

i 


3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

s 

1     II 

S     1 

^   s. 

>■  --  = 

S     l> 

^    1 

1    6 
-£5 

0="  = 

111' 

1"- 

II. 

t.     »- 

m 

t£B' 

-<     " 

H  '- 

< 

?L_ 

z. 

100 

1.000 

l.OOO 

1  aw 

5IS.273 

>4.0 

4.05 

go.s 

.996 

.909 

1.096 

6:J,860 

31  0 

4.45 

88.8 

.086 

.847 

1.164 

67,836 

£98 

4.78 

80 

.MO 

.813 

i.«oe 

70,a4« 

•J».% 

4.9B 

75.S 

.gee 

.769 

1.261 

73,513 

ae.9 

586 

'.Q 

.9M 

,719 

1.3S.S 

77,^42 

as.o 

.5.63 

S6.8 

.913 

.090 

1.3C5 

TB.S.W 

S4.V 

5.87 

«4-5 

.flea 

.640 

J  4S5 

83,065 

•.•3.8 

6.23 

69.9 

.913 

ISS 

1.4«t 

8.M-25 

23.3 

6.47 

M.l 

.888 

.Wl 

1.M6 

l)0.1!.5 

aa.o 

7.08 

SO 

.H80 

.633 

1.616 

91.300 

St  0 

7.61 

4«.5 

.836 

.5 

l.BTi 

97.4.18 

20.3 

8,09 

40 

.787 

.439 

1.793 

104,406 

19.0 

9.83 

87.6 

.766 

.417 

1.837 

107  .ON) 

18.5 

9.71 

88.8 

.•:28 

.877 

1.94S 

na.a-.o 

ir.7 

10.78 

;»  » 

.69S 

.315 

a.OTO 

116.h8 

16.9 

11.7* 

Off  4 

.e.'B 

.:tl3 

a.o&i 

iai,3S6 

10.8 

l-'.95 

25 

.087 

.•/OS 

2.fJ9 

K'4.<i6S 

16  0 

13  ,58 

«.7 

.608 

.a78 

4.187 

13r.4N) 

1.^  5 

14. .57 

21.8 

..Vfl 

.i63 

2.340 

iso.caa 

1.S.8 

IS  38 

19.7 

.560 

.■au 

3.878 

U-i  770 

11.9 

1(1.19 

1H.5 

.551 

.138 

■2.31.') 

l.W.WKI 

14.7 

17.00 

le.B 

.sai 

.22a 

a.. 170 

jas.  lai 

1J.S4 

in.ai 

15.3 

..W1 

.W»8 

a.  lis 

14P.9-.'0 

11.0.5 

19.43 

14.4 

.4*8 

.ioo 

3.410 

UJ.180 

13. M 

20.83 

13.6 

.4TB 

.1!I8 

a.uie 

I^S.Ti'O 

n  rs 

21  04 

12.5 

.457 

.1*; 

•-'..Ml 

I4li8--'fi 

13  M 

W  25 

11.4 

.438 

.]72 

8.647 

14K..-190 

13.34 

88.47 

It.l 

.433 

.1U8 

a.5.'>o 

MK04l> 

ri.-js 

83.87 

10.3 

.419 

.161 

2.585 

l.W.MHO 

13.14 

25.00 

10 

.113 

.i:ifl 

8  597 

I.M.370 

13.  OM 

85  49 

g.s 

.ass 

.l.VJ 

a.G'O 

\h-2.fm 

13. !W 

a«.7i 

8.8 

.381 

.i« 

a  604 

l.W.v'OO 

18.76 

88  la 

T.7 

.369 

.137 

•-•  «»:( 

1A|I.«<10 

18.61 

89  54 

7.1 

i»7 

.13;^ 

•J  711 

1.57.«7a 

12  S3 

30.76 

6.7 

.348 

.liM 

8.719 

158.414 

la.ffl 

3)  57 

1   e.4 

.342 

.!« 

2  T.-JO 

159.433 

It. S3 

88.38 

If  TBlc  Taulk.— Timl  Hie  iiiiliul  |)r€'!isui'e  ia  imiforni:  Hint 
complel);  to  llit-  end  of  ilie  sliokr;  Unit  ilif  jiiewuie  In  ex- 
IkVfrsely  as  lli«?  voltjine;  ihut  I|it*re  in  D(.»  btK'lt-pressure  of 
niprrtuiioii,  and  Hint  clini-cincr  is  't  cf  ilu<  Kin'kcnf  encli 
ler.  }iitalloHiini-eJias  liefn  iiia(l4<  for  loeaot  &lfUlu  L>lf  vyl- 
'oa  or  If&kafif^. 


'atenm  of  lOOlbg.  preasiins  per  sq.  Id.,  or  14,400 


I'SO 


THfe   3TEAM-ENG1NB. 


K 


X  M  Se  ft.  =  55, TBS  rt.  •  lbs.  The  beat  rquiv&lent  of  thia  work  to  MNM^ 
:>TI.T  units.  Iliiit  18  tilt)  work  oM  lb.  ot  steam  of  one  aUnoqilimM 
n  a  pfefcon  «'ithoiit  exiMiiiBlon.  | 

Tb«  gios>s  work  thus  done  on  a  piston  by  I  lb.  of  steain  (.-niHiau-J  tin 
preauiUres  varyiiif?  Iroin  15  lbs.  to  100  lbs.  |ier  aq.  hi.  vh:  -      : 
from  50,000  to  B'J.UUO  ft. -lbs.,  ttniivalfiit  to  from  7i  to  ? 
TWs  work  of  I  lb.  of  steam  without  expausioii  i.s 
sccordfQi;  to  llie  proportion  it  beam  to  the  net  c'a|>ai':: 
tlie  clearance  be  'f  of  the  ulroke.  the  work  of  a  givi-n 
out  expansion,  aduiitCcfd  for  the  whole  of  the  stroke,  i> 
of  lor  to  loa. 

Havlug  deteniiined  by  this  ratio  the  quantity  of  work  of  1  lb.  of 
OUtexp-annioii,  HH  reduced  by  clearance,  the  work  of  the  "'J*!'"-  "--ii:! 
far  viiriou!*  ratit.ts  *jrcxpaiiKiOD  may  bt*  found  )iy  niullii 
pcrforitiEin*!!* or  *-qiirtI  xv'oi(^lit.<  of  i*r»'fttii.  jrlvrfi  in  (lie  - 

QnantUjr  orst«ain  CouKnmed  p«r  Horx> 
'Work  per  Hour.    iCSiluum  H  of  table.;— The  nif. 
is  the  perf.priiMiice  (>(  83.000  ft. -lbs,  p«-r  minute,  or  ]..■ 
TbiH  work,  divided  by  the  work  of  1  lb  of  steam,  givi-^ 
reqiiii-ed  per  liorse-power   per  hour.    For  exiuiiple,  iln'   : 
done  iu  too  cylinder  by  I  lb.  of  100  Ibt;  ^te^im,  without  e»i' 

I   MA  AAA 

7)f  of  clearance,  U  5S:iVi  ft. -lbs.;  and  ^,   =  «  lbs.  of  siea..., 

of  steam  consumed  for  the  total  work  dune  in  the  cylindi-r  prr 
per  hour.    For  any  shorter  period  of  admission  with  cjtpaii 
of  sit-am  per  hnrse-powvr  in  les».  as  the  totnl  «  ork  of  I  lb. 
and  may  be  found  by  dividinR  l,l»wj.000  ft.  Ib».  by  ilie  rrw 
done;  or  by  dividing  31  lbs.  by  the  ratio  of  iHsrforuiaiioe^ 
tablo. 

ACTCAl.    KXPANSIONS. 

IVItb  Dlfl'ereiil  CiMtranrea  and  Cal> 

Computed  by  A.  F.  NOKle. 


I 

Per  Cect  of  Clearance. 

i 

■  Cut- 

~  oflr. 

M 

1           1 

M 

0         1 

8 

S 

4 

6 

« 

7    1     S 

J 

b" 

lOO.flO   B0.5 

SI.O     36.75 

iU8 

17.6 

IS.  14 

i:i 

1 

■     .03 

80,00   88.87 

■.a.50   -JO.OO 

i7.a» 

15.00 

13  a 

11.'  ■ 

9 

H     .0:] 

a-i.ni  ia.-£i 

SU.40    17. IU 

14. 8« 

13.1i 

11  7S 

10 

'< 

■     .M 

•J5.00  uo.ao 

17.110    14.71 

13.00 

ll.llti 

tO.flO 

•1 

J 

■     .06 

•JU.OO    llS.tW 

14.57    1i.87 

11  55 

10  .50 

0.A4 

.■> 

;1 

^      .06 

10  07    14.41 

12.75  {11.44 

10.40 

0.5o 

8.8S 

f 

i 

.07 

i4.a8  r.'.oj 

11.33    10.30 

0.40 

8. 70 

8.16 

' 

! 

l_       .08 

k»..t0  it.a-j 

10  ;>       i.'M 

8  U7 

8. (to 

7.57  ,  7 

( 

^      .00 

11.11    10.10 

».S7  1  8.58 

8,00 

750 

7.0T 

<t 

■      .10 

10.00    g.m 

8.50 

7. 9  J 

7.43 

7.00 

0.09 

(. 

; 

■    11 

9.09     8.4.' 

7.(M 

7.86 

«.M 

a.5fl 

0.04 

f. 

■   .It 

8.W     7.7*> 

7  ao 

B.W 

6,50 

0  18 

6.80 

I 

■      .14 

T.14      8.73 

0.37 

U.iW 

6.78 

5.53 

5.30 

;, 

. 

■      .)« 

B.-ih     5.04 

5.07 

5.4'.' 

b.ao 

5.00 

i.St 

4 

i. 

■      .SO 

.too      4.BI 

4.M 

4  48 

4.38 

4.!i0 

4.08 

awn     I.* 

■       ,2S 

4.00     3.*< 

3.77 

3.08 

3..58 

a.. SO 

an 

X.&4 1  i.«r 

1 

■     .m 

i.Xi     3.W 

3  Id 

8.12 

3.06 

1.00 

i  01 

?  90  '  t.M 

M 

n     •<» 

i  W     3.4H 

2.4.S 

V.40 

■J.86 

Has 

'J      ■ 

■  tk 

^^^ 

Ml 

i.ooi  !.»«;  1.00 

1.04 

l.W 

I.VO 

1 

..■ 

^^M 

.SOI    1.07'    I.OB 

l.K) 

I  .<H  ;  I  «'.  '  A  ^^^^'■  '                      '.  ■ 

■ 

^^.'0     i.4il   I  4-: 

I   44 

1 41  \  \  \-    '                  m 

■ 

■kM/  I. as    ).i» 

l,V44l  l.-JAV,  1                                                 v| 

■ 

^■f/i.ifi 

1.109,   1    lOrt    i                                              .*■ 

■ 

m 

1.00      i  00    l.OtW    l.OOOl  \  WA.y. 

\ 

^.^.^ 

I 

^■iM 

^^■M- 

— ^^ 

^^H 

STEAM    IK    A    STVGLK   CYLINDER. 


(etoncy  or  1  lb.  of  Slram  with  and  without 

(iiire  and  eoiupnsaoa  wn  consideivtl. 


letonc 

MHore 


^     „     P»  +  c)  +  Pil  +  Objp.  log.  R  -  Ft 
r8«p= . 

00;I  =  S5:  c=7. 

BhyP'°g-^-7  _  88  + 39  X  1.809-7.     „ 

100  ~  100  ~        • 

Im  added  to  the  8trok»,  «o  that  clearance  beconiea  aero, 
Of  gtifani  beios  u<ed,  admission  I  being  then  =  <  4-ca 
ealOT. 

l-88hrp.loK.—  -0  ■ 

^        jy    "g    3a  _  lH  +  3gX  1.809  J 

lOT  ~  107  -    ™^'  T 

laranee  be  reduce  to  0.  tbeamnnnt  of  the  clenrance  7 
th  tbe  a<1iniiiKion  nnd  Ibe  stroke,  the  same  qiiantily  of 
e  work  than  ^vhen  the  clearance  is  7  in  the  ratio  707 :  ttSr, 

■re  Considered. -If  back  prexsurf  =  .10  of  P,  thts 
'  MUblriiclcl  froiii  i>  and  p,  giviiiR  p  =  .NST,  p,  =  GOT,  ilie 
jiiaiitiij-  of  steam  used  without  clearancf  he  log  greater 
c<?  !•;  7  |("r  cent  In  the  latio  of  607  :  M7,  or  l-K  more. 
npreaaiou.— By  early  closure  of  the  ejchaust.  so  that  a 
laii-t-ticeam  \^  oompresaed  into  the  clenraiicevipace,  much 

>  cltiurance  may  be  avuided.  If  exiiausloti  U  contitnied 
pressure,  if  the  back  pressure  Is  unif^rni  ihrouE'lioiit  the 
id  if  compression  bexiiiA  at  such  imint  that  iheexhnuat- 
n  the  cyllmler  is  compressed  to  the  Inllial  pressure  at  the 
roka  then  the  uork  of  cnmpnesslon  nf  the  exhaust- steam  j 
jiie  ilurine  eipan-^lcm  by  the  clearunce-i'teaui.  The  clear-J 
llled  by  the  exbiiumt  siieani  i  bus  compressed,  no  lew  sleam^ 
.he ciearance-spai-'e  for  the  next  forward  sirnke,  and  the 
yot  tile  Kteain  used  In  the  cyliinlei-  are  just  the  Karne  as  if 
araiice  and  no  compression.  When,  however,  tiiere  is  a 
roin  the  floal  pres-^ure  of  the  expansion,  or  the  terminal 
Chausc  Or  liack  presscire  (the  usual  c»fie>,  the  work  of  coin- 
Dial  pressure  is  srearer  than  the  work  done  by  the  expau. 
^nce•Bteaul.  so  that  a  Ic-w  of  effluleticy  results  In  this 
jleucy  can  ije  attained  by  Inflowing  for  compression  a  less 
than  that  nee<le'l  to  All  ilie  cleMrance-spiu-e  iviili  Bteam  of 
!.   (Hee  Clark.  S.  E  ,  p.  HllB.  rt  »eq  ;  also  K.  H.  Bail,  Trans,  j 

fIT.)    It  is  slinwM  hy  Clark  that  a  sonievvhat  Kreater  elH^ 
lied  wheth-Tor  not  the  pressure  of  the  steaiii  tje  carrlrtll 
Q  to  the  hack  erhaust-prewsure.     As  a  result  of  calcula- 
0  the  most  effleleut  peilods  nf  coinpi-essiMti  fur  various 
*  pifisure,  and  for  various  periods  of  admission,  he  gives 
IXtpaee: 

V    Lovr-  and    Hleli-npeed    EnelncK.      (Han-Is 
l.i   Sept.  IT.    I8UI.1— rue  cunsi ruction   i,(  ilie   hlKb-speed 
:h  its  relBiivply  sliori  siroke,  tliat  tin'  cleamnce  mtist  ^»^ 
III  the  n.'leiisin){-vnlve  type.    The  short-^^lroke  eiu^iiie  [|i^| 
iij;lne  wlih  larpe  clearance,  irbich  i»  npsi'aviiled  when 
loci  iaa  feature.     ConveiKely,  the  leleiusliiK-valve  pear  ii^l 
D  eucine  of  slow  rotative  speed,  where  great   jwwer  Ml 
UK  stroke,  and  sninll  cleniaiice  is  a  fentiir>-iii  ltscnnslnio»^ 
(118  clearance  will  vary  from  Hi  to  IJJS  of  the  pistoudis- 
the  other  from  iK  to  Hi.    In  the  case  of  nn  enuim  with  a 
Sr  10%  of  ttio  p/Kfoii-iliitplnceiiient  tlie  wti.*ve  Vfxivn  Viwms\w»* 
tgtdermiin  coniiecrJuD  ii'ltli  uii  early  cul-tift.  T\\e  »\v\«n\ol 
ifS  tbe  BviHte  due  locleHraiice  ill  pri»port"lO\\  i».*"\e  «\jeuu\ 
r«r preiiBure.     Thn  farther  expaiiBlon  is  canrWA  WwoxMcV^. 
:  il/'^'^'i  "■'"  l^ufhereilncilon  ot  waat-eAu**-  -""^ 

>  teoia  the  r»ci.  thai  che  hiKh-sp.^-ed  e«6«ie,1 


ed 

la.   ^ 


THE  STEAM-ENOIXB. 


•team  much  less  than  tlie  Oorliw,  will  dimr  •  grvAler  gAla  «Im» 
from  slniple  to  compound  thau  iu  rival  under  almllar  iiooiIIUout. 

COMFRKSStO.V  OF  SteAM  IS  THE  CTUXDCn. 

Best  Periods  of  Coiiipregg.ion ;  OlvArancii  'percvaL 


I 


Cut-off  In 
Percent- 
ages of 

the 
Stroke. 


Total  Back  Pressure,  In  percentages  of  the  total  ioUJal 


2» 


r^ 


10 


IS 


so 


£5 


Periods  of  CompressloD,  In  parts  ot  tbcalMka. 


15 

25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
GO 
6S 
80 
C6 
70 
75 


6SX 

&S 

59 

47 

4S 

86 

33 
SO 

34 
S9 

19 
17 


67S 

44X 

asa 

t 

68 

40 

•» 

SW 

47 

S7 

37 

a 

a 

84 

26 

81 

I'K 

as 

Si 

25 

20 

35 

as 

S» 

19 

38 

87 

21 

18 

SO 

St, 

SO 

17 

27 

88 

18 

le 

3M 

21 

17 

15 

SS 

10 

IS 

14 

ao 

17 

15 

14 

17 

18 

14 

14 

19 

14 

IS 

IS 

IS 


I 


NoTEB  TO  1'ablb.— 1.  Kor  periods  ot  admlbsion,  or  ixTCpntacc*  il 
pressure,  other  than  those  glren,  ttie  periods  of  conipressloa  mar  ^  < 
found  by  interpolalion. 

8.  For  any  oilier  clpftrnnee,  the  vnUie^  of  the  fahulnted  pertoiU  n 
presslon  are  to  be  ulcered  in  the  ratio  of  7  to  the  glvfij  prrc*«t 
oleavanoe. 

Cyilnder-coodensation  may  hove  eoiislilerahle  effect  upon  th»  (•! 
of  compression,  but  it  has  not  vet  (1898)  heen  d»teniilii«<l  br  eiPfrtl 
(Trans.  A.  S.  V.  K..  xiv    1078  ) 

Cylluder-condenaatloii.— RaiiklDe.  8.  E  .  p.  <Ci^.  Mtrit  ■   DoM 
of  Ileal  til  ami  fiYuii  ide  inelal  of  the  pylit'l"!    "•■  i>  "••  '   »-.....   !t..„,i 
contained  in  thr  cylinder,  liax  the  effet't  • 
eiiininK  and  laisint:  it  at  the  end  of  thi-  - 

the  whole  greater  tlmn  the  raiRlnjffffri-l    ..,    - ., 

of  steam  wasted  tbroufh  alleniaie  liqiieiiu!tiiiu  and  ••\ 
cvlliider  has  been  founa  tobe  ip-eater  than  tlieqiiantlty 
I  he  work. 

Percentage  of  l,omm  by  Cr'llndFr-«ondcuMatlon,  tall 
Cnt-oir.  (From  circular  of  (he  Ashorofl  .Mfg.  CVx  ui  tk» 
Indicator,  1889.) 


ft! 

3  O  3 


Perceut.  of  Feed-water  accounted 
for  by  the  Tudicaior  diagram. 


Percent,  nf 
tlOD  due  t' 


CWt 


WORK   OF   STKAM    IN    A   SINGl.B   CYLIKDEJi. 


753 


tretleal    Compared    ivlth    Avtnal    'Wiiter«conHUiii|»- 

Slnglc-cyllndet-  Automatic    mt-oO'   Eii8:tnei>.      iKi-oin 

LlAliiKHf  of  iln'  Hiii'keyc   Kiniiijo  ri).i— Tlif  rolioniii);  iiitil.-  has  \wn 

1  on  tlie  baKi.-i  of  ihn  i  rensuie-s  tliai  ibsuU   iit  prucinje  svltli  a  enii- 

ciilw  presKiirt;  of  SO  llis  ami  iliffeieill  points  gf  cut  nff.  wkli  Buckpve 

»iin>l  otluM*  Willi  similar  cleaioniH.    Viaclions  arts  uiiillti^d,  except 

crceDtagc  coluiim.  as  tbp  degree  of  aecurat.'y  their  use  tvould  seam 

!  Is  ool  attained  or  aimed  at.  JtM 


Indicated 

m 

irPart 

Mean 

Total 

Ratt". 

Assumed.       ^M 

Effective 

Terminnl 

liw.  Water. 

PresBure. 

Pressure. 

fwr  I  H.P. 

per  hour. 

Act'l  Bate. 

Per  ct.  Lo8g. 

,W 

18 

11 

W 

32 

S8 

IB 

97 

1!S 

IH 

87 

41 

SO 

sn 

an 

1» 

25 

81.5 

p 

42 

25 

«) 

2B 

85 

So 

48 

so 

'-■O 

84 

21.8 

4S 

S3 

85 

£1 

a-i 

19 

40 

67 

;i8 

l>J 

26 

16.7 

V, 

61 

43 

SJ 

27 

15 

;50 

61 

48 

■J4 

27 

13. e 

J  will  Im>  Hevti  [hnt  »)iil>*  Iht4  best  iiidicnt«d  eeoiioiiiv  i«  when  thecut-nff 
•bout  »r  .15  or  ,30  of  th>-  stroke,  giving  about  30  lbs.  Sl.E.P..  and  a  iprnni- 
I  8  or  t  lbs.  ftliove  atiiiosplierf,  when  we  come  to  add  tho  peroeiita(re.H  due 
I!  constnni  aniouni  uf  nnlntlieuteiJ  lims,  us  per  sixth  eoliuim,  lh«  rnosteco 
niinal  point  of  eiit-i:iff  is  fouiHi  to  bu  abuiit  .'M  nt  the  stroke,  t(lviu|>;  4S  lb». 
E.P.  and  "W  lbs.  terminal  jiresRure.  Thbi  showing  a^rres  oithstaatially 
111  iiir«lc>rn  eTiwrtenre  nndpr  antoniatii*  ciit-otT  i-eeiilaliou. 
Kxperluients  on  ('yitnder-f oiidfMiKatlon.— Expeiimeata  bj 
»jor  Thoi.  Fji;;li<li  iEiii/'g.  Oct.  T,  ltW7,  p.  .'JSO  wlih  an  eiiBJiie  10  x  14  In., 
rlcotfd  in  tiie  sides  but  not  on  the  ends,  indicate  that  tiieiiet  Initial  coii- 
nsaticm  (or  excess  of  condensation  over  reevaporulloiij  h\  the  clearance 
irfoee  TarieM  directly  A-s  the  initial  dt^nslty  of  tlie  dteain,  und  inveinely  aa 
ivfiquar)*  mot  of  the  number  of  ri'volntiotis  jxjr  unit  of  tiiuo,  This  mean 
*ult-s  gave  for  the  net  iiiiliid  condeiiHatlon  by  den ranee  space  per  sq.  fl.  of 
Irfact'  at  one  rev.  per  second  ti-OO  tbei-nial  units  in  the  eDKioe  when  run 
5ii-c'"ideii*ini?  and  .').T5  units  wheti  t.'omie(iBlti(j. 

Q.  R.  Bodmer  (Kiig'n.  Marcli  4,  18*3.  p.  eOBi  says.  :  WIthiu  the  ordinary 
nils  of  expmision  (|e«lrable  in  one  i/jipuJer  tlK>  evpansiini  ratio  has  prao- 
Itillr  no  Intlueuce  on  the  amount  or  octiideiKuitluii  ]ier  sd-nlce,  which  for 
mpre  eiif^ines  can  be  expreBsed  iiy  tlie  following;  foniuila  for  the  welg:lit 
'  water  condensed  [per  nitnute,  probably;   the  orlgiani  does  not  state]  : 

S(T-I) 
*■=  O'T^T^'  "'here  T  (Jeiiotes  th«  mean  admission  tempeiature,  t  the 

emi  exhiiiist  temperature.  .9  cleArnnce-siirfaee  fsquare  feot>,  N  the  num- 
irof  revolutions  per  second,  /,  latent  heat  of  steam  at  (he  mean  ndmiiwlon 
injieratine,  ainl  Ca  constant  for  any  Ki»en  type  of  eD^iiie. 
Mr.  Rodnner  fniind  from  experluienlal  dam  that  for  niRh  fii-essure  noo 
cketeil  i-Uiiiii'-s  ('=  about  (ill,  for  coiKleiisiiij;  non  JncVtetwl  enijinea  O.nttt 
HI),  fov  .viudeuslnB  jacketed  en(?inej<  (1  UKS  to  O.IKVJ.     '\'\i»  figures  for  Jftck- 

-  oppiy  to  tliiwe  Ja(.'kete<l  in  tbe  usual  way,  and  not  at  the  ends. 
I-  d  fTereot  euKines  of  the  saniH  cMass,  but  is  practically  oon- 

v  driven  en^ne.     For  sinsple  hi^h-pressure  non-jacketed  euf^lues 

1  to  ninee  from  0.1  to  (MI2. 
Ir  Bodmer's  fnrmulu  lo  the  case  of  a  CVirlisa  non  jacketed  Bon- 

•-ngMie.  4ft.  strolte.  -H  in  diain.,  fld  revs,  per  iniii..  Initial  pi-es- 
.fK  M  lUs.  gunge,  exhaust  pres.siire  -i  Urn,  «o  have  T  -  f  =  II2»,  lf=  I. 
=  880.  S  =  7  (Ml.  ft.;  and.  cakliiu  C  =  lia  and  \V  =  lb*.  watiMc  cotv&eitxeA 
ll"  ,jji  >.'  tl^  X  't 

hm^niu,  W=  ' — y^yWo ~  •""  "*•  f^''  '"i""'*.  or  5.4  «».  per  \iu>iT.   \ 

■Km  ut»f.tf»'rI.H  P.  per  hour  accorlfne  to  the  Otaeram  \«  «>  V 
l^^sr  coasampuoa la 25.4  lbs.,  coriesponding  to  a cyWuSer  co 


754 


THE  STEAM-EXOINX 


I 
I 

I 


INDICATOB-DIAGBAM   OP   A 
ENGIZTE. 


8INCiI.E-CT 


D«aullloil*.— 77^  Atnioipherie  Linf.  AB.iin  line  drawn  by  til 
of  ilii-  iiiilieaior  when  tbs  coniuvilon-' with  (iieeiigina  are  closed  ai 
•t4««  of  (he  pUtun  ar«  o|H<n  to  the  stiiiospbere. 


Fio.  13a. 

Thf  rirrMum  Liiif,  OX,  is  a  reference  line  usuallr  drawo  about 
poiiDilii  hy  scale  iKflow  the  atinoiipberic  line. 

Tlir  CImriiucr  Liue.  0¥,  Is  a  referrnce  line  drawn  «l  a  dbtaoMfh 
end  of  tliA  diaerAni  t-qiiiil  to  iIih  name  per  cent  of  U«  length  as  tlieels 
and  wajite  room  is  n[  ilie  plsion-disiilai.-em«*ut. 

The  Line  vj  ftvilerpti-uyiiie.  JK,  is  Urawn  parallnl  to  the  itmH 
llae,  and  nt  a  distance  Iroin  It  by  scale  equal  to  the  boilor-pressure  I 
by  the  KBufre. 

Till  Adniifnion  Liiif.  CD.  »liows  the  ri^se  of  pressure  du«  to  tbe«A| 
of  Rteani  tu  the  evlinder  by  opeuine  the  steam- valve. 

The  SImm  Li\ir,  DE,  is  drawn  ulien  tho8teani-vali'e  U  openaodltl 
t)elUK  admitted  to  tlie  ev Under, 

The  f^unt  of  CMt-off.  E,  Is  the  point  where  the  admierlan  Of  m* 
stopped  by  the  I'hifiintf  u(  the  raive.  It  in  ufton  diffleult  to  ilelennll 
exact  point  at  vrliicli  the  ciit-<>fT  talies  place.  It  ix  usually  l<v9ti'^hr 
outline  of  the  rtla);rain  chanKcs  its  curvature  Irom  convex  tuc     "^ 

The  Expantioii  Cttrve.  EF,  allows  the  fall  in  pressure  as  tU6^ 
cylinder  expands  doine  work. 

The  foint  of  Rfleate.  F.  shows  wlien  the  exhaust- valve  0|JeB 

The    FxUautt  J^iiie,  FO.  represents  the  change   in   presMIV 
pliice  when  the  exhausC-valve  opens. 

TVie  Biick-pyemiure  Line.  GH,  xbowK  the  pressure  aeoinlt  wb 
aciH  dui'iiifr  Its  return  stroke. 

The  Fuint  of  hUhunnl  Clomve.  H,  Is  the  point  where  the  eiUftir^ 
uliises.  It  cannot  i>e  locateil  (i^iinitely,  as  the  chan^  In  pre^suie  Itfl 
due  io  Ihr  Kradiiiil  closing  of  the  vatve. 

The  CDHiutfssion  Ciirue,  HO.  shows  the  rise  in  pressure  dua  to  tb» 
presRion  of  tlie  steam  remAiiiin?  in  the  cylinder  after  the  e.xhall$^Ttl 
t'^osed. 

The  ifenn  Height  of  the  Diagram  i-qiuils  its  area  divided  by  Ittlenl 

The  ilenn  Effective  ISeaiiire  Is  the  mean  net  pressure  iM.iiit-  ihi' 
forward  =  the  utean  litMeht  K  'he  scale  of  the  indlcuor-  : 

To  find  the  .Mean  Kffi-vtiw  fiensiiie  from  th-  Oit", 
length,  LB,  into  a  number,  sny  10,  equal  parts,  setting  oO' 
half  II  part  at  S,  and  nine  other  pfirls  lietwo«-n:  erect  onli 
lar  10  (lie  ttrniospheric  line  at  the  points  of  divlsloU'  of  7.  / 

Ki'S-m;  add  togetlier  the  let\Bt.\»aol  t.\\||!w^  w4\Ti».tesiiiterecf - 

upijer  and  lower  lines  ot  VUe  ^liiKcoov  «''>^^  ^<<\te  Xs^  xxii»x  vituuM:;. 


i  iROBM^FOWBR  07  8ir<ltl9Re. 


7ft0 


heiicht.  which  multiplied  \ty  the  scnl?  of  tlif-  irdicntorsprinjt 
iP.  Or  find  ilie  aien  by  a  filaiiiiiieter.  or  utlier  means  fseo 
.  86),  and  diviile  by  (lie  krnt;Hi  Lli  to  obtain  tlii?  int-ati  Iteight. 
'ressiire  is  tbe  pruHSura  acting  en  thf  piaian  at  tli<-  liei^iiiiiia^ 

i  fVewure  Is  the  presHiire  ahove  tli«»  line  cf  perfect  vanium 
)C  at  the  eiiri  of  the  stroke  If  llie  steniii  had  not  been  released 
ijUiid  by  couliiiuitig  the  expansiori-cunre  to  Llie  end  of  the 


:d  hobse'Powbh  or  enoines,  single- 

CVLINJOEB. 


Indicated  Horse-jiower  I  H.P.= 


PImh 
33,006' 


■ean  effective  pressure  hi  Itw.  p<*r  t«q.  in. ;  L  =  leutrth  <if  Hlruke 
ea  of  pist<ft>  In  Sfjimre  Itiebes.  Fur  aocu racy,  one  half  of  the 
of  th-  pisloii-nid  rtiutt  be  HUlitracled  frmii  ilie  area  of  the 
td  fiasses  ihrouKh  one  heiid.  or  lh«  whole  ar**a  of  ilie  rod  If  it 
I  both  heads;  »  =  Nu.  of  single  strokes  [rer  uiiu.  =  •'  X  No,  of 


^,  in  which  S  —  piston  speed  lii  feet  per  minute. 

p<ns 


«<,U17 


4s!,017 


=  .omsaspLu*n  =  .0000238WS. 


liam,  of  cyl.  in  inches.  (Thei  (Inures  "38  arc  eza^t,  since 
8  rjtat'tly.)  If  product  of  piston-speeiiv  ineaTi  elTectlve 
HT.  llien  the  horse-power  would  equal  the  squttre  of  the 
*<ie«. 

tale  for  Eiftiniattne  tli«  Horse-power  of  a 
■der  Engine,  Sc^mire  me  iliaiiiertmiiui  divine  by  :i.  ThiisU 
i^rr  the  (Mmliieu  of  t  he  ineau  elTectivc  pressure  and  the  piston- 
"•■i,l)IT,  or.  Kay,  KI.OOO.  vl?..,  when  M.E.P.  -30  and  8  =  700; 
■  Sa  and  .S'=  «00;  when  M.E.P,  =  3M,a  and  4J  =  550;  and  when 
4  .v=  .yiO.  Thew  con>liliotis  ivurexpond  to  'hose  i>f  ordinary 
mth  <.'nrllsH  enjjines  and  shMf(-i/«n">'riii>r  liii2li*sT>eed  engines 
r>r«e-po%ver.  Mean  Kflertlve  Preannre,  and 
Id,  ft  and  6lz«  or  Orllnder.— 


8»,0(X>xI.H.P. 
Pill 


Oiaiueter  : 


(Exact.) 


»r«e>povirer  is  the  actual  horse-power  of  the  eng^ine  as 
l«t  By-wheel  t>y  a  frlrtlon-brake  or  dynaninmeter.  It  \g  the 
•-T»oW-r  miniK  the  frieriMii  of  the  eneme. 
Booehly  Approxlmatliis  the  HorHe-power  of 
kd  EitKlac  from  tbo  Diameter  of  its  liovr- 
^llnder,  — The   iiHlicated    boi-He-powur  of  uu   engine  (jetn^ 

|i  f"=  mean  effectlvfi  pressure  persq.  in.,  n  =  pistou-sjieed  in 

Mid  d  =  diam.  of  cylinder  in  iucliea;  if  «  =  (X*>  ft.  per  min., 
jclrnately  the  speed  of  inoilein  sraiionary  entwines,  and  P  ~  Hi 
an  apiiroxirnately  avenice  tlgin-e  for  the  .M.E.P.  of  aint^le- 
b*.  Hiid  of  i'(iiii)>oiiii(i  eiiKines  referiwl  lo  the  low-pres-siire 
t.H.P.  =  ^P:  hence  tin-  louuh-nnd-readv  rule  for  horsepower 

3liaiie  tile  dijiinoter  in  liiehesi  and  iliviile  liy  i.  TIds  applies  I« 
niple  expaiiHiiiii  fii^jnes  ii.ti  well  nn  to  single  cylinder  and 
3r  most  ecoU'iinical  loadini.'',  the  .ILK  P.  referred  to  the  low- 
ler  of  c'Oiiipoiiiid  ent;ine9  id  uEtuully  not.  ^renter  than  that  of 
;  for  the  ri  enter  euoiioniy  is  obtahied  by  a  greater  uunilter  of 
Mtenni  of  hiKher  pre8.<ures.  and  the  Kn-ntej-  the  number  of 
a  (fiven  iniiiul  prer>sure  the  kmei  llieuieHiiePfecllve  vitefu«B«. 
Able  gives  approximately  the  h'gures  of  mean  to\a\  auiX  e(l«n- 


tA6 


THE  STBAM-SNOIHS. 


llTvprvMum  for  Uie<!UT«n«t  tjrpr*  of  fiiKincs.  toc«ihpr  irirh  ihibclw 
whlon  thoaqoAroor  llir  dliiiii«t«r  Is  to  be  iiniltipiled  to  ubisia  ih«  tut 
}w)w«r  •!  moat  <conoi?tlc«l  IcMdiu^.  for  a  pistr>ii-»[>et^I  of  tXK  ft.  pvrmini 


^?^|2    lift    l|?lil|iUi'] 

■     -  'Z  f    -  i       —  .'  a    -  .  1-  -  »■     I 
=  1^^-11= 'S- 111 


NoD-coadenKli  ig. 


Tripl 
Qtimlniple 


B. 

80 

.538 

T.5 

16 

A03 

10. 

1« 

.830 

19.5 

18 

.S8-'     1 

eat  I  15.5  1  K.7 

48.«  1  li.b     88,7 

r>X.8     16.S     37.3 
56.4  I  16.6  I  40.t 


nni 


I 


OondeiwiOK  EaKinM. 


Kliii;l<>fyllii(lfr  I  100 

('■■nipoiifid ISO 

Triple I  160 

giukclniple I  300 


.am 

S5.0 

M',    . 

«B.6 

.«00 

84.0 

.109 

38.8 

J) 

81.0 

lUfl    .< 

8 

«r.« 

*t 

8 

M.O 

8 

ai.R 

K.ir  any  other  plston.sppeil  thnn  600  ft.  p»r  mlii,,  niiilttiilj- IliP  fipim 
\\w  liiHt,  ooliiinn  by  111*"  ratio  of  tho  plstoii»pw<l  to  WKi  ft 

NoinlllMl  Iformc-potwcr.— Tlitf  Ipi-iu  ■■  luiininal  li.ii,.' nv.i^r  "  M 
iiat«il  in  ihv  lliiii.'ot  Willi. and  kils  iitied  lOfXpie^bM; 
of  ftii  enelni*  as  oalculiilpd  from  iis  iliiiiiieter,  i-siiiim 
ill  the  cvliiider  «t  T  lbs.  al>"V(j  iIm' ftliiiiwulifn?.     li  lu>,        _ 
.VniirliH.  ami  is  nearly  olisfplfUi  In  KiikIx"''. 

HorKe-poicer  ron»tant  or  «  ^ven  Kiiiclue  for  ■  Hi 
Speed  _  pruduot  of  iis  uit^ji  of  i>i»tuii  in  tHjuuie  melius,  luuirili  'i(iiirt<ki 

fe«t,  Aiid  number  of  sitiKle  utroke^  per  tnimile  divided  tiy  39,1100, of  a 

-  C.  The  proiluct  of  the  fn«in  «fTet!tlTfi  pre»siir>'  as  found  liy  IhedlW 
mill  tliis  liiiimlftiit  Is  tlio  Indicolwl  liiirnL>-p.nvi-r. 

Horae-povver  Coiiatant  or  b  gtTm  Knctne  for  Ttrr 
Speed"  -  priHluct  uf  ll-i  aiva  of  [iHini  nml  ImukiIi  >j!  slrolii-  ■livuH 
:*1.i)i)(>.  TiiiM  limit IgilltMl  liy  tlie  mran  i-flVct i vm  ]ir»-s8iiit!  anil  lij  llw  iw* 
iif  ulrieli"  Hlr(il(»*«  ]i^r  mifiulf  in  Mip  iiicllcnlp'l  horsf-pnupr 

Home-power  i'onntant  or  any  Rneinc  or  a  glireii  Dii 
e<er  of  Cvlliider,  wlmK-viT  (hi-  It-rijrtli  of  siruke  =  qre-auf  ui»lwi+*l 
:  wjimrpiif  the  illiiiiif  tcr  of  plMKni  in  im-lic«  X  .000(1238.    A  Inlilr  of  CilBII 
iJerlvrd  rroiii  tlit.><  fornnila  is  eItpii  lielow. 

Th«  i'onstiiiit  multiplied  >)v  the  plsttm-apeert  in  feet  pt- r  Diiiiiiit  wl 
thii  M.EP.  Klvw«HiM  I.n.r. 

Brrorn  orinrDratoro.— The  most  common  erinris  Ov  ■•'  ii"-«i'f 
wliicti  Hiay  vniy  from  ils  normal  railnp;  the  error  inny  I  • 
proper  ie»tini;  upparatuH  and  allowed  for.    But  after  luakir^. 

even  with  the  best  ivork,  the  results  are  liable  to  varialiie  ii. ; 

niiioiiiit  to  i  or  8  per  ueiit,  See  Barnia,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  K.,  t.  SI",  t*f* 
A.  rt  M.  li.  xi.  639;  David  Smith,  U.  S.  N.,  Proc.  Kiip>  OoniOf* I 
Miiriiie  nivixloii. 

IiiilieAtor  '■  KiKS,'"  or  IteiiiieiriK-molioiis  ;  Interpretation  of  PI*!?"!"" 
Krrors  of  Steaiii-iliittrlliucion,  etc.  Kfir  these  see  <.Hrciilars  of  mimuf*'™' 
nf  IiMliralors:  also  worlm  mi  l3i*»  Indii'ntor. 

Xable  of  Biticliie   ('utrntanlfi  for  I7»e  In  Piuiv 
power.— ■'  HoiSf-iiowcrfijiiiiiarii  "  rorryliinlersfroni  I  n 
iliametur,  tttlviineliiK  by  sths,  for  one  foot  of  pi.;!.'-.;!. —I  > 
poiniii  of  M.E.P.     Kind  the  diameter  of  the  i.' 
Hide.     If  the  diameter  eoniuina  no  fraoiioii  Ihi- 

t'lWljlilli  Jiedileii  Eveu  llict\eK.    \\  W«&Vilva«tA:v  <.  i.. <  . 

ho  Udo  ]ior1contal\y  to  ihe  co\\nv«n  owr»*KV)<»A\ft*  \»  xJor  t 


INDIOATKD  HOhSE-tOWER  OF   BNGlNBS. 


tDta  mnltiplfed  by  tho  plston-spfied  atHi  b.r  t)i«  M.E.P.  gire  th 
er. 


iet«r 

f 

idtsr. 


Even 
locbm. 


or 


.0000-J38 

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+  H 
or 
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+  %      +H 

or     I     or 

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+  % 


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or 
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or 


.0000301 
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0034  »i» 
,002&J58 
,0031990 
0010999 
0017484 
0051446 
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oodfiwr 

.007!il87 
n«S70Vj 


oi:«>lu 
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017.5113 

()mS3tl3 
(S01W7 
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(I37T1.V) 


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0030131 ' 
,CI0:»714 
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oossias 

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.0600!M5 
.0e!£>133 
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.00001.50 
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,0^)3711 
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00563151 
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THE  STEAM-ENOrWE. 


INOICATOB-DIAClRAm   OF    A 
ENGINB. 


Mi;«OX,E-CTI.I 


DeOulUous.— 77ie  Atmotphtri/:  Line.  AB,  laa.  line  ilrt' 
of  [lie  iiidicaiur  wlion  tbe  cnonecilaiK  with  'ho  oiigloe  ore  i 
aides  of  the  piston  are  open  to  ihe  atmosphere. 


FlQ.  138. 

Vacuum  Linf,  OX,  Is  a.  reference  line  usual\y  ilrtiwo  Ab 
pounds  by  wale  Ix^low  the  atinospbcric  line. 
TItf  Clearitiicf  Lint,  OY,  Is  a  rt-fereiicf  line  drawn  *l  a  ilUtao 
^«nd  ot  tlip  diagram  equal  to  ihe  luime  per  cent  of  its  Ifogtti  ut 
and  waste  rotnii  Is  of  llie  pititon.djshlaL'ement. 

The  Line  11/  BoileT-pretmire.  JK,  in  ilrawn   pamllcl  to  tji*  1 
line,  and  at  a  diitiaiice  Ii-om  il  by  scale  equal  to  ike  bollnr-pr 
1>y  the  KSMire. 

Tlie  Admimiion  Line,  CD,  isbows  the  riite  of  pre«sure  du«  U>i 
\  of  Bteani  tu  the  cvllfider  hy  openintr  the  steam-valve. 

The  Steam  Liiir,  DE,  isdrawu  when  ilieEtesm-valve  bioiwiil 
[^belnt;  admitted  10  the  i-ylinder. 

The  Point  of  Cnt-iiff,  i'.  Is  the  point  where 
Bt<i|iped  by  the  rluKini;  of  the  valve.     It  is  ofti  i 
exiiet  point  at  which  the  ciii-pff  takes  place.    Ii  1 
|oii(lliie  of  the  din);rnni  cliangres  Itscnrvntui-e  Tp'tii  .•  .in.'i  i 
77ie  £x;ia>i<io>i  Curve,  EF,  glioirs  tbe  fall  in  |>ircsure  •■  lli*  ( 
cylinder  expmid*  duiuK  tvorlii. 
llie  rtx'nf  of  Kilrttte.  F,  shows  wheo  tl>«  exJi«iist-Ta)r«  < 
The  Exhunxt  Line,  FG.  ivpreseula   llie  cbaniC"  1"  P' 
fjiljic»^  «hi'Ti  IhM  pxhntmt. valve  opeiiK. 

Vh'  '  ;i^.  Ci//,  i>howstli«  prewiir<>  acaiinti 

.1  ...ke. 

r/i.    ,  /  Clomne,  il.  Is  Ihe  jMiint  wtirrr  th»  1 

iliiw^      II  lai'i.oi  !»'  loi-iiteil  ilennitelv.os  tlie  I'll 
Bue  ">  'he  eracliiul  clofsing  of  ih"  valve. 

rfc»  Ojiiii/i  fMiori  t'urtv. /yt '.  sliotta  Ihe  rise  in 
essloti  or  the  steatn  ivinulnint;  Iti  (hei  cylinder  ali it  iii"  -rUaa 
rVjoed. 

3f^»  Mr-tin  Tffixtlil  I'f  til"  Tiimiriini  rqimlo  l'«  nn-n  ill''<!  -i  lif  I 


,jii4  iXiTi'w^  'a%  ' 


iNDICATEn    HORSE-POTTER  Of   EN61NK8.  'J'56 

lean  heifcbt,  vrhlch  muttiplied  by  the  scalp  of  tlip  indieator-sprlOK 
H.K  P.  Or  finri  the  nrea  by  a  plauiiiieter.  or  other  m<^aii«  (see 
n.  p-  W).  and  diTide  liy  llifi  len^h  Ltt  to  obtain  the  inean  height. 
il  i'ie»»nre  is  the  pit'dsurt  a<.'tiiig  i-u  the  piston  at  th>-  ))«>f;iuiitD^ 

\initl  Pfentuie  is  the  pressure  ahove  the  Ihio  (if  ptrfect  vacuum 
exist  at  the.  end  of  tlie  airulce  if  the  Rtetitn  had  not  Itcen  rt-li-ased 

ffuuud  by  continuing  the  expaoBion-curve  tu  tlie  euU  of  the 


tBO  nORSE-POlVKK   of'  ENGINES,    SINGLE- 
CVI^INDER. 

Indicated  Horse-power  I H. P.  =       J^, 


=  mean  effective  pressii  re  in  Ib.x.  per  sq.  in. ;  I.  =  leniitli  of  alrolte 
=  iirea  of  pistmi  in  stjuari^lni'lies.  For  iiocu racy,  one  lialf  of  rhe 
ren  of  ih-  piston-rnrt  mui»i  Ix?  sulilrncieil  frimi  tiif  art-a  of  the 
IM  rod  paHRKS  lliraii^h  one  heiid.  or  ilit>  uhole  area  of  tJie  rod  if  il 
Wgli  both  heads;  »  =  No.  of  single  utrolie:^  |)er  uiiu.  =  tj  X  No.  of 

=— -r,  in  which  S  =  piston  speed  In  feet  per  minute, 

•  Cttt/?  =  -^-^  =  .oooo2!i8Pi<i«n  =  .ooayasPiPS, 

4ii,t>l*  4;!,017 

idlam.  of  cyl.   In   inches.    (The  flxures  388  ar«  eza;t,  sIimm 
?'23.8  t^xai-tly.)     If   product   of    plutoti-speed-X  mean   effective 

•<-i.OlT.  then  the  horse-poncr  would  »*<iiinl  tlie  isquare  of  the 
n  inrlies. 

'  Rnle  for  ENtlmatlng  the  Horoe-pon'er  of  a 
y  Under  Kuelae.  -S^uiiiLMiiodiaineitjiuii'Kliviiie  liy  a  ThittU 
.fiitfNr-r  tliK  priHitti'L  lift  lie  iiieau  effective  pressure  and  the  plston- 
,  of  4-.'.0ir,  or.  sav,  v'l.OiW,  viz.,  wiien  M.E.I'.  -  »)  and  S  =  700; 
P.  =  3.i  and  i'  =  (ibO;  when  M.E.P.  =  8S.y  and  A!  =  550;  and  when 
-'  and  .''  =  .VW.  Thes«  comlilioiH  corrcKimnd  to  th(is«  of  ordinary 
ich  tmth  t,'"rliss  enjrine^  and  sKfitr  i.'-.veriinr  hiu'li-KP''ed  enKiiteH. 

Dorse-power,  iTIeaii  EflVrClve  Pre««nro,  and 
ipeed,  to  lltid  Size  of  Cyliuder.— 


a3.0lX>>:I.H.P. 
'  PLit 


Diameter  =  205 i/LMJl'.  (Exact.) 


Horse-power  is  the  actual  horse-power  of  the  engine  as 
jit  the  Hy-wheel  liy  a  fric'tioii-l>rakH  or  dynanionieler.  It  Ih  the 
p»rH»*  n-iiv.'r  Tiiirin'*  t]je  fiiiTion  ft  tliF*  eimitie. 
ror  Ronshlj  .Ipproxlinatln::  the  IIorse-poiFer  ot 
louud  Eiieluc  from  the  Diameter  of  Urn  lioiv- 
»  Oyllader.— The  niJIcatoil  hoi-iie-puwt:r  of  uu  enxlne  beiu^ 

shich  P  =  mean  effective  prewure  per  «j.  In.,  >  =  piHlon-s|)eed  In 

o.,  and  d  =  diam.  of  cylinder  in  inclie*;  if  «  =  IWO  ft.  per  mfn., 
pproilinately  the  wpeed  of  ino<lem  iitatlimary  encliies,  and  7-"  =  35 
I  1«  an  approximately  uverute  t1(,'iire  for  the  M.E.P.  of  aincle- 
mrines,  and  of  cunipound  eneines  referroil  lo  tlie  low  preiwun- 
lien  I.  H  H,  =  t«/';  hence  the  roUKh-lirnl-re»dv  rule  for  liorxe-fiower 

-    -  -     i.  -  .1    ."  li ,,.....  i....!„.s  and  divide  liy  'i.    Tliisu|iiilifsu> 

;L!f  well  ni  to  single  cvtiuoet  iiViA 
.',  the  JI.K  P.  referre.'.^  Vo  i^\n»  \<i<»-.'-| 
•  w  1^  usually  not  (jn-atyr  iV»im>  OhvV. 
'/iiy  is  r>l>tainif<l  Ijy  a  ^reate.r  u»\n\\rt;if  ^ 
iireti.  ami  tirn?  ({r<'«t*'r  the   i\\»M\*y«T 

J  ^        ' ..I- tlie  loM'ui' tlK-iiie-«neftt:c»Wv  V'''**'^ 

(  uU/its  girua af/finjAiuuiUsly  (iie  figurea  of  nieau  VolaX  atui  t 


156 


THE  STE AX- B KOINE. 


I 
I 


ti»e  prcMures  for  the  different  types  of  fiiRjnee.  tnspihrr  «rH„ 
which  the  sqnare  of  th«  dlamet^^rls  to  be  liiiiltiplled  to  uMa 
ponor  at  most  economical  lOHillng.  for  a  fil8li>ii-stieie<1  vt  VMV 


Tjrpe  Of  EaeiDe. 


I 


I 


Koa-conden^iiff, 


Single  Cylinder. 

t'oniiKMind 

TripA- 

Quadruple 


100 

130 

mo 

200 


S.     1 

w 

T.S 

16 

10. 

le 

IS.S 

to 

OonduiialDK  BoKiues. 


i^iiiKle  Cylinder 
t  Nilnpouiid 
Triple 
Quadruple 


For  uiiy  other  pistnn-Rpeecl  than  (WO  ft.  iH«r  tttlil.,  nmltl|>l7  O^ 

the  Inst  column  by  llu"  ratio  .jf  Ilip  pistnii.si>'s-d  i<i  fitli>  fi. 

Nominal  IIor«e-pa%rer.— The  it^rm  "  i 

nated  lu  lliu  tluii'  ol  Wuu,  Hud  wus  umviI  ioex|.< 
of  an  engine  a-s  onioulnteil  from  lt«  dlnnipi.-r,  ■ 
in  the  c.A'liiider  at  7  lbs.  above  the  aLiiitihpli»Ti- 
Amt* rii:a.  and  is  nearly  okjK*)lete  in  Kuifliiml 

Horse-powrer  rouHtant  or  a  siven  EngliiK 
Speed  -  pi'uduot  of  ii8  ui'vu  uf  pistuu  iii  »ciuJii'M  niclif><, ' 

feet,  and  number  of  8iD|;le  Rtrolceti  per  minute  dlridoiJ  by  I^M^  W 

-  C.    The  product  of  the  mean  effect  Ire  i>re8'»nre  •«  fximil  hy  I 
and  ihl.«  eonatani  is  Ihc  indicati-d  horse-pnwHr. 

Horne-pouer  Coumtant  of  a  ctvm  Rnrtftc  tof 
Spce*4lM  —  [trtMlucI  i>f  ii.s  ari';i.  of  fii»ion  fiixl  --  ''  '  ^-niiiM 
:ii(»W.    This  innlii|ille(i  dy  the  incnn  elTcctiv.  .1  t.j 

of  sliiclfl  strc'IfR  per  minute  ts  tin-  lndiral<-'l  li 

IIorH«-pon'er  i'onntant  oranjr  Kii^.i,.  .,i  «  (If 
•>ler  ofCjIliider,  «lint<-v<T  tlii>  lcn;;ili  of  suokf  =  arvai.j  im 

-  i«|U)ii-eiir  thf  dlsNifti-r  of  piston  In  im-hca  y.  .0OOCC9'.    \  taljfei 
derived  from  thL«  formula  is  j^lren  below. 

The  riMiKtAiit  inulllplied  bv  the  piston  sneett  iQ  fret  tvl  Inl 
IheM  K  P  KlvHxih.- I.H  r. 

Krrom  oMiidlralom.— The  most  iv.inii:- ••  — 
which  may  vai-y  fmtji  lis  normal  railnc,  lln- 
proper  leslinK  apparatus  and  alloweil  for     Bo' 

even  whli  the  l>esL  work,  the  resultsan^  liahl"*  i.-  

nmnunt  to  U  f>r  3  pf  r  cent.  Hee  Bni tU!j.  Trruix.  A.  • 
A.  M.  M.  K.  xi.  kni:  Uavid  Smith,  U.  H.  N  ,  Iv... 
Marin*.  1  iivi..ioii 

In  ^'*."  or  Rednein|;-molioo«  :  !• 

Krv  .ilHtrlliulion,  etc.    Koi- t liege  ». 


INDlOAtKD   flOBSE-POWER  OF   BXGINB9. 


751 


Dt8  innltlplied  by  the  phton-apenl  and  by  th«  M,1t.V.  gtre  the 


Mter 
Mer 


or 

.875. 


or 


+« 

+  « 

or 

or 

.(MS. 

.75. 

.0000238 
.0000953 

.noosMiii 

.0008806 
.0O0S96O 
.OO0656S 
.0OI16(U' 
.00I53Si< 
.0018278 

ooeasool 

oojarse' 

OOlOiK 
.00166181 
.006!IS6O: 

.aoco»«<' 

.ooesr--' 

0077,' 

ooes'.i. 

0095-J-J" 

01 1.51 '.W 
.01-.'5^" 
013V 
OU-i: 
018(1- 
017:r 
01  Si. 


.ooooaoi 

.0001074 

.ooosa-ji; 

.0001090 

.nooossi 

OOOHO-ffl 

.ooiaofti 

.0015711 
.0019817 
.0034896 

.OOSfflMl 
.0()3ltt90| 
.0010999 
.0O474S4 
.005(446 

(loeisw 


.uiuedui 
niKvwsl 


.oooosrs 

.0001205 

.OOtHSU 

.ootM-iao 

.OII06SfiO 
.0000397 
.001*510 
.001«lfliH 

.ooa»tt.i 

0033001  i 

nowisil 

U<W5714J 
0O117H3, 
.00W3£8 
.0006349 
.00(H847 
0070819 
i)()79-JC8 
.i)08»ll*3 
.II097S94 
.010747* 
.0I17ft>5 
.0138651 
,ill.'}90M 
015173!» 

iiie«)»7 

.■il767;.'9 


1 '  .oMtat^i! 

,    oeTOlSB' 


.01400Bi  .Oll-.liil  .(H4.'il!lt 
.MMTtiS  .01t;:tW(  ft|i!iiOI9 
.OlSlftW  .iMfltai  .OftT:«0 

.OBOrjfiOH  .osotBiB  .ovwoar 

.05li5T1'    "-■■«-'■'    "-""■■ 

.(»U. 
.OSft* 

.OOIIK 

.OM^i 
08(W.U 

.06»4UOh  .!»  .1 

OTl  99501. <>; 

'.0773.' 

asm47. 


.OOOOliiO 
0001342 
.aXKTll 

.oooi.'irjj 

.OOOtttTti 

ooogtira 
.001  aim 

.OOlCOtlH 

.nosrtfuu 

.OOSMIH 

.00:SG4I7 
.(»l«7« 
.0019181 
.0056i.'6I 
.000:1817 
.0071850 
.0<)!iO360 
.00»93« 
.0O98.S(J!5 
.01 08739 
.011915-' 
.OI!10040 
.0141405 
.OI.'>:W40 
.0165863 
.0178.355 
.01»lftU 

:1J85 
J(«7 

(isjttsioa 

0^381 


.0147771 
OieSlJa.") 

.OlOOi.llC 
OfillKM 


'.oesaaoo  otiooau  .osososs 


.0738801 

.i)r5fl.?j8 

.asnoifl 
.OH^goia 

.0867548 


.0000.^51.00006^1.0000729' 
.0OO1487.WlOl«lO  .0001800  0001967' 
.00(>.",U5  .««MI','7  ,000*H7  .0003574 
.0004X11)  .llOiKOlJl  .00O->370  .00056.56 
.0tKf7i99  .(llK;i7.'ia0  .00078J19  .00OB31.'i 
.rtn005rj  JJ0iaH.5l. 0010844 1.0011249 
.Oin!WK7|  .U«1!W37  .0014t!9ft!  00147,59 
.WI17ia5  .(XM7T0ft|  .0OI82-J2]  .0<I18746 
.  002147S>I .  (M-*2048  .0023625  .002;K09 
.00262331 .0<Wi867  .0027.5ii2,.002H147 
, 00.11475!  .ITO-ilOa  .OfaaSM'. 0033561 
.0037167  .003T!I:M  .00386110  .0039452 
OO-WtrSi  .0014182  .0IM4997  .0(MS8I« 
.00500391.0060906  .0051780  .0062661 
.l)05717»l  .0068106  .005!m39  .00590^0 
.00647951.0069780  .OOt.6774  O0liT774 
.0073887  .007S;B2  .007498.51.(1076044 
.00614521-0082560  .0083072  OOtUTSt 
.00904991 .0091663  .00928:1.51 .0004013 
.0100019  .010124-1  .0102474  .0103712 
.0110015  .0111299  .0112589  OlKlSSfi 
.0i»187  .0121830. 0!2317'.i  OlSl.n.tr 
.0131435  .0132837  .O'V-I"^  .■■■'■•>!4 
.0U2S5!>  .0144321  .0:  .  '• 

.ni.',j7.M»  .01.56280  .01" 
.0167135  .r>lti8716  .Or.i..,.  .    n  , , -u'.i 
.0171W8H  .01811127  .01N.3-,';.5  .0184'.W> 
.019:«10  .0IU5015'. 0196722. 0198436 
.0207119  .0208879  .0810015  . 
.023130»  .OSSXSIS  .(KS6014  . 
.0336155  .IHSBim  .0289919  . 
, 0361367  .0S58886  .0055269 

.0d«709&  .nawas  .omiosc 

.OmKi  .0«868SB  .0«8r3W!.0-<!8947 
.  0390969  .O8OS0M  .0804179  . 
.0617075  .OSIOSSl  .01121434  .082: 

(@iM687  .oeaeasi  .ossgies  .oaiuia 

o;}.W775  .0SB507O  .0857372  .0969681  ' 

^1389  .OS78604  .0376065,. 0878124 

390379<  .0893708  .06952141.0697642 

'>4096Sfi  .0418368  .0414349  .0117397 

.04188887  .(M3W30  ,04.34959  .0437,507 

.0450355  .045:1947  .0455517  .0458154 

.0171299  .0473951  .(W  76609  (►179276 

iWami)!  .04rt.5l30;  .049S149  .0500875 

,05146I5l.05l73,8«i.0k'.2l)lW    06a»49 

0.536988  .OdSablSl  .0542655,  .0645409 

05.19885  .0S6^i5J.0eaS622  .O608SiW, 

caaiGS  .0688109  .0589065  .0 

imam  .o&am"  ■"■-i""  o«i6 

liiHSiX  .0a84.-t<  iXMO 

«!.56987  .06691: 
U6814I6'.06844U.  .^,... 
.07a5298. 07101661. 0713419    0716 

.07330991  .insMWi  .vntinw  ,vn4 

07,59755    (n«iA20  .STlftMaV. 

I.V786887'  .OT90^\'i  .or.yraTi^j 
08144V5  .o«\"WiO  .Qsau'a 

084-in79  .0tM6V«4  .OWST  . 

087U8S  .oBiAi*^  .censB 


%ii 

-;:.  — 5 

^^^^^^^1 

'56 

THE   STEAM-EXRlJirB. 

^H 

Horse-power  per  Pound  IQtean 

EO^ettTC  rii  J 

I'oriiiUl 

Area  in  sq.  Iii    >   p 

NlUII-^p^^fl                       ^1 

"•                           31.000 

--■     A 

DiBm.  o{ 

Cvltiider, 

ioobes. 

Spend  of  Piston  in  ff»rt  pr  Ti»in'U-        V 

JOO 

JlflHI 

200     300 

too      500 

(     " 

J 

4 

,IITW|      .11)-.' 

.iriS3|    .mn 

*ii 

.0(».' 

OO&I      .1140 

.IWti      .2410 

.".  ".'^ 

.     .J 

6 

.(ISBS 

.lllM 

.17H5 

.«W(I      .«)7S 

35701     .4IC&       M 

SS4 

.o:a) 

.1440 

.2I«0 

.as80    .«eoo 

1       4."K< 

;     Mi(>     1 

6 

OUST 

i;u 

.3170 

.34'.'7      .4i»l 

5M1 

'     ■  -  -  ■.      1 

6M 

.JOOtl 

.2011 

,3017 

,40i£.>      ..W,-* 

.eiti- 

•r 

.1166 

.a3«    Mm 

.466.1      .B83I 

.69(1- 

TA 

,13:3!) 

■XTS      ,4016 

.nsSft      .6694 

.HCK. 

'J 

8 

.1RJ3 

.Wl-,!      .4570 

.60W1       .7616 

w* 

^ 

i^H 

,1?il) 

.348fl      .MW 

.687H        RF.jW 

I    031. 

; 

B 

,n«s 

.3S56      .376.1 

.7711 

•i 

m 

.•,'I1S 

.4--W      .0444 

.MW     • 

* 

10 

.i.'WO 

.47110      .7140 

Win    r 

^ 

H 

.•JHSO 

.57(10      .86«ii;   l.f'"     - 

1 

1-i 

.^-T 

.««!    1  0-J82!   1 

^ 

13 

.403'^ 

.S044    1.2i"<i7"   I  ■ 

; 

H 

.40W 

.»tW    I.3tK>4,    1  .Mv  .• 

; 

IS 

.MVi 

i.ono  i.wwsi  a.ta-.ii  . 

^ 

Hi 

(Mm 

i,si«i  i.i«;;7>fi  •,'  4!Ci 

,  g 

17 

-OSTH 

1.27SI5    1  BOJKI  •-•  |■■'■' 

-  *i|jy 

1H 

Mil 

l.'iJi-J    a  3134'  8  ' 

''(■[^^1 

IB 

.55W» 

1  71S4    a.577f>.   8   i 

t^^^^l 

30 

.!KVJOt    1  SKMO    ■.•.W«il|  8  "    ■ 

G^^^H 

Ul 

i.oinKl  ■-'(««  a.uNHi  4.i'«'a  -s.^r.v 

^■^^H 

« 

i.i:>i»'  s.aii-iH  3.4B.vi^  *.ikit;  r>.T5Wi 

fi^^^H 

in 

i.'i'.!)(>l  e  MHO,  a  TTTi'  r.  imi   «.s«ii 

;^^^^H 

aj 

l.aTOlf    a.J»I8    4.11'Jtt    S  4t*i    «.»',44 

:»4^^^H 

35 

i,4H:n   s.wTM  4.40sri;  fi.9-.o(i  r  j.H;fi 

^m^i 

98 

l.fiOrttI  S.aiTS    4.*.W.1  «  l'"     —  M 

'^^B 

27 

1  7:r.o 

3.4700    3.2041    « 

'^M 

•JS 

I.NftMl 

8  T3I8    ^. 50781  7 

■  '•■ 

•JS 

3.«Mfi 

4  Otl.1S    6.0047-  H  M,-. .  :.■  ...^ 

1  ^mA 

10 

S  1  l'J(i 

4.3810    6.1*00    8..M1NJ  10  710 

'^#■^^^1 

iit 

8.iWrJ|  4  sr44    8  SBl.^:  11  14W  It  <Sf. 

(i^^^H 

fti 

•i.i^in   4  «r4-.'  7. SI"  ■"■  '■"■  '■'  '-" 

o^^^l 

93 

a.MMH  n.ifwi  7.t: 

E^^^H 

84 

S.7f.lS    5  WX    H.'-J" 

'■ii^^^H 

as 

a.Biwi  .'  wio  K  ;:' 

''O'^^^^l 

*) 

aomsi  11  iflw  9.-'- 

'i^^i 

sr 

s.i'iNa'  II  5ifi«  !!.:; 

i9^^^^| 

!W 

3.4.-i«: 

B.H7»I  10.;jlo     ,.>  ...     . 

-7^^^^| 

ag 

3.llJt>> 

7, •34*10  10  WIO    14  4«i  il" 

m^^H 

«) 

S.aiiKO 

7. OHIO  11  4-'4    IJ  )«v    t:i 

4fl|H 

41 

4  (IIHW 

H.ixrni  i-i.iioi   ifl,i""j   ■ 

■  ^^^B 

•« 

4.inH'i 

K.;isiin  la  fiH.'i    le  ; 

iB 

A 

4    tlliKl 

H  Hiii-j  i;t.'.iiv>    17  1 

9 

44 

■1  ■'■-'   "  ■"■■'  ••  -"■'   •- 

*  rti^l 

« 

1 

7  ^^^1 

48 

', 

i^^M 

S 

J.' 

s 

'^^^^1 

m 

1 

i^^H 

'     M 

( 

I'j^^H 

sa 

1 

.«  ^^^^1 

•.J' 

v^^H 

■ 

^^^ 

^\a  ^'^ 

■ 

^^B^I^HH 

I 

^^^ 

VDIC 
m  tbe 


DICATED   HOKSE-POWKU  OF   EUTGINES. 


T59 


..  tbe  CI««r«nce-llne  on  tUe  Indtrator-dlaicrani. 

karaaee  uot  lifing  known.— Tim  clraraucr-line  may  be  otitamed 

■ly  by  drawing  a  stiaiehc  line,  eli<iit.  across  the  compresNiou 

■^jTinp  drawn  OA' parallel  to  the  atinospht'rtc  liue  and  U.T  lbs. 

lui'e  from  a  the  dixfaiics  <>rf,  equal  lo  cb.  and  <lraw  I'c  i^erpen- 

rtliroug;h  rf;  then  wiU  TS divkled  by  AT  he  the  perceiilgge  ot 


Fia.  139 


Plie  clearance  may  also  bt*  found  frrun  the  expansion-line  by 
a  reotan^^le  ejhg.  mid  drawing  a  ilin^ouut  fj/  In  intersect  the 
iB  will  cive  tlie  iiritiit  O,  and  by  eret-tiiiK  a  ptrpeiidieiiiar  to  XO 
Cleara!K'e-lini«  OY. 

I  methods  fur  flrKlJiie- lite  clearance  require  that  the  expandlon 
nioii  ctirvi-K  be  bypeibolas.  Piof.  Cnrpemer  i^Poiwr,  Sept. 
%t  with  Ki'od  diauniins  ibe  iiiethotls  are  usually  very  accurate, 
Ills  which  check  substantially. 

y«  Engine  Ol.  lionever.  s«v  that,  a.s  the  results  obtained  are 
pct.  being  sometimei  too  little,  but  mure  frequently  too  mueli, 
idlcalioas  from  the  two  curves  seliloni  «grp«>,  ihr  operation  lias 

II  value,  ihouKh  when  u  rleaily  dtllned  and  apparently  undia- 
esslou  enrve  exiiits  of  suRlcieiit  extent  tti  ailmlt  of  the  npplica- 
irocess.  It  may  l)«  relied  on  to  gli'e  much  more  correct  lesulls 
luNion  curve 

^j  the  Hyperbolic  fUirve  on  the  IndIcator«dta- 
ecl  any  ;>i>irit  /  in  ilie  aciiial  curve,  and  f joui  this  puiDt  draw  a 
[cuiar  lo  the  liue  .//J,  meet-       ■ 


iu  the  point  ./.  The  lino 
the  line  of  boiler-nre,isnfe. 

niaterinl;  it  nmy  no  drawn 

lent  hei|£ikt  iieurtbe  lop  of 
jiarallel  to  tbe  jitinnHphet'ic 
ydraw  a  iliaRunal  lo  K.  I  lie 

beine  tbe  intersvectiou  of 
ftfid  clearance  liueM;  fri>in  / 

llel  with  the  atinoApherio 
X.  the  ivJiiit  of  inl4'r!^eelion 
Miai  JK  and  I  he  horizontal 

the  vertical  line  l.H.    The 


2 


M 


Fi8.  MO 


0ie  theoietlcal  point  of  cut-off,  and  ilf  the  culntt  \\vm>. 
i,in-r  ofjtolnm  I.  a.  3,  etc.,  o/i  (lie  line  JR.  and  fvoiu  vW"-  t«mw\i 
'.«  C'l  A.     yruiii  the  /ulHi'Heotlun  of  these  d\i%iroii' 
/  IhtL-.  ami  fmm  I.  J.  .1,  etc  ,  vertical  line*.    WYi 
"<"  ">  'lit-  hriturluilif  curve. 
Mnatc»tor  MI jf.  -  raitvr  ,  Keb    ^«as\  «\^ 


700 


TUK  BTKAH-EMailTE. 


correci.  form    ot  the  pefl<luliiiii  i1kkIu»;.    Ii  in  i^liuwii  tluu 

pulley  on  the  |)eniliiluni,  to  whk-li  ilie  cord   is  ui'" 

ally  give  an  gocn^   i\  n- 

6  E  attAcliineiiL    Wht^nilx 

sliiUeil,  unrkiue  In  B  pm 

ermr  is  iipi  i«  Ih!  i'cnisiil»*i  ul 

(he  caril.     Witli  a  vrrltoal  sfc 

CO  Ihe  «-ro8»tit-ail.  ami  a  pin 

wnrkiiie  io  litis  kIuc.  llie  mlurtV 

when  i)ii'coi>l  is  altnL-tiftl  |c>  i 

diiliiiii,   a  itliKhl  eiTor  lielnK 

lii'iimlH)  pulley  i»  use<l.     ^^  lih   III 

Dutwt^ii  tlie  peiiduliiui  nuil  llirrr 

lij  iiicaMttor  a  hnrlzoiji"!  ii'  i- 

ni-arl.v  pt- rfin;!,  if  llie  <• 

tlip  connect iiiK  iink  vil.i 

Fta.  HI.  below  ih«  liortzimi"! 

bj  a  plD.    If  ihe  I 

•  K^liouh  prior  is  introduced,  which  is  niaen  I 

used.     The  ndJoihlriK  tlunres  show  the  t«i>  fuiri 

Tlieoretlral    'Water-roiinuniptloii    calrui 
lndicalor-card>-Tlje  fi.<thjHiri;(    muthoii  ii^  k;iveu  i>y 
\f*ittrei\  .Sept.  lKU3i;     />  ^  Uiean  effective  pieKHiire,  / 
ievl,  a  =  arcttof  pislou  in  nquare  ioi-hes,  n  -e  H4  r 
peiCMttape  of  ciearonc^  to  the  stroke,   h  =  perc 
wliere  water  rote  is  to  lie  coiiipiited.  n  —  nuiiit>»'i 
GOn  =  uuinl>er  per  hour,  lo  —  veii^hl  '>f  a  euljic  f(«<it  ><t  t 
Bure  RB  shown    by  the  rliaf^rain  corn-sprmcllnp  to  tlial 
water  rate  is  reqtiired,  W  =  thut  correspnudiug  to  pi 
pr«»iion. 

Number  of  cubic  feet  per  strolie  =  \   tm   /"iTT' 

Com»poi>dlng  wei{;hc  of  ftt«ani  per  oti^ilie  In  IIms  =  t(- 


Vottune  of  clearance  = 


tea 

iT*5B" 


inl 


Weight  of  steam  in  clearance  = 

I  weight  of  I   _  ./fc  +c\ 
per  stroke  f  ~    \   lOO  / 


ten  III' 
U.iW 
|«J         tcatf' 


III 

14,400 


[|6+, 


ToUl 
steam  per 

Total    vreiicitt   of  Meaui  I        BOu/u  f,,    ,    ^.^      _.  1 
fi^m    dlagmm    per   liour  f   =  u^m  V    "•"  "^^     *  "^J 

The  Indicated  horsepower  la  u  i  u  ii  ^  S9,00a    IleiMM  U 
tioD  per  indjoated  hone-power  is 

^j^[(b  +  c),«-cu.'  J       ^^ 
pTulT =  -y-[t6  +  .1.r- 

39,000 

l!luiii|;lnK  the  formula  to  a  rule,  we  hare:  To  find  tJMf  ««tor] 
Indicai^ir  dlag^rani  at  hut  ihuu/  in  il,e  Kti"!.' 

Rl'Li:  — To  the  perc     " 
b^  tile  pifiton  Ht  Ihe  }>  i4 

a'nce.    Miiliiul.v  this  i  > 
ppeaaure  lit  that  at  the  nipiir.-,!  ; 

percentage  of  clearance  inultipii'  t4 

Ing  n  pressure  equal  I,,  that  ni  ili 

■  he  meais  i.n-.jtivv  ;'rir=£iii«.' 


%re.  on  ih*  *u»»t)**tou 


COMPOrXD    ENGISBS. 


bcMfleUl  effect  of  compression  In  reJnctne  lh«  water-f  onwimpllon  of 
ipe  l»  clearly  ghowD  hy  the  foiTnula.  If  the  i'omi)re!wton  Is  currlt-il  In 
i  p)lni  that  \t  prodiicv^  a  pre»«iire  miial  lo  thai  8t  (hn  ptjiiit  undir 
eratioti,  the  weight  of  steam  per  cubic  root  Ik  equal,  and  ir  -  ic'.  In 
Us  tti«  effect  of  clearance  entirely  dteappears.  and  tlie  forniul* 
1J7.5^ 

P 
m  of  DO  compresHoo,  to'  becomes  aeru,  and  the  water-rate  = 


on  of  ^B 


Bnto 
Pbo. 


^hb+c)H 


iton  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xiv.  1363)  prives  the  following  table  of 
water-cnnsgriiption  for  a  pt- rf>-<:t  Miriiitte  rzpaiislon  with  Btcam 
Te  atmosphere,  and  'i  ibs.  absolute  Ijaek  pressure  : 


I 


mt  EzpoDsloD,  r. 

M.E.P., 

Ib3.p 

10 

68.4 

IS 

88.7 

SO 

S0.9 

a 

25.9 

ao 

ss.a 

as 

19.5 

Llui.  of  Water  per  hour 
per  horee-poner,  IT. 


9.6S 

8. 74 
8.90 
7.M 
T.63 
7  45 


ifTert-Dce  between  the  theoretical  water  conBiimption  found  by  the 
L  and  the  actual  cooBuinptloo  as  fouud  by  te!;t  represents  "  u  At>^r  nut 
ed  for  by  the  iudicator,'"  due  to  cylinder  condensation,  l>'iikatfe 
I  ftnrln.  radlslion.  etc. 

tiw*  of  Steam,— fjealcage  of  steam,  except  in  mre  instances,  lina 
effect  ijpnii  tlie  llm-s  of  th'»  diaKram  that  it  can  scarcely  lie  delected. 
f  satisfact'iry  way  lo  dfierniine  llie  Iig1itnes.<i  of  An  engine  is  1<>  l»k>f 
not  in  motion,  apply  a  full  hoiU'r-pressure  to  the  valve.  place<l  hi  a 
odition,  and  to  the  pislun  as  well,  which  is  blocl<ed  for  the  purijose  at 
•Int  away  from  the  end  of  the  stroiie,  and  see  bj-  the  eye  whellier 
ciocurs.  Tlie  iiidicatorcoeks  pnivide  ineanm  for  bringinK  int<i  »iew 
rhich  leaks  chrouKli  the  steam-valves,  and  In  most  cases  that  m  bich 
f  the  piston,  and  an  o[>eiiing  made  In  tlie  exbaust-pipe  or  ol>svrva. 
the  atmospliHric  •■scape-pipe,  are  genernlly  sufficient  to  determine 
writh  regard  lo  Iht?  exnaust-vslves. 

:«ani  accounted  for  by  the  Indicator  should  be  computml  for  bolh 
off  and  tl»e  release  points  of  the  diaprrum.  If  tlie  expansion-line  ile- 
udi  friim  the  hyperbolic  curve  a  very  different  result  is  sliinvn  at 
It  from  that  shown  at  the  other.  In  SHuh  ca,<<es  the  extent  of  the 
«.-«li  -ned  by  cylinder  condensation  and  leakage  is  indlcateil  in  a  nincli 
iittafiil  mnnnerat  the  cul-oll  thau  at  the  release.    (Tabor  iDdicator 


^r  ronporivD  kiv«inbs. 

poand,  Xrlple- and  Qnadrtiplp-expanaion  Kniftneii. 

ipound  engine  is  <Mie  having   two  i«i'  fmu'e  rylinilers.  and  in  wlii»  ' 
an  after  duiug  work  in  the  Hrst  or  Idghpreasiii-e  cylinder  ciini|riij^ 

nsion  in  the  other  cylinder  or  i-vlindeis. 

erni  "comjiound"  is  commuuly  restricl«»d,  however,  to  enginiiV 

^e expansion  takes  place  in  two  st-agfsonly — liigh  and  low  pressll 

istriple-exfNtnsion  nnd(iu:i(liiiple-expaniiion  engines  lieingii^d  wl 

insion  lakes  place  respectively  in  three  and  four  stasrcs.  Tli.'  nutnt 

ders  may  lje  greater  ihan  the  number  of  sr  i 

ctive  reasons',  thus  in  ii»e  conipnund  or  two 

|,r«-«-iire  •Hn/.v  mny  (>e  e/Tecfed  in  two  eylii 

///H/niire.sofcy/indeis  and  of  Llirt.-  c-.ttuV.' 
"'  engfiiew  fhere  are   freqitviitly  vwo 
■■'n>rp/nc<-.I  tandem  with  the  liiEtoove^ 
''^'^•""'"'"■''"•lecyllndrr.iis  in  iiilll  encrtnfS  vtlth  1 
talple-oxpoDsion  engines  of  thesf  earned  Cn 


r-^r 


TUi  STCAM-EXaiSB. 


f^.  r  Urine  t)>e  nttin  of  apaorfOB. 
«*  the  ttCkil^r-iiroMUrB  thus: 

CO  90  1«  » 

=    J  I  4  5  I. 


!ifa'  Tn^'Mii')') 


i^Ob"*  Ib*n^  p.  M.  OKU  r»r 
i  Tf  t"  r-fiBcol  t«  til*' 

I  -irBt-yirfr    or    •    nodem   romrai 

tum  ►— Tlw  rolloirine  r.il^  will  i;i<e  »|ii"-nni«»* 
1  b r  •  mtnpouod  rnfriiie  nwdr  in  itcGanlua* 


-  preffHTK*,  I 


E»tUDat«d  HP 


0  =  <toi»n<w  t4  l.p.  eytinder:  p  =  bnil^frprcssore  by  K»oge; 
K  =  t»Tv  prr  tnln.;  S  =  MrokT of  pvion  in  r«f«. 

•tall*  or  CfUnder  Cmfmeltj  In   roatponnd  Slarla* 

i^i^AIotL.  • — TU»- low-pif  KMjrt- ^.'ViiD^ier  is*  ihn  itiMijiure't'i  ttej 

,  for  so  lon^  as  it**^  Iiuii&l  M^pam-in^ssiirv  bjhIB 

•IV  iIm-  nme.  it  sicaiAes  very  litilr,  »<>  far  as  t^itKl  povKl 

irketbertk* ratio  beiwern  the  low  an. i  hii;i:-i':-f<>ii'f  cjr 

t;  bW  ••  (k(>  poarr  daTet»peii  stiouM  itf 

Ike  c««  eyOmdrrK  1>  orrtrr  lo  rrl  a  euod  >-■. 

la  *  aaeeaittr  fvr  csercMog  a  concJtJvrat  :> 

aatWraiio. 

t  a  iKiUfldll  raUo  the  objri?ts  are  to  divi'<1«  the  pover  ( 
mn  match  aa  po«>4t>lr  "drof  "  and  hieh  li'itial  strain. 
'  foooomy  i«  to  be  oblaiuM  hy  iticr«ast.il  bolli-rpres 
ailiaiwiwi  rliauld  r»rf  with  the  jniiUI  )ire»surp,  ac>  that  th«  [ 
ibaaatfrtm  >-r.'-i>  i)ih  oi:>iiiS>-ii'-r  should  remain  coosiaot. 

>  the  cut-off  in  the  liiidi-P 

"  rale  of  ezpansion;  p,  I 
Under  =  R  •*-  r;  r  vanes" 
t  and  conieqiieiitly  r  =f 
r  =  a  X  JtK  -t-  p,. 
• «  Found  In  Marine  Pr«rtice>- 
at  orir  it-nth  of  Ihe  Imiler  [ir>-iiSiii'-'< 
--1  !>'<,  '"  work  <?coiiomicalJr  at  liiU 
v>re^surp  cylinder  doe?  I 
_  the  ratio  of  the  low-J 

jt^  yw—^pgi  TH  iM^'iler-prc^siirepf  « 

••*■.  *••;  ftw  I  mportions  are  adhfred  I 

•  «'ilh^^r  cylinder.    If.  fcow 
..      si-ansioD-ralve  should  bel 

., .  1-!T. 

*•••■  wittioui^y  ^^^f  t.ir»m  is  nnt  of  first  importance,  bnt  rather  I 

•»1*M«l^k«tean^  pressure.  to  4. 

<^H*^«a  »»c>«ni  ttww  la  i'  •■  work  i 

'*^*>^  ;»  ■  n»IM  <^><i»a>t>eB  I  -eds 00 Ibi."ab 

^  rwrtWIlM  5.1 

>'«aar  r«^i. .  -~  ilmi  the  1.  p.  cylinder  ehatl  lie  more  t 
•  ■^iHiiJ  r^  -  .        ;  III  I  wo  cylinders.   Tr.  t!ii>  .  a.-w  ther»lli»* 
1   p  cvlindfrs  tr.  ■  >,   p.  mi/t 

-     ST  f.r  inslhc  ll.Mhs. 

*'  .V  ,      ,  oniponnd   Kiil  .li^-fit 

-sure  cylii  ^Ic* 

■  !.  tlie  craii. 
■■   •  .-!.     In  thn  pj, 

itr»'riii**i1iatM  ».-\  lir 

Tilt-  pressure  In  the  recdwr* 
-  .iM.   <.%fta.tait.^ 


COMPOUND   EXGIXES. 


763 


■^ 

1 

'^ 

"t 

^=^ 

9 

'             ( 

irbollo curve  of  expauflioD  in  Iht  flrvl  cylinder,  aiiil  yA  tlii>eoi]- 
Miiii-liaeof  back  pressure 
ptrokr^of  llie  first  pision, 
jb  pressiiif  for  thi-  stt-aui- 
eoiirl  piKtou.  Attliepiiint 
f  the  Rtnikp  of  itie  s»?fOnd 

rm  is  exlmiisu-il  into  tlie 
the  pressure  fulls  to  Die 
I  vacuum,  mu. 
[of  iliH  second  c.vlliiil(>r, 
irai-teriwrl  liy  iheal»enr« 
rperiod  of  Htiiiif<u<ir>n ;  the 
leaju-line  f/h  hpiiifr  fxrian- 
iwl  by  llie  expanslou  of 
w  of  Bteatii  contained  in 
if  into  the  xecoiul.  Wlien 
pi>ke  isi  t'ompleted.  the 
steam  traDsferrert  fram 
kt  into  tlie  second  cvlin- 
I  preKsure  und  voluiiie  of 
^  xecoDd  nyliniler  ore  the 

irliole  of  liie  initial  sttiam  had  Itoeii  ndiniiied  al  nnot!  Into  the 
r.  and  then  expanded  to  the  end  uf  ili«  Hirt>l<e  in  the  tnatiiier 
pder  en^tine. 

'*^f  the  Fteum  Is  nlso  the  «aiHe,  accrtnlinp  tn  hoth  dl«tri!>iiti(»tas. 
ennine,  frllhont  Clearance  Ideal  niaerama.— 
Bceiver-eiiiriiie  llie  plstous  <if  tlie  two  L-ylitnlers  aiv  con- 
ikK  at  right  angles  to  each  otiier  un  the  t^uie  sliaft.  The 
tlie  steam  exhausted  from  the  first  cylinder  iind  supplies  it  to 
vliluli  the  ^tlennl  Ik  cut  olT  and  tlun  expanded  lo  the  end  of 
1  the  asBUniptinn  that  the  initial  |iret<E<iire  in  itie  se<;()iid  cylin- 
llie  final  prpssutTi  in  the  flrst,  ami  t>(  cnni>;i'  equal  to  tiie  prew- 
Sceiver.  the  volume  cut  off  iu  the  ^eC'3lld  cylinder  must  be 
lume  of  the  first  cylinder,  for  the  srcoiul  cvlintler  must  admit 

iat  each  Ktioke  as  is  ill^lmrjfeii  from  tiie  first  cylinder, 
te  the  line  of  adinisKJon  uikI  hu  tlie  exhaust  line  for  the  Qnt 


Flo    H2  — WOOLF  F.NniNK— iDSAL 

Indicator  utAOiiiLSis. 


jIVKR-KNOiMi:,  Ideal 


Fio.  )'J4.— Rkckivhr    Enoipik,     1dkai< 
UiArjRjkMH  nisnt'cTKn  Asn  coMniKKU. 


9g  is  the  expanginn  curve  and  jiq  ilie  tiiiiioHpherie  line.  In 
|w  the  exiiiiustliiie  of  the  first  cylitiilei.  between  It  and  the 
hiounin.  ol.  the  diiiprani  of  the  Sfciiiil  cylinder  is  formed ;  Ai, 
I  of  ailntiislon.  coincides  with  the  exiiaiistdinc  lig of  the  flrut 
titt  in  thv  ideal  diai;rum  no  iiiterinedlaie  fall  of  pruKNiire,  anii 
^nn-uurve.  The  nrrons  iiidiciite  the  order  \n  wW^Vxl^ 
Kk/. 

ff  the  racHrfr-engine,  (hf  eifinnslvo  woiV\\ik  ott 
■ih'irletl  luto  tv,o  ooiisec-mivt  ^^ln^es  is,  aa  Vft 
ri-oiuluun,,»trom  the  p.ilni  nf  ont,-off  iuihei 
£^~?  fL""*  "^'on''.  o-vliniler,  where  it  IfeiVtiU 
^  Bnu  sad  second  dittgratus  may  bo  p\ttc»»4l 


764 

Pconilii 
riloen 


THE   STEAM-RtrOIlTB. 


I 


For  lliiff  purixwe 


coiiiI>in«<l  to  furm  a  contiiiuoiis  dluCM"' 

rilaeram  fts  M"'  basis  of  the  eombliipd  cH;\_— -■:•    '-•  ■   ' 

|iei-in<)  of  ailiiilf^ston,  hi,  in  oii<>  thiriJ  of 

t'yliudei*s  are  as  1  to  H,  hi  is  also  tin*  i>i*i.i  • 

as  applied  to  tliesenind.    Pn-widre  iJi  u|...m.iiT.  ,,i  ..  -.1 

total  heieht  of  tlie  fli'st  diagram  above  iiit*  vnr'iiiiiiiiii 

shortelieo  Uase  />/,  and  the  lielijlit /w,  complete  tlip  flrsi 

stifain-liiie  rd.  niid  Die  expaiialuulin^  r/i. 

It  is  slii>u'ti  by  t'lai'U  (S.  E..  p.  ■l-li,  ft  ofo.l  in  a  Rcri<«  of  imili 
riilatioiis,  thnt  the  i'ec'4*iv«i-)>iit;iiie  is  an  elastic  pyHieni  <>r  miii|U 
in  which  oonsidcnible  latitude  is  ufforded  for  adai'ii-  ■ 
reL'Hiver  t^>  the  ilemniitls  of  the  fcet'nud  eylliuler,  vrlti. 
ishinf:  the  effective  work  of  the  t'liKl""-  In  th> 
contrary,  it  iH  of  much  Importance  that  the  interin. 
Iietweeii  the  first  aud  &ei.'oud  cyliaderg,  which  if-" 
dine  fall  of  presstiie,  HliiMdd  lie  rfxlneed  to  tiie  low. 

Suppositii^  that  Ihei-e  is  110  loss  of  iitenjii  in  passii 
by  cooliiig  Hiul  e.iiiiiensntioii,   it   ii$  nbri'''nH  that 
tliriHixh  llie  llriit  cylinder  iiiu<it  aliio  And  Its  way  ili 
der.     By  varyiii^',  llierufore,  ill  the  ^eoeive^-ell((in'^  ' 
in  the  second  cylioder.  ami  thus  also  Die  vohinie  of  ~ 
stroke,  the  Hienm  will  he  ineasnri'd  Into  it  at  n  liixlv 
bulk,  or  at  n  lower  pressure  and  of  a  greater  t>idk;  ih.  1 
naturall}'  adjiisliii);  tlieiiiselveit  to  the  vttiiiiij*.^  tliHi  rlie  » 
ceiver  i*  permitted  to  oi-ciipy  in  the  Ke<*oiid  cylinder, 
restrioted  admission,  the  pri>«fiiire  in  the  receiver  mnv  '■ 

fiivsKure  of  the  Kteaiii  an  exhaiisietl  from  the  tlrv 
rary,  with  a  wider  odmission,  the  pressiiie  in  il. 
"  (Irop  "  to  tlireie  fourihsor  even  one  half  of  lh«  pi^-„. 
steam  from  the  first  cylliider. 

(For  a  more  complete  diKciimlon  of  lh«  action  of  Meaiii  la  ih 
receiver  emtlneti.  s(»e  Clark  on  the  Steaiii-eiiKlne.i 

Combined  Illasranii*  of  Compound  Ennlnea. - 
of  mulviii^  n  I'/trroot  ctimninfd  ilifiKrani  lupiii  ilie  uiili'viuu'  •M< 
several  cylinders  in  a  compound  en^ina  is  itj  set  olT  all  (he  du 
ume  lioriiioutal  scale  of  volumes,  addiuK  Ibe  ciearancw  to  1 


XB       MB       <3       » 

■*  'ail"* 
^^    <&]    30  as 

a.*    M.t  ^j«  ru«  »0    ws  >M.r  «i   ,«.t 
t.«T  I  m  I  »^  I  aw  I  «      !  »  u    »-<:  I  i.n  I  ».« 


TvocTLornss  CbKFOcss  Own 
r*.  6.S  Uw.  abo**  vacvom . 


«e  I  MO 
Its  lis 
f  .<      t» 

15,7     IT 
S.M    4.n 

S.Srt  J.^IS* 

«s.«  Is;. 3 

13.55 

s:  8 

4.3 


15.25 
'J0.S 
4.3 
M.i 

to.te 

».8 
8.4 

3.3: 


ae.5 
II. t» 

6.45 
8.51 


!!• 
IS 
9.S 

IS.5 

4.3 

8.4  V 
71.4 
15.9 

4.3 

42.4 
11.6 

-jg.o 

6.45 
87.8 
3.M 


IS 


I9.S 

M.2 

4.3 

45.1 

11.9 

30.2 
6.6 

t.a 


I  1«   I  IK      Ml 

'  S  <     lift     '  1  « 


79  1 
16  5 
S(  4 
4.3 

47.0 
13. « 

31.4 

6.IVS 
no. 9 

s  a; 


Hi  ■.■ 

le.T- 

Si  4 

4.3 

sas 

li  43 

39.4 
C  B5 

SI  4 
4.W 


43 

ttta 

tt.4 


..-I'  of  !i>«s,  lhl<^  3,  is  iliiM  explained:  Tliprx  k  nlirKyt 
1  'n.satirin,  nurl  uljli-lj  iuoreasi'8  wtlhlUi'  r»i'w,v\v»  »it 

::iai!e  canimt    ti,-    prt'.leii>rm\ni<i\,  ^«   \\    \\i>\yKiv\* 

'  .litit  will  iiioliiihly  Iwiilmul  llH  n\»>i\v<\, 

wider*  j<t  roiupoand  KuKtn»».    \>»>! 

*„c  ,,..;■•■' il'-ns   l,y    volume  of  Itiu  litictt  KtH^  \«'»  V>t 


766 


THE  STKAM-ENOIKB. 


Wt-rntT,  tT-;  and  Raiikine.y'7',  r  being  the   ratio  of 
makes  tli«  ratio  dependent  un  tbo  boil>;r-pressur«  t]iu>: 


L)>8.  per  aq.  in . 
V-i-v 


00 
=    3 


90 
4 


(Sep  Sirn'on's  M«nu«l,  p.  95,  etc..  for  analytical  infll><>1;  91 
ett.;  Clnrk's  Steiim-eiipine,  p.  JlS.etf:  Clark,  Riile»,  Tahtw.  Pi 

Mr.  J  McFarlaiif  (jray  staii-s  that  lie  fludw  tlie  mean  rffivl 
the  cnniiiou'ul  ftiBine  rfduceil  in  tli"*  Ion- -pressure  cyliudw 
nintf'Iv  I  lie  Kqtinrf  r<«<ii  nf  B(iiin»s  tlip  Imfli-rprf'^snrf. 

Approximate    Hurke-poirer    of    a    Mod^^m 
Marlnc-fiiKlne.    iSiatoii  >— Tiiv  fnllowliiir  nilt-  will  vivri 
llie  li(>is«-powtfrd«VKlopiMl  by  a  (.■oiiipouiid  enfcliic  i" 

n*  ■ 

moderu  mariDe  practice.    Estimated  H.P.  = 

D  =  diatiietCT  of  l.p.  cylinder;  p  =  boiler-pressure  by  gsuev; 
li  =  i-ers.  per  iitiii. ;  8  =  strukeof  piHlon  In  feet. 

Hatio  of  Cylinder  Capacity  tn   C'oinponnd 
KlueH.    (Seaion.l— The  IovvpreK.vui-i' cyliiiiler  i?.  ilii'  iiicjiKiir 
'.'(  n  •  oM<p<:iiind  engine,  for  bo  long  us  llie  initial  steimi  m 
e.vpaniiioii  are  tlie  .«anie.  it  (^itriiirics  very  lilile,  so  ' 
coiicerne<l.  whether  ihe  rfllio  lielweeli  the  IkM  ami 
lH3ur4;  but  as  Ihe  power  develi»iM«l  shonlii  l>e  tin:.. 
iweeii  the  two  cyllnjer.«.  in  order  to  Ret  a^ood  and  »i>->dv  «4 
there  is  a  neoessity  for  exeicliiing  a  cnnsiderable  aiuuuni 
fixiiiK  on  tlie  ratio. 

Ill  choosing  n  particular  ratio  the  objects  are  to  divlda 
nnd  to  Bi'old  ari  much  asi  pot>i^ible  "dioii  "  and  high  f»ltft 

If  incrfBBed  economy  is  to  l>e  obtained  by  lncre»" 
rate  of  exnunsion  should  viicy  with  the  inilfal  pref- 
at  wliici)  tlie  steam  entt-rs  Ihe  condenser  Hhould  i  ■ 
UBKp,  with  Iho  ratio  of  cylinders  conaiant.  the  cut  i 
cylinder  will  vary  lUTersely  an  llie  iniilal  pres.«ure. 

Let  R  be  ttie  ratio  of  the  rylinders;  r,  Ihe  rata  of  erpanBlongj 
pressiiie:  then  cut  off  in  hi^li-pressure  cylinder  =  A" -4- < :  r  »1 
BO  that  the  tenninni  pressure  jim  is  constnnt  and  coiisrf)iu-nlIy  r 
Uiertfor.-.  cutoff  111  blcli  pH'SHure  ■■vliiider  -   I\  >:  ;in  ■+•  p, 

BatloB  of  Cylinders  aa  Fonnd   In   narliio   Pntc 
rale  of  rx]'nnsi<iii  iimj  lie  tiiken  at  one  tenth  of  (he  I  41 

one  twelfiii  tlie  absolute  iiressiire),  to  work  ecoi  ij 

Therefoiv,  when  Ihe  diometer  of  the  low  preK^in-.-  ■■* 

mo  Inches,  und  ilie  boiler -presiinre  70  lbs.  t> 
the  lii^li-pie)>snrecvlln<l>-r  should  beS..');  for  ;: 

for  90  Ibg..  -10;  for  ItW  lbs.,  l.R.    If  these  vroy       

will  l>«  no  need  of  an  i  xpaneion-valve  to  either  oyltnder 
avniii  ■•  dr'ip."  the  rnlio  be  reduced,  an  expansion-TalTa  »bo 
the  hii?hprest<uie  cylinder. 

Wliere  economy  of  Kleani   Is  not  of  first  imp^irtHnce.  but 
power,  the  rnlio  of  cylirdcr  capnolties  may  wiih  advnulJig*  I 
M>  that  with  a  boiler-pre-isiire  of  100  lb*.  It  mav  be  3."  to  4. 

In  tnndeoi  enf^hies  tliere  is  no  neeerally  to  divide  the  wor 
ralii>  Ik  ifenerally  4.  hut  i\  hen  ilie  Kteam-preMsure  exceed*  Itf  I 
in  U'ller.  and  for  liKI  lbs  .'■  il. 

When  the  power  require^  that  Ihe  1   p.  ovilnrterslinll  t)^ 
dianiett'r.  Ic  shoiild  lie  divid***!  in  (wo  pyllnders.    In  tlilM  i 
coriililned  capncity  of  tiie  Iwol.  p  cvlinders  t,.  tt.nt  ■ 
for  K,  Ihs   KhsMliu'e  3.4  f.ir  n.%  llw  .  r)  7  f.^r  ins  ' 

Beceivcr  Space  In    Coni|ioiiiid    I 

i-.'i  liiiii--*  llie  rap;ichv  "f  Ihe  lil)»lt  pr,'ssin-e  <■! 
iif  floiu  W*  tr.  A«*.  \\\>.-v.  \W  vx 
maybe  very  ii>\if\n  revVu'e<\.   \u  \\ 

il,  rrauWsMl  1Jl>».»vA  VW\\\»ermex 

.«i,rr.  a  very  smaU  receUeV  *M  A".    ^V^.;;>"'-  ^'^'•'•' 
»»er  "xce<Hl  hair  the  \rt*\\OT  v'^'**^'^-    ^S**'-'^'* 


COMPODND  BKGIKl 


»r  CalcnlAttnK  tbe  Bxpaaaloa  utd  Ik*  Vj 
I  of  S(e»in  In  Compound 

looiJetifled  rrotn  Clark  oo  t  be  ' 

Be  flnt  crUnder  in  Mjuare  tncfaeB; 

be  second  uvllnderia  square  i»c)M»; 

^«  capacity  of  the  s«ccidi1  cfliiid«rlothMa(l 

fsirok^  in  feet,  supposed  u>  be  the  HBe  tar  kl 

f  &>lniissioQ  to  ibe  first  CTlinder  bi  fee*.  ^BllMiL .  

e  at  eacli  ead  of  the  cylinders,  in  paru  of  dM  M»t4iii  >  I 

[  the  stroke  plus  the  clearaiifte,  in  feet; 

r  arlinii;>ion  plus  ih^  clearance,  in  feet; 

r  a  preD  part  of  the  stroke  of  tbe  leeaa^  efUa»tr,  b  O^i 

lUI  pressure  in  the  first  cylinder,  ^tam.ptr  mj^n 

to  be  uiiiforin  during  admi«6i<>n; 

|ft?tiirH  at  rhe  end  of  the  gi'^eD  part  of  Qtt  stroke  »% 

loial  pressure  for  the  ubole  stroke: 

ratio  uf  expansion  in  the  finx  CTlfciter.  or  £.  -*- 1; 

Rtio  of  exjianslOfi  in  the  Uryl  cynmfer.  or  £,'  ■•-  T; 

Bmbined  ratio  of  expansion,  in  itae  Bn*  aad  aeOMd 
:r; 
(the  flnal  pressure  in  tbe  first  cyliBdcr  to  tmr 
I  pressure  between  tbe  flr<il  and  second  nliBdesi 
luie  Tolunie  of  tbe  intemjediate  wpmoa  la  lk«  ^ 
bed  up  to,  and  IncludiDfr  the  clearaMS  of,  tta aecoad  pM<ai. 
'Capacity  of  the  flm  cylinder  plus  iu  dranuwei  The  *•)■» 
|i  correctly  expre^s<>d  bv  th*-  act  loal  ratto  of  the  »ciluB>«»  •• 
Ton  the  a-«iimption  that  the  iaterinedialo spaee  i»a  Taenum 
It  receives  tbe  exhaug^stea^l  from  tiie Hist ^Dodt^.  lapeiux 
t,  titere  is  a  residuum  of  un-ixlwatMd  ft«ain  in  ihn  tnlciilM 
space,  at  Ion-  pretisure,  and  (be  «alue  ot  S  »  thereby  | 


f  reduced  below  tbe  ratio  here  stated.    S  : 
tt  work  in  one  stroke,  io  foot-pooodk. 


■  -I 


^osioa  In  tbe  second  cylinder: 

k 


In  the  Woolf  engine, . 


1+A- 

<n  -  ly 


'  In  the  recelTer  engine. 

jratlo  of  expansion  =  product  of  tbe  ratio*  of  the  thrja  eoo- 
isloDB,  in  the  first  cylinder,  in  the  intermediate  space,  and 
UrUnder. 

I  Int]teWooUenKine.fi'(rp  +  x). 

I  In  the  recelTer-englDe,  r  p-,  or  rlf. 

kUo  of  expansion  behind  the  pistons  =  iK' 

In  the  two  cylinders  for  one  strolce,  with  a  ijiven  cut-oft  aiid_a 
Id  actual  ratio  of  expansion:  "^ 

,  Woolf  engine,  u>  =  aPim  +  hyp  log  «")  -  i]\ 

[engine,  a  =  aI-[lV  +  hyp  log  B")  -  c (t  +  ^-^  )  \. 

to  intrrnwdlale  fall  of  prt-ssure. 

tail  loiermedlnl,'  fail,  when  th-  pressure  fuM*  to  V*. ' 
*iin  tho  M  i.jrliiidtii;  the  re(iuel|.,u  of  wovk  taO."*%,1 
fota  DO  /all. 


g  a     II 


tio 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


ttif  mean  nnbalanced  pressure  on  a  square  tncb  of  the  •nntilftr  I 
large  pfstou  oblalued  byBUbtraciiiig  tuc  lnleriiie<liBt«  fmm  Ute) 
We  thus  nee  that  the  uieaii  onlinaCes  of  the  two  lowirr  cartUf  "^ 
riPgg. 

^K    VelE  =  area  of  Btnall  piston  In  square  inches; 

^B  1  =      ••    •'   iiiternieilinle  |>i»ii>ti  in  square  Inches; 

^H  £,=      ••    ••   laree  piston  ill  t^quare  inohes; 

^H  Vh  =  mean  uDbalai 


Janced  pretisure  per  square  inch  from  0W4 


Pl^  =  mean  ud 

?:=  ■•     ••       ••    ••    •• 

i8  =  nlston-gpeed  in  feet  per  minute; 
(I.B-r.J  =  indicated  horse-power  of  engine. 

Then  for  equal  work  in  each  cylinder  ve  have: 
AreA  of  Kmall  piston  =  //  =  33,006  x        '   ' 


33,000 


Area  of  annnlar  ring  of  1 
iiitemif-diatv  cylinder  1   — 


S 

3 
Area  of  annular  ring  of  large  piston  =  83,000  x 


I 
I 


3000 
7  =  BSO -f  38,000  X-g-- 


Area  of  larije  piston  =  i  =  J  -f  SS.OOO  x 

This  method  is  Illustrated  by  the  following  example 
piston-speed  S  -  flOO  fi.  per  niin.,  ratio  of  ezpan 
■lire  at  cylinder  127  lbs.  ahsiiliiie.  iind  hnckpi 
[AbKolute     Find  cylinder  diaiiieteiii  for  equal 

The  mean  ordinate  of  "  C  "  Is  found  to  be  pk  —  X7AU  IX-t.  \ 

"  "B p«  =  IS.TM 

"        "  "  "iiji^""      "        ••      ji(=]l.Tao 

Then  by  (1),  (S),  and  (3)  we  have: 

S=  33.000  X  ^  1- 37.414  X  800  =  980 sq.  in..  dJftni,ai§j*; 


,  =  3308+83,000  x  25!:^ -4-11.780  X  WOO  =  BCSsq,  In,, 

Mr.  Whitham  recommends  the  following  cyllndfr  ratio*  wb*»1 
■peed  is  from  T50  to  lOOO  ft.  per  min.,  the  terminal  preasiim  (" 
.cylinder  being  about  10  Itw,  al>t«olute. 
I         CTLiimaR  Ratios  KEcoMMENDin  ton  Tmtn.»-mM.PitMwii 


Boiler-pressure 
(Gauge). 


lao 

IM 

ISO 
160 


Small 


170  and  npwards — qtiadrtipte-ogpansion  engini*  to  he 


He  gives  the  following  mtios  from  examination  oft 
Uglneg : 

Steam-l>oiler 
Fressure. 

va 

MO 
I4ft 

tftO 
1«0 


No.  of  Engine* 

Averaged. 

0 

$ 

n 


TRIPI.E-EXPANSION    ENGINES. 


En  Bale  for  IProportf oiilue:  tbc  Cyltntfcra  of  inul- 
entfiries  is:  for  two-cylinder  compound  engines,  the  cylinder 
■quare  rootof  tlienunther  o[«>xpaiisiouK.  and  fortriple-«Mipaui«ioii 
I  ratios  of  ilie  hi^h  to  tbe  iutt^roiediale  and  of  ibe  iuterniediote 
tre  eacb  equal  tu  (he  cube  root  uf  the  tiiiinb«r  of  rxpansions,  the 
^  hi^li  to  ttif  low  b<'liic  the  product  of  the  two  ratios,  that  U,  the 
lie  uube  root  nf  the  number  uf  expaosiont).  Applying  this  rule  to 
«8  above  eiveD,  assuniiog  a  lernniial  pressure  (aliaolute)  of  10  lbs. 
eapectiTely,  we  have,  fur  iriple-expAnslon  engines: 


1 


TenniDoI  Pressure,  10  lbs. 


Cylinder  Batioe, 
areas. 


1  to2.35tor>.S-1 
1  to  2.41  to  5.81 
1  to  2.47  to  0.08 
1  tolS.iStoe.DS 


Term  loot  PresGure,  8  lbs. 


No,  of  Ei- 
paDBioiis. 


IBM 


ao 


Cylinder  Ratlox, 
areas. 


1  to2.&8to».'IU 
1  tu8.a0toe.74 
1  to3.C6to7.U» 
1  t«2.Tl  toT.37 


Fof  the  dlaiueters  is  the  ssquare  root  of  the  ratiosuf  Uie areas,  aud 
f  the  diurtietfrt!  of  the  first  ftnd  third  cylinders  is  (lie  same  as  tUe 
f  areas  uf  first  and  stH-*«pnd. 

II  his  Marine  Enj^ineerlng,  savH:  When  the  pressure  of  stetini  eni- 
leeds  ll.i  IbR.  absolute,  it  is  advisable  to  eniplny  three  I'yiinderB, 
toll  of  which  the  steatii  expands  in  turn.  The  ratio  of  the  lovr- 
lligii- pressure  cylinder  in  this  system  Nhonlil  lie  !>,  wlien  the 
is  125  lbs.  absolute:  when  185  lbs.  nhsolute,  ,').4:  when  145 
,5.8;  when  155  ll>s.  absolute,  S. 3:  when  1C5  lb«,  alisoliUe.  8.8. 
flow-pressure  l<i  intermediate  cylinder  should  be  nboul  one  half 
en  low-pressure  iinil  hifrh-piressure.  as  given  above.  TIaiit  is,  if 
f  I.  p.  lu  h.  p.  is  li,  lliai  of  I  p.  to  int.  should  be  aliiiul  3,  and  rnntte- 
1  of  int.  to  h.  p.  about  i.  In  praotiee  the  ratio  of  int.  to  h.  p.  is 
I  thot  the  diaiueter  of  the  Int.  cylindei-  is  1.5  lliat  of  the  h.  p. 


_Dtii>o  of  the  triple-Ciiuirmnnii  engine  has  Rtlinllled  o(  sliips  beinjf 
'A  hlKher  rates  of  speed  than  formerly  olitaiued  Hillioiil  exceeding 
inption  Of  fuel  of  siiiillur  ships  fitted  with  tmiinary  eoni(Kiiinil 
II  such  cases  the  hlnher  power  loolitain  the  speed  has  been  (level 
•creasiiJK  the  rate  of  expansion,  the  low-pressure  cylinder  belntf 
sa  the  capacity  of  the  luKlipressure,  with  a  working  pres.sure  of 
solute.  It  is  now  a  very  general  practice  to  make  the  diameter  of 
esMire  cylinder  equal  to  the  stun  of  the  diattielers  of  tlie  b.  p.  and 
erv;  hence, 

lameter  of  int.  cylinder  =  1.5  diameter  of  li.  p.  cylinder; 
iiUneler  of  1.  p.  cylinder  =  a. 5  diameter  of  h.  p.  cylinder. 

aae  the  ratio  "f  1.  p.  to  h.  p,  l»6*j;  the  ratio  of  int.  to  h.  p.  Is  8.35; 

>f  1.  p.  to  int.  Isi'.'H. 

•  or  Cflluderii   for  DlflTereut   Claaaes   of  Engine*. 

1.  M.  K.,  teb  IHS;.  p.  W  )— As  to  the  best  ratios  fur  the  eyliuders 
eii^hie  there  seems  to  be  great  djtlerenco  of  opinion.  CousUlera- 
e,  bov^'ever.  is  due  to  the  reqnireiiients  of  (he  (.^se,  inasmuch  as 
01  Imi  exix'cicd  that  the  s&niu  ratio  »vould  be  suitable  for  an  eco- 
!Ui(l  eijg.tie.  where  the  space  occupied  and  the  weii^ht  were  of 
lunance.  as  in  a  war  shii>.  where  the  cotidiitiona  were  reversed.  In 
enKin*',  for  e.xample,  a  (heorelical  teniiiiial  pressure  of  ahout  7 
absolute  viu'iiiiiii  would  probaiji}'  ha  aimed  at,  which  would  give 
capacity  of  IiIkIi  pressure  to  low  pressure  of  1  to  (t^j  or  1  to 
n  a.  warship  a  leriiilnal  pressure  wotdU  be  required  of  1:^  to  13  lbs. 
lid  neeii  a  ratio  of  cn|Miciiy  of  1  to  &;  yet  in  both  these  Instances 
erg  were  correctly  proportioned  and  siiilaljlu  to  live  ceqvdvevwenV!. 
a.    It  is  obrJoH.-;/)- (in It /se,  tjjejefore,  to  introduce  lujy  UeLTd-a.ufi.- 

of  Three'mtmge  tSxpmnmtou  EuKlnea.— \.  Three ct«.uV 
M^r^j^ra?,i^l?,u"'"^^"'     ''"'"'  '"o**'  oo.umon  type  ^ 


I 


THE  STEAM-EXGIKK. 


I'm 


Hc^aence  of  Cranks.- Mr.  vvviii<- 
sequencri"  liiifh.low,  itUi-riiu-diB'e,  whiV  ^  "flRh.  f 

low.     Tlie  former  seqiiciice.  liiijli,  low,  II  ns  ft|ipfM 

liorl»>ntsl  PxliousI-liiiK,  ami  thus  iiiini::. .f  icnijy 

tlie  initial  Iliad:  thi?  lari«r  <»-quence,  hi^U,  iiiteruieOitttr, 
ratiK^  aiiil  ulso  the  loatl, 

Mr.  Morrison,  in  iliseiiiitiiii^  the  qiiestiun  of  s»'(iiiHni-»^  <<i 
ft  dltti^i'ain  hhowiii^  that  with  the  L*rHiilcft  hi- 
low.  liitei-mrdiate.  the  mean  i"i)iiipre*»iou  iui 
of  IheRlrnke:  willi  the  sequence  higli,  intertii       _ 

111  I  he  former  case  the  cumiiressiori  woj<  jiisi  »i 
the  receiver-pressure  praetiually  iiDlforin;  In  tiie  ini 
einiBerl  a  vnriBtir.n  in  tlie  receiver-invs-siire  to  il 
'JriU,  lli.s. 

Velocity    ot    Steam     thrvaeb    PassaKea    1 
X;ugrineM.    ( I'ruc.  InBt.  M.  E  ,  Feb.  l.-^"":  i— In  tlie  ."i^S    /'.. 
of  till-  cylinder   multiplied    by   the    i-Uitnn-sjiet-ii 
iliTidiiifr  In'  the  area  of  the   port  the  velocity  of  t. 
the  liiKh-pressiire  cylinder  |K>rt  would  lie  ut>i:iiil  ItX' 
hauKt  would  lie  aiioiit  90.      In  the  iDterinediate  n 
had  n  vi-lficily  of  about  IS),  and  the  exiinust  of  I 
cylinder  the  iiiilinl  Kleaiii  entered  thriiiigh  the  \h.i 
and  Id  the  exlinii.st-port  the  velocity  wbk  about  IIU  feci  i>cr  t 

<||;ADBI7PLE-BXPAN8I0!«   BKiCilNI 

H.  H.  8uplee  <Trans.  A.  S.  M,  E..  x.  58.*))  KUtej  thai  •  litudy  ( 
quadruple-expansion  engines,  nearly  all  intended  to  Iwoiwni 
Bure  of  180  llis.  j)er  sq.  in.,  )?ave  averaee  cylinder  ntius  of  !  tj 
7.70,  or  neaily  in  the  proportions  1,  2,  4.  H. 

If  we  take  the  ratio  of  areas  of  any  t "  - 
root  of  the  nunil)er  of  expanxionR,  iln'  ■ 
culie  of  the  fourth  root.     On  this  biu>Ls  i 
surea  and  raloa  of  exponaioo  will  be  ai>  i<.-i 


la 


Oou^e- 

Abfiolate 

Terminal 

Ratio  of 

Ratioiir 

pressiirea. 

Pressures. 

Pressures. 

Brpsnoton, 

otCfla 

IIS 

t4.« 

1        '     ■ 

leo 

1:5 

k 

ir.» 

1 

^ 

IS 

16.9 

1  :  t  111    « ' 

■       180 

105 

i>o 

19.5 

1  :>.N:ll 

P 

8 

9(.4 

J  ;  t«:l< 

IS 

1T.9 

1       ■■:■■■ 

soo 

am 

'  10 
8 

81 .» 
(8.9 

I 
1 

1: 

19.e 

1  :  :.i'      •• 

S'.ll 

£15 

■  10 

11.6 

|:t.»   41 

(  8 

£9.4 

It  a  11 

8«atoii  sayt::  When  the  preiisiire  of  steatn  eiu|>lo]re<i  «xw»«l»  IWI 

lute,  fiiiir  ovIihOiT!^  sIhmiIiI  In-  ••iiiiiI'iV"il.  w  lib  ilie  ii>-  ini  1 


I  Ml»i  «»*l**VVa>   -ft\"i>t* 


<iL"AlJKUPl.fc-EXi'ANc.lOX    KNUIXfiS. 


»  of  Cylinders  or  Reeciil  Triple-expaaalon 
EiiglueH,  Chleflj-  IQariae, 

Coniplli:-{i  fiuiii  seyeial  s.;iui-c«;s,  inyrt  ]S)3. 

ta:  H=  liigli  pressure,  /  =  Intermediate,  L  =  loir  pressure. 


19.7 


/ 

L 

11 

an  6 

41 

» 

237,^ 

S8.; 

24.5 

131 
13) 

23 

83.5 

«r 

44 

» 

28  ?. 

4-J 

36 

!!« 

45 

24 

27 

40 

20 

■J9 

48 

28 

305 
.!S  5 

51 
48  :• 

a!l 

■a  B 

,35.4 

ao 

«.« 

47! 

3-J 

so 

45 

94 

82.5 

186 
130 

S3 

88 

b-i 

iiS.6 

33 

4H 

S4 

86 

51 

34 

83.5 

49.S 

84.5 

M 

B7 

34.5 

Zi 

SI 

38 

38 

38 

37 

40 

49 

43,5 

4i 

44 

43 

48 

4S 

51 

M 

M 

55.1 

54 

50 

51 

67 


!t 


H 


3« 


asf 

39 
40 
40 
40 

41 
4IM 

43 

43 

tm 

4S 

84  6ti^!5 

00 
85 
92 


56 
61.5 

5« 

61 

Be 

67 
68 
68 
67 
&S 
66 
68 
67 
71 

68 
75 
79 


91 

100 

8» 

n 

86 
106 
lOV 
101 

9i 
S-.' 
110 

locy; 

113 
I  85  7 

185.7 
I  81.5 

>98 
>08 


nres  are  bracketed  there  are  two  cylinders  of  a  kind.  Tiro 
',  two  81"  =  one  48.8",  two  83.5"  =  one  4B.0  ',  two  36"  =  one 
jp  one  52.3".  two  40"  =  on*^  50.6",  two  81.5"  =  one  115",  two 
I",  two  98"  =  one  140".  The  average  ratio  of  diametera  of 
I)  t)ip  riiKUics  in  the  above  table  is  nearly  1  to  1.60  to  8,56  and 
be>  nearly  1  to  2.50  (<•  G  55. 

reaii  In  Steam-engines  between  1876  aud  1893  is  8boira 
k  uuiiiparisou  of  ilie  Curiltseugiue  at  the  Centennial  Exbibi- 
I  tlie  Alli8-Corlis8  quadruple-expansion  engine  nc  the  Chicof^ 


!b 

netor  ...  . 
Ui  of  riu». 

rht 

■  infnut«. . . 

Diiiicol 

inum 


1893. 

1876. 

Quadruple- 
expansion. 

Simple 

4 

3 

84,  40,  80.  70  in. 

40  in. 

fjin. 

130  in. 

30  ft. 

80  ft. 

T«in. 

a4in. 

186,000  lbs. 

liS.440  lbs. 

60 

38 

80OC1  H.P. 

140n  HP. 

3000  H.P. 

2500  H.P. 

6S0,(X)0  lbs. 

1,360,.-R8  lbs 

aft  bmly  or  wheel-seat  of  the  Allin  encrine  has  a  diameter  of 
fials  19  inchfii,  uml  crank  beariiig.4  18  inches,  wlib  a  lotal 
It.  The  crunk-clinks  are  of  ca.st  iron  and  are  B  feet  in  dlam- 
tk-plns  are  B  Inches  in  dianu-ler  by  9  indies  lonp. 
tandem  Trlpie-expaniiton  Knelne,  bin'lt  by  Watts, 
t..  Nt-warli,  N.  J  ,  is  liewilbi^il  lu  Am.  Jfui/i.,  April  M,  18M. 
py|iri.l«r  rniidcni  onuliiea  coupled  to  one  Klmft,  criiuV*  ttVWP  , 

r       '"in.  sfruke.  U.5  revoliiliona  per  n\limle,  riiVfeA  W.Y. 

[  -  "eler,  IS  ft.  fae«,  weiifht  174,001)  \\>*\  iub.\»>  tfftsAV 

»  main  Journals  JO  ,-,  38  in  ;  crauV-p\i\*  ^\4~j' 

•l.-^i...  ,.,.uif  hnea  of  two  euKineB   a4   ft.    \V4  ^»-"<   '^ 
inii*  tvwotnca  for  the  exbausl  valrea  'jl  Vao  \.V.  csI 


^1 


50N0i(lC    PEBFOBMANCE   OP   STEAM-ENGINES.     77^ 


ItOlHIC  PERFORKIANCB  OF  8TE4!n-ENGINBS, 

ly  of  KxpanalTe  AVorklne  nnder  Various  Condi- 
tlonn,  Sinele  Crllnder. 

(Abridged  from  Clark  uii  the  Ste&m  En^iiie.) 
CtLTKCKM     with    StTKUBKATBD    aTEAM.     NoNC0NT)ES8llI0.— In- 

der  locomotive,  cjliiiders  aud  sleaiii-plpes  euTploped  by  the  hoc 
[the  smoke-box.  Net  boiler  pressure  luO  lbs. ;  net  maximum  press- 
Minders  60  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

[percent SO        US        30       SS       40       50       00       70        80 

Uootexpanslou  8.9]    8.81    8.87    8.58    9.26    1.88    l.5»    1.89    1.23 
rl.H.P.  per  hour, 

18.5    19.4      30      21.2    S2.2    24.5      27       30       33 

CTLINOERS  with  SUFERHKATSD  t>TILUI,  Co.NDBNBINO.— The  best 
pbtalned  by  Hirn.  witli  a  cylinder  S-'Jfix*)?  in.  and  :i[eara  super- 
80°  F.,  expansion  ratio  3?i  to  4}^,  wi&\  maximum  presKure  in  cylin- 
(68  lbs.  were  IS.GSaiid  15.88  lbs  of  water  |)er  I. II, P.  per  hour. 

Ctlinders  or  Shall  Size,  6  oh  9  m.  Dun.,  Jacketed,  Nok- 

iKO.— The  best  result*  are  t>i'<«ine«i  at  a  oiit-off  of  •*>  per  cent,  with 

jmum  pressure  in  the  cylinder;  about  iS  lbs.  of  water  per  I.H.P. 

:  CTLnrDBna,  rot  Steam-jaokbtbd,  CowDKNsme.^Best  resulls.  i 


h 


Knginc. 


I  Wheelock.. 


Cylinder, 

Dimij. 

and 

Stroke. 


tiu. 

18x48 

aSMX  6: 

Mxoe 

25  X« 
28X86 
88X  80 
30, 1  X  3t> 


Cu6-0(t. 


per  cent, 
18.5 
16.8 
S4.e 
15.5 
18  a 
18  3 
15.0 


Actual 
Expan- 
sion 

RAtiO. 


rat.ii>. 
«.9A 
S.84 
8.84 
6.M 
4.40 
5.0T 
4.94 


Total 
Maxi- 
mum 
PresHure 
in  O'lin- 
derper 
sq.  in. 


Iba. 
lOt  4 
61.5 
54.5 
87.7 
80.4 
46.9 
81,7 


Water  i 
Steam 

per 
I.H.P. 

per  hoar, 


Ibs- 

19.58 

19.98 

36.46 

£6.25 

S».86 

26. SB 


Same  Emoines,  Ateraqb  Kcsdlts. 


Stroke. 


nd  Wbeelock.. 


;  Stroke. 


B«r,Noii.  SO,  31,29,  la 

lu,  Not.  37,  S8,  29  . 
iMhi,  Nos,  a,  25,  S3,  I 


Inches,    I  Cut-off,  Per  cent. 


18x48 


96  X  a 

26  x36 
36  X30 
80.1  X30 


1S.5 
16.3 


IS.S 
18.3  to  33,3  » 
avera^fe  25  f 
,  13  3  to  26.4  I 
(SveraifH  19.8  ( 
1  1».8  to  1S.5  I 
I  averaize  15.8  l 


Lbs, 


Lbs. 


101.1 
01.5 

87.7 
79.0 

4S,a 

T8.S 


IB. ,^8 


26. 2S 

31.05 

36.86 

ss.so 


^4*irater  Consnmptlon  ofDIiTerent  Tf  pea  of  Enelnes. 

ijefollowini;  tables  ttie  ittKfii  Iruiu  t'l'^  nn:ulur  of  the  Tal'or  InHmiuiy 
bcroft  Mftf.  Co.,  ISSStl.  lu  (he  first  of  ilie  two  coliiiniin  und^T  Feeil-»nler 
UiTeil.  in  tbe  tables  for  simple  rDi;ine».  tlie  flgurnst  are  obtaioed  t>y 
•iwtailon  from  nearly  (lerfect  indii'Mto/-  riingiiimK,  with  alVowa.\iii«  toT  f.'jV 
St  coiidensjjf/o/j  iic't.'t)Ai/D>f  fo  Ibe  table  on  page  T5i,  but  *\tU«ut  ».\V<'»i - 
Vlhr lejikaKf,  iriih  l)«cA--pressijre  in  the  iion-<,'uiKlell8M>l5  laViVe  t».\«.««.  »X\* 
«»»re  jAT-o,  nnd  in  the  coiult-nmog  tablo  at  3  lbs.  above  ^«r^^.  'S\u» 
lfeomrrw,^.uppo8e<i  to  be  hyperOolic,  and  commence*  ftV O.V 

•w.  xgirem  tbo  feed-water  coosumpi.loa  for  Jackot«d  c&»»\ 


r 

■  776                                THE   STEAM-ENGtNB. 

W  densinfr  enidnca  of  the  best  cUss.    The  water  condenird 

includtM  in  llic  quaiitlilfcs  (?lven.    Thft  ratio  at  areu  ol  l^ 
as  1  to  4  for  120  fbs.  pressure;  the  clparaiice  of  MuiU  oylM 

■■ 

^^^^1 

cut  oft  ill  the  two  cylinders  occurs  at  tht-  sBnie  [•■■iiil  ■■r  % 

^^^^^^1 

pressure  in  the  I.  p  cylinder  is  1  lb.  per  sq.  In    1  ■                    • 

B.  p.  cylinder.    Tli«  average   baok  pressure  <>! 

cylinder  is  4.5  Ib».  for  10*  cutoff;  4.75  lbs.  for                  '; 

^^^^^1 

^^^^^1 

^^^^^^B 

K    CUt-ofT.     The  Hteam  accounted  for  by  tlie  iiidioiiiji    at   c 

ssifm 

H   cylinder  (allowing  a  gniall  amount  for  leakage  i  i)-    .74  at 

i»4H 

W  20*,  and  .K!  at  30%  cut.cifl.    The  loss  by  coiuleusation  belwaval^H 

iB  Buch  that  the  steam  accounted  for  at  cut  off  in  (he  1 

,  mA^B 

pressed  In  proportion  of  iliat  sliown  at  release  in  the  li.  II 

^I^^H 

10*  cut-off,  .87  at  20*  cutoff,  «nd  .89  at  SOf  cut-off. 

^^^^H 

The  data  upon  which  table  No.  3  is  calculated  are  ' 

"9^1 

water  consumption  is  somewhat  lower  than  has  yet  ■ 

A^l 

lowest  steam  consumption  of  a  i  riple-eip.  eniriae  yei  . 
TABLE  So.  1. 

j| 

Fbed-watbh  Co.ssniipnoM,  Sihplb  Ekoiiii 

■.^^H 

NOH-COSDBNEINO   t:K0INK8.                                    COKOCTaa 

^ 

£ 

3 

Feed-water  Re^ 

r 

o 

s 

quired  per  I. H. P. 

1 

^^^^H 

s 

per  Hour. 

i 

I 

^^^^^^1 

< 

p< 

B 

^ 

> 

u  >  E  s 

1 

< 

l^^l 

Jj 

1 

g 

sill 

ti 

* 

1 

S^H 

1 

n 

E 

h 

(Cu- 

i 

us 

B.S2 

1 

s 

& 

\i 

1 

fl 

6 

ll 

5  ~ 

a 

SI 

s 

O  3 

1* 

s 

ti 

M 

60 

8.70 

37.20 

40.9.-) 

00 

14.421 

tM^I 

7(1 

12.89 

SU.99 

3.1.68 

70 

16.  (Ml 

>^^^l 

10 

80 

16.07 

87.01 

89.88 

6- 

80 

lU.SOi 

ii.l^H 

90 

19. 7« 

29.48 

37. 4?) 

90 

2».04 

I7J^| 

_ 

100 

43.45 

28.90 

SS.73 

100 

84.5B 

itI^H 

60 

SI  IS 

27.55 

29.43 

10 

00 

29  44 

tT^H 

TO 

26.57 

26.44 

27.04 

70       •-f  "• 

so 

80 

si.aa 

St.  04 

iK.es 

80       ..• 

j^H 

90 

87.47 

S3. 00 

24.57 

I 

00 

.%■ 

^^1 

, 

100 

42.92 

83.25 

S3. 77 

100 

3: 

^H 

• 

60 

30.47 

27.34 

29.10 

60 

.V, 

.^1 

70 

37.21 

25.7(1 

27.43 

1    70 

S-\ 

,!__^^l 

Bl 

SO 

48.97 

84.71 

26.89 

15 

MO 

».t^  . 

^M^^H 

90 

60. rs 

83.91 

2S.S8 

DO 

*iM 

^^^^^^1 

^v 

100 

67.49 

38. if? 

24  68 

100 

^^^^1 

■ 

60 

37.75 

27.09 

29.63 

W 

«0 

3i 

j^l 

70 

45  SO 

26.66 

2S.18 

w 

4. 

,^^| 

I    iO' 

80 

63.25 

25.76 

87.17 

no 

1 

■^^1 

^1 

90 

61.01 

SS.OS 

S6,35 

«0 

tl 

^^1 

m 

100 

68.70 

84.47 

V».78 

100 

>>'' 

j^l 

■    f 

60 

43.4'.j 

IB  94 

80  66 

•9 

41 

1^1 

M  -- 

711 

M.U4 

87.79 

V9.SI 

79 

£•' 

^^1 

Bw 

80 

60.41 

86.99 

S8.SS 

M 

fU      .^ 

^^H 

9U 

68.9(1 

se.ai 

rr.ft* 

911       I'l     . 

'J^H 

1 ' 

lUO 

77.48 

to, TO 

I    w.w  \    V 

I  V01        .1  .'• 

W     -AN 

lO  4^H 

L 

■ 

^_xj:^ 

f.vr*.. 


itrn"  I£<r«c*l«»  r«  ■■■• 


kruoMvi 


H.P.  OyU. 
ttw. 


^^i^'^i'w.lr 


11 .07 

IS. as 

J8.&* 

«•  Ta 

38.13 

»» -js 

ST  61 
46. 4t 
BO. 00 


u.w 

H.KT 


P.kj(«iox  OoRBKiirsiiio  EMauai. 


> above 


Mean  Effwtlve  Pressure. 


^      lb«. 


I        Ifaa. 


lb*.  ibg/ 


•■Si.O 


JO.l 

10.8 

11.8 


Keuiilrtiil 

|i«rl.U  I'. 

pvr  Hour. 

lbs. 


12.05 
II.4 

io.:b 


ilc^al    Point    of  Onl-oir  in  Nteatn-VDirinea. 

and  Uiriilnii.  'rittiKS  A,  H,  M.  (.;  ,ol.  ii.  p.  M7 -JSi ;  iiIho, 
(.1  M.iM.iium  Em>-'i(Micy.  U,  u.  Tliiirsi..ii,  vol.  II.  p.  I8«.) 
of  «fXt>tt»suin  U  Hot  one.  of  t-roiMJiny  "■f  i.'ou- 
V  <jf  coKt  uf  boiler  aloin".  The  iim-Btlon  of 
••<jluti->n  of  value  of  rn^iiie.  rt-pftirijor  i-nitliiu, 
,  tor  us  \v«  iiiore:i*»  ihe  rnU?  of  f>xpftn«loo,  ami  ttiiiH, 
ftxed  by  tl>«  Irnok- pressure  and  oondeusatioii  of  Rteaiii, 
fuel  requiiwi  (iiwl  l-osi  of  Ijoiler  pel'  unit  of  work, 
■"^iiiennioiio  of  tlm  cvlltiilrr  ami  tb"  «'»«  of  tlip  eii- 
power.  We  ihua  iucrcasw  tlif  t''"*'  i"  tl>e  eit(flri«<, 
^e  of  expiinslon,  while  lit  lh<'  Kam"  llini.  wp  (1>-- 
ptioii,  ihi-    cost  of   boiler,  L-i'       -^       1  ■•   ■]  ;, 

'  cut-ofT,  di'tt'riiilnaljlH  l>y  ■ 
I  s«cur«  tlie  pre-1*»»s1  Hftl*-;- 

[l(»!4l«*l"uLio(,  ''.  -  .  '  ,,..-,-(■ 

pi-eelati"!  H  Jtiice 

Bte,  elu.,  .  ii/tU- 


r.^i.,.,,i^-— — -'^- ;^^-'-M,^H,  ^^^,'^  ul. 


778                                  THE   STEAM-EKGINE.                                  I 

SIiaplA  Bne1ne«-Noii-condenalBc< 

n 

i 

i 

H.P.  when 

H.P.  when 

H.P.  when 

Umtn  \  i 

1 

c 

u 

Cutlloc  off 

Cuitincr  off 

CuttiDK  off 

■85 
1         ll 

►5 

aci/Sstrokft, 

at  *4  atroke. 

at  ^  stroke.  1""""' 

'? 

70 

80 

l» 

70 

80  !  00 

TO  '  80 

90 

Ft 

In 

1 

ii' 

Iba. 

an 

lb8. 
86 

lbs. 
30 

iba. 

as 

lb«. 
H 

lbs. 
86 

lbs.  Iba. 
3:1     87 

lbs. 
4.1 

4 

4 

"«u 

nt 

10 

ro 

gL, 

M 

818 

S7 

a 

81 

84 

41 

47 

411     48 

66  4M 

i 

111 

iWji 

1« 

877 

41 

a 

flt 

U 

6:2 

71 

63'     74 

85 

b'tf 

? 

jA 

11 

16 

MO 

Si 

64 

77 

67 

81 

»a 

8-i,     M 

111 

m 

4 

134 

18 

SH 

en 

ec 

at 

84 

100 

lie 

103'  130 

ISH 

m 

11 

4 

16 

ao 

181 

96 

115 

iSf 

liN 

144 

lU 

146 

iTt 

19& 

8'4' 

15 

M   ll^H 

18 

S4 

158 

lit 

144 

i:j 

151 

181 

iiW 

188 

815 

8IK 

10 

11) 

1 

■ 

« 

« 

138 

ITU 

«ie 

881 

fts? 

?7S 

313 

8;6 

384 

373 

nv 

« 

1 

■ 

JMH 

83 

IM 

«il 

S87 

8K 

S8I 

sse 

386 

840 

400 

480 

I8'4' 

34 

7 

■ 

« 

U 

lla! 

liOt 

88S 

an 
35 

8411 

40» 

470 

414 

487 

500 

14'-!' 

41 

I 

■ 

Mean  eff.  preuJb 

iM 

» 

30.6 

3«.S 

4S 

37  I43.6 

50 

nomliitl'POl^l 
rating  of «!»« 
eiDMiitlSS 

Ratio  o(expan«'D 
Terminal  prei»ure 

(about)  Iba 

Cyl.coiiaensat'u,) 

B 

4 

3 

17.S 

SO 

sss 

S.4 

SS 

S7.6 

89.833.3 

36.8 

■■» 

B6 

s« 

i4 

M 

84 

81     81 

•il 

gauge  Vf*^gM 
steam  ciit4B^| 

Steam  per  I.H.P 

1              per  hour Ib«.|3a  S 

80  |W.4 

31.2 

89.0 

87.9 

38    31.4 

30 

^  atroke. 

.^1 

Compoand    Enslnea  —  Non-eondenalns  —  Higb  •  pr«Mlfl 
'                                    Crlluder  and  Becelver  Jacketed.                  ■ 

! 

t 

H.P.whencutliiig  HIVwIn* 
off  Al  >.4  t^litike     off  at  ^ 

......ni..^,  u  P-hjM|J 

^M 

I  stroke',  offatJil^H 

Dtem. 

ij             CyllDder, 
1               Inches. 

1 

L 

in  li.p.  Cylinder,  in  h.p.  C'yiiiider. 

inii.|>.Q^H 

c£ 

Cjl. 

Cyl.         Cyl, 

Cyl. 

<%  m 

. 

13  c 

R&lio, 

Ratio,      Ratio, 

Ratio. 

Ratio,    MH 

1 

s, 

1 

sa-.i. 

4H  •  1.    3^  :  1. 

4H:1. 

%:1.   ^1 

Px' 

a; 

rti 

RO 

90 

ISO 

ino   so 

90 

130 

ISO 

80 

96   Wfl 

K 

V 

>J 

lbs. 

Ibe. 

Ibg. 

Iba. 

Ibe. 

Iba. 

Iba. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb*.  Ibt.  ■ 

eai 

m 

13 

10 

370 

7 

IS 

19 

^i 

as 

31 

35 

46 

44 

~»~«1» 

0  2 

7H 

;^^ 

U" 

3IU 

U 

19 

£4 

4(1 

89 

38 

4fi 

S9 

56 

m    81  ^r 

1         7  ft 

» 

H 

277 

14 

ss 

sn 

flO 

43 

SR 

67 

87 

83 

ifii  ifl  fl 

1         » 

I0« 

19 

16 

■.'16 

IH 

s; 

47 

7f 

67 

7fi 

87 

114 

100 

i.v  iil^L 

io« 

IS 

•-'■■!  W 

If* 

ISU 

36 

R3      68 

111' 

81 

lOS 

185 

164 

ise 

ite  ^^H 

n 

ISU 

-,» 

•M 

IBS 

■a 

65      84 

l.t» 

100 

18.-) 

164 

aoit  18S 

»3l 

ism 

I5M 

iStI 

•u 

158 

43 

8H   iia 

IW) 

1.S5 

IHI 

806 

371    258 

IS 

IKU 

S8 

13» 

67 

118    1.M    249'  1«) 

24-.' 

2'i'T 

363'  346 

isn  {A^H 

la 

as 

S-J 

]«) 

74 

15J    134i  aSI    23-' 

312 

.^17 

468    446 

K!tfi  fiin,^l 

so 

ssU 

4:1 

34 

lU 

84 

m 

wu 

418    897 

400 

4.57 

601 1  57? 

71  a'  mU^I 

^1^ 

uuu 

a 

41! 

US 

lat) 

285 

Sft'i 

e03   430 

587 

670 

880;  838  lOM  iniH 

39 

ttU 

48 

flU 

]«» 

r4 

477 

7S9    570 

7B7 

877 

1151  I09«1!CTIWM 

Meaneffec.  prpBg.,.]bB 

Ratio  of  expanBion 

Cy].  condensation,  %. . . 

3.3 

6.8 

8.7 

14.410.4 

14.0 

16 

81 

80 1 85  ■  nM 

<^  Is 

]3« 

ISH     t 

lOH 

13« 

14 

14 

16  1  16 

14  1 

IS 

I.S 

13 

10 

10 .  11  n 

Ter,  preai.(about).lt>B. 

7.3 

7.7 

7.9     9     9  3 

10.4 

10  5 

18 

14 

15.9,14  JH 

Ivou  from  eziHuidlng 

1 

1  !■ 

below  stinoapliere.  i    34  1 

IS 

17       S  ',    6 

0 

0 

0 

0   0;  itm 

St.  perl.H.P.p.hr.lbR,   65  1 

42     47  1  89  ISS  3!a7.rl 

297 

85  4 

so  l«  8  B 

m 

The  oheinal  table  contah\«  ftKUT«aol\vo'cwi-vw«M,<((wi..tot HOWkI  t* 

m 

cylinder  ratio  of  1  to  1;  and\«\V>B.,v«,VvoViSi\«\.                                m 

1 

TBD    PKHKORMANCEH  OF  STKAM-ENGINES.  T79         1 

L^ 

d-«nKlaea-Cond«Dalnc— S  t«aku-J*ek^ted.                | 

U.P.whencuilinK  ll.V.whencuttingl 

H.P.wbencuttlDg         1 

off  at  U  Stroke 
in  h.p.  Cylinder. 

o(T  Bt  }i  stroke 

off  at  W  Stroke           1 
in  h.p.  Cylinder.          1 

In  h.p.  Cylinder. 

Cyl. 

Cyl. 

Cyl. 

Cyl. 

Cyl. 

S^^-        1 

3  = 

Raclo, 

Ratio, 

Ratio, 

Ratio, 

Ratio, 

Ratio,         1 

r 

•HW:1. 

4:  1. 

%-.l. 

4:  1. 

3JS:1. 

4     1.             1 

80 

no 

lift 

1» 

90 

no 

US 

1«5 

SO 

no 

115 

13S          1 

ll>8 

IIJK. 

Ibn. 

lbs.  1 

bs. 

Ibfl. 

be. 

lb«. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb,. 

r 

370 

a 

fie 

53 

ez 

55 

70 

es 

75 

70 

97 

~95!  106          1 

.1IK 

» 

70 

67 

7« 

70 

«! 

R7 

95 

00 

Iffl 

lao 

184 

)CT 

«. 

.  iia 

1(0 

lie 

101 

l*j 

m 

141 

138 

183 

179 

300 

«4« 

10! 

1    1J7 

131 

ir.2' 

i;« 

174 

iiw 

185 

174 

e39 

834 

•Ml 

. 

«» 

1.^1 

>    210 

187 

ais 

195 

S.70 

«4-i 

886 

£S0 

343 

38f. 

874 

INi 

m 

I    460 

«31 

SfiB 

241 

AOt^ 

898 

m 

308 

423 

414 

4«a 

ISB 

as 

i    !MK 

310 

Ml 

3'ja 

41!i 

400 

A99 

4JS 

5U8 

555 

819 

ISH 

u 

i    4«7 

415 

484 

m 

G54 

iVW 

Bfifl 

SS4 

70) 

744 

8:«) 

ISO 

a 

i    OO-.' 

58.S 

«24 

568 

7H 

S91 

758 

714 

981 

95911070 

l]-j 

.■)? 

I   TV,' 

6WJ 

H)l 

715 

1H5 

Rft7 

972 

015 

iaS8 

ISWlSTa 

1 

93 

H3 

1131 

lOW!  11741 

048 

1341 

:i»M 

Has 

1341 

1844 

t8oir.*oi-j 

1 

HO 

im 

8) 

S7 

tillA 
SI 

1534 
S8 

»70 

35 

1757 

82 

ie9« 

SI 

1863 
IT 

1757 

-.>411 
44 

L.lbs. 

■ion... 

18« 

18  1  18 

16M 

SO  1  30 

10      1 

I'JW    1 

6*4 

8M 

Ill,  i.  . 

15  1  IS 

13 

18  1 

1;!      13 

14  1  14 

• 

r.ll>8. 

17.8116,6 

IB.fillS.S 

7.0I1B.4 

Ifl.3 

15.81 

17.5  17.0 

16.8|l6.0 

Die  cODMins  flgurei  for  S6  lbs.,  cylinder  ratio  ^  to  1;  and         1 

lanston  Eitiinen,  Non-roiideuatng.— Becelver          1 

only  Jacketed.                                                      1 

■ 

Horse- power 

Forseposrer 

HorsMiower 

when  CuttloK 

1     off  at  07  per 

t 

I 

(iflf  at 

'ultinK 

whi-[i  CiJltiiiK 
off  at  .=^0  per 

4'.'  iier 

1 

8 

cent  of  Slh'ltp 

ceul  of  Stroke 

'  ceut  of  Stroke 

a« 

in  Fii-stf 'J Un- 

in first  Cylin- 

1 in  Fii-Bi  Cylin- 

1 

der. 

der. 

der. 

L] 

180  ttj». 

300  lbs 

.   160  lbs 

70 

aioibs. 

84~ 

ISO  lbt4. 

900  IbH 

10 

ff:o 

55 

64 

sa 

108 

i  13  318; 

TO 

81 

00 

100 

lai 

137 

i« 

«7 

104 

i«i 

1*1 

.  1^ 

179 

ii04 

IS 

»I6 

ISO 

l&S 

^^ 

SOT 

234 

•M7 

1    18 

sna 

195 

886 

sue 

336 

382 

80 

IKi 

£41 

a79 

.    308 

Sfld 

414 

471     -^ 

i  ^ 

l.W 

SM 

*}4- 

*    418 

400 

655 

gsa  «^H 

« 

138 

4iH 

«K 

SM 

657 

744 

848  ^H 

!U 

lao 

KWJ 

847 

714 

B47 

o.'va 

1093    ^^H 

SI 

112 

7re 

8-i9 

916 

)l»8 

1S30 

1401    ^^B 

4i! 

03 

1048 

1316 

1841 

t50« 

1801 

7053    ^H 

48     SO 

1870 

1580 

1754 

£082 
88 

SRSfl 

i  '"^  ^ 

ma.,  Iba.j 

sa    1      SB 

\        Ki\       'A^ 

« 

/ 

i6          1  .         la 

10     ^^M 

't 

'"'::-...''* 

IS              \              Vi 

I 

'r-.mi  W.70    1  lB.na    1 

p.iba.j  a.ea  /  «.«»  / 

19.  JS 
2.40 

17.00  \  Vim  \ 

8. 13     \     %.»    1 

1 

J^H^rf 

^ 

rso 


THE   STTEAIK-ENOIXB. 


Triple>«xpnniilon   Ensrlnes— Cond«B«li 
Jaeketed. 


I 


Horsepower 

Horse-P' 

1 

Diameter 

u 

vlien  Cut     1  when'i                               .H 

Cylinders, 
inches. 

s 

a 

ting  off  Bt  Lj  Uue  ofi'  1                             «■ 

MM 

Stroke  in 

Stroke  in     i     .•~ii  cI,h  iji  TO 

■5 

3 

First  Cylin- 

First CyUn- 

First  CyliiH    E 

.2 

~S 

der. 

der. 

drr.         1 

1 

II 

j 

lU 

^ 

fc 

120;  14U|  leo 

lao'  140 

160 

180 

no!  i«ai  n 

K 

J 

* 

(S 

lbs.  Iba.  ;lb8. 

Iba.' lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb:.  '■■       " 

4H 

"i 

12 

10 

370 

85~4«~48 

44     .'J3:    50 

r<7 

5H 

i'oil 

12 

318 

4f     5!)     62 

66     07 

78 

78 

^yk 

101^ 

14 

4T7 

67     79     92 

83    100 

U2 

iiie 

I 

«H 

IS 

19 

16 

340 

87    108   IW 

109    131 

147    14l!    1 

9 

na 

=»W 

18 

a»j 

1»!    H8'  17-.>-  I.'.0'    187 

•-•11     . 

10 

16 

25 

ao 

185 

154    ISH:  211!    IW!  231 

■M() 

IIH 

18 

-^ 

34 

158 

206    'J4S'  -JKI    WiH'  310    .",l^' 

13 

SH 

s» 

138 

277    329    Si'l'  346'  4I,'.                            i  l*.',    « 

15 

24H 

m 

sa 

lao 

357    4a4    401    44>i 

S-')-.                      ,  '6 

a»4  « 

i: 

2- 

43 

34 

Ui 

4.58    548,  ft;«    ,'>7s! 

GhJ,                       .14 

\mm 

£0 

:« 

.13 

4S2 

S3 

676   796|  SWJ    MIX 

10(K1  !;;S1    U>-'.i  !3« 

!•«» 

8S« 

88 

«0 

48 

80 

877|i04i.iao(j  urn 

13I6;l4W14£4|l80e 

Mean  effec,  press., Il>s. 

16!     191     ift)      3l» 

24    27.   m:   shIs.iI  a 

No.  of  expansions 

26  8                   aO.l                    13.4 

Percent  cyl.  condens. 
Bt.p,  l,H.P.p.hr.,lbs. 

19 

19  1  19      16  ,   le 

18      '••      '■■     '  ■       • 

14.7 

l8.9il3.3U.3l3.«e 

I3.S  I  . 

Coal  atSlb.  eTap.Jbs. 

1.8 

1.73|1  66  1.78,1.74 

1.6.5  1 

Type    of  ICnfctnc  to  be  naed   where  Bxl< 
needed  for  Hcatlnc-— lo  innny  ructoiii"  mi>[i-  . 
eiJiuusled  from  tlio  (.■uniiifs  is  iililize<l   f  i 
Where  all  (he  exliaust-Kteam  Is  so  used   tb-' 
steam  in  the  engine  i(s<-lf  i«;  rHniinnt»'cl.  nnil  ■ 
is  entirely  liUitAble.    Whi-it 
quantity  sn  used  varies  nt 
a  condeusinK.  or  a  compiH 
Ih  treated  by  C.  T.  Main  in  1  ran-    A    H    >1.  i 
the  ratios  or  the  Tohinu-x  of  thi>  cylinder*  in 
occordinf;  to  the  amount  of  exhiiusl-sleain  1 1 
case  i&  given  in  which  three  ilifffreut  preso; 
could  be  U9ed,a«  iu  a  Monited  ilyeliuusie.   i 
the  enffine,  an  intermediate  pressure  fi)r  ' 
boilint;.  dryhie>  etc     If  it  did  not  make  toe 
the  eiiRlne,  llie  boiler-pressure  nil|;hl  be  Uf- 
exhauKling  into  a  rer*f*irer  frnrn  ^•h!eli  *tp  i 
small  engines  and  i      ' 
Intn  the  intermedial 
ttie  atmosphere  an 

ift  drawn  the  li^u'-pre'isii!  f  ...[i.;,tM  ii.-...ii.,i  i..; 
etc.,  the  steam  reiiiainiut;  in  ret'fiV4'r  pnssih 
CompariNoii   of  (he    Gcoiiumy  or 
<>ylin<ior  (orlian  i'ondeiiatnK  B    _ 
about  hlxleen  Tlniea,   1 1>.  8.  JacobUK, 
s  used  \".  i.i.'  ,,>,!. ...  ,.,„t,,.iirati 


i"     11*  m 

'SdftorM 


FBRFORM AKCES  OP  STTAU-tSGOrgB. 


7S1 


b-preasiiri-  in  ^he  oaae  at  the  i 

nan  I  ■  •' eoffme.    Ill 

'  cii  ■  ijlei 

ilbe  <■  '1  fori 

ft  h'tiM^-^Hj-spr. 

Icr  ▼•.  TIu-ec-cytlsAMr  C*aip«M»4  .      _ 

)plf-'-v[Mi  ~i'rn  i-ninur.  bidn  far  ifee  MmkA  Tkrmd  i 
"d  so  ihM  tbe  inti  iiiThti  tjtiiiWi  a«y  I 
Ju-pffiurt  and  Urm-fnmmmecjtmitw*  m 

Tl>e  '1>,irii'"-r-  '.f  the  crliDden  «n  It,  HL  mad  MM  i 
the  ni>t  iK'i  b>-in$:  36  in.  and  that  (rftibe  low-prc^nR  I  .  , 
ifsijlts  of  a  ti^st  ri-p<jrted  by  B.  X. Oreea  and  O-L  Bocfc»ood.1 
:.,  vnl.  xiii.  617,  are  ax  toUov*:  la  lbs.  «f  (by  i 
U  aort  -iAii  in.  cylinder*  bD))- used,  two  ksu  ia,M  aa^  11711 
e.OI.  All  thnf«  cylinOrrs  use<).l«otealBl$.«7smt  UlM !%•„•* 
lifTf  rvoi'M  iii  unl>- 1  j.  and  would  indieaUsthat  aiotsttaaa  tvo( 
pt-c«sKary  in  a  compound  eoKine,  bat  ft  ia  jpolBMd  o«t  bt  tttt. 
..  the  conditJQDs  of  the  test  were  eapeciafly  favorable  for  lb* 
rfajfiiif.  and  not  rrlalivelxio  faroraMe  for  the  three  cyUndrra. 

dure  «ra«  It'i  Iba.  and  the  number  of  erpauaioiu  abo4itC5.J 
Ciission  on  the  Rocltwood  type  of  rnEiri''.  Tran*.  A. 8  M.  K.,  ^<Hf 

Water  contained  in  St«ain  on  tbe  Eflcleney 

k>enKlue,    (From   a  l»f<.-ture  by   Walter  C.  Kerr,  before  11 

Itute,  IBSl.t  -Standard  writers  make  little  mrtiticm  of  the  effect 

QOisture  on  the  eipansire  properties  of  steam,  but  by  cnmtnon 

than  any  demoustration  tbey  seem  to  agree  (hat  rooi»ture 

an  ill  effect  simply  to  the  {•■rcenlaKe  ar.  '      ^  presence. 

a  moisture  will  iticre»*e  tbe  water  rate  of  . 

Httit!!  rcport»-d  iu  1893  l.y  R.  C.  Cai-penter  a  ..ks.  Trans. 

5.,  XV.,  in  ■whicti  water  in  varyintr  quantity  wa-  i'  ';  y-.r'-'i  into  the 
»,  uausiuK  Ihe  quality  of  the  ^ifain  to  ranee  from  99:8  to  fiS:Cdry. 
lat  throughout  the  ran|,'e  of  qualitif»s  u^fd  'Aif  <■< ■v,?^mi\>Ul>D  of  dry 
-  indicated  horsepower  per  ln.ir  i>stant,aiid 

that  ihu  water  n'a»  an  inert  qti.;  i  uor  harm, 

aril  thai,  tbe  extra  worl(  doae  i  ^^med  water 

iinrisi'n  i»  i«*ni>ibly  equal  tci  tin-  itn  i  ij.i-'<!ii'-  ui.rt^  which  It  does 
fi.iii.'.l  nnd  cijinprf.ssion.  that  the  heat  corrie>l  in  by  the  etitrained 
■fornih  no  tiwful  function,  and  that  a  fair  measure  of  the  economy 
iiie  i-*  th»'  '•..ii..iinipti^»n  ai  ur>'  and  sfiturat'/d  st*'ani. 
Ive  rommerrial  Kronomr  of  Beat  nodem  Xypea  of 
UDd  and  Triple-expanalon  Kusinea.  iJ.  K.  uenlon, 
tjJtucliiHiDi,  Dec.  17,  IHDt  >— The  followmi;  i«iil»-  anil  deduetiona 
nBti?e  commercial  ecmoniy  of  the  conri^iuiid  aiul  triple  type  for 
Btionary  piacllce  in  gteani  plants  of  r.fX)  imlliated  horsepower. 
iHk  l>ased  on  the  tests  of  Prof.  SchrOter,  of  Munich,  of  engines  built 
urK.  and  those  of  Geo.  H.  Borrug  on  tbe  Ijest  plants  of  America,  and 
id  enUtnatea  of  com  obtained  from  several  flrst-claiss  builders. 


I 


ion,  nr  Corlis.H  enKines  of 
H'Compound-receiver  con- 
;  ty|w,  expanding  10  tlmen. 
preBBure  120  lbs. 


f  Lbs.  water  per  hour  per  (  ,,  ,      , ,  „ 

I       IT  P      ■«■  rT.uii.iiin>tna..«      |- lo.o         H.U 

V  l.M      1.6B 


I     H.P.,  by  m'easuroment, 

ILIis.  coal  per  hour  per 
n.P..  asKuiniut;  R.5  lbs. 
BcHittl  evaporatlou. 
Ion,  or  Corliss  engines  of  (Lbs.  water  per  hour  per 
pie  exijaiislon  fonrcylln-  H.P..  bymeasurenient. 
W»«r  condensinjt  type,  ex-  <  Lba  coal  per  hour  per 
IKtimeH,  BoilerpresHun*,  |  H.P.,  a.>>KuniiDK  8.6  lbs. 
H  I   actual  evaporation, 

811)1. 


18.56    13.80 


1.48      1.50 


In  the  first  column  represent  the  best  recorde<l  performance 
iU<no  hi  the  i>ecotid  coliiniii  the  probable  rcliabW  v*'''c>^^^*^Vkcie. 


ca<t  of  triple  expangion  i.Jant    jht  horsepower,  lv\c\wd.Nua 
'lamney.  heMern.  foiiiidationn,  piping 


I 


I 
I 


?82 


THE  STEAM-ENQUTE. 


I 
I 


Hours  nmuing  per  day. 


Expense  for  coal.    Compounrl  plant. 

Kxpenae  for  coal.    Triple  plant 

Antiiial  saving  of  triple  plniit  in  fuel. 


Annunlinterf'Kt  at  .■)!{  on  H.fiO. 

Annual  depreciation  at  h%  on  J4.50 . 

Aiiniinl  pxtra  cost  of  oil,  I  gallon  per  84-hour 

(lay.  nt  SO  fJO,  or  LIS  of  nxira  fuel  cost 

Annual  extra  co8t  of  rt^palrs  alZt  on  ^.BO  per 

Si  hours.. , .,.-. 


Annual  gaving  per  H.P. 


tO.33 


Tlie  gAVlii);  between  the  eomponnd  and  triple  l3'pes  In  m 
iBvoIvrd  in  the  step  from  the  siiiBle-ejtpanslon  ■■'>n<i<>ii«iiii 
engine.    The  inori'ased  cost  per  horie-power     '     '  hI 

compound  is  ihin  almost  entirely  to  tlie  pxtni 
Its  fouudatlons,  the  boilers  costing  the  same  ■  n 
extra  ulreneOi.    lu  the  case  of  Ihe  biUKle  I'^ikji.^  iji>-  < 
alxiut  one  third  of  the  iiicreaaed  cost  of  the  compound  en 
Ic'na  co«t  of  till-  lntter"H  boilers. 

Taklne  the  total  coat  of  the  plants  at  $38.50.   SSt.rM  i 
power  respfctively,  the  figures  in  the  table  Imply  that  tli»l 
intf  is  as  follows  fur  ooal  at  9i  per  Von: 

1.  A  coNipouud  .W)  horse-]jo»er  plant  costs  «■■•■■■ 
for  10  hours^  service,  and  8tfW  for  -M  hours" 

plant  coKiloB  $1«,V50,    Thai  in,  tlieoouipoiitvl 
service  in  about  one.  year,  or  in  3J-hour  ■• 

2.  A  iriple  iiOO  horse-powpr  plani  cost 
year  in  10  iKnu-  .service,  or  $}SB  in  'J4-Uoi. 

ilierehy  saving'  il8  extra  cost  in  10-liour  s^i  ^  "  •■  in  m i   i 

hour  .service  in  nimut  i^i  years. 

Xriple  •  expsnalon     Puinplnfr*enein'     "t 
HiKhoiit  Bcoiiuni)'  on  Record^  18!l"             -    i 
Ciniteinporiuv  Kcuiiuniv  Of  thL-  Steum  eneiii- 
A.  S.  M.  E..  XV.  313.)-CyliniliT8  *,  -JN  and  7i 
volumes  1  to  8  to  7;   total  number   of   ■    • 
1A%;  int.  I.Sjt;  I.  p.  O.TTjf;  volume  of  rei  ■ 
ft.;  steam-pressure  cauge  during  test.,  a 
alLSolute;  revolutions  ao.S  |<er  luinuie:  iutin  «.• 
Itiil.B,  I.  p.  «i».U;  total,  .STS.y;  tot.il  fiiciion,  \i 
Kteaui  per  1. 11. P.  jier  hourll.BTS:  B  T.U.  i>er   i 
ro»t-|K>uhd«i  per  lOO  lbs.  of  coul,  143.!I06,000:  pei  u. 

^t«aiii  |ier  I.U.P.  per  hour,  from  dlaf;raju.  at  cut-off 

41  II  I  Hi  41  4.     iipjyu^p^  \ 

Btwrni  accounted  for  by  indicator  at  cii(-o4r.  per  o«ul. .    V 

■'  "  "  releajie,       '•      ...» 

Per  cent  of  total  Bteani  used  by  Jackets .   ..  I 


BtKheat     Kconomj; 
Pantplng-cuKlnrri. 

l,'i  nnd  .fii'i,  by  ;W  ui.  s; 
l>er  I.H.I'.  |p''r  hour 
iilwul  IB. 
U8e;  t>olli   , 

.vln;;  due   i- 
,mI  tOSK-. 


of    tttr-    Tw*  -  rjrilotfer 


.  .H  beat  on  Vn  ^«!M  M  *  "^ 
t;    M.  El.  xv\.>    Cx\>i 


PERF0BMAXCE5  OP  STKAM-ENODfES. 


^ 


•r  I.H.P.  per  hour.  ]» -JB  lbs.    Dtitj-  per  million  B.T.Cr.  =  1S8,US.(N0 

«  or  a   Triplf-«xpaiiBlon  Pmnplne-enclBe  vrttb  and 

Ant  Xacketa,  at  l  nk-t^!]  In<!  .  by  m>f .  J.  E.  Ueoion  (Traos.  A. 
!L.  xiv.  j:340i.— Cyliii'  a.  by  36  in.  dtrokj?;  *  rers.  per 

H.P.  d**v«>lor,e<i  aboi;  ^r^lSftlbs.    Tesig  made  OS  finit 

Mtdays  wiin  differvii;  ■"  in  jack?!-*.    Ac  150  Iba.  boiler- 

I*,  aud  Bboiit  30  espaiiti  .113,  ^^  ill;  aiir  prvsisiipe  ab<^ve  4'i  lbs.  lo  all  ot 
tketa  and  reheaters,  or  with  no  pre&iiirv  in  the  high  Jacliei.  the  per- 
aoe  was  as  follun'.s;  With  'i.^  of  moi.sture  in  the  steam  entering  the 
V  the  jackets  ti.-ied  IflJ  of  ihe  total  feed-water.  About  SOjC  of  the  latter 
MM)«n8ed  during  aduiission  to  the  hi^h  cylinder,  and  about  1-^.85  lbs. 
l-wat«r  was  coiwumed  per  hour  per  indicated  horse-power.  With  no 
tt  or  reheaters  in  action  the  feed-water  consumption  was  14.99  Ih».,  or 
pve  than  with  jackets  and  relieaters.  The  eotbiutiipllon  of  hibricaiine 
I  two  thirds  of  a  khIIoh  of  machine  oil  ai>d  one  and  three  quarter  gai- 
'  cylinder  oil  per  41  hours.  The  friction  of  the  engiue  in  eight  tests  on 
Wt  days  varied  from  5.1^  to  S.'f. 

ireRard  the  ineasurenientg  of  indicated  horse-power  and  water  aa 
I  error  of  one  per  cent,  which  is  probably  a  ininiiiiiiiu  allowance 
Bt  careful  determioaiions,  the  steam  econoiuy  is  the  same  for  tiie 

auditions: 

Kny  pressure  from  43  to  131  in  the  Intermediate  and  low  jackets  and 

ers. 

U>y  pressure  from  0  to  IM  in  the  jacket  of  high  cylitider. 

uiy  cut-off  from  !!1^  to  23<  in  hlKu  cylinder,  from  38^  to  4W  in  lnC«r- 

le  cylinder,  from  iOf  to  SSjt  in  lour  cylinder. 

ter  Consamptlon  of  Three  Types  ofSnlzer  Enarlnea. 

<B.  Doukin,  Jr.,  Emj'p,  Jan.  15,  1892,  p.  77.) 
.BY  AND  Averages  op  Twcnty-omr  Piiblisdeo  Exferi>ient8  op  thb 

SULZIR  TyP«  or  STEAB-KNOmS.     all  H0KI7J3NTAL  Co.sdbnsimo 
AVD  St»AJ(-WCK£ted.     From  tST:i  to  1891. 


h 1 

f  i 

H 

Sc 

1 

Si 

P 

i^. 

f 

■ 

B-^ 

E 

3^ 

■ 

(t. 

■ 

lbs. 

per  III  In 

■ 

72  to 

•irato 

167  to 

■F 

»5 

4^ 

400 

^ 

»1  to 

S81  to 

1!«  to 

d.  [ 

lOt 

689 

5»i 

,     i 

tOl  to 

444  to 

108  to 

••> 

1&6 

GOT 

BIS    1 

Bteani  Consiitnp 
tion,  pounds  per 
I.H.P.  per  hour. 
liicludin^Steam- 
pi[)e  »iit<'r  find 
Jacket  Water. 


Ib-x. 

(  1«.7  to  10  8 
'l   .Mean  )UA 
t  1.1  35  Co  16.0 
'l  Mean  14.41 
i  11,85  tola. 80 
1  Mean1S.3tl 


Steam  Consump' 
Hon,  puuinJsper 
I.H.P.  per  himr, 
excludgti  team- 
pipe  water,  but 
motiidingJacket 
Water. 


lbs. 
IT  9tol9.S 
Mean  IR.95 
I.-i  4  to  ]!>.6 
Menu  14  3 
11.7  to  18.  J 
Mean  lid.18 


I    BeKpJ 

f  itrw-TT 

I  10  expJ 

I  is«i.r 


»l«-ezpansion  Corliss  enelne  at  Karrai;anHett  E.  L.  C;o.,  Proviilent!e. 
ilt  by  E.  P.  AlHs  Co.     Cylinder  14,  45  and  8!)  in.  by  48  in.  strtike  t..!<te«l  u. 
■.per  min.;  r.'5  Ihs.  stoam-piessure;  Hlenin  peri.H.R  per  hoiii-  12  9t| 
JMr. 616.    A  fullaccountof  thlBenKlne,  with  recofdsof  tests  Im given  I 
■htbom,  in  Trans.  A.  S.  M,  E.,  xii.  643, 

^■b-vroHs  compound  engine,  tested  at  Chipago  Exposition,  by  Qe_ 
■R(£ii(f'(;  Rtcord.  Feb.  17. 1804).     Cylinder  14  and  i28  by  ti4  In.  Btrokaf 
>ftt16&  r.  p.  m,;  120  lbs,  steam-pressure.    I.H.P.  in  toxir  Ve«\HCOAv\< 

*4  one  ntiD-coDdeo»/ng- 295       S24       Tia       'iTiT 

1  per  horse-power  per  boar 19.07     15.71     \1  SS,     Aft  CR     %J 

^t^de^L^^'r^''^"^  KuKln^  (Trans.  X   \.  M.  V..  *« 


VKrei 


TU£  STEAM-ENOIXB. 


me  mn^e  of  coodirioiis  sh  to  load  or  steam-prewu 
fluctuate  toRPtlier  or  sparl,  vloleiitljr  or  with  rasy  pr«i 
un  ••iigiiie  wliose  econoniicnl  xjorforniaiiop  fihoiild  tj«-  a«  j 
ejigliie  wero  spi'eially  deslgueJ  ti>r  tt  uiuiutfiitu!  \  .'i 
tolie  coiniileie  aud  nutoniotio.    In  thf  orilin 
<^iiKin<^  Willi  linl't  lija<l»  the  high-jufswiire  i 
Kiipply  all  tli»  puNver  bdcI  In  addiii-jii  ilra;:  -■■■ 
piaioii.   whose  ojlimliT    indicates    iifBUtive    wui. 
Iieciilltir  value  of  a  receiver  of  prt'il>"teriiiiia'U  voli.' 
uncet-'iianiber  for  eoiiipreskiion  in  tiie  lilK-h-pr»;**iirr  • 
iiouse  i-ijuipouiid  8iu(;le-acting  engine  is  de8lKnetl  upon  tui»  i 
following;  resiiltii  of  lestti  of  one  of  ibexe  engines  mied  «i  IT' 
ecouoinical  luaO  are  given  : 

Watkb  Ratbs  ukdkr  VAJtriNo  Loads,  13s.  pkr  11,1". 

Horsepower SIO         170         140         US        109 

Non  uoiidensiue S3.Q       31.9       V-l.i       H.t       tt.i 

Condensing 18.4        IH.l        18. -i        I8.S        I«.l 

Kfflcfeucy  of  Non-«ond«naliie  <'onipouii4l 

Lee  fhiiroli.  .liii.  Mtuii.,  Nov.  IS,  IKDl  i-Tlie   coini id  1 

■  lensinu,  (It  il"  best  performance  will  exhaust  fiwn  ili 

ilerat  a  pressure  2  t'j  6  pounds  above  aluio^pliere.    Rio 

limited  in  it.s  eecmoniy  to  a  very  shi*rt  riiiipv  t>f  p«iwer,  1 

ll8  valve-inolion   will'  not  )>eriiill   of  any  Kreiit   in 

(lower,  and  any  material  deerease  lielow  lix  rati><l  ; 

ex|)anfliim  curve  in  the  lowpres-ynre  cylinder  liel" 

wonis,  decrease  of  load  teila  upon  the  coniiM.im.i 

and  much  uiore  severely,  thuu  upon  tlifl  n'  t 

coijiuienws  the  inoiuent  the  expansion  lin. 

atmospheric  line,  and  at  a  distauoe  above  it  1  • 

pivtwure  neces.<iar,v  to  carry  the  friclioiial  \(k^. 

aion  falls  to  this  point  the  low-pressure  cylirn 

more  or  less  of  its  stroke,  ihe  power  todriv. 

hiish  pressure  cylinder  alone.    IJoder  the  li(shi    ; 

imhiKtries  the  low-presxure  cylinder  ig  thus  a  !•■ 

Ki  eater  portion  of  its  stroke.     A  careful  Mndv  i.f 

functions  of  a  tlxed  intermedlale  clearance.  :■ 

the  hlcli-pressure  cyliuder,  and  hnviiiK  a  vcl 

that  of  the  hinh-presKure  cylinder  that  the  i 

the  low-pressure.     Diagrams  were  laid  out 

until  the  beat  theoretical  resull"-  were  oblHiii' 

down  on  these  Maes,  anil  the  suliaeqiient  |>- 

which  soiue  600  have  been  built,  have  fully  CMiitliuievi  tlte  Ju 

designers. 

The  effect  of  this  constant  clearance  into  smud-.  sum,  In: 
low-pressure  cylinder  und«r  li|;ht  loadx  to  I 
afctnoephere,  aiid  at  the  «sm«  time  leave  a  »ui 
high-pressure  cylinder  to  permit  of  )foverniii„  „    ., 

under  HrIi'  loa<f<. 

Kcon'. my  of  Engine*  under  Vurfittg  Lond 

W.  C.  I'awiii  8  leijtuie  before  the  S.i.'i.'i\  nf  AH-    l..-iv, 
emi  result  of  niiincrouH  Iriala  \>i!'' 
load  an    indicated  hnrKe-power  ^. 

lit  imiiiiils  of  .'..III  i.i'r  ih.liciiled 

It 


•;  t-ii^itti-.  ;^  Uu  ti  uu  Cvi. 
iVr  hurse  iKi'ArT  AvoVkV, 
..iiiii.U  i.ii  tlT-iMve  ^l• 


w.ti  *  U"-U»aviu*  V..^,  •wx  —  -.— 


PEKFOBMAXCES   OP   STKAM-KKGINES. 


1800.  18M, 
K.ft      4.0 
4.35    8.8 


1 


CKaiNBS  m  KI.BCTRIC  UCNTfUl'  STATIONM. 

ism. 

I  Jinetl  ^■^r  hour  prr  PlTfCllve  Il.P 8.4 

"        "      ■■    iiidiuntod   •'   ..     6.5 

rlectric-liehtiDK  Htatioiix  th**  Iruul  faclur,  tIx,,  the  ratio  of  the  averats^ 
ILa  the  inaxiinuui.  is  extreiiii-ly  Binall,  and  thi*  etij^ineg  wiirk«<l  under 
unfAvorablt!  conditions-,  which  loi'gely  uccouul^  Cor  Uie  exceMMlve  fuet 
I  mill  ion  a!  these  Ktnrions. 

st^ttm-friifiiies  the  fuel  conauiiintiou  lias  K<^iiera11.r  bt!«n  rKckoned  ou 
DdicaKMl  hrii°«ie  po'vpr.  At  fiiil-pouor  trials  tliis  was  sntisfncloi 
Ch.  ttx  the  intcriml  friction  is  then  iisimlly  n  Miiiall  fraction  of  the  tor 
»«ri-iiiieiii.  lias,  liowovei*,  shown  that  the  iiitfi'ii[i.l  frk'tion  is  nearly 
,  and  heuct<,  wl>en  the  eneini*  i*  Mchily  loart«l,  it«  iiipclmiiical  eflloleney 
Mitly  reduc>>d.  At  full  land  sninll  •TiKint-s  hnii.'  n  nii-cliunii-ul  eflioieiiL'i 
I  10  0.8.1,  and  larjce  <"iiffiiifs  iniirhi  reach  ni  Immi  OP,  hut  If  tlm  internal 
On  reniaiiipd  ennBtftnt  tliis  efilciencv  »'i<ulii  lit-  iiiiich  ivduced  at  Inw 
»-».  Thus,  if  nu  piibIih*  "  orkiiig  at  ItHriiiiiioaieJ  hoi's*?  jKiwer  had  an  effl- 
y  of  O.N'i.  ih'-M  wlifu  the  iiidicateil  iKiist'-powiT  Ml  to  fiO  thi-  effHcii»B 
►—power  would  he  ft.^  horiC'iiower  iind  ihr  effleieiii-y  inily  ll.*.  Similarly, 
horee-power  the  effrctire  horsf-power  «oiil<l  be  10  and  the  efllLMt-iicy 

r 


m 


-  on  a  Ciir1i«8  eu^iiut!  at  C'i'i>U8i>l  tfAvi'  llie  tollcwing  rosulls  : 

-rat  full  lond     1.0  O.T-i        O.BO        0.25        0. 

iiechanical  etfloieiicy I»  IW        1)79        U.74        0.03       0. 

'-■<jn,U'ii.-iiu(f.  "  "  0.8(1        OM        0.78        0.G7        0.1 

light  l<iad!<  the  economy  of  gas  niid  liquid  fuel  engines  fell  off  eToii 
*  rapidly  than  in  sti-arii-tirpin»'S.  The  engine  friction  was  large  ami 
ly  coDRtant,  and  In  some  cases  the  combustion  was  also  less  perfeet  nt 
loudii.  At  the  Dre.MlHii  tVntial  Station  the  gns-englues  were  Itepi 
fing  at  nearly  their  full  poiver  by  the  use  of  »torage-butt«rie«  The 
tt«  of  gome  experiments  are  given  below  : 
Cfe  toad, per  Ua.'t-eiigiiie.  eii.  ft.  Pett^Dleum  Eiig. 
5t  of  fun  of  ilHH  |jer  Brake         Lbs.of  Oil  per 


JVjwer. 
100 
75 

se 


H.P.  per  hour. 

23.8 
28.0 
^0.H 

tw.a 


B.H.P.  per  hr. 
O.M 
1.11 
1.44 
S.SS 
4.25 


Petroleum  Ei 
Lbs.  of  Oil  1 
B.H.r.  per  hr. 
0.89 
O.B» 

i.ao      ■ 

1.83       ■ 
3.07      1 


lleam  ronanniptlou  Of  En{i:lneii  or  Varioim  Slzoa.-W.  P. 

Will  (f'ii.>4sier's  Miitinzini',  lHti4j  iriw.M  a  table .sliowini;  results  nf  If*  ie-<ts  of 
^iiwi  of  iliffeiTiit  types.  In  iKiri-oiuilecisiiig  simple  eiifflneK.  (Me  sieani 
muipti'iii  ranged  from  <i.'j  ll>r<.  per  tiour  iu  a  .Vhorsep.-iwer  engine  to  ■-'"J 
IB  a  rtl-H.P.  Harris-Corliss  engine.  In  iitm  cuniieiising  eorn|>iimii1  en- 
's, the  uiiiy  type  te,sted  was  ilie  Willuns.  which  ranged  from  CT  IIih  Iti  ii 
t.P  bIo«  Kjieeil  engine,  I'i".'  ft.  per  iiilniile,  with  steam  presjiiir*'  of  HI  lbs. 
S.illis.  in  a  (O-K  P.  engine,  401  ft.  per  iiihiule,  with  steam- |il'essure  Iti.'j 
A  >Villttii<  triple-expansion  nou-eumienging  engine,  39  H.I'.,  17'J  Mis. 
islire,  and  -100  ft.  piston  speed  permjniite.gave  n  eonsuinption  of  18.,'^  lbs. 
oniteu-<iogenginis.  nine  tests  of  sjniple  engines  gave  results  ranging  only 
1  18.1  loC*-?  ll>.s  ,  and,  leaving  out  a  beam  piiiiiping-eng(tie  riiimingat  slow 
tl  (5!4d  ft.  per  ininulel  and  low  steaiii-[iiHSBure  (J5  ILs.),  Ihe  range  is  only 
I  lis.*  to  IB.8  lbs.  In  comixmnd-conilensiiig  engines  over  10(1  H.P..  iu  I.S 
.  tii«  range  is  from  13.9  to  M  lbs.  In  three  triple-expansion  engines  the 
■P«  are  11."  I'J  2,  and  l'i.45  lbs  ,  the  lowest  being  a  Sillzer  engine  nf  860 
Id  marine  i-ompniind  eiigiiiei:,  the  Kusiyuma  ami  C'ldcliester,  testeil 
rr.;  KViineilv,  gave  steam  fousiiinpllon  of  SI. a  and  'J1.7  lbs.;  and  t" 
'irtar  Iriplc-expniision  engines  gave  t.i.O  and  Ifl.nlbs. 

most  favorable  reHiilts  whieli  I'uu  be  regarded  u-s  not  exoi 
■  •■ai-s  that  In  test  trials,  with  constant  and  full  load,  the  ex 
(ci^atn  and  coal  is  about  aa  follows: 

Per  ludicAied  HorsB 
power  Hour. 


'steil 
I  th^ 

p«B^ 


of  Engiae,  , 


Per  'EtttclWft  'ftw**- 


f 
I 


THE  STEAH-EKGIKB. 


These  may  be  regarded  ns  mini  mum  values,  raivty  sitniuacAl 

(ticiftil    iiiHChiiici-y,  anil    only  I'Haolieil  with   Tery   ftoorf  nudf 

fiimrHl'l''  (••itiililiniis  of  n  it-st  liisl. 

Small  Enelnea  and  Gnsineii  virltb  FlurlaallncJ 

ustmlly  very  wustef ill  of  fiii-l.     Tlie  fullowiUK  tlKures,  liliJHtru4 
economy,  uVi.'  i^veii  by  Prof.  ITiiwin.  CnssiiT's  ifngntiur.  IfWi 

CoAi.  roKfirmTiON  PKB  Ikoicatkh  Morse-powkk  lit  SlUU 
In  Wiirki>h<n»<  i»  Pii'iiiiii(rliaiii,  Ene. 
Piv.lialiltf  I.H.P.  xl  full  lonil...       Vi         45         W         <»         T3 
Ai'iTftK''  I.H.t'.  iliirliiR  obner- 

vuliou -Wj 

C'"mI  prr  I.H.P.  pi-r  lioiir  diir- 
iTie  iil)Hi'rvuiioii,  IIhi .Iti.!) 


7.3T     R.t:     8.8    a.«  I 

VI .«    ?J.61     1S.1»    U* 


U  IK  liiigf-lj  to  ri*iilaci?  Micli  ciijiiiu-s  ««  (lit?  bIhxb  tlmt  pow»f  »1ll 
IriWuted  friMii  ci'iilial  MiHtii-ns. 

Steam  roiiDiiniption  in  Small  Ensln»«. 

TwtK  at  Riiyal  AgHcultural  Sool»'ljr'«  show  at  Plymouth,  Eng.   li^ 
iug,  June  ^,  189(1, 


Ratftd  U.P. 

Com- 

pnim<l  or 

Simple. 

Diaiu.  of 
CyliiitlWB, 

Stroke, 
inx. 

Max. 

Stetim 
pressure 

Peri; 
I- 

li.p. 

l.p. 

l-OBi 

.1 
3 

elm  pie 

Qofnpoutid 

simple 

1 

"'« 

10             tB 
6          no 
T4          73 

1    W 

11.  r 

Slram-coDKUiuptlon     of    Entclneti     ■(    Varlon*  M 

iPriifs.  Denton  and  Ja.-uliii-.  Tmiis.  .A.  S,  M.  E.,   x.  Ttit-W   •  »* 
iion-eondensiiig,  fixed  oul  off,  Meyer  vulve. 

Stbam-ooiisdjihtion,  I.BH.  pitB  l.H.P.  I'lta  Hcpk. 
Figure*  taken  from  plotted  dianrram  of  rraiulls. 

RevK.  p»rmin S     IS    1(1      20        Si        Si        10        4H       U      ! 

U  cut  gir,  lbs 39    35    »>      30      iD.i      -a      »:    W.S    SB*     I 

M        "  " 89    34    31     29.5      38      aS.4       ix      !K5    ST  I    1 

4        ■■  ■' 39    SS    34      S3        a-i      30  S     ifll.S    ■JA.t    -H.H    I 

Stbah-ookbomptioh  or  Sahc  Kkoinc:  Fixid  Spcu>,  to  Bkt«^  n) 

Varying  cut-off  compared  wltlt  Uu'ottU«K-<!>'8'i>*  tormitm  hMl 
and  boiler-preasures: 

Cut-off.  fraction  of  stroke    0.1    0.15    0.8    OSS     OH    0  4    0.9   •• 

Boiler-preuiiurt!,  90  IbH...     29     ».B     i!7      «7      yr.V  r:  s  «  S  ... 

OOlbB..        39     ai.-.>    S3. -J  31. .'i    3|.(    It1.)|   M.tM.1 

THnoTTUNO'SiioiiiB,  %  CiTt-orr,  roii  CokHnu^>Mui)«n  Howtartl 

Boiler-pressure,  90  lbs...     4'i      S!     St. 6  31.3    ta.K  

eOlbs M.I       40    40. tl     44.*     4i      

Some  of  the  principal  conduslona  from  thin  wtHmi  <■(  t«Mi*a<«| 

1.  There  is  a  distinct  (cnln  in  eci>ri    '     •.■■■,        .•.-., 

>k>  H.  and  1.4  cut-ufi  at  90  IbK.  pn- 
otit-olT  Is  at  tlii>  rote  of   I.  I',' lb 

revoliitiofi  p«-r  minnle  from  8fl  l<i  ... ,,.....«.   ,,-■ 

wal<'r  below  'ill  reviilutUiD».     (^\«o,  a.v  nW  •s.v"*^^^  <^b«  '%  Ciili 
uornlr<al  lliaii  either  the  V4«>T  Vtecw'.R 

"     '■'>■' ||>a.  boilerure»«ureai»>VaV>o'«»'Vik«'"\"''^  ^..v..'.^ 
<  hoiu  3W  lesa  »te*uv  tVinn  U.  «tov  «n  w-T-s 

same   condWo..*  v>;UV  »ftj^^\^.,,,  „ 


PERFOBMANOKS  OF  STKAH'BNOIKKS. 


?87 


MH<ut  ))(,  requires  about  SM  more  iiteani  than  for  the  latt«r 

•ton-npeed  In  EnElnea.  (Proc.  Inat.  M.  E.,  July,  1883,  p, 
rpvdo  iKial  is  an  excfUeiit  example  of  the  ailvanct;  tonrards 
and  shows  what  can  be  accomplished  by  dtiidyin^  li^htueKR 
rth  in  eonibiDAtiofi.  In  runuiiig  at  'X^  knutM  an  h<iur,  an  eni^ui* 
ders  of  10  in.  stroke  will  make  480  revoluilr.ns  jut  minute,  which 
ft.  per  minute  for  piston -speed;  and  it  i»  remarked  lluit  en^inea 
■  that  hi^h  rate  work  nmch  more  smoothly  than  »(  l4iwer  spe«i8, 
he  difttLMilty  of  luliHcatlon  diniintebeii  ax  the  Kpet'd  increases. 
h-«peed  Corllis  Engine.  —A  CorlifsK  eng-ine.  VO  x  -13  in.,  haa 
inK  a  wire  rod  uiill  at  ilie  Tri'nton  Iron  Co. 'a  works  since  1877,  at 
lth)n»  or  IIJO  ft.  pi.slon-speed  jier  minute  (Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  li. 
iton -speed  of  laOO  ft.  per  min.  has  been  realized  In  locomotive 

Imitation  of  Engln«-<ipeed.  IChus.  T.  Porter,  in  a  iMper 
imitation  of  EnBiiie  speed,  Tiaun.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xiv.  806. ^— The 
imitatioi]  to  high  rotative  sjieetl  in  Klutioiiary  reciprocating  nieam  - 

not  fouad  in  the  danpe r  of  heating  or  of  excessive  wear,  nor,  a.s 
lly  believed,  in  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  Hy- wheel,  nor  In  the 
io knock  In  the  centres,  nor  iu  vibration.  lie  ^ves  two  objectioos 
;h  speeds:  First,  that  "eiighies  ougiit  not  to  Ije  run  lus  fast  an 
«;"  second,  tlie  large  amount  of  waste  room  in  the  port,  which 
d  for  proiwr  Kteam  distribuilaii.  Id  the  imiHirlant  respect  of 
3l«team,  the  high-speed  engine  has  thus  far  proved  a  failure. 
a  wa-H  looked  fur  from  high  speed,  t>ecau.>«  the  loss  liy  eondeiisa- 
{Iven  8iu-faco  would  l>e  divided  into  a  Kreater  weielit  of  slenin,  but 
rtatiou  has  not  beeti  realized.  Fur  this  unsatisfuctury  retiult  we 
f  the  lilame  chletly  on  the  excessive  amouut  of  waste  room.  The 
iiethod  of  pxi)reB.siug  the  auiount  of  waste  rnr.ni  in  the  percentage 
It  to  the  tcital  piston  displacenient,  is  a  mlKleodlDg  one.  It  should 
led  as  the  percentage  wliich  It  add»  to  the  length  of  Hlenm  admig 
•example,  if  the  steam  is  cut  off  at  1/5  of  the  utroke.  Vf  added  by 
room  to  the  total   pistuii  displacement  lueaiiv  4ll:<  added  to  the 

8t«am  admitted.  Engines  of  foiir,  live  and  six  feet  stroke  may 
)e  run  at  from  700  to  tSOti  ft.  of  piston  travel  |iei'  minute,  but  for 
lizes.  says  Mr  porter.  600  ft.  per  minute  .should  lie  the  lltiiit. 
nee  of  tbe  Stoam-JBCfeet.— Testu  of  nimieroiis  etiglnea  with 
tit  steam-jacket.s  sin»w  un  exceiHling  diversity  of  residts,  ranging 
f  from  305  saving  down  tn  zero,  or  even  in  some  cases  simwing  au 
I.  The  oplnioouof  engineers  at  this  date  (1894)  la  also  a."  diverse  aa 
I.  but  there  is  a  tt'ndency  towards  a.  general  Ijelief  that  the  jacket  la 
lalde  an  appendage  to  an  engine  as  was  formerly  supposed.  An  ez- 
lumi  of  facts  and  opinions  ou  the  sleaiu-Jacket  is  given  by  Prof. 
in  TranB.  A.  S.  M,  K..  xiv.  46-.;.  See  also  Trans.  A.  8.  M.  £.,  xlv. 
I«;  xlil.  176:  xii.  4S6  and  l.MO;  and  Jour.  f.  I.  April,  1891,  p.  87C. 
ring  are  a  few  stalemenls  selected  from  these  papers, 
dtsof  tests  reported  l»y  the  research  oomiiilttee  on  steam-jackels 

by  the  Briliah  lustituUoti  of  Mechunicnl  EuglDeei-s  in  IH8U.  indi- 
ereoMd  efflclency  due  to  the  use  of  tliu  steam-Jacket  of  frotii  M  to 
iccording  to  varying  circumsiaiices. 

OBseris  that  "it  has  been  abundantly  proved  thai  steam- 
e  not  only  advtsahle  but  absolutely  npoessniT,  in  order  that  high 
Kpanslon  may  he  elllcleDtly  carried  out  and  the  greatest  possible 
n  heat  Httaiued,*'' 

od  finds  tlie  gain  by  Its  if-e.  under  the  conditions  of  ordinary 
la  a  general  average,  to  be  about  -:XK  on  .sniAll  and  Si  or  W  on 
nw.  varying  through  intennediat«  values  with  iDt-ermedlnte  sizes, 
nderstood  that  tlie  JHcket  bus  au  eiTectivu  circuliitioii,  and  Ihnt 
8  and  sides  are  lackeled. 

trUnwin  cotuiuers  that  "  iu  all  (^ase8  and  on  all  rylindent  tbe 
useful;  provided,  of  course,  ordinary,  not  superheated,  steam  is 
the  advantages  may  diminish  to  au  omoimt  not  >xocUi  l.\\e  \\\Xvt««>v 
oafc," 

rCotterUI  says:  Kxperlonca  ahown  tlial  a  aleivm-iacVeViaftANii 
■t  tbe  amoaac  to  U' gain tai  will  vary  according;  to  c"vvc\m\«tr " ' 

«as  K  mar  be  that  the  advantage  is  amaU.     UreaV  

rja^etfug.        '""^  '"^"^  ^"*'  »Pe«»a*  »«•  <>*  «'*''B 


I 


4 


788 


THE   STEAM-BNOINB. 


Mr.  E.  P.  lyeavltt  lias  expressed  the  opitiion  tlial.  in  Mi 
jacket*  piodiiee  nii  Im'i'ense  of  f  ffloleiicy  of  fr 

III  the  Psiwlucket  puinpiiiK  eriKiiie.  15  and 
s(eivmi>i'e?8uie  Ii5  lbs.  gaiigp,  cui-fff  Vi  '"  I 
baripls  oiilv  jncliettO,  the  siiviiiK  bj'  ilic  jack. 

Tlie  miiicrinliMidPiit  of  tlie  Holly  Mfg.    Cc 
says:  "In  ivjjnnl  t-Dlhe  beueflls  ilHrived  fnui 
ejlin<1erF,  1  am  soriiewlial  of  a  skeptic.    Fr.  . 
Kineft  auti  tests  mn-le  I  am  yet  to  t»e  conviih 
viiliie  in  llie  sleam-jncket."     .     .     .     "'Yotiiiii. 
is  no  difference." 

Profesusoi-  Selii-Otoi'  from  his  work  on  the  triplc-expantion 
Ijui'if.  ami  from  the  result*  of  his  tests  of  the  Jacket  pfl 
engine  uf  the  Sulz«r  tyiM!  in  his  own  lalioi-atiny,  conctii 
of   the  jacket  moj-  vary  willilu  very  wide  Ihnlts,   or  -" 
live.     (21  The  Hliorter   tne  ciil-olT  the  greatrr   II.' 


(3l  The  use  nf  hlKlier  pressure  in  il, 
The  pix-ttter  this  • 


jacket. 

iji'otInce&  an  advantage. 

DiRli-pnwsuie  cylinder  may  be  left  iinjiickelr 

otheiB  should  iilways  be  jacketed. 

The  test  iif  the  Lnketon  trlpleexpanslon  miiiipineeii^n 
of  8.3*  by  the  use  of  the  jackets,  but  Prof.  tVcniuu  points* 
M.  V,.,  xiv.  I4I'J)  that  all  but  III;!  of  I  he  gain  was  aticribaliki- 
riinpe  of  expaiiHion  iiwd  with  the  jntkets, 

Teat  of  a  Compound  roiidennine  Enelno  wltk  I 
ont  .rackets  at  difi'ereiit  Loads.  (R.  C.  < 
M.  11. .\u.  ^-'S.i—Cyliiidc-rs  Slant  111  m.:-  II  iii.slioki 
rated  capacity  lOOH.P.:  i'Oo revs. per  mtn.  Vacuum 
of  several  teste  curves  are  plotted,  from  which  the  follow  tug  pr 
aretnkea. 

Indicated  HP 9040500071)8000  100 

Sieaiii  per  I.H.P.  fH;rliour: 

With  jaokelB,  Ills -iJ.O  41.4  "iCS  lO.D    1»    18.7  IM  I8.» 

Without  jackets,  lbs 22.    20.1  IM  19.8  18.1 

Saving  hy  Jacket,  p.  c 10.0    7.3    i.6     i.l  1.0 

Til  1  ..s  aclue  loilie  Kreat  vai ' 

Ihf'  '  I  as  reported  bv  di(r>-> 

tii-ii  I  uiipeiu-s  that  when  rum 

lOO  H  I'    "  iiiiout  jackets,  very  little  saving  K  inrt.V 
^Vhen  ninninj;  light  the  jacket  umke«  a  coii!iiderBbl«  sAvlng,  i 
loaded  it  is  u  deirjnu'nt. 

At  the  load  which  0  ■  i 

injackeiti,  or  IW  HI 

at  a  load  of  00  H.P.  :  - 

rhape  iif  the  curve  imli -iiit  •■■■■•'  ii.liiiiiia^-e 

be  still  Kri'iiicr  at  |it;hi>T  |.  1  P. 

ConuterbalaavlnK  I.i    .  ii.  ^.     I'rof,  L'nwlu  R<*e*  I 
countrrbBlanciDg  vertical  et>i;inei$: 

»r,  =  w-.T; 

p 

n  which  tr,  denotes  ihA  weight  nf  ih«  tMlanor  welshl 


m  wDicii  ir,  denotes  u%n  wetgiit  m  ui«  iMlanor  wew 
Itacenireof  gravitv,  ff,  the  wfight  of  the  crank-t>ln 
tbi)  couuecting  rod,  autli  Uie  length  of  l)ie  crank,    f 


rev  b<M 


»r.  =  «( If,  +  K-/     to   mH\  +  H',!^. 

in  which   H'l  denoleM  lUe  wetK^l  ot  V\\«  v'^<>v^<  VWuMk-xott,* 
</i»iitht<i  li/ilr  ,,r  11,.- vi.-iL?\>\  id  >,w  viM,v>.<\v\>i^  Ti»,\, 


»Mch  iVw  <='**' 


1  ■.(.v»  v.. .rvMJiK' m»  ; 


PERFORMANCES  OP  STEAM-BNOINBS. 


1 


■^niinir   vihrationn  of  Rnfflnes.— Many  migursstloiis  li 
'~  ■  •  iliK  Tihralion  ami  noist*  nftendant  on  the  woi-kldK 

1  CO  «'ii] ployed  r.o  riiu  rljMianios.     A  l>1an  which  hns 

^^■' -  -  '   1''  t"  liuilj  hair-felt   into  the   faiiiiHatlons  riF  the 

^^t  An  rlectric  oompany  has  had  a  tti)  Iiorsepower  enelni?  rmioved 
^^HoundMluni?.  wliieh  wiire  thon  taken  ii|i  to  tlie  depth  (if  4  ft^i't.  A 
^^B<>lt&  iuchestliick  wHstheii  plained  iiii  the  ri.iiiidB.i!onsand  run  lip'Jfeet 
^^Be>i,  and  on  the.  top  of  rtii^tli^hrickwoi'k  xvns  built  wv^Sitft'ty  Vulve, 
^^^•«ngin«  Pouudatlons  Kinbeddcd  In  Air.— In  thesii^r- 
|H9«>f  i'laiis  tjprwkels,  ai  Hiilud^-lphia,  I'a..  tlie  t- iigniesi  are  distrllmled 
WtsOIt  all  over  the  hnildings,  a  lai'Kf  proportion  of  tlit- in  being  on  upper 
*-  Boiiie  are  boiled  to  iron  Ix'ams  or  girders,  and  are  consefjiienily 
nt  of  all  foundation.  Some  of  these  engines  ran  nolselt-Bsly  and  saiis- 
w,  while  others  produced  more  or  less  ribration  and  rattle.  To  cor- 
|3atter  tlie  enKiDcerssuspeii'led  foundations  from  the  botlouiii  of  ihe 
i80  that,  in  looking  ;it  llieni  from  the  lower  floors,  they  were  literally 
Jlu  the  nir.— /i  oil  A-ie.  Mar.  13,  ISIIO. 

r»r  Coal  Tor  Stcam-poiv-er.— Tlie  following  table  shnnf*  IIik 

|ltnd  the  cost,  of  co4il  per  da.v  anil  per  year  for  various  hort^powers. 

I  1000,  based  on  the  assumption  of  A  lbs.  of  eoal  being  useil  per  hour 

^power.    It  is  useful,  aiming  •■clier  thiDK*.  iu  estimatiiiK  the  anving 

^  be  made  in   fuel    !>}'  .sulisliliitine  more  econi>rni<;<il   boll>M'<;  and 

.J  for  those  already  In  use.    ThuH  wjih  coal  at  (,1.00  per  ton,  a  savliii; 

BOOO  per  year  in  fuel  may  be  made  by  replacing  a  steam  phnil  of  IWKl 

juiriog  4  lbs.  of  coal  per  hour  per  liorae-iwwer,  witli  one  reqtiirl 


la^^ 


CoiU  ConBUinptlon,  Ht  4  lbs. 

per  H.K  Iter  hour  i  10  bount  & 

d^  ;  vin  dikyfi  In  a  Year. 


torlKif  Steam  Heat.— There  Ih  no  satiifactory  method  forequalizitig 

1.  (•iiL.'inesnnd  lK)llernin  eleutric-li(jht  statioDS.  Slorajte-batterlca 
It  they  are  expensive  in  first  cost,  repalvs,  u.«v\  aWfeWtoW, 
■ifon,  pnjposeH  to  store  liejit  duriUE  the  li&y  \v\  ftV'<'^^*^Vi 
I'rs.    ,A8  t/if  water  in  the  boilers  is  ra^seA  vo-itwWus-.v^w 
I  ci)itiJijL-rt;J  Co  cyliadricnl  reservoirs  resemf>UnK  V".,nRVw\v  XwivViww^a 
Be/  Btoivtl  thei-e  for  use  m  /jhii  wantt'd.     Ii»  vhi«  way  a,  c«ttiVVl»^'"' 
trplantcHn  he  um-H  for  /uviiiiiK  il,e  water  to««  \Vi».  v" 
»e  ivreaty.four  hoiins  of  tlie  day    antl  tlie   Reared  w** 
o«»tMnf  time,  aocortii,,^  to  llte^aguUude  irtttt*^ 


790 


THK   8TEAM-ENGIKB. 


I 


st«ani-en(riDe8  are  to  be  worked  by  tbe  8t«atn  geoenlti*')  hr  ih* 
pressure  from  this  water,  and  the  valves  are  to  be  nr   ..  ■ 

I  liat  Mit!  eifum  Rball  wurlc  at  130  lbi<.  pressure.    A  r-  I 

liiiil  SO  Ct.  loni;,  contaiuing  84,000  Ib^.  of  bealed  wa  ^ 

would  supply  5J50  Ibu,  of  gteam  at  130  lbs.  pre-^- 
tion  of  a  coiideiiship  eleclriolltfht  engine  Ix 
bour,  sucb  a  reservoir  would  .supply  '.'SB  ellf  ' 
1ST8,  ill  France,  Ibis  meilioil  of  storing  eteatii  av  > 
M.  Krancq,  the  englut^er,  desif^ed  a  KmokcrieBtilocoii. 
power  supjilind  by  a  reservoir  containiog  400  gallm 
pressure,     flie  reservoir  was  charged  with  ateam  fruui  a  si 
nt  one  end  of  llie  traimvny. 

Coat  oriiteain-poiver.  (Cba«,  T.  Main,  A.  S.  M,  E.,x. 
costs  lu  New  Knglaud  in  IBSS.perliorge-powei-,  based  on  eogl 


Compound    Oxiil 
Engine,     la^  r 


i.  Cost  engine  and  piping,  complete SS5.00 

'i.  Engine  boil  g^ 8,00 

•I,  Kngiue  foundations T.OO 


■I. 


Total  engine  plant. 


40.00 


5.  Depreciation,  IX  on  total  cost l.t» 

«.  Repairs,  23(  '•        "       "     0.80 

T.  Interest.  W 2.00 

8.  Taxation,  1. Won  »i  cost 0.45 

D.  Insuraiiee  on  engine  and  house 0.16& 


10. 


Total  of  lines  5,  6,  7,  8,  0 


5.015 


1 1 .  Cost  boileni,  feed-pumps,  etc 9.S8 

13,  Boiler-lioune S.W 

IS,  Cliimney  and  flues 8.11 


U. 


Total  boiler-plant 18.88 


1.^.  Depreciation,  Sf  on  total  cost., 
Hi.  Kepalrs,  a?  "      "       "    ., 

IT.  liitereiit,  5}C 

19.  Taxation,  I.Sj^on  ^  cost 

1 9.  Insurance,  0.5^  on  total  cost . . . 


SO.  Total  of  lines  15  to  19 SlNK 

dl.  Coal  used  per  LH.P.  per  hour,  lbs I.TS 

SS.  Cost  of  coal  per  I.H.P,  per  day  of  10J4  eta 

hours  at  $5.00  per  ton  of  £H0  Ibe 4.00 

2S.  Attendance  of  engine  per  day ..,.  OlM 

34.  "  "  boilers  "       "    0.61 

'&,  Oil,  wa^e,  and  supplies,  per  day 0.96 

as.  Total  daily  expense 5.88 


ST.  Yearly  running   expense,  806  dan,   per 

„  ,  '"»' r!7.?..  ...$i9jm 

W.  Total  yearly  expense,  lines  10. 80,  ud  ST..    W.Oet 
•JO   Toinl  yearly  expense  per  I.H.P.  for  power 
It  M^  ot  exhaust-steam  ia  M«e<l  lot  Y«ax.- 

htir ■ftWi 

Tom  If  ai  I  e.x .  steam  la  used  tor  tkeaVin^s.. . .     MBfc 

ll«.«  exhatist-fiteiun  "'•  »  V*^.?5 l^'JcS^T^ISJSiAt 


EOTABY   STEAH-ENGINE8. 


791 


■om  tlif'  cost  of  the  («tal  Amount  of  stefttti  K^nerated,  in  order 
e  cost  properly  chsreeable  to  power.  The  flcures  in  lines  29 
iseii  nn  an  assumption  made  by  Mr.  Main  of  losses  nt  heal 

S5;  beineen  Ihe  boiler  and  the  exbaugt-pipe,  an  allowance 

bly  too  large. 

ROTARY  STEAnt-ENGINEA. 

binea.  -Tlie  steaiu  turhiae  1.1  a  small  turbine  wlieel  vhicb 

ni  an  the  ordinary  turbine  does  with  waler,     (For  description 

and  the  Dow  steam  turbiueu  nee  Jlodern  Mechanism,  p.  M98, 

iia  turbine  is  a  series  of  parallel-flow  turbines  mounterl  side 

aft;  the  Dow  tiirbiue  is  a  sieries  of  radial  outwnrd-flow  tur- 

ike  a  aeries  of  concentric-  rings  in  a  sinf^le  plane,  a  slaCionarjr 

g  between  each  pair  of  movable  rings.    The  spep<l9  of  the 

enormously  exceed  those  of  any  form  of  euKiue  with  leclp- 

oreven  of  tlie  Ko-ea1Ieil  rotary  engines.  The  three-  ami  four- 

of  the  Brotherhood   type,  iu  which   the  several   eyliuders 

iu|>ed  radially  about  a  eomnion  crank  and  Khaft,  often  exceed 

japer  minute,  and  have  been  driven,  experinientallv,  above 

team  turbine  of  Parsons  inalces  10,000  and  even  20.006  revolu- 

Dow  turbine  Is  reputed  to  have  attained  i^OOO,     (See  TranB. 

1.  X.  p.  680,  and  xii.  p.  8«P:  Trans.  Arsoc.  of  Eng'g  Societies, 

I;  Enp'g,  Jan.  13,  18SH,  and  Jau.  8,  18»2;  Ena'g  AVict,  Feb.  SJ7, 

turbine,  eibibiteil  in  1889,  weighed  88  lbs.,  and  developed  10 

nsuniplion  of  47  llw.  of  ateani  per  H.P.  per  hour,  tlie  steam 

ig  70  lbs.    The  Dow  turbine  is  used  to  spin  the  tly -wheel  of  the 

jdo.    The  dimeusiuns  of  the  wheel  are  13.S  In.  diaui..  e.5  In. 

I  of  gyratiou  5.67  in.     The  energy  stoivd  iu  it  at  U>,WX)  revs. 

1,0(10  ft.-IbB. 

It'ti/  Steiiiii  Tuybine,  shown  at  the  C'hicago  exbibillon. 
lion  wheel  somewhot  similar  to  the  Pelton  water-wheel.  The 
rected  by  a  noxzle  asuiiisl.  th«  plane  of  ihe  turbine  at  quite  a 
od  tangeniially  at^lnst  the  ciruumference  of  the  medium 
be  blades.  The  angle  of  the  blades  is  the  same  at  the  side  Of 
I  discharge.  The  width  of  the  blade  is  constant  along  the 
Bs  of  the  turbine. 

■  expanded  to  the  pressure  of  the  surroundings  before  arriv- 

les.    This  exfMinsion  lakes  place  in  the  nozzle,  and  is  caused 

lug  its  sidesi  diverging.     As  the  steam  pasjjes  ttirough  this 

iflc  Toiuine  is  Incnytsed  in   a  grc-ater  proportion  than  the 

if  the  cliannel,  and  for  this  reason  its  velocity  Ls  increased, 

imeulLim,  till  tlie  end  of  the  expansion  at   the  last  seclional 

.!«.    The  greater  the  expansiiiu  iu  the  nuEiie  the  greater  il« 

point.    A  prei-suie  of  7S  lbs.  and  expaiieioii  to  an  absolute 

Btiiiosiilieie  give  a  llnul  velocity  of  a1i"Ul  Stii'i  ft.  per  second. 

rOlhlTied  fiiriher  in  tills  steam  turbine  limn  in  ordiiiar}'  sleam- 

accoiiuiof  the  steam  expanding  completely  during  Ita 

3  of  tliesuiToundings. 

«  greatest  |>o.H.<ilbl«  effect  the  ad  mis.sJon  to  the  blades  m  list 

owB  and  the  v»lncily  of  discliarge  as  low  as  poRsible.    These       ^ 

luld  requiin  in  ihe  steam   turbine  un  enormous   velocity  of 

high  as  KiOO  to   16.Vi  ft.  per  second.    The  centrifugal  force, 

uta  n  liFiiil  to  Ihe  use  of  veiy  high  velocities,    In  the  •>  horse- 

the  velocity  of  periphery  is  574  ft.  per  second,  aud  the  uum- 

08  3t),O0O  per  minute. 

fully  the  turbine  may  he  manufactured  it  is  impossible,  on  . 
"tineas  of  Ihe  iiintei  ial.  to  get  its  centre  of  gravity  to  corra-  I 
Its  geometrical  axle  of  revolution;  and  however  small  this 
.it  becomes  very  iioliceable  at  such  high  velocities.  De 
ed  in  solving  the  problem  by  providing  the  turbine  with  a 
This  yielding  shaft  allows  the  tuii>ino  at  the  high  rate  of 
t  Itself  and  revolve  around  its  true  ceiitre  ot  btslvW.^  , \.Vi% 
e shaft  nwaawhlle  descrlliiug  a  surface  of  revo\viUoiQ. 
-ho*  the  speed  jk  n-diieed  from  30,000  tevo\vM\o«i*  Vo?RK»  ] 
■i rerun  the  turbine  simfts,  which  sets  In  n\CA\c>v\  a.  cto%-ii 
//«  own  itlarnfitfr.  'J'hese  geaiings  are  provideid  »»\V4k»VVVl8 

"'■  iranxnils^ion  of  tbf  puwei'. 


r 

I 

I 
I 


79S 


THE  8TKAM-EN01NB. 


I 


Botary^   Steam^enelnea^   other  th&o  Hteam   tui 
iiiTeiit<?d  l>y  the  thoueauiK  Uiii  not  oue  hnn  attained  a 
The  (Kifisible  advautAiR'R.  such  as  savlnir  of  space,  lo  " 
eneii'f  iira  ovephalonceil  by  its  watte  of  steam. 
The  Tourer  9$pberlcal  KnfElne,  one  of  tbe  moat 
rot«i}-t?iiftine,   is  de--i't-il.ieil    in    IToi-.    lust.   M.  E.,    1B8&, 
Mechanism,  p.  -Mi. 

DinKNSIONSOF  PARTS  OP  ENGINES. 

The  treatnieiit  of  tbi8  suhjeet  by  the  leadiiie  authontir*  on  tint  Otm 
(rin«  Is  very  uiiNatii'fsc-tory.  lieiiii;  a  I'oiifiii^od  nmss  of  nilis  aDii  iDf 

based  partly  iiik)ii  tbeoi-y  iind  paii'y  nii..ii  i,r..-i..u ^  ifH 

shows  an   exceediiiR  diversliv  oT 
treatment  eivt-n  below  i.scliipflvtl:- 

SeatoD,  Unwln,  Tliursiou.  Murks,  ^ 

tlon  of  a  series  ut  nrtielps  by  the  aiithur    fiu. 
vhinitt,  in  1891.  with  many  Bltrralions  and  nin 

der  to  make  a  compai  isoii  of  many  of  the  fen  ; 

to  the  assumed  casvs  nf  nix  engines  of  dilTrt^riit  »i/r<C  I 
this  conipaiison  has  led  lo  the  coDbtiiictlon  of  new  fnmtli 

Cylluder.     (Whilham.i— I^n^lh  of  bore  -  ...it-. 
ring  —  ^  lo  ^  in:  lenclh  belwfen  heads  =  >.!- 
siuii  of  clearaoceii  ai  both  eujK;  tliioktieiv  •  iireadll 

ibickues9of  flange  on  one  side  to  carry    the  i:..^   ,   ^kiuaaa  < 

pUue. 


Thlcbnees  of  flan^  or  foHower. . 
For  cylinder  of  d&meier 


10  in. 


ISL 


Clearance  of  PiMton.  (Seaton.)— T)i.>  . 
the  iiize  of  the  engine  f/oni  tji  to  ^  in.  fc 
^  in.  for  each  working  joint.    Karal  ai  . 
have  a  larger  allow  auee.    In  a  vertirul  •' 
wear  so  ai*  to  bring  the  piston  n^- 
innrnnls.  the  crank-iiin  brassesi.  «i 

Thlekneii*  of  C'yiindrr. 
ty|><.r-  UJI.1  under  muderatr  steuin  i 
years  restricled  the  xtreus  lo  abfjir 

t  =  uptD  +  b. 


.  ■•.    r.,,(ii 
.iiiv  buUdera  ! 
r  s>|.  ill. 


,  A  and  b  b«jlng  thicTm»«s  dli\m 
'II  0  to  W  in  ,  all  In  ;i    '    - 
.    ill      ill  this  eX| 
yliiiJe|-s.  as,  for  • 


ta  •  common  proportion 

added  quantity  r.     : 

anced  «reimi-pr. 

horizontal  tliaii  • 

in  the  one  case  nn.i  I'.v  m  lOc  other,  the  one 

the  other.    The  conxtnnt  a  in  from  O.OOM  to  i>  • 

cal  rylinder«,  or  shon  strokes;  the  Becofi   f 

loHK  SI  rokea. 

ThlrkncAH  or  Cylinder  and  Ita  r!onn<>rttoaa 
Kiielnea,  iSvi)ioiii.--/>  =  the  dmiii  »r  iliec)  lindrr  in  ti.i  (j 
Hie  Kafety-valrt-s  in  lbs.  |>er  «q.  in.;  /,  a  ct'Ustaitl  miilttplirr 
ban-el  4-  So  in. 

Thick ne*A  of  metal  of  cylitider  barrel  or  liner,  not  lu  Im 
8U00  wlien  of  cant  iron.* , 

TbiekiMaa  of  cylinder-barrvl  =  ^JL    +  C,«  l«.    .    .    , 

"    IIOBTS   1.1  X/. 

I  of  liner  when  ot  »tt«\  p  y,  D  -»-  WS6  \  ^"i 

met&l  of  «te»i»4-\>ort*  =  0  *    y,  t. 

^ftWeArtx  s*4e»    =I\.«&>.1- 


■  no*  tha*  B;\»»n  ^U  **«  »l>oi»«  va 


DIJIKS8ION9  OF  PABTS  OF  BKOISKS. 


metal  of  »ftl»e-box  eor*rs  =  O.T  V  r 

"       crUnder  bottom  =1.1  <  f.  if  PinKlr  thick 
"                "               ••      =  0.65  X  /.  if  iloiibl*        '■ 

"  "         corers  =  1.0  >, /,  if  sintjle         " 

"      =  0.6  X  /,  if  double        *• 

'  c.r1iiKlpr  flaDfce  =1.1  x/. 

'  *■        cover-flanK*      =  l.S  X/. 

'■        »alre-box  "       =  1 .0  X  /. 

••       (liwr-ltaoee       =0.9  x/. 

>  ■*       f Ace  over  ports  =  l.S  x/. 

'  "  ••  "      =1.0  x/.  vh«n  llierpissfnliie-race. 

'  "        falae-face  =  0.8  :>:  /.  when  cii-«i  iron. 

'  "  "  =0.6  X/,  when  rteel  orbi\iii«f 

ixn  givv8  tlje  followlDK  from  dlfferj-nl  »uthoritl«s: 

IV«nB»renJ<  =  ««™"^+''"Vl>; (ft) 
J  f  =  0.03  \Dp 16> 
^-'-•-  '='^S^^ <^' 
Weisliacli;  f  =  0.8  +  O.OOOSSp/). (8f 
Beatou  :  f  =  0.5  -(-  OOOOlpO (6> 
TTiunr-ll-  Jf  =  0.0004p/)+M(vertican;  .  .  .  .  .110) 
MMwr-ii  .     ,/  =  o.0005p/^-f-^(hori«)lnal) (II) 

ttv tomnieiids  (6>  where  provision  to  made  for  tlie  rebotlnif,  and 
t  Hiifuiirili  and  rigldltj-  are  secured,  for  horicoutAl  or  vfriical 
large  or  siimll  diameter;  (9>  for  large  cylinders  using  steam 
I.  gauge-preasure,  aud 

(  =  0.003D  vJ'orsniBH  oyl'nile". (IS) 

Marks  gives  t  =  O.OOOSSpD. (18) 

ia«niAiIcr  value  than  la  ^Vtea  bv  the  other  foruiuUe  quoted;  Imt 
lys  that  it  is  not  advl,sabl»  to  malce  a  steam-cylinder  tesw  than  0.7& 
;  under  any  rlionmsiarices. 
I'IowIkk  loi'le  pivps  the  calculated  llilcltiieBS  of  cylinderH  of  ettiflnes 

Ed  -V)  III.  diani.^oMKuniiDg^p  the  tnaxliniini  titibalaiiceil  pressure  on 
-  KW  lbs.  per  »q.  In.     .\s  the  same  pnKiiit"*  "ill  \w  OHxd  fi'r  calcii- 
Iher  dii«(?nsioii».  other  particulars  concerning  iheni  are  here 
r  reference. 


rilMCKSIONS 

,  BTc.,  OP  Knoinss. 

So, . 

1  and  a. 

8  and  4. 

tt  and  0. 

il  horee  •  power l.H,  P. 

■cyi  .  In    b 

'eet L 

\  riilD .•  r 

60 

to 

1     ....        i 

SJ60    .  .     las 

500 

78  M 

4it 

7851 

100 

4M 

?^  :::  ^ 

6Ii(1 
70d  H(l 

it-2  ;i 

70.1180 

too 

liUW 

60 

4     ....      8 

00     ....     44 

700 

niaton,  sq.  in  o 

IjBUve  prrssure  .     M,E.P. 
Btinbnianced  press    ...P 

lUdX.S 

30 

lIKl.S.'iO 

100 

r 


1U 


THE  STEAM-KNGIiTK. 


TniCKIIBM  or  CVUMDCR 

»Y  KottHtruA. 
watjin  i  O.R,  chart  Ktroke. 
""'- "  '  <>A  kioir  stroke . . 


■16  .   .   . 

.03  \  ni> 


1  mul  2. 


3  una  4. 


lUtW     '^ " 

(8)  .ootmpn-^-os 

(V)  .00WpD4-05 

i.lO)  ■«»^lu^  +  ^  (vertical*  .. 
til)  .OlXX%pO  4-  k  iliorixonUl) . 
(1I>  OOSn  I  ji  tsniallencrines).. 
(IS)  .UO(W?;i/) 


Avtraffe  of  flrst  eleven 


.90 
1.00 

.SO 
.57 
.«0 
.OS 

M3 
.BO 
,&3 
.4U 
.80(?t 


.79 


1  TO 

8.00 

.M 

1.40 

1.18 
l.M 

j.n 

1.79 
1.70 
l.« 
1.68 


Band! 


1.4S 


1.50 

s.oo 
i«a 

l.U 
I  IS 

i.n 

1.46 
S.W 
3.11 

a.a 


t.tt 


The  nir^raKi?  corregpnnds  uekily  to  the  formula  t  =  .OOOSTDp  +  0.4  in. 
comrFiiii^nl  ai>pruxiiuation  in  t  ~  .tMiiD}j  +  0.3  iu.,  which  gives  for 

Dlnnu'H'r*    10         20  30  40  50  M  hi. 

Tlilfkiieswes .70        1.10        1.50        1.90        a.:»       S.TDto. 

Till'  In.st  foriiitiln  rori*«pon(iK  to  a  tt*tmllp  strength  of  cajst  iron  of  11 
llw..  with  n  fiii'tivr  i-f  Kafnty  of  IObjhI  an  allowance  of  0.»  in.  for  reborinj 

Cylliidrr-lipads. -Thurston  nays:  Cyhnder-heails  iiinj  l>o  triToi 
IliU'kiii'sst,  ut  ilie  ftli^k  mill  in  tin- llajiR«i,  pxcotnline  somewhat  iliatof 
•■»  liiidiT.  All  cjcLfiss  of  nut  IfsH  than  SMiJ  is  luiial  It  may  bo  Ihiuuer  ID 
niMitliv  WlitTi-  nrndf.  a-i  is  usiia]  in  larg'e  enKEnes.  of  two  disks  with  W 
ui(.Nliiile  rnilluiiMK.  connn-tlnfc  ribs  or  web8,  that  flection  wliicii  to  I 
against  Hbearlnic  is  probably  ample.  An  examination  of  the  derifnt' 
experienced  bulldera,  by  Proreuor  Thurgton,  gave 


/  =  -^  4-  W  inch. 


i>  toeing  the  illameter  of  that  circle  In  which  the  thickness  is  taliesi. 

Thurston  also  glYes  f  =    tKBB  i  p -f  0.36        I 

Maries  (fivea  /  -  O.ijOSD  iy I 

Hb  nlno  aaya  a  (rood  practical  nile  for  pressures  under  100  ib».  persq.  A 
lo  inal<«  till'  thlcltnens  of  the  cyllnder-lieads  I^4  times  that  of  the  »rall»;M 
upplylng  this  factor  to  his  formula  for  tliiclinBas  of  walls,  or  .OOKfpD,* 
have 

t  =  .OOOSSpD 

Whithain  quotes  from  Seaton, 

'  -  ^'^mo"*'  '*^'*^*'  '*  ***"*'  '^  .OOOSpD  +  .85  Inch.    .   . 
Spalon'g  formula  for  cylinil«;r  bottoms,  quoted  above.  Is 

*  =  1 . 1/,  fn  which  /  =  .000 >pO  +  .85  inch,  or  t  =  .OOOfflpO  +  ■*• 
.IpplyInK  the  above  formui»  to  the  engines  of  10.  80.  and  M  Inchfs 
l«r.  with  maximiiin  unbalaticfd  steam-pressure  of  100  Il>8.  per  sq. 
have 

Cylinder  diameter,  inches  =10  30  SO 


(1)  t  =  .OOOSlDp  -I-  .«S 

(2)  t=  .OOSO  ip-1-  .!» 

(.3)  t  =  .0<i3D  Vp 
(4)  t  =  .OOiWiTH) 
fB)  t  =    OOORPp  +  .S5 
.:^p  +  .»8 


DIMENSIONS   OF   PABTS   OF   ENGINES.  796 


16  to  18 

14  to  19 

11  to  IS 

9  to  10 

I 

1 

% 

« 

Teraee  Ib  *xpre»a*d  by  the  formula/  =  .00(i86Z)p  -f  .81  inch. 

r'B  "Vodem  Loooniotlvf  Construction,"  p.  34,  f^rea  for  looomotl*6 

Mie«d8  for  preisBuresi  up  to  I'JU  lbs 

meters,  io IS  to  33 

>«».ln 154 

Kthe  pressure  at  120  Ihs.  per  sq.  in.,  tbo  thiolcnesBes  \H  Id.  and  9^  in. 
tndera  33  and  10  in.  diuui.,  respectively,  correspond  to  the  formula 
»S5P)'4    :i1iiic-li. 

>>atlflrened  Cylinder-cover*.— Heaton  objects  to  webs  for 
ne  eiksL-irou  oylinder-covers  aa  a  source  of  danger  The  strain  on 
I  IB  one  of  terwiaii,  and  if  there  sli(jul<i  be  a  nick  or  defect  in  the 
dee  of  the  web  the  duddeii  application  of  strain  ig  apt  to  start  a 

He  recommends  that  liiKli-pressure  cyliudera  over  2-)  in.  and  low- 
vcrlindem  over  -10  in.  tllam.  should  hare  their  covers  cast  hollow, 
ro  thielcuesses  of  metal.  The  depth  of  tlie  cover  at  the  middle  should 
Jt  \i  Uie  dfmii.  of  tlie  piston  for  preBsures  of  80  lbs.  and  upward*, 
nor  the  low-pressure  cylijider-cover  of  a  compound  en>;ine  e<|ual  Io 

tlie  high- pressure  evlirider.  Anotlier  rule  Is  to  make  the  deplh  at 
Idle  not  less  than  l.S  times  the  diameter  of  the  piston-rod.    In  the 

Na»y  the  cyliuder-covers  are  made  of  steel  ca8tlDi;8,  9i  to  it^  iu, 
fenerally  cast  without  webSj  stiffness  b»ing  obtained  by  their  form, 
IS  often  a  sprif.x  of  oorrUEBlions. 

ader-bead  Bolts.— Diameter  of  bolt^irclu  forcyhnder-kead — 
er  of  cylinder  -}-  -J  x  thickness  of  cylinder  -f  3  x  diameter  of  bolts. 
lUlhould  not  be  more  than  6  Inchf.*  anai-t  (Whithani>. 

l^Tes  for  number  of  bolts  b  =  ^"itf ''  =  .0001,571^,  in  which  c  = 

ailiiKle  bolt,  p  =  boiler-pressure  in  lbs.  persq,  in.;  MWO  lbs.  is  Iflken 
lafe  strain  \vtT  sq.  in  on  the  ncuiiinal  area  of  the  bolt. 
in  says:  Cylinder-cover  .studs  acid  biilcs,  when  made  of  steel,  ahould 
ncli  a  size  Miat  the  strain  in  them  doejt  not  exceed  &000  Ibni.  per  sq.  in. 
>f  less  than  %  incii  diaiiit^ler  it  should  not  exceed  -1500  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 
It  iron  the  strain  should  l>e  30;!  less. 

lion  says  :  Cylinder  llaiiEes  are  made  a  little  thicker  than  the  cylin- 
1  usually  of  equal  tiiit-kiifss  ivilh  the  fianj^es  of  the  heads.  C'>  linder- 
itould  be  80  closely  upaeoii  na  not  to  allow  sprinerns  of  the  flanges 
kage,  say,  4  to  5  times  the  tlilckiiess  of  the  Hiauges.  TUeir  diameter 
be  proportioned  for  a  ni».xinmiii  stress  of  not.  over  4000  to  SOOO  lbs. 
tare  inch. 

=  diameter  of  cylinder,  n  =  maximum  Rteam-pressure,  b  =  number 
I,  t  =  size  or  diameter  of  each  bolt,  and  ."iOOO  lbs.  be  alloweil  per  sq. 
lomlual  area  of  the  bolt,  .TSiW^p  =  3i)-r<iiit;  whence  bf  a  .00(»i>>^; 

U-^;  •  =  .01414 i/^.    For  the  tbred euginea  we  have : 

Dtamet*r  of  cylinder,  inches 10  30  BO 

Diameter  of  boll-circle,  approx  ....  18  85  57.S 

Circumference  of  circle,  approx....  40.8  110  180 

Minimum  No.  of  bolts,  ci re.  •«■  6 7  16  80 


1 


DUm.  of  bolts,  f  3  .0I114D 


^\ «ta.       1.00     l.t8 


liameterof  bolt  for  the  10  inch  cylinder  la  0.94- tn.  by  the  formula, 

ocbla  as  small  as  should  be  taken,  on  aocnunt  of  poFslhle  overstrain 

wrench  in  screwin?  up  the  tint. 

Ptoton.     Details  of  ron«<ruo.tloa  ot  OrALua.T'j  W«« 

i8eatun.> — ht-t  B  be  ili»  iliaiiietfc  of  llie  plstun  ill  >nc\itf«,  p  Vne  »Tl» 
mure peraqxuire iacti  oa  'ti^acoustaut  muItipUur,tou&&Bat<A\<3i 


w» 


790 


THE   STEAM-EKOIXB. 


I 


thickness  of  front  of  piston  Dear  tbe  boss  =0.3   x  » 
"  ••  "  "       rtm   =0  ITV«i 

"  back  "  =0.»XA 

"  boKB  Bi-ound  llie  rod  =  O.t    X  A 

**  flange  inside  packing-ring  =0  ttxt. 

••  ••       41.  ertpe  =  O.tt  X  A 

••  uackiiig-riDg  =  0.16  x  M. 

"  juuli-ring  at  Klge  «^  O.St  X  * 

•*  "        Inside  mcklDg-rlng  «=  0. Jl  X  * 

'•  "        at  holt-holes  =  0.85  x  A 

■*  metal  amiim)  piston  edg:e         =  O.SS  x  A 

Thn  breadth  of  packing-ring  =  O.Ot  X  A 

■•    depth  of  ptsion  at  centre  =1.4   X« 

"    lap  of  junk-ring  on  the  pi.ston  i=  0.49  X  '. 

"    spacR  between  piston  liOily  and  packiDff-ring  =0.3    X  t. 
"    diameter  of  junk-ling  boita  =0.t    v  r  - 

"    piu*h         "  "  "  »  1 

"    number  of  wehe  in  the  piaton  ei 

"    tliickness      '•        ••  ••  =  u    - 

MnrkH  gives  the  approximate  rule:  Thickness  ofpUtoohei 
wliich  I  =■  length  of  stroke,  and  d  =  diameter  of  Cj'liuil<-r  in  ic> 
mm  luya  in  a  horizontal  engine  the  rings  support  tl>' 
part  of  it,  under  ordinary  coiuiitions.    The  pressure 
tlie  piston   upon  an  area  equal    to  0.7  the    dlamei^ 
l)readtli  of  ring-face  should  never  exceed  'JOO  ib«.  per  su_  ui, 
a  formula  mucli  used  iu  this  countrj:  Breadth  of  rlu^noa  s( 
eter  of  cylinder. 

For  our  engines  we  have  diameter  o 10 

TlilckiMaofi 

4 

Marks,   vTo:  long  slroka t.St  I* 

Maries,     "   ;  nhnrt  stroke ....  S.M  AM 

Seaton,  deptli  nt  centre  =  1.4ar 4.90  V* 

Seaton,  breadth  of  ring  =    fl8x >.9»  «■<- 

Wliilliain,  breadth  of  ring  =  .15D I  50 

Diameter   or  PlHtou    Packlne-rluea.  -  Thi«p 

turned,  Iwfuru  tbey  ai-e  cut,  about  14  inch  <ha>t 

for  cylinders  up  to  20  inches  diameter,  ai>  ijtc 

to  spring  them  to  tiie  diameter  of  tlie  •■,  :stH 

rings  are  turned    proportionately  larger.    Scatou   ret^ona 
of  JK  of  the  diiiniHler  of  tlie  cvlimter. 

Cro««*«eo'ion  or  the  HInea.— Tlu-  lliiukrie.'>s   is  c<inin 
] /anh  of  Ilie  iliuni.  uf  cyl.  +  >.),  inch,  an  I  .  Jr\ 

For  nn  ecci-ntric  Hug  the  mean  lhickne>; 
uniform  thicknesti,  and  the  niiniinutn  tln'  ,,n. 

A  circular  issued    by  .T.   H.    Duut>ar,    iii!ti<;'  i>acUit 

Youngstown,  O.,  says:  Onless  otherwise  orders-  ..r>ea(«<i«l 

lie   made  equal  to  .03  ■.<  tlieir  diameter.    Tlii.s  ti«s  heN 

to  be  Batiafoctory  in  practice.  It  admits  of  the  rlri»;  In.  lut;  aiSkd*  AtM* 
to  the  frvot  larger  than  the  rylinder,  and  ha*,  when  ne»r.  a  tenalsa  «l 
t«fo  ponnds  |i«r  Inch  of  circumference,  which  i-*  ninpic  to  ptVTCMt  N 
if  the  surf  (ice  of  the  ring  and  cyiln.!- 

As  regards  the  width  of  rings,  an  *  frmn  very  Mi 

Tery  wide,  the  latter  l>eiiig  fnll\  i.-  r.^  I^aai 

gives  ir=.i    Oil  -f-  , lis.    Win  1^     I, 

inuiietTittlie  width  nf  the  li:  -rod 

in  Inches.    Ttuvhr.s  r..riiiiil;i 

-♦-    OS  =  .S.:  Ui^ 

iiflff.    ThtM 

fv«|>pcl,  bii  .  •> 

"iflt  for  cylinders  ..\,.M    W  A.iiii«:\..  t  Aa''  \-  >-  vvvv\«»  < 

l>fi  l£"  t..r  evlindera  i.t  Wii.i  -v/.-  """N  >wAeT.  

Ml  Of  I»»Mon.ro«  !«*«  VV-to«.    V«^v^^^ 


)X6  ov  PAars  of  engines. 


797 


1 


li.pt  the  rod  U  tbi-ae  fourths  of  that  of  the  body,  then 
illel;  llir  rod  should  (lit^u  111.  Into  tha  pision  so 
nu  tlif"  ahouldej-  fi>r  larK^  pistons,  and  1/]U  111. 
BventB  therm]  fioiii  s]iliLilut>r  thp  piston,  and 
ned  true  afier  Iodk  wear  without  I'licroafhlng  on 

little  toil  by  a  nut,  and  the  sizu  oT  the  ixid  should 
;  soctlon  at  l}ie  Iml-Toiii  of  the  l.hi-ead  does  not 
■  hull,  70O>  Ills,  for  aleel.  The  depth  of  Ihia  Dill 
Bter  wliii'h  would  lit)  found  by  ullowiug  theue 
I  loc'knl  to  ijievenl  its  workhig  loose. 

»tt-rods.— Uuu'hi  gives 

■  =  ii»  l7' U 

rtu-ler  In  inches,  ji  ia  tbe  niazimura  iinhaliinci'd 

the  coiistHtit  it  =  O.OhiT  for  ii'oo,  and  b  = 

otu  an  exuniiiiation  of  a  considviahle  nuiiibfr 


if^ 


I»«pi' 


+  HO'  °®*'"'y' 


(S) 


I,  fn  wliich  u  =  10,000  nod  upward  iu  the  »Brr>u» 
rlMe  ficrew  eniirliies  or  onJinnry  fani  engiui's  on 
allies.  whll«  '■  iow-Bpeed   enfclnes"  being    leHs 
Kive  a  =  15.<H)(J,  on«ii. 

)d  10  the  plstnu  Aud  lo  tliecroBshead  shuold 
t  least  6  or  lO.    Markn  gives 

or  iron;    for  steel  d"        =  O.OiOBO  Vp;  .    •    (8) 
p,  for  iron;    for  steel  d"  =  0.035S5  ^D'J'p.      (.*) 


[strolte,  all  diiiieuslons  in  itich«B.     Iieducv  Uil* 
,  and  if  Ibis  diameter  is  less  than  i/lil,  iheti  use 


r  of  piatou-rod  = 


Diameter  of  cylinder 


VP- 


lof  P: 

^octin^r F  -  eo 

1  oonnaevtiiig-rod,  2  rods F  -  SO 

'     '  a,  dirrct-actlug F=tM 

*  "         :  F=ia 

oke,  osclUittlni; .,    F  =^A^ 

eoiiipured  witli  the  stroke  tmuai  foi-  the 

e  p,  the  effective   prensure  should  he 

rpreftsure,  or  15  Ibn.  above  that  to  which  tlie 

or  a  compound  engine  the  value  of  p  fur  ilie 

I  taken  as  tije  absolute  prensure,  less  15  ilia., 

•ttfety-valvi';  for  the  iMediumpiessure  *he 

I  hair  Che  absolute  boller-presHiire;  and  for 

'•isiire  to  wlileh  the  escape-valve  is  loaded 

ite  pressiui-e,  wliieh  can  be  got  ill  the  re- 

dvahtapi'  lo  make  all  the  rods  of  a  com- 

"  the  rule 

I  ho  enxiues  of  10,  30,  ftud  W>  Viv.  4\a,ts«\«t » 


i 

mi 


THE  STEAM-EKOIRE. 
Diameter  of  Pistoii>ro4 


iameter  of  Cylinder,  iocbag. 


I 


Stroke,  inches 

TJnwUi,  Iron,  .01670  Vp 
Unwln,  steel,  .0144 D  \'p 

Thurston  y^^^  + 1    (Z,  Ir.  feet), 

Thurston,  some  with 'i  =  15,000 

Marks,  Iron.  .OITBD  y'p 
Marks,  irou,  .03801  Vo*J^ 
Marks,  steel,  .01050  Vp 
Marks,  steel,  ,0S5J5  \  ffil'p 

jieatou,  naval  eng^ines, 


Beaton,  loud  engine,  —  yj, 
Averace  of  four  for  Irun 


The  IlKures  in  brackets  oppoeite  Marks'  third  fortnnl* 
gliit'R  Mieyaie  less  than   ^^  of  the  htrokf,  ami     i      ^ 
fourth  foriiiuia  would  Ije  taken  instead.    Tlic 
roriiiula  would  lie  rejected  for  the  euitine  of 'Jt  . 

Au  empiiicAl  form u la  which  gives  results  a|ir>ri>\iii>Aiii 
ages  Is  it"  =  .013  y  Dip. 

The  calculated  results  from  tbisforniula.  for  the  slzva 
liTely,  Hi.  1.88.  3.90.  5.B1.  ().3T,  8.01. 

Ptaton-rod  Guidea.— The  ifarugtou  the  (riilde,  whi 
rod  is  at  iis  luaxiiuuui  angle  with  the  line  of  (be  plBKiB-4 

Itlie  formula:  Thrust  =  total  load  on  piston  v  taiigeai  ii 
Of  connecting-rod  =  p  tan  t.  This  angle,  t.  is  (be  ongta 
alruke  uf  piston  -<-  length  of  connectlng-nxl.  yy^ 

Katlo  of  length  of  conoecting-rod  to  stroke ^J 
Moxiiuum  angle  of  vonnectiog-rod  with  line  of 
piston-rod 14 

Tangent  of  the  angle ....,..,.  .     J 

Secant  of  the  angle ...,...;..    |,| 

Seaton  says:  The  area  of  the  guide-block  or  sllpr 
thrust  is  taken  should  in  no  cose  be  less  llieti  will  ai 
^^    llw.  on  the  squkre  Inch;  and  for  good  working  lho>«<i 
^K    thrust  when  goiu);  alieud  should  be  sufflcientiy  larg 
^H  liiutn  prrssun-  exceeding  lijO  lljs.  per  sq.  in.     Wliett] 
^H  well  ]ul>ricaied  this  allowanoe  uiay  be  exceeded, 
^H      Thurston  says:  The  rubbing  surfaces  of  guide*  an 
^H  if  r  Ije  their  relative  Telocity  in  feet  per  ndnute,  M 
^r   pressuie  nn  the  guide  iu  Itis.  per  sq.  in.,  pV  <  SO,nn< 

The  lower  is  (ho  safer  limit;  but  for  marine  and  ■ntff 

allowable  to  lake  p  -  <0,000  -4-  V.    Aocording  to  RaukUM 

•t***        .  ,   .,  ... 

_  />  =  ,.      ,„■  where  p  la  the  pressure  In  lbs.  per  «i|. 

tibblDiir  In  feet  pernrtinvit*.    IKms  \n<;\^»4w.  v^ia  «>j.tn,| 

1/ -.  —  '■' ■  ' ■■■■-  ••— '^--v.  ' 

,..yv  \»e^  TtiVB'»£|«J 


1  GrtMB  4am,    ntukm 

toajny  MO  lbs.  mt  mi.  ta^ 

_ ■»■*  ^  «»««>»T^    lalooa«*> 

I  mam  SB  tba.fr  11.  la.  of  ■Uda.oDae- 
t  rfide.  din,  eiader,  etc. 

tammemtmtt  ammmg  Ule  •■uhroriHoB  •■  U>  Ibn  roniiul«  for 
A-=F  MMm  •-•■  p%;  bat  Uw  valoe  pTvo  u>  v,   '•'•■  "!>>.«. 


Iir      >  L.  J  =  ^  «—  »  -»-  J^     r^  ■  s  I 


/;. 


iM^,i  II  All  Uw  w»|-  rrom  a&  it>* 
WwAa     KMiio  o/  IntytA  of  ftmurttinj 
1^  bed  gcsnmily  lo  the  ratlouf  Sor  .,.  u     ..ili« 
MB  and  easT-mrkiiic  rod.  (Im  former  ■  ratbrr  •liuri,  but 
t  mm  CThontoaX    WUtbam  gircs  iho  rat  io  of  fruiii  v  u>  4H- 

|1^  Cb«Mc(tM9-rod.— The  cslcuUltoo  of  tbc  (ll«ni<><rr  "t 
)tm  tk  tbeotcUeal  basU.  considsrioir  ri  as  •  utriit  iiulO>-i'i  '•> 

^g^^  IpBulnap   >£n*-«»<^^-  mill  also  t«i  HtrcMS  ilii**  In  iIk  liii'I  I  ia. 

.  is  quit4- 

~lkBUA  '  • 

__.  IarK>;j\  .■     '    ■  .  ■  .   ■.:;,  .,:. 

1  in  iocUes  P  —  itukxluiuiu  »(eaui  iirtwumin  (wi  m|.  Hi 


Item,  at  miiUle.  d"  =  0.0272  ^  Dl  S  p. 

liam.  at  necks,  d"  =  1.0  to  1.1  ■/,  diam.  of  plitoii-rod. 

lau  at  middle,  rf"  =  ^  Vp. 

am.  at  necks,  o*"  =  gg  Vp. 

■L.el"  =  O.OinD  Vp.lt  diam.  \n  croatnr  Ihivn  1/M  1«n(rth 

St.,  cf"  =  0.02758  V  Dl  ^p  It  dlaiii.  found  \>y  (ft)  la  1«««  llian 


1.  at  middle,  d"  =  o  i^D  X.  V'p  +  O.  P  In  l«ioha«,  ,/.  In 
=  >b  Inch  for  fast  oiiKlnef,  «  »  <)  OB  an<l  O  ■.  94  liiuli  for 

in:  Tbe  rod  may  be  cofmldewd  M  ■  itwtt  <fW  >*  twth  wda, 
■nUameter  aocordlnKly.    -^M^^^BB^^^I^^^BHH 


liam 

dc 


\ 


800 


THE  STEAM-EXGIXE. 


Tlie  diam.  at  the  ends  may  be_0.87S  of  the  dlam.  at  Ihe  uAMM 


Benton's  empirical  foniiula  when  traualaf  r.i 

same  as  the  nefond  one  by  Marke,  viz.,  d"  =  i 

»l\)  Is  also  praciioally  'he  same. 
(101  Taking  Staton's  more  complex  foi-roula,  wi: 
rod  =  2-S  X  leufith  of  etroke^and  i-  =  ISand^  10,  re-: 
ninm.  at  niklille  =    OSaW   »  /•  and  .04411  %  P  for  short  o 
pines,  reape(:lively. 
ApplyinR  the  above  formulas  Ui  the  engines  of  our  list.  ^' 


Olaiueter  orcoBa«etlnc-roda. 


Diameter  of  Cylinder,  inches. 


SIroke,  inclies 

Ijt-DKth  of  cjunecting-rod  I.. 


>"  <*"  =  SE  *  P  =  •"'*°  *'^' 


(5)«*"  =  .OirOD  Vp .... 

(S)  d"=  .oznsV'oi  Vjj 

(7)<J"  =  0,15i'oiVp  +  « 

[7]  d"  =  0.08V'Z)t  »  i)  +  H — 

(9)  d"  =  .tai^. 

.10)  d"  =  .02SM  VP;  .08411  ^'?.. 


AveraK<i - 'i'H 


10 


13 
80 

1.83 
1.7V 


».87 


It  .08 


CO 


).8t 


ri« 


9,07 


a. SO 


to 

6.M 
5.S7 


7.ff) 

7.vr 


G  IP 


Ml 


••■I 


Fonniile  5  and  6  ^Marks),  and  also  fonuula  ti  - 
diameleni  for  the  long-stroke  eiiRinc;  f.M  iii.ilic  7  f 
for  the  short-stroke  enpines.    Thr 
in  diameter  between  long-  and  6li 
expected,   for  while  the  conuec' 
wonid  require  an  lucreasm  of  (IIbi^ 
remaiiiiDK  liie  uame,  yd  in  an  eiii: 
rod  the  Rreuter  tim  niiinln-r  of  ri-v 
straiOR  due  to  inertia.    The  InOut-neee   it-nJ 
therefore  tend  to  tiulance  each  other,  and  to 
extent  iudepmideiit  of  ilie  length.    Tlie  h\.'t  , 

to  the  simple  formula  d"  =  .Oilf*  1  p.    'I 

diameters  of  engine  by  this  fonuula  arc 

Since  the  total  pressure  on  the  piston  /'      . . 

lent  to  if   =  .0-237  \P.  .      ..  ^  ( 

ronnectlnK-rod  Knda.— For  a  eomiecUiiK.ro<l  md  •« J 


rod  I 


.  .-d  with  two  bolts,  each  h«tt  itM 
tigili  eqtial  to  two  thirvis  the  ma 

;    ,    -   ■    '■■    ■    '    ■  •'   tiM  I 


:.r  ;;t"u:e^w;v»««-««^^  ^^""^ 


r  to  BukA  ihm  ciinM  LTM«  wiJi  af 
Uwroddoelo  ila 


DEMSHsioirs  or  PAMs  or  oom 


801 


>rTtiim(oti 
(-rod  of 

iMi  Uw  rod  tor        . 

ibe  above  f ORanfa. 


\t*rmre*tm»m 
>«gh  dM  bed  aectiMMtlwlMBB 
JfaiiBaCMiliirBd. 


becomee  <f  =  1,V  YnVm^  ytr.    T%kiag  •  reeUwUM-  aectioa 
n«  am  a«  the  roi«4  Mjenw  wbaee  Jl>»r«rr  b  d,  aaid  i—tieK  ths 

■  t,  w  tew  !!nBi* . 


Lbe  sectioa  A  =  tviee  the 


U  =  «<. 


=  .KTd  =.(»)•  f^r»^-t-.««,vtek  iillMfongnda  Cor  the  iMck- 
Btancebdweea  the  {Mndlel  sides  of  Ike  rod.    IlaUwth»dtv(hat 

lead  end  =  1  'f  1  it  -  T  ihi  liii)lfa      Tf  lh«  mitfiik^l  dijiih  1 

eodis8.25f.    irflj'  I T*'  fnn nil  11  'li   ntinn  Tufci  itftn  if 
pies,  «•  have 


of  cyliBder,  bic)»«k. 

wlie* 

f  eonntcting-rod  ... . 


m,t  =  .OMM  fM  |>  +  .«r> 

crowhead  end.  l.U  s„ .... 
crank  eod,  :^( 


10 

80 

w 

W 

» 

» 

1  a 

8.W 

9.4» 

S.41 

3.«3 

8.11 

« 
s  » 


lickneases  f,  found  by  the  formnla  t  ■=  .OSOS  |  M  |  p  4-  .4T,  agrw 
rttli  Ih*  rniitv  niiririte  formula  «  =  .01/)  i^o  +  .90",  (he  tblokOMsec 
id  b.v  Ui  i-  ■  •'■n(r  rf^ptctirtly  1.«,  !1«.  and  5  6  incht^, 

pruUil-j'  uk  |.>in8bouldbedesijnKd  Ui  to  avoid  h>'atin|r. 

■y.    The  beating  of  a  crank-pin  depends  cm  tlip 
ice,  and  on  the  coeflScient  of  frici:'>n,  wliicli 
>;  to  the  effiH^tireaeeB  of  tbB  lubrkvii  ion.    U  also 
•  lib  wbjch  tb©  beat  produced  may  lie  cairi^l 
•ut  liicomotlve  cTsnk-piiw  may  be  prvveul«d  to  some 
;;  by  the  cooling  action  of  the  air  tSrouxh  which  they 


itwoKth 
on  it8 

urnm  t; 


■rka  sfret.  t  =  .0000847 /pjVi)*  -  IMV 


aH.P.) 


ham  gives  t  =  0.0075/ 


a.HP.) 


CS) 


I  =  Icnetb  of  crank-pin  jonrnBl  in  inches,  /  =  eocfllclcnt  of  frioHoii, 
■f  be  taren  at  .OB  t^.06  for  perfect  liihricatlon.  and  .OR  to  ,  1(1  for  im- 
p  =  mean  nrpsenre  tn  the  cylimlpr  tn  ponnds  p/r  Mpiarc  Inch;  M 
Iter  of  cyllnuer  hi  foch*"!!;  .V  =  number  of  ninRle  strokeii  per  nilnutp; 

=  initii-;ilt'<1  lifirse-power;  h  =  le»K''l>  "f  htroke  in  feel.  Thesw 
nr-  1  nl  or  the  diameter  Of  the  pin,  (iiiil  Murks  sliitfs  ttn  a 

l»"  -"untitif  Umilit  aK  to  pressiirr  and  spcwl  vd  rw^AVflkW.. 

"'' '■  — I-  r — p-i-...,^  p^p-.,,.^^  III!  1  iii.iiiii.li  I    1 1 1  •  iVii\'"ir  Ml 

Lf   lif   ".;"■*••  *^  '^  dianirUT  t.au  no  ffTioV  n\>(ni  W^  \i»m,"' 
mf  fSSJZS'Z^",'"  ^"^ ''''''"'"^'  ••'"piniiiUv  from  <Ut<>«u«Vv> 
KrSSn^Sl»r..r°^"]:"'      Mark.s'^^/.rs  that    aU.ut  .mM-J 
fngmes,  aaH  one  u-ulb   f.-i-  locoinutir..    malum,  mrtli 


802 


THE  BTEAJC-SNOIKE. 


formula  for  locomotive  crank-pins  /  =  .VUXOUn/pXt*,  m  SI 

=  ,06,  and  AT  =  flOO,  /  -  .OISP'. 

WhitbaiTi  re<!otntnends  for  pressure  per  sguare  inch  of  •_ 
naval  enKtnes  600  pounds,  for  nienUuiiit  en^nes  4iiO  ponndk  fiv| 
eneineB  W.H)  to  000  pouods. 

Thurston  says  the  pressure  should,  in  the  s^'iani  entfiDc,  i 
or  flOO  pounds  per  square  inch  for  wrooKht-iron  pin*,  or  l 
fl^ire  for  steel.    Ho  K^res  the  formula  for  leufrth  of  a  steel  pllit 

I  =  FK  -t-  000.000,        .... 
In  which  Pand  Rare  the  mean  total  load  on  tlin  mp   iq  i 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute.    For  loconi 
taken  hs  500,000.    Where  iron  is  used  thip  flfn>re 
and  250,000  for  the  two  cases  taken.     Pins  so  pri'i  ifl 

well  lubricated,  may  always  be  depeiidwl    upon  l.j  run  cc«j, 
formtHl,  perfectly  cylindrical.  ■welltiiiiHhwi.  and  kept  well  olM.t 
can  he  relied  upon.    It  ia  assumed  above  that  good  brontf  M| 
bearinKS  are  used, 

Thurston  also  says  :  The  size  of  crank -pins  required  to  ] 
the  journals  may  be  determined  with  a  tilr  degree  of  ] 
^■tbe  formuls  giveo  below  : 


<: 


^gi^fRanklne.1866,; 

pr 


e0,000r2 


(Tbunton,  189); 


*  =  8507100  ^""«'™'-'»«>- 

The  first  two  formula  give  what  arc  considered  by  tbeir  t 
Ine  proportions,  and  the  last  irlves  minimum  length  for  Iron  | 
velocity  of  rubliingf  eurfnce  in  fet-t  per  minute.) 

Formula  U »  was  obtulned  by  olmervinK  locomotive  prsctiot  tii< 
linhllity  exists  of  annoyance  by  dust,  and  irreat  risk  occurs  tiir 
bility  while  runnini;.  and  cJ)  h.v  ol>servation  of  irrank-nins  of  I 
enitlnes.    The  flrtit  formula  is  tlierernre  not  well  milte«i  for  i 
^B    8t«t>l  can  usually  he  worked  nt  nearly  double  the  prcaBurs  i 
^■^n  running  at  similar  Bpf>ed.  , 

^V  t^ince  the  length  of  the  crankpln  will  be  directly  •■  tlie 
^■ipon  It  and  inversely  as  the  pressure,  we  may  take  It  as 


f  =  11 


I  H.P. 


in  which  a  is  a  constant,  and  L  the  stroke  of  piston,  In  f«vt. 

fio  coustant.  as  obtained  by  Mr.  Skeel.  are  about  as  foDows: 
ater  can  be  constantly  used;  u  ^  O.OIS  where  water  Ut  not  i 
=  0.05  where  water  is  seldom  used;  a  =  0.06  where  «al«ir  lai 
Dwin  gives 
,       I  H.P. 

in  which  r  =  crank  radius  in  inches,  a  =  0.8  to  a  =  Si.i  for  lKBaad| 
engines,  and  a  =  0.068  to  a  =:  0.1  for  tbe  caae  of  the  beat  i 

Pntivp  work,  where  it  is  often  neoeasary  to  shorten  op  o« 
I  possible. 
J.  B.  Staowood  lEnr/g.  June  13,  IWn.  in  a  table  of  dim 
merican  Corliss  eneiues  frum  10  to  90  inches  dianvelar  of  ( 
les  of  crank -pins  which  approximate  closely  In  tin  fiiiiiiliia 
I  =  .2T5i>"  -f  .5  in. ;    d  =  .S8X>" 


Sty  oalculatiog  teiiKth«  ol  (rtm  cnu^k-pKia  (or  the  eiuctne*  10.  A  i 
iVaiiK'ter,  loog  and  short  alroVv  ^  -  •■*••■  •""■"»«\  t,,«,,-iv\—  .h_a 


nmtL 


riiat  there  is  a  great  A 
'■aaeagivesH  ietkRtbt>' 
imiirtbH  iiiuoh  KT«tt'' 
,W  1  h!p.  -^. 


.  N  V  »\i. 


etoaeVy. 


v:Teui.««wc 
,.c  vAiMrt%. 


iJlMKSSlOKS  or  Pj 


■iedknfcUisaf  iroa 

and  iff  mttmataBamK 


M 
I.H.P 


P.    3L2I» 

Ic-piii. 

.aonx  .OBLtLP  --  '    :  ;• 

H.HJ*. -^/- J  <•> 

i.a.p.  ♦  »• >  B 

:h-p.  -^' I  sa> 


«t'  »  » 

«   • 

tc     3     c 

4 

3i>     e*       e« 

i-a» 

r««-x«K;9.w« 

cs     s.*    s ) 

*    ' 

l.3»ii  Ktr  -  <:i 

->«ja&5 

sa 


t?t     S  3(       f«B4«     tr.tii     SM 


.1  =  .1 


J  = 


r 


aaa,oai' 


4.« 


1^ 

s.«r 


sn 


t.«i 


lengtbs  for  tke  kwc-atrokr  nigliw  m  too  low  t«  jatn—t 
[«■.    %e^  "  Pi  I  iin  w  oa  ibe  Crmak-pindk"  below. 
ttt  or  tke  Ck«Mk-pta  is  decermiocd  sattsttaxiiMj  as  to 
ik.    lo  oTeHnins  ermafcs  Uw  load  is  luuallj  tatamtA  as 
Ktretnit  J,  auid,  e^foatin^  ite  moment  with  that  of  the 


iiPl  =  t/iettd;    and    d  =  l/^^' 


^l«r  of  pin  in  Ibcbes,  P  =  mazimtiiu  loiod  oa  ibe  pMoa, 
-'lowable  8tms  oo  ■  square  inch  of  Jbe  metal.     Fw  Iroa 
"0  Iba    For  steel  tl>e  diameters  found  bj  ihb  formats 
(Thurston.) 
formula  in  another  form,  tU.: 


^9000 


-»/?<'«  W'-i- 


to  be  used  when  the  ratio  of  leii^h  to  diameter  Is  assumed 
■^  iron,  t  =  SOW  10  WOO  Itis.  per  sq.  ta.. 


»/S.'l 


.0SH7  to  .OBS:; 


/¥■ 


=  4000  to  13,000  Itw.  per  aq.  in  , 


.out  to  ,0«38. 


.(Wn  to  .0104. 


^  =  .C8«'to.(B«;      ^'  = 

Iveo  d  =  O.oesr  v'S  =  S.10te^'  ^  ^^•.r-  for  «tr,.ugU),  and 


804  THU   STSAM-BKQISrS. 

Marks,  ciaculnUotc  lUe  atonieUn-  for  rigiditr,  clre* 

d  =  o.o«af  |w^  =  0,94.-, //ii^J^: 

p  =  maximum  steRinpreMiiro  in  pounds  p«r  tJinnre  'nch.  ^  - 

cyliudvr  ill  liicheK,  L  =  ItfOgth  uf  stroke  in  feet , 

jwr  minule.     He  says  there  is  no  in«;il  of  an  i' 

A  orank-pin,  as  llic.  eoiidltiou  of  rigidity  glv.-- 

Uarlss's  formula  la  based  upon  the  assumption  timi  Ho'  oli..^ 

CDuevntmled  at  ibe  outer  end,  and  cause  a  ilvfleclloo  ■■/    111 

point. 
It  ig  !<erviceahle,  he  snys,  for  Bteel  and  for  wruurlit  irao  allkai 
UBjnif  ibu  overagM  lenKtbs  of  the  craok-plimalrevil)' fotm!.! 

followllili  for  our  six  engines  : 

Diameter  of  Crank-plna. 


Diameter  of  oylliider. . . 

Stroke,  ft 

LeDBth  of  crank-plD,  . . 

Unwin,  a  =  j7 —      .. . 
Harks,  d  =  .066  \'piWi. 


JO 

1 
a.T9 

10 

30 

H 

8.C9 

i.n 

7M 

5«ll 

1  80 

.85 

CM 

%.n 

FreaiiureB  on  tbe  Cnwh'pln*.— If  «rc<tAlrrlb<>  nMMi 
tha  criinU-pdi  -  niean  pn-ssurw  <■«  i>isl"n.  ne^-l.  il« 

Ing  angle  of  tllB  eoiiiieetlug-rutl,  We  liave  Il)e  >>ia(  l_  . 

leugtbs  already  foiiud,  and  I  he  diauietersoco'i  .wtaaatll 


I 
I 


Engine  No. 


Diameter  of  cylinder,  inches 

Stroke,  feet 

Mean  pressure  on  piu,  poundii 
l^ojected  area  of  pin,  UnwUl.. 

"  •'     "    ■•     Marks.. 

Pressure  per  square  inch,  Unwin 

"         "         "         ••     Marks. 


Tbo  resuUfi  show  that  the  application  of  tlir- 
eter  of  crank-pins  give  quite  low  oits^c 
area  for  llie  Rburl-Ktiolve  lii^'li  speecl  ein.-: 

firessures  fornll  the  other eiijrinKS.    It  i.- 
nciDK  Ihediuiennions  ••(  aerank-pin  acconUnv  i...  >,i^  lu, ,» 
results  dliould  tje  inodided.  if  necessary,  lu  tiring  the  pr 
iucli  down  to  u  rett.soiial>ie  f!^-uri' 

In  order  to  liriug  tlie  pres-     •  .>•  fwr  i 

divide  the  menn  pressut-es  !>  i<9CUNl  i 

of  ieiifrih  >iy  dianieliT.     Mm.  .-i  No*.  I.  I 

revised  table  for  the  six  eDgiat-b  is  u-<  follows  : 

EnRine.  No 1        s 

Length  of  erank-pin.  Incbea. .....  S,|S    3,15 

Diameter  of  crank  pin t.lU    4.10 

Croanliead-pln  or  WrUt.iiin, 

tor  [be  wnst  piu  is  t<.' 
I  tli«  (liAiiieter  al  llf  ^ 

anil  ^; 

.Ill  ii\  an}  ' 
I unl  by  i>*  '. 
-    jii>r  iMi\.  U,  .  ■  .       . 


DntENSIONS   OF   PA^S  OF  ENQTXES. 


,  and  wortdnK  In  brasses  BllaA  into  a  receas  Id  the  ptstOD-rod  end 
[by  a  wrougbtiroD  cap  and  two  bol<s.  S«a(on  gWes: 

-of  guiifceon  =  1.25  x  diam.  of  pUton-rod, 
k  of  gudgeon  =  1.4  X  diaui.  of  pi8iou-rod. 

I  presiiura  on  the  s«ctioD,  as  calculated  by  niiilUplyliij;  leDRtb  by 

'~,  exceeds  VMO  Ibg.  per  so.  in.,  this  length  shniild  m  mcreased. 

Haawaod,  in  liis  •' Ready  Keference"   book,  gives  fiM-  length  of 

d-plu  0.23  to  0.3  diam.  of  piston,  and  diam,  =  0.  IS  to  u.3  dIam.  of 

Since  hi?  gives  for  diam.  ot  pistou-rud  U.ll  to  0.17  diuiu.  of  piston, 

istuns  fur  diamuter  and  length  of  cnissliead  pin  an-  aliout  I. inland 

^f  ptfiton  -  rod  regpectirely.    Takliijf  thenioxliuum  aliowalde  piesa- 

"  fl>s.  per  sq.  iu.  and  making  tlie  k'Jieth  of  the  ci-o^fhead-pin  = 

t  diameter,  we  liave  </  =  V'  P-*-  40,  /  =  t'  i*  -»■  30,  in  whicli  P  =  iiiax- 

_  ital  load  on  piston  in  lbs.,  d  =  diuni.  and  I  =  leu^i  of  plii  in  incite*, 

i  engines  of  our  example  we  have: 

aiecer  of  piston,  iticlieii ...  10  30  SO 

UmuTu  load  on  piston,  ll«  . . 7854  70,088  iat),3!M) 

keter  of  croK8lii'ad-i>iii,  inches 2.28  d.flS  U.OB 

feth  of  cros-shtad-pin,  inches 2.90  8.80  14    " 

Kirood's  rule  eivfs  diameter,  inches l.BtoS  5,4  to6  90 

lnood's  rule  gives  length,  inches S.StoS  7.S  to  9  ia.5 

kirood'a  largest  diineu.sious  give  pressure 

p«r»q.  in.,lbs  1309  1329  I 

^  pressurcN)  arc  (greater  than  t)ie  maximuui  allowed  by  Seatoti. 
i^Crmnk-arm,— The  crank-arm  is  to  be  treated  as  a  lever, 
~ie  thicltne.ss  iu  direction  jjaral.t-l  lx>  tlie  shaft -axis  anil  li  Its  breodtih 
jonjc  IncliHA  from  the  crank-pin  centre,  llieu,  bending  motnent  U 
otion  =  f-'j,  P  being  the  thrust  of  the  coiinectiug-rud,  and  /  tlie 
I  per  square  inch. 


4.77 

I 

at^H 

•nt  U 

/ito 

-Vf-  I 

[as  Riven  by  fflV 


%  crank-arm  were  constructed  so  that  b  varieal  as  |  x  (as  given  by  I 
Te  rule)  it  wotdd  be  of  such  a  curved  form  a.s  to  beinconvenli-nt  to  man- 
tlure,  and  consequently  it  Is  customary  iu  practice  to  find  the  uiaxl- 
lu  value  of  b  and  aratv  tangent  lines  tu  tlie  curve  at  tile  |>uint8  ;  these 
•  are  generally,  for  the  same  reason ,  tangemlol  tu  tlie  boss  of  the  crank- 
l»t  the  abaft. 

he  •hearing' strain  Is  the  e^ame  thrfiiiL'hotit  the  crank-srin;  and,  conw- 
■tly,  is  large  compared  with  the  beiiiliuK^  litrafu  djjse  to  the  cmiik-pln  ; 
aaitis  not  sufllcient  to  provide  there  only  for  iH-ndIng  strains.  The 
•ir.r.  ar  tKi«  point  sliould  be  KUch  that,  in  additlun  to  what  Is  given  hy  the 
■riiiii  the  bending:  moment,  there  is  an  extra  square  iticli  for 

of  thrust  »n  tlie  counectlng  rod  (Scatoii). 
'if   (he  boss  h  into  which  the  shaft  is  lliied  is  from  O.T.'i  to  1.0 
nr  of  tlie  shaft  />,  ami  its  tliiekness  B  must  be  calculated  from 
■train  PL.  IL  =■  length  otcrnnlt.) 

..  ^iit  values  of  length  of  boss  h,  the  faliawlDg  values  of  thicko 

KMU  e  are  giveu  by  Seatou; 

'hen  h  =  />,       then  e  =  0.35  D;  If  steel,  0.3. 
h  =.  O.I»  I),  Ihun  e  =  0.:»  i>,  if  steel.  0.112. 
h  =  0.8  U,  (hen  e  =  U.4U  />,  if  steel.  0.33. 
h  =  0.7  U.  then  e  =  U.41  D,  if  steel.  0.8i. 
ne  crank-eye  or  boss  into  which   the  pin  Is  filled  shniild  liear  the  same 
tioD  to  the  pin  that  tlie  boss  does  to  the  shaft. 

•\t»  ^liiiincter  of  the  sliaft-end  onto  wliieh   the  crank  Is  fitted  should  lie 
■  T  of  shaft, 
vs.-  The  vmjiMral  orciiirtrtlon.s  axlnpted  by  AnvVldet*  n«V&  cowv- 
'  "'  '-"       "      ''in  the       ■      ■        •        -     •  — ■  


kn^^^ 


■yj^l  to  tall  we//  H'Jt/i;n  the  calculated  safe  marg'in  .    'V\^e«^ 

V^\e  VweiRX.  A' 
eye  is  li  0  to -i."Ji  ' 
are,  X.as. 


'unit  an:  from  t/iepr/icl/ee  of  successful  ileslgiiers  a\i(j 
-tlie  nromlil  Iron  crunk.  Um  h»U  U  l.rs  tu  1  H  Ume« 
*L'P"£'  "f.*^"  "'"»"  varrvtne  full  l.,tt,|     ihL  i've    s"!  O 


w 

■.SOG                       THE  st;pah-exgix& 

V 

H  Tbe  web  is  made  0.7  to  0.73  th«  width  of  aiija<:«ai  bub  oi 

H  iVptlj  of  O.b  to  0.8  that  of  adjacent  hub  or  eye. 
H       f\ir  ilie  cast-in-iii  ciank  thr'  huh  and  eye  a'e  •  lllll< 
■    iliameler  respeol  i  >  •■  i  v  jr    in    1.8  u>  2  and  fi-iii  ■-'  I.i  .'.J  tii 
Hhafi  and  pin.    T                     irema-.teai- 
of  hub  or  eve.     i                       -,  buw<"vci-. 
Tlie  craiik-sh:i(                   :   -iilarijed  at 
jift  Jiameter  at  the  jotiruai.    Th<"  sik-  sbouKl  : 
ib«  shritikatrf  or  forL-ing  ou  of  the  crank.    A 
fifth  of  J^  -will  uuiiull)'  Kiifflce  :  nnd  a  coniiii' 

1 

ullowano?  of  Imi  one  half  of  this,  or  .001.                                        ^^M 
Tli4^  runiiula'  K>veii  by  difTeiviiI  writers  for  cr«nk-arni«  pMC^^I 

since  the;  all  i-onsider  (lir  uraiili  as  a  brain  loade<l  ai  nnr  «nd  ^^B 
K    the  other.    The  relation  of  breadth  to  Ihiclcnestn  may  vary  aee^^B 
H    taste  of  the  designer.    CalculattM]  dimenidon.'-ifor  iMtr  sii  msta^^H 
■    low-8                                                                                                          ^H 

H                                IMmeniiloDn  of  Cra.nk>arnia.              ^M 

m 

I>ium.  of  cylinder,  ins.. 
.■Stroke  .y,  ins, 

10 
13 

7S,V4 

a. in 

10 
IN 

7S54 
2.10 

30 
30 

7D.flM 
7.34 

3U 
CO 

T0.688 
S.te 

4 

_     Max.  pi-eBsiire  on  pin  P, 

K       (apprux.)  lbs 

■    Diani.  cratik-piii  rl   

m                         'yl.H.P. 
■  Dlani.shart.al/      ^    0 

y.. 

3.4« 

T.70 

9.70 

,J 

■  Ot  =  4.69,  5  09  and  5.S*).. 

■  Length  of  boss,  .Hi» 

■  Thickness  of  boss,  .40.. 
"     LPiam.  of  boss.  1.8/» 

L<eni;tli  crauk'pitkeye..Kc/ 
Tliiotness  of    cruuli-p;n 

eye,  .4.i 

Mux.  mom.  Tat  distance 

Vi-S  —  Jaflfrom  centre 
™        of  plo,  inch-lbs 

■  Thiolcnt'aj  of  vrank-orot 

■  11  =  .TSD  

2.19 
1.10 
4. OS 

1.7« 

.E8 

■IT,  148 
S.06 

8.T7 
1.39 

e.M 

1.76 
.88 

80,661 
3.60 

<.I6 

306 
13.86 

5.87 

X.B4 

788,149 
5.T8 

?.7« 
S.W 
IT.  48 
4  4« 

e.91 
i.Htfi.4a9 

7.W 

■    (Ireatest  broad  til. 

■                         "=^900011 

S.48 

4.5S 

9.M 

u.o 

Kklfl 

Min.inoin.  7«  at  distance 
'i  from  oeotre  of  pfu=iU 
■    tjt.*aii  br^Adtlif 

ie,4S3 

IS,  403 

rsbjstb 

S1H.IJ8 

r««.fl 

1                   1.       4/  •""• 

«.» 

3.06 

7.81 

tt.OI 

»1 

B      Tl>«  Mhaft.-TwUtliiK  Bv«li4aitce.— i!Vora  Ut«  j;<^^B 

H  fur  torsion,  we  have:  T=  ^  d*8  =  .VJ&t^fS.  wluHice  d—  1/  ^^B 

H  *i>tii\<                                                                  ii^^^B 

^1  llie  woi k  "lonL*  pt-T  iiiiuulc  would  '»••                                              ^^^^H 

B                           /"xix  ^x«  =  aa,(woxLH.p..         ^ 

^Klfl  wliicli  /„  =  leiMtUt  ot  cauV  Vtv  VtMitaM.kaA 
^■■Mii  lwiMiu%  luontnit  T  =  — ^  ■><.  ^aj*- 

"1 

r  ^ 

y/^ 

A 

1)1MENSI0K8   OF   PARTS  OF   EXGIXES. 


8o: 


¥ 


lake  the  form 


■i/'-^^ 


X  F,ord  = 


-V 


I.H.P. 


R 


Fant\  n  are  factors  that  defwiid  on  tbe  gcrerif;tli  of  tliB  nmltrinl  j 
he  factor  of  sulety.    THking  A'  at  -IS.OOU  pouiidH  jier  M|tiar»  inch  for  ( 

iron,  finci  ai  00,000  for  steel,  we  Jiave,  for  aini}ile  iwUiliiK  b)-  a  unl- 
Igeulial  for(.t>, 

if  safety    =    S        0        8        10 

a jr-crSS.T     ■la.S    57.1     71. 4 

«) F=-iaii    *8.]     4:.'.8    68,8 


5       e        8        10 
o  =  3.3    8.S    am    4.15 
a  =  3.0    8.18  3.5      S.it 


,  taking-  fur  mile  working  strength  of  wrouRht  iron  WXK)  llis..  iile«l 
I,,  atid  cant  iron  4riOU  Ibn.,  eivea  (i  =  :i.!f&4  fur  wrougbt  ItMii.  :!H77  for 
id  4.15  for  cast  Irou.  Tliiirston,  for  cratik-axlt-s  of  v  roUKlit  Icon, 
I  4.15  or  mure. 

najrs:  For  wrOUjflit  Jron,/,  the  safe  strain  [»r  sniiare  int:h.  sliniild 
ed  9000  Jbs  .  and  wlieii  the  shafts  are  nioie  thuu  1(1  iiiclie«  iliuineter, 
Steel,  when  uiade  from  the  Ingot  anil  of  ^oixl  niHliMiuls.  »ill  ail' 
sirewi  of  12,000  IbH  forb'ufUl  shufui,  utid  lO.tJOU  lbs.  for  llnHie  nliuvt) 
5  diariietrr. 

(Terence  In  ihe  allosvanc<<  between  large  and  siimll  slinf  is  is  to  eotn- 
f'lr  the  defective  material  observable  In  the  heart  of  lanse  sbaftiiig, 
i  the  Uttiuuierlng  failing  to  aAect  it. 

niiula  ri  3=  o  j/     "    '      assumes  the  tangential  foive  to  be  uniform 

'  it  la  the  only  acting  force.  For  engines,  in  wbicli  IItc  tangential 
ries  with  tlie  angle  lietween  tbevrank  and  tlie  cuiinei-tjng-nxl.  and 
variation  in  steani-pressure  in  the  c.rllnder.  anil  also  i'*  (ntlne"ee<l 
lertia  of  the  reciprocating  parts,  and  in  which  also  ihe  .wliaft.  mav  ha 
d  lo  bending  as  well  ae  torsion,  the  factor  ii  itiimt  lie  iiicrea.sed,  to 
for  the  maximtim  tangtMitliil  foree  and  for  beiiritng. 
I  gives  the  following  table  sliowing  the  relaiinu  Uufween  the  liiazl- 
d  meao  twl^itlng  mutnetits  of  engines  working  under  vnriiiii»  uondi- 
e  mouientiim  of  the  Dioving  parts  l>eing  neglected,  wiiieh  is  allow- 


I 

i 

I 

I 

'I 

I 


DeRiiptloo  of  EDgin«. 


rexpansiTe .> 

Indet  expansive,  crania  at  90* 


■Hnder  compound,  cranks  ISO* — 

**  I.  p.  cranks    | 

B  one  a    other,  and  h.p.  inidwaj'  t 


Steam  OuwilT 
at 


0.8 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 
0,1 
0.8 
0.4 

o.a 

0.9 

0.7 

0  9 

h.p.O.,\  t.p.  0.66 


Max. 
Twi^t 

Di'iiled 

l'.V 

iMetin 

Twl^t 

Mome't- 


a.fl■J^ 
if  ir. 

i.cas 

l.fil6 
1.41."i 

1.S9S 

I  .avi 

1.-J70 
l.:i_'9 
1.857 
1.40 

1.30 


Cub« 
Root 
of  the 
Katio. 


1.3H 
1  iS 
l.-H 
l.X) 
1.17 
1.13 
1.09 
1.(18 
I. OH 
1.10 
1.11 
1.13 

1.08 


jUko  gives  tbe  followiog  ride.s-  fur  ordluarv  pracVVce  tot  ot4\«ttr 
rfer  anLrlne  eaginea: 


of  the  tuunei-aiiafta 


/^  I.H.P       „ 


H08  THE  STEAM-ENGI 

^V  Compound  eni;Inei!,  cracks  at  right  ansl^s: 

Boiler  pressure  70  lbs.,  rate  of  expansion  Gto7.  F  —  '0.  a  s- i 
Boiler  pressure  80  lbs.,  rate  of  exponxioii  'toH,F— 7S,a  =  i 
Boiler  pressure  DO  lbs.,  rale  of  exiHiuj$ion  ti  to  9,  ^=  75,  a  =  I 

Triple  compound,  three  cranlcs  at  IM  di-grees: 
Boiler  pressure  150  lbs.,  rat«  of  expauHioii  10  to  li.  F"  =  «i,  •!  s 
Boiler  pressure  160  lbs.,  rote  of  expansion  11  to  IS.  f'^  (U,  «  -  t" 
Boiler  pressure  J70  Jl»,,  rale  of  expansion  12  to  IS,  .f  =  97,  n  = 

Expanoire  engines,  cranks  at  riRht  angles,  an<l  tfa»  rat«  of 
boiler-pressure  60  Ibn.,  F  =  90,  n  =  4.48. 
Single-crank  coinpoiiiul  endues,  prt^ssure  80  Ilia..  F  =  96,  n  m 
For  the  engines  we  are  consideiiuu  It  will  lie  a  very  lll>riml 
ratio  of  maximum  to  mean  tni^tin^  moment  if  we  tal<e  Id 
ratio  of  the  mnximutn  to  the  mean  pressure  on  the  plsttin.     __, 
then,  in  the  formula  for  diameter  of  the  shaft  will  t>e  iuult4plie4  I 

root  of  thia  ratio,  or^/^  =1.34,  x/^-  =  1.45,  ami  j /-"?  o  I.] 

y  ii  y  3s.i  y   30 

10,  so,  aud  60-in.  engines,  respectively.    Takini;  n  =  8.5.  wlilcli 
to  a  sheni  iu^  strenKtb  of  60,000  and  a  facior  of  safely  ot  &  tor 
45,000  and  a  factor  of  6  for  iron,  we  have  for  the  new  covfllcli 

formula  <J,  =  0,1/    '  „    ',  the  values  4.80,  5.08,  and  B.S, 

olitain  the  diameters  of  shafts  of  Ibe  six  enKlnca  as  foDowsT 

Eiiifine  No , 1  «  S  4 

Diuni.ofcyl 10  10  30  ao 

Horse-power,  I.H.P 60         BO        460       4M) 

Kev».  per  min.,  J? 250        ISS        ISO         (U 

Dlam.  of  shaTld  =a,i/l5:^....  «.T«     8.4C     J.OT     J.70 

These  diameters  are  calculated  for  twistinp  milr      When  t)»r  1 
sultlfcted  to  iieiiiliiiK  utraln  the  calenlatloi;  -       "'  '  ■"     ' 

HeHlatance  to  Rending.— The  ^t 

tu  reaiKt  benduig  is  one  Imir  of  iliat  {n  rf<. 
^H moment  in  lucb-lbs,,  and  (i  tile  diameter  ui  iik'mihii  mi  ihcup*, 

W  B  »  -^'  X/;  and  d  =  //^  y  10  2; 

/  Is  the  safe  strain  p«r  square  inch  of  the  Tnat<>rl«l  of  vlitrti 

compus'^d,  and  its  value  inay  be  taken  n."?  elveii  n>' 
EqulTalent   TwlatlUK   Jnomciit.  — ^V: 

liolti  nvi^ljiiy  anil  bt'iiillUB  f.iiiiuliaiiftiii>.Iv.  iIih  •  . 
lioii  of  it  may  bo  measurtnl    iiy  caleiilntirti:  —' 
"  cintintf  riiomenl;  that  i.«,  the  two  slralni^ 
i  a  twisting  sirain  ouly  ot  the  same  ma^ 
jluted  accordingly.     Rnnkineg^ave  Uie  full...,  i,,^ 
ction  of  Ibe  two  strains. 

It  T  =  the  t»i.sliiig  moment,  and  K  =  tlie  Itendlne  ninnt*a 
k  uliaft,  iht'ii  the  equivalent  tw 
Srnlnn  BajK:  t'rank-shnftd  .1 
trine  Ktraiiis:  the  laltrr  n 

jar«  usually  neglected  dlrttiiy,  imt  niiuw.!  ii<r  iiuiiirt 
rt»ctor/, 
^elwfi  firincipal  stmli^  vnrv  thr<itn;hrnit  tlip>  rrvolijfltyfl^ 

~    .  (Jlli-.  IlI.M.I      i    ■   ■  ■         .  ■  ■      -■ 


DHiilcriir 
AUlii  Im 


—•A«l 


':f^  ^^■:::^^^^^^^'^ 


DIKKKSIONS  OF  FABTS  OF  £NQIN£S. 


809 


>  parallel  >l<i<>«  pasKiiifr  lUruuKh  the  ceatree  of  Uie  crauk-plii  auii  of  Uie 
kft  bearing,  at  r\g\u  aiit-lMi  to  tlirir  axes;  wtilcli  distance  ts  equal  W 
IMiirlli  of  crank'-ijiii  lipariiiu  +  k-iJi;t)i  ofliub-f-J-li  Ii'ukHi  of  shaft  bearing + 
f  Clearance  that  tjiay  bt^  alloweil  bf  tween  the  crank  and  tliu  two  bearingM. 
r  our  8i;c  engines  we  nia.T  take  tbis  dlBtaucu  as  egnal  to  ^  length  of 
ink-piii -4- ihickness  «f  crauk-arni-f- 1.5  X  lh««  dluni«t«?r  of  cli(>  shaft  aa 
itndy  fuuiid  by  the  calculation  for  twisting.  Tlio  caleulatloo  of  diaiita|U 
(hen  aa  below ;  ^^M 


BnKiDe  No, 

\ 

9 

3 

4 

K 

latii.  of  cyl.,  lu.  . 

10 

10 

30 

3U 

so 

BO 

^TM-power 

50 

50 

4S0 

4M 

I3U 

ISM 

If •.  per  niln .... 
iz.prMn  on  pui,P 

250 

135 

130 

K> 

BO 

4» 

T,851 

T.8.M 

T0,68ti 

70,&*(5 

IS«.8fiO 

190,350 

Wermge.'  Lin  ... 

6.3i 

T.94 

22.  iO 

2H.0i> 

3tt.80 

*fa 

lmo.PL=Bin.lb 

4a.6;!7 

63,301 

1  .seB.a-a 

I.NIT.K.HO 

7.-Jaft,9«) 

8.-.»5,<lH 

»l»l  mom.  T. 

■ir,ri4 

M,«48 

1  ,(j<X),«yu 

S,l-Jil,.-iHO 

4,TI«,40U 

V,i'i*,i»O0 

luiv.Twist.  nioni. 

Tt=B+  t^B'+r* 

(approx.j 1)8.000 

175.000 

s.in.1.000 

4.(Mr.noa 

I3.IMO.O0O 

■J0.8SO,000 

•  l>rerage  =  dt«t«nc«  between  ceolres  of  crauk-pin  aud  tiiiaft  bearine  = 
l-f-8  ;&(. 

BaviOE  already  found  the  dlatnelera.  on  the  aMBuniFithin  that  the  Bhafta 
bn ■objeoted  to  a  twiailng  inonit-nt  Tonly,  vi«  may  lliid  the  diatuel^r  for 
ktotlnfc  couibluHd  b<^ndln^  and  twiitlinfj  by  multiplying  the  diaaielers 
l«Mdy  found  by  the  cube  roots  of  the  ratio  Ti  -t-  T,  or 


l.'IO 

1.37 

1.46 

1.34 

1.04 

i.ae 

3.S4 

4..19 

)l.i» 

13,90 

80.M 

ei.M 

Tintf  correcte<l  dianieiers  rf,  =. 

By  ptottinK  tb(>8er«giillK,  lining  tlin  diameters  of  the  uyliiidei's  fur  nbaclBHaa 

d  diafiieten^  of  the  shafts  for  iirtlinates.  we  l^iid  Lfmt  for  the  lon^-stroke 

^oes  the  rvsuln  lie  almost  in  a  Klraight  line  ex)iivriiied  liy  the  formula. 

kinet«r  of  (haft  =  .43  x  diameter  of  cylinder;  forthe  short  stioke  engines 

r  line   U  ulighily  curved,  lint   d<>eK  not  diverice  far  from  a  Htralght  line 

I08e  equation  is,  diainetM'  of  Hhiift  =  .4  diarnetcr  uf  cylinder.   UKing  llieite 

...  r.rMnila^f,  the  diameters  of  the  shafts  will  Im  4.0,  4.,^,  12.0.  IS!.!),  aO.O,  VI  0. 

">vood,  in  JCiiiiineerliiji,  June  V4,  1801.  gives  dimensions  of  shafW 

ngiiiea  In  American  praulioe  for  cylinders  10  to  .'W  in.  diameter. 

•IS  range  from  I  ]^/)H  to  14  15/  16,  following  precisely  IheequatiDD, 

iii.>-t»-i  t/f  shaft  -  U.  .hauii'ier  of  c.Tluider  -  l/lli  incrlt. 

rljT'Vrboel  Sbaita.— Thusi  far'we  have  considered  the  shaft  as  resiiC- 
iii..-  f<.r.'<?  of  iriisiiin  and  the  beciiliiig  moment  (irwUired  liy  the  pr>>8BurB 
'«  -pin.    In  the  cane  uf  lly-wheet  uugiiie«  the  nhuft  on  th)*  oppo«ita 
j'Hai'lug  from  the  crunk  pin  has  to  be  designed  with  refen.*nce  to 
.'  moment  caused  by  the  weight  of  the  tly  wheel,  the  weight  of 
i  akoXl  lUielf.  and  the  strain  of  the  belt.    For  engines  in  wlilch  there  1»  an 
moard   bearing,  the  weight  of  fly-wheel  and   Hnaft  lieing  supported  by 
[>  Iwuriugs.  the  point  t>f  the  shaft  at  which  the  trending  moment  ii  a 
jiay  be  taUen  a.H  the  point  midway  between   the  two  lioaringH  or 
i.'  of  the  fly  wheel  hub.  and  the  amount  of  the  moment  is  the 
tlieweiglit  Nuppoited  by  lUte  nf  the  bearings  into  the  distance 
liu  iJii-  ccutre  of  that  beiiriiig  to  the  middle  point  of  the  .shaft.     Tlie  xhaft 
una  to  be  treated  as  a  beam   Hupported  at  the  ends  and  loaded  in  the 
ll^lle.     In  the  case  of  an  overhung  fly-wheel,  the  shaft  hnvlng  only  one 
•^  (»oint  of  luaxiiiunit  ntOUieiitt«hould  be  taken  as  the  niiddle  of 
iind  itn  amount  is  very  nearly  the  proilucl  of  half  the  weight 
'■•'I  and  the  .shaft  into  the  dintunet:  from  the  ndddle  of  its  hub 
tu  ■  f  the  bearing.  The  ifending  moniunl  should  be  cttlculaled 

I  c-  'li    llie  IH/K(in<r  moment  as  above  hIiowu.  Xo  vAjUvra  \.\»* 

ii»».''  '-'  tuanitmt.  Hntl   the  diameter  necesjiary    oX  t\v«  \kV\u\.  < 

tlfiiuni  ni/'iii'-nr  iVtlc'uJatrtt  f/ierefroni.  ' 

the  cnjiv  uf  uiit  nix  /"fi/iH.s  we  assume    that  the  woicViis  ot 
i^   t<jg*au,r  witU  tluMmti,  are  tli>iihle  the  welcbt    ot    fty-wV 


>»i»^th^forwuim:ir=7»5.m  -^±^   (given   und«r    F\yJ 


I 


I 


810  THE  STEAM- ENOIXB.  ^^H 

th&t  Ike  :<tiaft  ijc  supported  by  an  outboard  beariar ,  Ite  AMHtoH 
the  two  beariOKS  b^in^  ;'Vi,  5,  and  10  feet  for  the  IV-to.,  |H«,  •■■ 
riiKines,  respectively,  the  dlametent  of  the  flj-wbed*  »n  UMfl 
thai  their  rim  Telocitf  «- ill  be  a  little  bag  than  6000  tee*  ym  I 

Eiitnoe  No 1  S           4  <  I 

Diaiii.  of  cjl.,  iocbea. 10  10        SO  «  H 

Diam.  ofBy-trbeel,  ft 7.5  15  U.5  89           S 

Hevs.  permin  2S0  !«  IJO  «           • 

Half  wt  fly-wh'l  and  shaftjb.  388  S36  i.XS  ll.«3e 

l.<-ver  sriri  for  niax.iiioa].,lii.     IS  IS          SO  tO 

3Iax.ljfiidiiiKmonieDl.iii.-lb.  «B0  tOtO  ITS.IMO  SSIi,Om 

Ar  tliese  are  very  Jr!-'    \ — " --  •'      •  .      '  -  -    -..nienl 
I  be  pressures  on  ttif  <  .  ly  fca 

for  the  diameter  of  i) 

In  the  case  nf  enpintr^  -  im  iii«>  >  iiuu>i  u.v-  >  ui-'-»  utd  witbl 
HhaftK  it  is  of  the  iitmon  importance  to  calculate  Ute  dlAMrMM 
with  refereuet!  lo  the  bending  moment  due  to  tbe  we%[kt al( 
and  the  shaft. 

B.  H.  Coffey  i  fonrr.  October,  18S2i  gives  tbe  (ormuta  fa*  < 
inj;  and  twisting  resistance,  T^i  =  WiPS.  in  whiiA  Ti  =  /I  i- 1 
beinc  tb<>  maximum,  not  the  mean  twisting  BMOirM:  aod  ttl  ^ 
workine  values  fur  .196.S  as  below  He  sayi;:  Four  poiMt  AoMltfl 
ered  in  dftt-nninine  thia  value:  First,  the  nature  of  lta»  iiiMwM'^tl 
the  manner  uf  applyinirthe  loads,  with  shock  or  otberwiae:  IIML>  wt 
of  tbe  bending  miimr>nt  to  tlie  ton4noal  moment — the  beodlait  ■■■■i 
revolvinK  Abaft  pruJu<?e$  rerersed  strains  in  the  materiaLi  wkickMiH 
tune  It;  fourth,  tbe  aiaK  of  the  rectkm.  locfa  (or  taeb.  lane*  Wt^ 
weaker  than  small  ouea.  He  puta  the  dividing  hue  between  Immm^ 
aecUoos  at  10  in.  diameter,  and  givea  the  faOoiriiig  safe  *alHM  «f4Mq 
steel,  wrought  iron,  and  cast  iron,  for  tbeait  otjndilf —        

Vaujk  or  Sx  .IS8. 


RaUo. 


B  to  r 


He.»y8haru     i  H^ll^'^J!;!!^ 
with'shock.       '^ij^j,„"8SS- 


Steel 


Wro'i   C^< 
[  Iron     Iron. 


Steel 


3  to  10  or  less..            I04S  i  Ml 

ato5orle<«    Ml  ,  :8S 

]  to  I  or  less fl&S  TIS 

AKreatertlianr    I    7M  I  S&5 


440     ]&M 

»ai    itio 

Se      IITK  I 


(Wro't  Omi 
Iron. 


1391  .  600  MK      t:i 

Itr»  S«»  19tl  ,  !« 

1074  Sir  in«  1  Ml 

W4  I  «t  lam  I  H 


Mr.  (.'I'frey  irivt-s  as  an  enam^le  of  iisi 
aliaft  of  a  l-VK)  H.I',  engine  at  Wiliiinanii 
gine  WA:s  mntiine  hi  435  HP.    The  »liafl  vi 
of  bearintr-    '  ••.  (nrSfi.  in  the  n 

liialiider,  i  rwaringx.     It  bn^t. 

IngthnlW'  --rp-P<.  iir  VSN,  it!     ' 

calmiii(e>  iii.-  n  '  " 

niaxiiuiiin  nt  ih  :■ 
IIm  .  w|iii-M.  iiHil' 


hmnmt\ 
a.  be«MllM«iBa 
-  C<e«a  to*  M|ii 
•ani*  m  tW  I 

>  pvaa.  Ik-« 

r  of  mft**  ^ 

r  aflowdd  r«r  ^ 

If  watatom 

_.  .      Ill"   II  'm-r'TIa Ml 


p  D1MKN810NS  0^   PARTS   OP   SNGINES. 

1^*^  being  iletemiliird  from  coD»i(]«ratioiia  of  its  bentinK-,  the  i 
*j*  '-•ouoernioit  beatinf;  of  crank -ping  apply  aluo  to  shaft-bearings, 
rti^'*"  '""^  ■eUKth  of  crank-pins  Lu  aToM  beatiiie  may  also  hi-  use 
^*he  totul  load  upon  tbe  IxmriDi;  thcresultAat  of  all  Ine  presstirtH) 
p*  't,  by  the  pressure  on  the  crank,  hj  the  «'eii;li1  of  the  Hy-wheol 
IPull  of  the  belt.  After  dettrrrninine  iWs  pri'xsure.  hiwever,  \ 
^^  to  euiplrical  values  for  the  no-called  coiisianis  uf  the  formuti 
IbleK,  which  depend  on  the  power  o(  the  hearing  to  carry  uwi 
tapou  the  quantity  of  he»t  generated,  which  latter  depemls  on  I 
oti  the  iiuniher  of  Square  feet  of  rubbing  surface  passed  o 
Jte,  and  upon  the  coefficient  of  friction.  This  ooedicient  is  an 
v^ariable  quantity,  raDKiog  from  .01  or  less  with  jierfeellj' 
'*'".  hariuir  end-play,  and  Inbricated  by  a  pad  or  oil-bath,  to  .10 
Unary  oil-cup  lubrication. 

Wfts  resistinpr  toraion  only,  Harks  i^ve!i  for  length  of  iwui 

paVO".  in  whicb/isthe  coefflcienlof  friction,  p  tlie  mean  | 

B  per  square  inch  on  the  piston.  N  Hie  number  of  siai^le  sin 

~^le,  and  /)  the  diameter  of  the  pi<)ton.     For  shafts  under  the  c< 

**<liie  to  pressure  on  the  crank-pin,  weight  of  tlywbeirl.  etc.,  1 

' 'olli)winB:  Let  Q  —  reaction  at  bearing  due  to  welgtn,  S  =  hu 

*lit  pressure  ou  pl8ton,  and  B,=  the  resultant  foree;  (orhoriiontal 

^*  I  5'  +  S',  for  vertical  engines  R,  =  Q  -^-  S,  when  the  pre«aun 

T>irtoin  the  name  direction  as  the  pressure  of  the  shaft  on  its  b 

'  «i  =  Q  -  S  when  the  steam  pressure  tends  tu  lift  the  shaft  I 

WiW!*.    Doing  empirical  values  for  the  work  of  friction  per  squi 

►rojwjted  area,  taken  from  dimenalons  of  crank  pi  ax  in  marine 

t  flnds  the  formula  for  length  of  shaft-journals   t  -  .OiXiOSiafR 

|"iiniend3  that  to  cover  the  (lefects  of  wo-rkiuanahip,  neglect  o 

I  111*  introduction  of  dust,  /  be  talien  at  .16  or  even  greater. 

•  5(1(1  Hw.  persq.  in.  of  projected  area  may  be  allowed  for  steel  or  H 

tthafts  in  hraas  bearings  with  good  results  if  a  less  pressure  is  no 

Mviihonl  inconvenience.    Marks  says  that  tbeuneof  empirical  ri 

Idol  take  account  of  t  he  number  of  turns  per  mionte  has  resulteti 

'~  I  much  too  long  for  slow-speed  engines  and  too  short    for  hif) 

Ura. 

hitham  gives  the  same  formula,  with  the  coefficient,  .OCKXSftTlS. 
kurston  says  that  the  luaxlmum  allowable  mean  inietisity  of  i 

t  be,  for  all  ca»e«,  computed  by  hi»  formula  for  journals,  1  =  -- 

anklne's,  I  =    ..  ..„  .-i  in  which  P  is  the  mean  total  pressnre  In 

■HtbOurt 

je  veiocity  of  i-ubbing  surface  In  feet  per  minute,  and  cf  the  diar 

i  Kbaft  in  inches.   It  must  lie  home  in  mind,  lie  says,  that  the  fricHi 

on  tlio  main  bearing  next  the  crank  is  the  sum  nf  lliat  due  the  nclioi 

I  |ij«t'>n  on  the  pin,  and  that  due  that  portion  of  the  weight  of  wh 

■ihaft  and  of  pull  of  the  belt  which  ta  carded  there.    Tlie  outboard 

•■arries  praetieally  only  the  latter  two  pnrt-s  r.f  the  total.     The  ci-»l 

I  journals  will  lie  mmie  longer  on  one  side,  and  perlians  Khorter  on  Ih 

I  than  that  of  the  crank  pin.  in  propoillon  to  the  work  falling  iipoji  ei 

\ln  their  respective  products  of  mean  totnl  pressure,  speed  of  rubbl 

[  f»c*?^.  nru^  r,»i*mcienta  of  friction. 

Journals  running  at  l.'rO  revolutions  per  minille  ai 

'  er  long.    Fan  shafts  running  150  revoluilon.H  per  mimi 

,  -ighl  diameters  long.    The  iirdinary  empirical  mo4le 

.   iiH'  length  of  journals  is  to  make  the  length  proportions 

jind  til  make  the  ratio  of  length  to  diameter  increase  1 

■  ,'r  wrought-iron  journals: 

Bers.  per  miii.  -     50     100    IBO  SiOO    S&()    SW    1000 

Length -V  dlaiu.  =  1.2     1.4    l.S  1.8    3.0    .1.0     8.0. 

Oaat-Iron  jouraals  may  have  I  +  fi  =  9/10,  nod  steel  jmirnals. 
Tthe  above  values. 

Un<f in  gives  the  following,  calciiltited  fi-oni  the  formula 

I  mittcti  r  la  cbe  erttak  nuUuB  la  laobea,  aad  H.F,  the  horse-i 
I  tbv  craak-fxiu. 


^ 


IS 


TKR  RTKAV-BXGIK& 
XmMiOiurmu.  Jovuui.  tdiicrra  m  Idcbui 


LcMdoB 

RavolutloM  Af  ioan»l  (wr  miMM. 

Jnom*! 

Ilr 

poniMl*. 

M 

100 

aoo 

SOS 

an 

M 

.A822 

.* 

.4 

.9 

1.9 

1. 

feOnb 

.4 

.8 

i.< 

9.4 

4. 

Hpo 

.8 

18 

a.3 

4.» 

8, 

nSoo 

1.0 

4. 

6. 

10, 

l^jo.ooo 

a. 

8. 

I». 

*. 

1\O0O 

«. 

12. 

1». 

SO. 

M.OOO 

4. 

19. 

U. 

40. 

..41 

W.OW) 

a. 

K. 

S4. 

f». 

.... 

.•4 

40,001) 

B 

18. 

». 

•  •>• 

..,* 

'    W,000 

JO. 

«. 

4n, 

-^ 

Applying  thetje  dlfFerent  fomiluw  (o  otir  six  etifthies,  w«hAVM 


I  XiiDflna  No. 


Mom.  c>l 

llJorse  fiowpr 

|-|lrV8.  1>»T  iiiin .... 

Mi'nn  prfRmirw  on  rraok-pin  =  S 

Hiilf  wt.  of  fly-i»h««1  «fKl  ••haft  =  Q.. 

Kf»<ilrant  pvr»».  on  lirnririK 

»  «»  +  *•»  =  .»,. 

Diaiii.  of  shHrt.  Jniirnal 

L<i>i)Kili  o(  »hnti  juuriiMl: 

I    Marks,        I  -  .(KXI(Ma5/ff,iV(/^.10) 
Whllbani,  /  =  ,0OiMM.VP,/?i/=^  10). 
I'V 
TImralon,  I 
: 


Raokinr,  (  = 


fiO.OOOfI 

frr  +  a)) 

♦l.BOOt/      ■■■ 

Uiiwlu,        I  =  (.004H+ IXJ, 

„                 ,      0.4  H.P. 
Unwin,       J=  — 


AveraKB. 


10 
W 

aw 


3.3W 

3  M 


5.&S 

4.?r 


8.» 


I.flS 


4.M  I  11.00 


'».8T 
16.63 

H.OO    7.43 


•  Ot  W 


»WI 


IT.flfi   lO.OOl  »' 


If  we  UiviiJe  lli«  nifaii  riMiiiUAiir  prrK.si)re  ivn  M 

m»a,  iliui  (h,  br  (lie  iirodiif-t  of  tlif-  dinmptfr  <iii<l 

tli»>Ki'w>'»"Sian<l«innllpst  IfiiKlhoHtof  tb«  io^ci- 

friven  above,  w«  obtain  IIm  preMure  per  squoru  icctl  upcu  tl»!  '"*" 

follovrs: 


EiiciBoKo 

1 

2 

3 

4 

fj 

^ 

Pi-BRKiire  iiersq.  in. 
\ji{iffv»t  jiinrnal  .. 

sltortost 

journal. 

eg 

112 

15^ 

4.Vi 
115 

178 

Kft 

as 
m 

n 

Arernse  jimrnal 

vt 

Jonriinl  of  teiiKtli  = 

:  diftrn . . . 

Many  of  iJie  formulae  fjlve  !ot  lY»eUiTi?,-sVm\i.ftengin«i  a  lenpli  '>' ) 
/ens  Owin  Uie  (bi»meti>r.  but  *v>o\i  *.\\cwv  ¥>ttTiv«L>ft  «■«  T(Bn>v^ xef"'" 
The  laat  Jine  in  the  above  VabVe  Ua&  \)eeu  (aXc\i.\a,\«^  wi  \\«  < 


DIMENSIONS  OF   PARTS  OF   ENGINES.  8tJ 


tlie   1 


•Is  of  the  loog'«trofce  engtneg  are  made  of  a  length  equal  to 

limenRkmc  of  Gorllm  enirlnes  (riten  hv  J.  B.  Rtanwood  <Bii(;.,  June 
Uielenjtthfi  of  llie  loiirnnls  fur  engines  of  <imiii.  of  (\vl.  lOtoJO  tii. 
Mne  as  llie  diain.  of  the  c.vllnder,  ami  a  little  iiiorB  ihan  Iwloe  ihe 
the  journal.  Fnr  •ngiiies  abovn  ii)  in.  ilinni.  of  «-.vl.  th«  ratio  of 
diuui.  JH  deen-nst'd  so  llial.  un  eiij;inp  of  30  In.  diaii'i.  lias  a  joiiniul 
I.  It.5  dlnnieier  being  I-I[J  In.  Tiie."^'  IcnKlUs  vt  journal  are  greater 
c  )rivfn  by  niij  of  tlie  forniiilMi  iibon'  ipiiilwl. 

hiis  appears  to  be  n  hnpelesK  confusion  in  tlit'  viuimis  formnlw  for 
sliaft  journals,  but  tliiH  id  no  more  timii  i^  to  he  expected  from  the 
iu  the  ooHflkMHiit  pf  fiii'tion,  ami  in  the  heai-conilnctlMg  power  of 
tactual  use,  tht?  co«>flicient,  varjinR  from  .W  tor  even  .IB  aa  Hjiven 
town  to  .01,  accvrdint;  to  the  (.'onililion  of  lUe  l>eariuK  surfaces 

PV 
rteney  of  lubrication.  Thurslon'a  formula,  I  =  ■         r.  reduces  to 

:  .OOOOtUXSPR,  tn  which  P=  mean  total  load'on  journal,  and 
.lions  p»'r  iMinuli:'.  This  is  of  the  snine  form  as  Marks'  and 
iforinulie.  in  which,  it /thu  coelflcit-nt  of  friolion  be  taken  at  .10, 
tlents  of  PK  are,  rpspcctivelj',  .HXHilKS  and  .<MXKXJ515.  Taking  the 
tbfse  three  forniuiw,  we  have  I  =  (WOOoMP/?,  if  /  =  .10  or  /  = 
B  for  any  other  value  of/.  The  author  believes  this  to  be  as  safe 
laa  any  for  lenEtli  of  joni-nftb.  witb  th»*  limitation  that  If  it  briiijts 
f  len^h  of  joui-nal  lens  than  the  diuiueter,  then  the  length  nhonld 
^uhI  to  the  diaiueler.  WbeufVrr  vvlih  jf  =  .10  It  gives  a  lenntb 
Inconvenient  or  impossible  of  cunstruclion  on  nccoiuit  of  linilled 
m  provision  should  be  nmde  tu  reduc*;  the  value  of  Ihe  coedicient 
I  k^low  .10  by  moans  of  forced  lubrication,  end  plaji  etc.,  and  to 
ly  the  lieat,  a.s  by  water-cooled  Journal-boxes.  The  value  of  P 
tAketi  aa  the  rei^ultaiit  of  the  mean  pressure  on  the  crank,  ntid  the 
(fht  on  the  bearing  by  the  weight  of  the  shaft,  fly-wheel,  etc.,  as 
1  by  the  formula  already  given,  via.,  if,  =  ^'Q*  -|-  S>  for  horizonlAl 
md  fl,  =  5  +  S  for  vertical  euglneK. 

mix  engines  the  formula  I  =  .OOOMfiSPR  gives,  with  the  limitation 
iig-atrofce  engines  that  the  length  shall  not  be  lesB  than  the  diam- 
'ol  lowing: 

0... 13         3  4  5  8 

'journal 4.30    4.39    1«.J8    IS.M    80. RO    21.52 

per  Rqtiare  inch  on  journal..      19C      173      158       155       102       171 

[«oIiani»    with    Centre>cr«nk    nnd    Doublc-crauk 

In  centre-crnnk  engines,  one  of  the  eranii  arms,  ruid  ILs  adjoining 
ailed  the  after  jouriml,  usually  trnusniit.  Ihe  power  of  the  enpiiie 
rk  to  bo  done,  and  the  jijiirnnf  rcflsls  liuth  twihUngand  bending 
I  while  the  other  jotirnal  Is  subjeed-d  to  IhmkHhk  moiiieiit  only, 
fter  crauk-journai  the  diameter  Khuiild  bo  cHlcuhtted  the  .>iattie  lis 
trlilltig  crank,  using  the  formula  for  comblntvl  beiiilinp  atjd  Iwlst- 
pat,  r,  =  B-i-  VAC  4  r^,  in  which  T,  in  the  civiiifalent  twisting 
h  tba  bending  moment,  and  7°  tlie  twisting  monirut.    This  «alu« 

i  be  used  in  the  formula  diameter  =  4/  J^.    llm  benttingmo- 

r     a 

>k«n  as  Ihe  maximum  load  on  piston  multiplied  by  one  fonrth  of 
h  of  the  crank-Bhaft  between   middle  points   of  the  two  journal 

if  the  centre  ciaiik  is  midway  between  tlie  benriiig.'<,  or  by  one 
llstance  measured  parallel  t»)  the  shaft  from   (he  middle  of  the 
1  to  the  iniildle  of  the  after  liearing.    This  »upjicRe»   the  crniik 
be  a  beam  loaded  at  Iih  middle  and   Bup]aorted  at   the  cnila,  l>Uft 

would  make  the  bending  moitienl  only  one  hair  of  lliix,  consider*! 
loft  to  be  a  lienm  nec'tired  or  Oxed  at  the  enUs,  with  o  point  of  co 
»  one  fourth  of  the  len^'lh  from  the  end.     The  ttrst.  suvvw&^^^o  ^ 

but  .tiiicf  ihi-  Ijfniliiiii  iiwinriti  will  in  any  case  Vie  ■m\4C\»  \e»»,>3lV 
a/f  iiioniHot,  1J16  resiiliiiis:  diameter  will  \>e  but  l\\.V\e  y!,\->'ft\.eT  >,>« 
r>  B  aiipiHitiUion  In  usifit.     for  the  forward  Jovv^1^a^.  ■wW'iW'«  »*>* 


\ 


liDg utowent  t»ilr,  diameter  of  gbatt  1 


i/'^ 


814 


THE  STEAM-EKGIXK. 


is  the  maximum  bending  moment  and  5  th«  safe  sliearinR 
metal  per  square  inch. 

For  our  alx  euuiiies.  aseiimiiiir  them  to  be  centre-craTik  ei 
Siderini;  the  eronk  nhuft  to  be  a  beam  Bupporied  at  the  enilf 
tbe  middle,  and  assuming  leiigtha  l>etwe«»i  centres  of  alia 
given  below,  ve  have: 


£ag:tne  No. 


Leneth  of  shaft,  assumed, 
Inches,  L . 

Max.  pi  ess,  nn  crank-pill, P 

Max.  b^niiinK  uiomeut, 
B=  HPi.  inoh-lhs 

Twistiii(j  iimment,  T — .. 

Equiv.    iwiiitiDi;  moment, 

B+  i'B'+T'    ... 
Diameter  of  after  joarnal, 

d=^/^S 

y    8000 


Dlam.  of  forward  journal 
«,  - 


~  r    sow 


1 

8 

90 
7,851 

S4 

7,854 

39.270 
i7,VM 

94,348 

101,000 

ise.coo 

5,98 

4,60 

S.68 

s.m 

48 

T0,«86 


60 

70,898 


SISJSK  1,000.900  3.1 

i,oflO,S90  «.iw,5aoi«,'; 


8,«ie,O0Q 
11. » 

10.88 


3,430.000 
IS.OO 

11.16 


The  lenirths  of  the  joiiriinis  wouM  he  calculate.! 
tlieottSB  ot  oycrhiine  cranks,  by  the  rnnniilii  /  - 
the  resultant  of  the  mean  [ircs.sure  due  to  pr>-ssiiiv 
and   the  load  of  the  fly-wlieel,  shaft,  etc.,  <^d   fa<li    r.f   it. 
Unless  the  preB.sure«  are  •■qUttHy  ilivided    bflwit-u    the  ti 
calculat<-d  lenpth-i  of  the  tw.i  will  lie  dlffcrr-nt;  hut  II  j* 
to  mal<e  them  both  of  the  >-njne  leiiEth.  and  In  no  ca.«« 
less  than  thediainetiT.     The  dlAnietfi-s  also  arv  iLsiinll] 
two  journals,  usine  the  largest  diaiiiPter  fiiund  by  cold 

The  cranio  pill  for  a  centre  LMank  whoulil  be  nf  th'-sj^ 
ov<'rhnnK  omnk,  since  Ibe   length   is  dtHerniined    froi 
heaiiiiR.  and  not  of  strenRth.    The  diann't'T  nKn  will 
since  It  is  mnde  preat  eiioiiffh  to  roakr  ''■■ 
proji-cted  area  (product  of  Ifnglh  bj 
free  liibrlcntlnn.  and  the  diniueier  *o  ■ 
cpiirfd  f"r  Ktrt-ntrth. 

<'rank>*liaft  lirlth  Two  Cranka  roapl«d  at 

whole  pew  *'f  "f  t!ie  Hiipiiie  Is  transinlttfil   !lir>Mi:;h   fhp  ;*fr,.r 

iift^-r  crankshaft.  Ihp  irreatest  twisiine  mon. 

mastimiim  iwisiinc  rn'oncnt  due  to  the  prt-f-^  ||j 

If  7'  =  the  maximum  twistin)?  moment  jan^l 

line  of  the  pielons.  then  V,  (he  niaxiiniini  l» 

of  tlie  crunk  sliiirt,  and  on  the  line  shaft,  pru 

an  nnsleof  45»  with  the  centre  line  of  the  . 

tills  viiliie  ill  the  formula  for  diameter  to  lesisi  simi 

tbd  maximum  twistinir  m'>ment  produced  by  one  of  the  |iUii 
eler  In   fn.'Ti.^s,  niid  ."J  =  ^nf.-   wnrklnij    vl,.'nVini'    uliriii-fh  of'i 


,  have  d  =  ^"JXy^,    or    d  =  I  W9  , 


DIMENSIONS  OF  1  ARTS   OF   ENGINES. 


81^ 
raoH 


•«rd  piston,  £,  =  bending  moment  on  ettlier  Jounm]  of  the  after  ci 
feo  maximum  pressure  on  After  pinloii,  T,  =  niaximurn  twisUiifc  momeii: 
CUr  journal  nr  (ci-wanl  crank,  aiul  Tt  =  uiaxinium  twititiiig  oitiment  on 
■riwmal  of  after  crank  due  tn  pr<'88iir(>  on  ih«  after  piston. 
^Hnuif^ent  tnristiug  moment  on  after  journal  of  forward  craalc  »  fl 

WE^  - 1 

ptDrrrard  journal  of  after  crank  =  B,  -f-  \  B,*  +  Ti'. 
k  fcfter  journal  of  after  cranV  =  B,  +  V  B»'  +  (fi  +  r,)«. 

values  of  equivalent  tn-islini;  moment  are  to  be  used  in  the  formnlft 
s/ 


diameter  of  journals  d  =  i/  - — .    For  the  forward  journal  of  ttw 


s 

'  /in  oo 

raii  crank-abaft  d 


la  customary  to  mok^  the  two  Jonrnats  of  the  forward  crank  of  one 
neler,  vis.,  that  I'aloiiliitfd  for  ilip  afti-i- lournal. 

!9r  a  Tbree-cyllnder  Engine  with  cratiks  at  130*,  tlie  ^ri^atest 
■ktn^ moment  on  thcufii^r  puit  uf  the  slinft,  if  the  nia.xlniiiiii  prfsxurpa 
he  three  pistonii  are  i-qua\.  Is  c^qual  to  twioe  thn  nittxiraum  pressure  on 

one  piston,  and  It  takes  plat-n  when  two  ot  t)u»  cranks  make  arelfw  of 
with  the  fentre  line,  ttin  third  urank  heinKai  right  anglvsto  il.  iForde- 
iwralion.see  Whiiham's"  Sleameiifrine  Desi^i,"  jj.  diii.)  For  combined 
lion  and  flexure  the  same  methoti  as  above  givi-n  fur  two  crank  engine* 
dopted  for  the  Brst  two  cranks;  and  for  the  tliird,  or  aftpr  crank,  if  all 

power  of  the  three  cyliiiUtsrs  Is  traiiBmltted  throug'h  it,  we  have  the 
Ihalent  twisting  mamenton  tbg  fnrirnrd  Journal  =  fl,4-  k  S,^+[T,  +  T,)>. 
Ion  thp  after  journal  =  i?,  +  f  Ws'  +  (3',  +  T,  +  TV'-  Bf  aiid  T,  being 
pectively  the  t>cndine  and  twisting  moments  Ctuo  to  the  pressum  tin  the 
nd  piston. 

fmnk  ••bafts  for  Trlplr-expaitftloii  marine  Eoglnea., 
Oiijing  to  an  article  in  Tlie  Kiiahieer,  April  25.  1S90,  slioiiid  1h«  niade 
ierthaii  the  foriiiiila?  would  call  tor.  in  oi'iler  t<i  provide  fur  the  stresses 

to  the  racinit  of  the  propeller  in  a  sea-waj-,  whieh  csii  sscarcely  lje  cal- 
led, A  kind  of  unwritten  law  hot;  Kprun^  up  fur  flxiai;  the  Kize  of  a 
HUtaft,  according  to  which  the  diameter  of  the  siiaft  is  made  about 
^Kberc  D  is  the  diameter  of  the  high. pressure  cylinder.  This  I.*  for 
^■aflK.  When  the  speeds  are  hij;)i,  us  in  war-RMipK,  and  the  stroke 
^,  the  fnrniula  beefiiiie«;  0  4D,  even  foi-  ludiow  sliaflK, 
k«  ValTe-slem  or  Valve-rod,— The  valve-rod  Hbonid  be  designed 
love  the  valve  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions,  which  are  when 
)tem  acts  by  thrusting,  as  a  long  coiiimii,  when  the  valve  Is  unbalanced 
Uaoced  valve  may  become  uubalaneej  by  the  Joint  ieakinpi  and  wlien  it 
■perfectly  lubricated.    The  load  on  tlie  valve  is  ihie  product  of  the  ar"i 

the  greatest  unbalanced  pressure  upon  it  per  Bouare  incli.  and  ihe  co- 
ient  of  friction  may  be  as  hieh  aa  'X^i.    The  protfuct  of  tbiH  coefllulen  t 

the  load  Is  the  force  neces,=ary  to  move  the  valve,  which  equals  the 
Jiuiun  thi^Kt  on  the  valve- rod.  From  this  force  the  dinnWer  of  Ihe 
e-rod  may  be  calculated  by  Hodgkinsou's  formula  for  uuhiinua.    An 

irical  forrmila  given  by  Seston  is:   DlaTn.  of  rod  =  d  =.|/-Tr  >  'i  which 


leiif^  and  b  =  breadth  of  valvts,  in  Inches;  /•  =  maxlnniitt  absolute 
■ore  on  the  valve  in  lbs.  per  sq  in  ,  and  Fa  coefflclent  whnse  values  are. 
too:  lODK  rod  lO.iXO,  short  IJ.OtiO;  for  steel:  lonjr  ro<i  IS.tXiO,  short  M.NXI 
tiitbain  gives  the  slmrt  empirical  rule:  Diaiu.  of  valve-rod  =  1/90  diam. 
"■'   —  yi  d''""  '^f  pi«ton-roa. 


^Birn 


Slot>llnk.    i8eaton.)-Let  2>  be  the  dUni.of  tbe  valve  r(3d_ 

ia,ooo' 

Iter  of  block- pin  ivjbeo  overhung  s»  D, 

"  "    secured  at  both  enda  =  0.7b  v  D. 

ecceutrlc-rod  pitta  —  q,i    >,  ^ 

suspenskin-ixxl  pins  =  O.Sb  )( 

pin    when   ovt-rbung  =0.16' 


816 


THE   STEAM-ENamK. 


f 


I 


Brondth  of  link  =  0.8  to  0  0  /  D. 

Ijeneth  of  block  =  I  S  to  l.fl  y.  p. 

Thickness  of  burn  of  link  at  miilctle  =  D.T  v  [i 

If  a  single  siiS|ieUKic>u  nxl  of  mund  section,  itw  diaiiii-i^r  =  0 1 
If  tiro  BUBpension  rods  of  round  section,  their  dill'  '41 

Sljse  of  Double-bar  lilnkit.— VVh>-n  tli<»ili>; 
eccentrii;  pins  =  ti  to  H  times  throw  of  eccenlriot  \i"'""  - 
half -travel  of  valve  at  full  gear)  P  as  befure  : 

Depth  of  bars  =  ].»  >•  />  -f  I4  I 

Thickness  of  bars  =  0.5    x  />  -f-  H  I 

Length  of  sliUing  block  =  4.5  to  8  >;  I). 

Diameter  of  eccentric- rod  plna  =  O.H  v  /}  -j-  )4  ko 
'•       centre  ut  gliditiK-bluck  =  1,3  .-   /'• 

"When  the  distance  between  ecceuLric-r«Hl  pins  =  s  to  SVt  I 
eccentrics: 

DcpUiofbarB  =  1.S5  >: /)  4- 1^1 

Thlokncssi  of  bars  =0.6    >.  D+Vk* 

Length  of  slid  InK  block  :=  <.5  to  •  K  D. 

Diameter  of  eccentric  ■  rod  ptns  =  O.TS  >.  t>. 
Diameter  of  eccentric  boltn  (top  end)  at  bottom  of  ihrMd  =  I 
of  iron,  and  0  S>  >:  L>  when  of  steel. 

The  Eccentric— I>iam.  of  eccentrlc-fheave  =  S;4  X  ' 
+  I.M  X  diani.  of  shaft.    V  as  Ijefore 

Breadth  of  (be  .sheave  at  the  shaft =  MSyj 

Bread  ih  of  the  sheave  at  the  strap s=  O  +  oi 

ThickneBs  of  metal  around  the  shaft .... =  0.7  x 

Tbiobnesfi  of  metal  at  circumference =  0.4  y 

Breadth  of  key <=  O.Tx^, 

Thickness  of  key =  O.V  x] 

Diameter  of  boll^a  connecting  parts  of  strap =  0.0  X  ( 

TBICUIBSB  or  ECOSMTRIC-fmAf. 

When  of  bronze  or  malleable  cast  Iron: 
Thickness  of  eSceatric-strap  at  the  middle. .......    a  0.4  X  i 

' "'    "    "    sides KatKt 

When  of  wrouirht  iron  or  cast  steel: 

Thickness  of  eccentric-«trap  at  the  middle a  t.%   X 1 

"         '•  fiides =  tij!  y.\ 

The  Efceiitrlc-rod.— The  diameter  of  tho  * 
and  at  ilie  eooeijtric  end  may  Ije  i-ali-iilnteil  In  the  Rattre  »:»J"  j 
coiinectiug-ioii,  tlie  length   beiti^  "    '         '        : 
pin.    Diameter  al  the  link  end  ~ 

Tbl«  i*  for  wrought  iron:  no  ri  • 

Eccenirre  r-ids  are  often  made  ■ 

BeverMliiK-ttear  slionld  Im' 
slretiKlli  to  wiili.stntid  llie  stniii.  1^ 

same  time  under  the  most  iinfavonn'ie  cii\iiiirsi,ii\crs ,  1 
stifTnests  reijulsite  fur  (food  working. 

AssumiiiK  the  work  done  In  reversintf  the  llnfc-«io»liin.   H".  tl 
due  to  overcoming  the  frietion  of  the  valve»  11  ■ 
travel,  tlien.  If  T  be  the  travel  of  valves  in  in< ' 

rz/ytxpN      r/ji^,      ,. 
laV       b       y  ^  u\        »         /• 

t'.b'  audp'  being  length,  breoilth  and  maximum 

of  tbe  second  cylinder;  and  for  an  ejcpeusire  eOKiiie 


yLY-WHEELB.  817 

rain  at  any  part  of  the  gosr  liavlnfc  motion  when  nrvereing, 

so  fouiiill>y  llic>  H(mcb  niovcil  llirdiieh  liv  iliaC  }iart  in  feci; 
the  strain  in  ponntls;  nnd  Ihe  flrp  mny'be  round  from  Mie 
■  of  oontilruL-iiuii  for  nny  of  the  |iarts  'it  tlif  sTfiir.  (Seaton.) 
rameM  or  Ded-plates.-Ka  ilednlte  rules  fnr  tlie  dt>fii^ 
bes  liare  been  given  by  anlhors  of  wcirks  on  tlie»tfftiti  enelne. 
BUB  ai'e  left  lu  the  dVsiKner  who  nses  "  rule  of  thumb."  or 
kistinB  euKinHS.  F.  A.  Halsey  Ui".  iUich.,  Feb.  H,  1895)  hks 
|>arlsion  of  proportiuDH  of  the  franm  of  horizontal  C'orllM 
reral  btilUlcrx.  The  metlind  of  comparison  is  to  eoniputo  from 
taeots  the  number  of  sqiiari?  IncheH  in  the  smnllegt  oroBS-tctv 
^me,  that  is,  ImniedlnKJly  hehind  the  plllow-hloclr,  alao  to 
iotal  niHxImniit  iirpKmire  npcni  ih>*  pinujii.  anfl  to  divldi^  the 
^  by  the  forinpr.  The  result  (jives  lh<?  numh«>r  of  pounds 
A  the  piston  allowpd  for  each  square  Inch  uf  metal  lu  the 
todii  that  thu  number  of  pounds  |>er  square  inch  of  finiallest 
|Une  raD^eM  from  S17  for  a  lOx  !<0-iii.  en^biB  up  to  .W5  for  a 
L  A  30  X  60-inch  engine  shows  liO  lbs.,  and  a  a.'-lncb  engine 
■en  running;  for  many  years  shows  DOT  lbs.  Denerally  the 
tae  with  the  »ij.v  at  the  eutfine,  and  n ion' cross  scet ion  nf  melal 
tti  relatively  long  slrokeK  Chati  wiLli  short  one.q. 
Pove  Mr.  Hnlsey  funnulateK  the  general  rule  ihat  in  engineii 
^^>eeil,  oikil  having  slroke.s  tip  in  one  ani^  (ine-balf  Tit»t^s  the 
Ihe  cylinder,  the  loail  per  svqiiare  inch  of  Buiallpsl  sectioD 
<B  lO-ineh  engine  %0  pound><.  u hiuli  flRui'e  sliould  he  increased 
te^s  up  CO  boo  pouDus  for  a  !)U-inch  c}'llnderof  same  relative 
hi|jb  speeds  or  fur  lont^*r  si  ivkes  the  load  per  iU)Uare  inch 
iced. 

FLY-WHEELS. 

of  a  fly-wheel  la  to  Blore  up  and  to  restore  the  periodical  fluo- 
ergy  Klveu  t*i  or  talii-n  from  an  engioe  or  niurhlm',  and  thiia 
Ximat«ly  coDsUint  the  velocity  of  rotutitm.    Ranklne  calls  the 

the  coefficient  of  Qiictuatlun  of  speea  or  of  uosteadlneM,  In 

oieao  actual  energy,  aud  ^E  the  excess  of  energy  received  or 
Fined,  alx>ve  the  mean,  durioK  a  f(iven  int.ervat.  The  ratio  of 
escess  or  deficiency  ot'eueritry  ^h'  to  the  «bole  pnrmy  exerted 
or  revolution  (ieneral  Mor'in  found  to  ije  from  1  rt  to  ^  for 
r eugiues  uaiDK  ex|Hiusiou;  the  shorter  tlie  cutoff  the  liigber 
*  a  pair  of  engines  with  cranks  coiipleil  nt  911"  tiie  value  of  the 
(Jii.  and  for  three  eonlnes  with  orHuks  at  lao^,  1  lii  of  its  value 
Uider  eneines.  For  tcrols  workinK  at  intervals,  such  as  puuoh- 
id  plAte-ciilting  niiti.'liiue.'t,  coiuiu»:  prehses,  etc.,  AEis  nearly 
ol«  work  perfonued  atencb  opi'i'utioD. 

duces  the  coefficient  ^  to  a  certain  flzed  atnouol,  b«loe 

ordinary  macblnery,  and  l/ftO  or  1/60  tor  macfaioery  for  nne 

«Iprocal  of  the  intended  value  of  the  coetdcient  of  Huctua- 
^iftlie  fluctuation  or  enerycy,  /the  tuonicDt  of  inertia  of  the 

I  and  o»  its  mean  angular  velodiy,  /  =     -     '".    As  the  rim  of 

\  usually  heavy  iti  comparison  with  (be  arms,  /may  he  taken 
jtn  which  W  =  weight  of  rim  in  pounds,  and  >  the  radius  of  the 

'""  /  =  "'"'   \  If  V  be  Ihe  velocity  of  the  rim  In  feet  per 

suol  mean  radius  of  the   (ly-wbeel   In   steam-engluea  If  from 
lies  the  length  of  the  crank.    The  ordinary  valuesof  the  prod- 
it  of  time  being  the  second,  lie  between  1000  aud  aoQU  (eet. 
rKanktoe.  S  K.  p.  <;•.'.) 
a    for  I'Dgim-s   nith    automatic    valve-gear  W    =  WftJSftI 

=  are*  (^pl&toa  in  square  inches,  S  =  atiroVe  Vn  ' 

rSS^/to'fe.f**^  "■  :  "  =  revoJutioMpev  a.Va 
rbeeJtafeet.    TJmrstou  alsu   giyetj  tSt  ox^ 


untiiiuiy  purpoaea,  "=  S^toSper  ct-nt.     For  goda 

piir|Hi«e&,  Hitcb  as  coUoa-RpinDing,  Ibe  vuriatiou  sboq 

ufi-  ecul. 

K  M.  Kiun  (TrsD*.  A.  8-  M.  £.,  ziv.  ]0C)  derelope  • 

C  !■!    I  H  P 

t>f  rlui,  vti.,  H*  =  — siT,^——:  "ud  weight  of  rim  perl 
M  bich  C  TM-ies  rrom  lO.OOO.OOO.UOO  to  aO.OOO.OOO.OOO;  al 
of  C,  be  obtalim  for  ibe  eoergr  of  tbe  ay-wb«el 
(•>:U.P.(a.l4i»f>'/i*'      gnO.OOOHP.     „,       ,      ,  . 

«./..- yrS.rriioO  =  ^^—     Fly.wbe*!  e-nergj 

Tbe  lliiiil  i>C  vHriatlou  of  speed  «rlth  such  a  weight  c 
power  yteT  fraeliou  of  revolution  ig  leca  thao  .(KH3. 

Tlie  value  of  the  coDHtaot  C  Riven  by  Mr.  Rites  «ras 
of  tbu  WegtinKbouge  ninKle-actin);  eneiues  used  for 
doubieactiDK  eoRinee  in  ordinary  oervice  a  value  of  O 
probably  be  aaiple. 

From  these  fornuile  it  appears  that  the  weight  of  ttu 
boixe-power  should  vary  tiiverseiy  with  the  cube  of  til 
square  of  tile  diamet<*r. 

J.  B.  fitanwood  (Knti'g,  June  13,  IBDI )  sars:    Wb( 
lowest  pistoa-apeed  probable  for  on  eoeine  of  a  cert) 
weight  for  that  speed  approximate))  closely  to  the  foni 

ir=  700,000 JJ-,. 

n'  =  weight  In  pounds,  d  =  diameter  of  cylinder  In 
Inchei).  D  =  diameter  of  wheel  In  feet.  R  =  revolutic 
Hponding  to  480  feet  piston -speed. 

Ui  a  Beady  Reference  Book  published  by  Mr.  Stani 
he  irlvcR  the  same  formula,  wjili  coefBolents  as  folios 
Kini-n,  ordinary  duty,  av,O0<l;  same,  electric  liKhting, 
hl^h  speed  engines.  i.tXXI.OuO;  for  Corliss  eni^mca.  d 
electrfc-llk'btiim  l.OOO.OCW. 

Thurston's  fonnula  above  given,  W  =  _.^,  with  a  i 


PLT-WHREL8. 


*nBriiies  operating — 

Hammering  And  onishinR  ni(u;hinei7. a=    5 

PxiinpiiiK  and  shearitiK  inatliiriery rf  =  iM  to 

WeavioK  and  paper-making  uiacbinerjr d  =  40 

MilliDir  machinery d  =  50 

Spiniiiiig^  machinery d  =  50  to  100 

Ordinary  drivineenginea  (mounted  on  bed-piste), 

belttranamlssioii...   d  b  Sfi 

Oear-vheel  transmission d  =  SO 

lini'sfortimlafurweigbtof  fly-whfielln  poundafB  1^=  tX         '    '  ' 
e 


i»  the  coefflclent  of  Bteadiuess,   V  tlie  mean  velocity  of  ttie  flj. 
t  in  (e«t  per  second,  n  the  oumt>er  of  reTolutluns  per  minute,  t'^ 
^-Jlent  obtained  by  graphical  solution,  the  values  of  which  for  dif- 
r^  conditions  are  ^tven  !□  the  followiue  table.    In  ilie  lines  under  "  cut- 
•  ^n(^■DS  "compression  to  tnitiaJ  pressure,"  and  O  "  no  compression 


iLtrBS  or  i.     SlKoLE-CTLINtJtR  N0N-CO^fnW.■iIN0  EWOINES. 


m 

f- 
t- 

■ 


Cut-off,  M- 


Comp, 

p 


242.010 
208.200 
iet).590 
163,0:0 


Cut-off,  ii. 

Comp.        (^> 
P 


809,1711  S20.7e0 
178.460  188,M0 
138,4*0    l(i5,S10 

135,260  ...    . 


201,920 
]70,IMO 
146,610 


cuLoff,  a. 


Comp. 
P 


SiMOLE-CYUNDIR  CONDENftINQ  EHOINES. 


S|  cni-off.  M. 

!5: 


i  Ciinip, 
,a5.&flo|ir»..'i60 

l»4,M0,l  17,870 
1)48.  V80!  140.000 


Cul-oflr,  V6- 


aJH.lM 
174,a80 


cut-ofl,  a. 


Comp. 
P 


173,660|a04,210 
118,3G0|1&4,7S0 


107,14(J 
I3S,0S0 


Cut-off,  14. 


IKI.rilO     1HS,»40 
174,030     167,8tH) 

Cut  oil,  ^.  ^ 


Comp. 


189,600 
174,8.M 


161,8.%) 
t51.6S0 


Cninp. 
P 


17a,6flO 


o 


TwO-CYLnTDER  ENOIHXil,  CRAHIS  AT  DO". 


id 

3*"= 

Cut^flT,  1/6. 

CulHoBf.  a. 

Cut  off,  ii. 

Cut-off,  a.  ' 

ii 

Coup. 
P 

0 

Comp. 
P 

0 

Comp. 
P 

0 

1  Mean 
f 60,000 

Comp. 
P 

0 

oo 
oo 

DO 

DO 

7i,fleo 

70,160 
70.040 
10,040 

tMean 
[60.140 

S9.430 

BT.Ot* 

b:,4i« 

80.140 

1  Mean 
[64,340 

49.272 
49.150 
49,S20 

«r.e;o 

3&,500 

1"  3fi,P50 

J 

Thrxc-cvlinder  ENontss,  Crajikb  at  130°. 


,    S3.9IO/  33,340  /  33.870  I  35,500 
aO,ml  81,670  I  3S,U0  I  83,810 


A»  M  m««f.  w;„^  of  i  f„r  tj.eae  enKlnea  we  may  use 


I  TMlllll 


THE   8TEAM-ESOIKB 


niii  I 


.  enlrirns*!  Force  In  Fl)--«rbceUi.— I«i 

roiiuiU;  a  =  iiivaii  radius  of  rira  in  fem;  r  =  l«»t»l( 
fa.lB;  V  —  velocliy  of  rim  in  feel  persec/nd  =  S»Kr- 

Centrifut^al  force  of  wbole  rim  =  F  =  —— 

ga 

Tlie  resultant,  aollnit;  <tt  riaflit  axKlea  to  a  dlauieler 
lends  to  disrupt  one  luilf  of  the  wheel  frain  the  other  iMit,  I 
the  section  of  Mie  riui  at  each  end  of  the  diameter.    The  ta» 

rnilial  forces  lalipn  at  riKhl  anglea  to  the  diatueter  la  I  -*-  )M 

of  tliese  forces;  hence  the  total  force  f  is  to  bsdlrklMll 

=  6.*J8*5  to  obtain  the  tensih-  strain  on  ii."  .■m.^  .-...tiou  of  I 

strain    on    flie    cross- sett itm  =  .S  =    '  lh«  ' 

rim  of  cast  iron  1  inch  »n\iare  Id  s'  a  = 

henc«  strain  per  Mtuare  luch  of  wi  i.,  ^._.  ...  „   .:   .  ;m  =  i 

.0002664  ri'r'  =  .(KWHTOl'',  In  which  i>  =  diauipltr  of  wh< 

velocity  of  riiti  in  feet  per  niiuute.     ^|  s:  .OIK>ti.-*,  tf  c  jo  V 

ind. 

For  wrought  iron S,  =  .OOUaoeiPi'  =.  .0OO86412fA 

Fomteel S,  =  .(WllsM/^r«  =  .ooOiHWi  D* 

For  wood S,  =  .0000eSS«»i'»  =  .nV(K£il*i 

The  spreiflc  gravity  of  the  wood  befng  taken  at  O.tJ  =  Sf 
jOr  1  /12  the  weight  of  cast  iron. 

.Elra»ip(e.— Required  the  mraln  per  Bqnare  inch  in  the  H 
lliheel  80  ft.  diameter,  110  reroUltionn  per  minute. 

Jiired  the  Rtrain  per  square  inch  in                               n 

LOiinnte      Atimrer.    .ttUhlT  y  .VKO* 

ll»  CBBt-lron  fly-«  lieel  rini»,  ou  account  nr  i 

In  securing  sfunidnesR.  and  a  tfrnslle  sli^r  .t 

much  a«  can  t)e  fts.suiiied  with  safety.    tVi  I 

itnaxiniuni  ollciwwlil"  ^luiin  in  il">  rim  ..r                               i 
■prmdn  tn  a  rlMi  ni 

r  For  any  glvpn  m  i 

((epends  only  on  II,.  \ 

CTlins.  E  Emery  i('u.vi.  J/uy  .  I 

ef  the  arms  Is  arallaljle  to  ^t  u 

Hrheel  centres  are  relatively  Iniu  • 

Terse  gtr«in8,  from  hells  and  /rum  i-  ,i 

HO  certainty  ilvai  the  arinn  and  rin.  4 
toireilier  in  resi.-;iii\K disniplinii,  s,.  1 
and  maliiUB  it  Klrong  enouRli  I 

safe  limits,  a»  is  assumed  in  II  ^ 

It  docs  not  appear  that  ilv    ■  r 

rlinsafe  at  the  coniparHtively   luw  y 

imttteriais  aro  nspd  in  rmuctnictloti.  ^ 

Ihave  failed  i!<nsimllr  either  the  "  m  t 

Matt  causeil   l>y  the   brealdtitt  '•■  j 
IdeaiKn  or  defective  materially  ■ 

Chas.  T.  Fniter  iTianii.  A.  | 

Iliurstiiip;  of  a  (lywIiHel  Mlib  ji  <| 

BltrihutcN  the  hnnning  of  wlir  .■ 

of  the  llniideM  and  liolr^i  l.\   ", '  j 

Xlinrxlon,    ■  Mnnuiil  iif  ■  1  f 

Arm*  or  FIfw  i>  * 

ra/.'.;, .  .)uK  .'ill.  i-,.im  ■ 


? 


'iioneann;  S=n.r%iu9m 
single  and   11'  f>'r  rimibln 

eU  iu  iuclicci:  .1  —  iiuuilivi  of  uriiui;  L  —  \- 

«m   V.  Itiilr,    il  =  devtlt  o(   Iltui  &\ 

Tba  l>r«liltl«  ot  tt^•  krn»  W  \^»  V 


i 


itU  >iM»  >lltt')"«    •*■*     "^^ 


mt  Nirniui 


FLT-WHBELS. 


821 


.„j  rorniulo.  tirat  osKume  Rome  depth  for  the  arm,  and  caltMilste 
i  bri'adlli  (o  go  with  It.  If  It  gives  too  round  an  arm,  assume 
I  a  lUi.l(>  creator,  and  repeat  the  calculation,  A  oecond  trial  will 
»jrs  Rive  a  good  secHim. 

rtf  Hie  arms  at  the  hub  having  been  calotilatecl,  they  may  he 
■rtdtieod  at  the  riui  end.  Tlic  ocl  iinl  amount  caiimH  tw»  oalculatMl, 
loo  many  uiiknnTTQ  quantities.  However,  the  depth  and 
I  reduced  aliout  one  third  at  tlw  rim  wilhuut  daiiK*^r,  and  tbia 
ill-shat>«-d  arm. 

I  often  cast  in  hnlreB.  and  bidted  topethpr.  When  this  la  don« 
teare should  bp  taken  to  provldo  (iiiffieient  metal  in  the  bolts. 
to  be  the  very  weakest  point  iu  such  pulleys.  The  eoinbloed  area 
'  '*  each  Joint  should  be  about  :J8/1CI0  thu  c'rogs-sectioa  of  the  pul 
"lit.    (Torrey.) 


d  =  O.ftJST 


d  =  P.T98 


for  single  belts ; 


for  double  b«lt8; 


iif  I  lie  pulley,  and  B  the  breadth  of  the  rim,  both  In 
.ula>:ii-.-  based  on  an  elliptical  8«jtlon  of  arm  in  which 
rf  =  2.5A  'in  :.  "  iilth  of  b«lt  =  -l/fi  the  width  of  the  puller  rim, 
II  drivintt  foroe  lrAn8l^itt<^(l  hy  the  bell  of  56  lbs.  par  inch  of  width 
It  and  iv:  l>>^.  (or  n  doubit!  belt,  uad  a  i>Bfe  working  atreas  of 
)0  Iba.  per  .'^iiiiare  iucb. 
'b  formula  we  malce  b  =  0.id,  it  reduces  to 


■Given  a  pulley  10  feet  diaiii*ter;  8  arms,  each  4  feet  Fouk;  faee, 
■■  belt,  80  inches:  required  the  breath  and  depth  of  the  arm  al 
irding  to  TInwin, 


*/WL  i/WL 

^  =  \  m:v  «*=  y  la"- 


V,U  -^^  =  0.588//  — 8 — ■  =  6.1fi  for  stnglo  belt,  6  =  8,06; 

t /BV  ,/36  X180 

i/  -^  =  0.tTO//  — |p—  E  6.S0  for  double  belt,  b  =  8.00. 


^Torrey,  if  wp  take  the  formnla  6  = 


and  assuine  rf  :^  S 


»W.  resp»>ctively.  for  slntrle  and  double  belts,  we  obtain  ft  =  1.08 
■pe<7tiTpiy.  or  praetically  mily  one  half  of  the  breadth  Bpcordinu 
mil.  Mliice  transverse  slieiiprth  is  proportional  to  breadth,  an  arm 
If  as  strong. 

ruriiiiiln  issrti<i  to  he  hanctf  on  ft  factor  of  9!!i.l«i,y  of  10,  but  thin 

!>,-  fridy  apiiarem  and  not  real,  since  the  aesunipUnn  that  l.h« 

u-h  nriii  is  equal  to  the  strain  on  the  belt  divided  by  the  number 

fo  say  tlie  lea.Hf,  htnecnnite.     It  wrnild  be  more  nearly  correct  Us 

•  ^ham  of  tlie  lielt  is  divide<l  amon^  half  the  number  of  arrtis. 

snme  ar<,sunipiion  in  developing  bi.s  foriuula,  but  says  it  is 

■le  I  rue.  and  that  a  liinje  fnctoi'  of  safety  must  be  allowedi 

'       •  s  the  \'t\v  (iKure  of  a'iSO  lbs.  per  square  inch  for  the  safe  | 

reiiglli  of  cast  iron.    I'liwln  says  tlint  liia  equntiooa  agree  well 

firm  or  flr-tt'hevlM  for  Tarloa*  Sp«eA».— \t ' 

Hiliir  niaxiiiiiiin  vvlrjclty  of  iiiu  allowable,  Ifaen  SOW  - 
tdiiUon.-i   ftor   minute,  and   t>  =  diumlw  ot  v\l0 


Ce. 


S22 


THE  STBAM-EKOIITB. 


Maximum  Diametkr  or  Fly-whso.  Allowable  von  D, 

or  H«V0LFT10tl». 


a 


ABBvanine  Maximum  Speed  of 

AnumJoR  lUxUnun 
n(  flOOO  fret  |>rt  H 

Itavolntions 

5000  feet  por  miiiiit*'. 

per  miDute. 

Circum.  ft. 

Diani,  ft. 

Circuin.  ft 

m 

W 

125 

89.1) 

150. 

SO 

100 

SI. 8 

ISO. 

, 

eo 

88.3 

SC5 

too 

^ 

™ 

71.4 

az.7 

85. TS 

m 

HO 

ea.i 

19.9 

75. m 

■ 

90 

55.5 

J7.7 

CO. no 

■ 

IIK) 

50. 

15.« 

Ikl  lO 

■ 

lao 

41  87 

18» 

.Vl  IK) 

■ 

140 

85.71 

11.4 

4S.S6 

■ 

lao 

31.  i» 

9.9 

37  5 

■ 

180 

aT.77 

H.H 

.fj  .B 

■ 

SOD 

•J6.00 

8.0 

30.00 

^ 

aso 

sa.73 

7  3 

«.«7 

S40 

ai.Bs 

BO 

».00 

aoo 

111-23 

6  1 

SS.OIt 

880 

17.88 

5.7 

ai.ia 

aoo 

I6.t)6 

S.3 

so  no 

^    sso 

14.39 

4.5 

17  14 

H 

K  400 

la.s 

4.0 

1.5  no 

fl 

V  4M) 

11.11 

.1.5 

i».aa 

■ 

^  nan 

10.01) 

3.a 

fi.M 

M 

Strainn    In    the  RIma  of  Plf1>*nd  Wheels 
Centriniical  Forre.    i.lniiieriB.  Slanwooil,  Traoi^.  .\.  S. 
-  Ml'.  SiimwiK'il  uit'iitionii  one  cusc  of  a  HvliaixJ  whivl  wlur*  I 
velocity  OH  a  17'  B"  w  ln-fl  is  over  7500  fl.  j«er  i 

In  band  Kan-iiiillK  die  blade  of    Ihf  saw  i 
wheels  8  and  9  ft.  iu  dlaiiieter,  at  a  periplierj  i 
minute.    These  wheels  are  of  cast  iroD  thiougi.., 
a  laive  ntiinber  of  arms. 

In  shingile-niHcliinesand  chippinKniaohiues  nherecasl-lrnix! 
.5  ft.  iu  diameter  are  euiployefl,  willi  knIveH  i»iiert<^  rndlalljr.  I 
frequently  10.()00  in  H.ooo  ft.  per  inii>ii(e  ai  ihe  perlpherv. 

If  the  rim  of  a  dy-wheel  alone  lie  conuidereil,  tbv  tensile  aliata  I 

I'* 
per  square  Inch  of  the  riin  Hectlon  l»  T  ^  -zrr-  nea/ly.  In  vtilch  1*  ' 

in  feel  yn^r  second;  but  this  Ftrain  is  modified  hr  »li»  n^i*imarm  at 
which  prevent  the  uniform  circuinfereiiliale.V!  'hnrlm.* 

n  bending  as  well  ax  a  tensile  strain.     Mr.  Siji'  .w  ibr 

band. wheels  due  to  transverse  bending  uf  u  .  iii>  tlm  I 

pair  of  arms. 

When  clif  arms  are  few  In  number,  ami  of  IsrK"  rnaa-a 
will  be  strained  transversely  to  a  Rreafrr  d«Kr«e  than  ■llll  •L 
of  liKht«r  arms.  To  Illustrate  the  neceiuiary  riui  Uilrlia«ia—  h 
rim  v«locitie«.  pulley  illuuK'iei^  iiumlier  of  amia,  tCc,  tW  toUam 
isgiTen,  baaed  upon  Uie  foruiula 


FLY-WHBEL8.  8S3 

TfalckneM  of  Hlma  In  Solid  Wlie«lB. 


Velocity  of 

Biro  In  ftet  per 

second. 


18* 
184 


Velocity  of 

Riiu  ill  feet  per 

miQUte. 


3.000 
S.'.'fiO 
6,280 
11,040 
11,040 


No.  of 
Arnu. 


IC 
3fi 


Thick  new  in 
Inchea. 


a/10 

18/3* 

16/14  ■ 


ult  of  rim  velocity  for  all  wlie^ls  be  assumed  to  be  HS  ft.  [>er  sec- 
L  to  1  mile  per  minute,  F  =  6000  ibs.,  the  f ormulu  t)ecome8 


f 


<  = 


■47M 


heels  are  made  in  halves  or  in  sectinna.  the  t>ending  strain  may 
I  to  moke  t  greater  than  that  given  above.  Thu»,  when  the  joliiC 
f  way  between  the  armB,  thf  lienciiog  action  i»  sitiillar  to  a  beam 
simply  at  the  ends,  uniformly  luatled,  and  t  \a  50Jt  greater.  Theu 
la  becomes 


V  F>         10-' 


I  mAzlmuni  rim  velocity  of  68  ft.  per  eecoodand  F=  60001be., 
^In  segmental  wheels  it  ifi  preferable  to  bare  the  joints  oppoelte 

rheeto  In  halves,  if  very  thin  rims  aru  to  be  employed,  BboulU 
J  arms  along  the  tine  of  separation, 

D  should  t>e  given  to  the  proportions  ut  iRrRe  receivltiR  nn<l  Hght- 
eys.  The  thicltuess  of  rim  for  a  ■SK-in.  wbe^l  i.sbown  iu  table)  with 
OClty  of  88  ft  per  secootl.  is  15,  IB  in.  Many  wrecks  have  been 
the  failure  of  receiving  or  liKbteuiug  piilli-ys  whose  rims  havebeeic 
Fly-wheels  caleuhit*^  fcjr  a  given  otR^ftleieiit  of  steadiness  are  fre- 
Kbter  than  the  mialiiiuui  .safe  weight.  This  Is  true  t.si)ecIaUy  of 
sis.  A  rouph  guicie  Ui  ttie  rainfmuni  weight  of  wheels  enn  be  tie 
a  our  fonnulae.  Tlie  arms,  huh,  liijfs,  etc,,  asually  form  from  one 
one  third  the  eoiire  weight  of  the  whe«J.  If  l>  represents  the  facn 
in  Inches,  tlie  weight  of  the  rim  icmnBidere*!  as  a  simple  annular 
3e  II'  =  .H2(llh  rbs.  If  the  limit  nf  speed  is  88  ft  per  second,  then 
rbeelii  I  =  0  7ii  -i-  ,V».  Fvr  Heetional  wliet-ls  lioint  heiween  nrmisl 
-  y.  Weight  of  rim  for  wilid  wheels,  "•  =  .^iifh-t-  N*  In  poiiuds. 
rim  in  sectional  wbei'ls<  w  iib  Joints  between  amis,  ic  =  StVCft  -i- 
ids.  Total  weight  of  wht*!:  for  solid  wheel,  W  =  .TCcft  -s-  .V«  to 
i'',  in  pounds.  For  ae^nrnlal  wheels  with  jolat  between  arma, 
'b  -t-  JV'  to  1  3<i'b  ■*-  iv',  in  pounds. 

(ct  is  further  discussed  by  Mr.  Stanwornl,  in  vol.  xv.,  and  by 

lo  Lanza,  in  vol.  xvi..  Trana.  A.  8.  M.  E.) 

len  Rim  Fly>wlieelA  i-iilJt  in  1K91  for  &  pair  of  Corlisa  en- 

AiiioslifU^  MfK.  Co.K  mill.  ?i1aii('heKter,  J{.  M.,  is  described  by 

BginTrau.s.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  liii.tilS.   It  is  .10  ft.  diam.  and  10H  iii.  face. 

I'J  iucbe.s  thick,  and  is  built  up  i<f  44  courses  uf  usli  plank,  'i,  3. 

■  thick,  reduced  about  ^inch  in  dressing;,  set  edgewise,  ao  as  to 
ts.  and  glued  and  bolted  ioj;ecber.  There  are  two  hubs  and  two 
na,  1-  in  eaoii,  all  uf  cotit  iron.    The  weights  are  as  follows; 

t  (calculated) of  nsh  rim 31.BAS    Iha. 

of -M  arms  (touDiiry  45.(m) 40,aW      " 

'■    L>bubs(       ••        3S,(K»> a\.5«\x  * 

MKefe-Ziw /»  flarnis 6M     *' 

fv-icluaiog  bolts  aad  acnwa "   iW.'iW*.  " 


f^rterf  at  Tt  rera.  per  nUn.,  b«ing  a  surtace  spMA 


r 


S24 


THE  STEAX-ENUiyS. 


tf  t'list 


I 


I 


Iilr.   Manning  digciwws  the  ivlalive  saft'iy 
wheels   as   follows:    As   for  sAf^ty,   ili. 
oeseH.  Ih«  hoop  termion  In  Die  rim  per  m 
as  lUe  «v«ii;la  per  cubic  unit :  and  it«  envi 
the  tensile  Rfrength  fj*?r  square  unil;  ihriffu:  < 
by  the  Wfii^lits  will  givf  it-lHlive  <ralut-«  ('f  ■■ 
weiE'iiiiK  -l-'iO  ll'S.  pi?i"  ciiljic  fool  nnd  wilti  it  '■ 
per  Kquare  foot  wt)ttl<l  trive  a  value  i>f  1,1*0,' 
which  the  rim  was  iiinoie,  «e>;hiiijj  M  II*.  fn-i 
Iba.  tensile  HtreHElh  per  miuure  fncil.  irives  a 
ami  !a,mi  ■+-  SiOO  =  10. .W.  or  (he  wood-liniiin-.I  j" 
than  rhecasl-lron  when  the  cavtings  ure  K^h^I-    TIi' 
rimmed  pulley  to  increase  Us  speed  lo  |  I0.5S  =  a.J 
cfl.Bt-iroii  one  witli  eqiinl  wifetv. 

Wooden  Ply-wlieel  o'r  ibe  Wllliiuantle  Llnra  < 

truted  in  i'mcrr,  March,  IS»i.  i— Rim  'J*  ft.  dlnm.,  liu  lu.  fw'e. 
carried  upou  three  oetii  of  anus,  cue  iiudec  the  ceulre  uf  each  brll, 
arms  in  eacli  !<et. 

The  innterial  of  the  rim  iti  ordinary  whltewor-i  '..  in  •„  t\„r\ct:,-u 
secinents  not  exreoriine  4  feet  in  length,  on  ' 
These  were  wsembleil  by  buildlnp  a  oompleii 
»  llli  the  H  liieh  Inside  and  the  .'>-lnch  oiit^i  If    i 
rie  wiih  the  widths  reversed,  bo  as  to  i 
added  was  brushed  over  with  gluo  and  i 

the  pieces  already  in  jKisition.    The  oai      j. .;. 

futinh  thicknesg.  At,  the  eml  of  eacli  uriii  lour  U-iiicIj 
rim.  the  ends  beinp  covered  by  wooden  pluKS|;lued  nnd  ili 
of  the  wheel, 

Wire-ivouiid  Fli'-whcclii  rorExtrrmo  s 
AugtiRl  U,  IHWI.i — The  |H>wer  n  quired  lo  proiliice  'I 

very  large,  varying  from  -Am  (..  lO.tXW  11.1'.,  a.-, 

the  tube.    Since  this  power  Is  only  nesiled  for 

to  4.'j  seconds  lo  convert  a  liar  10  to  VI  ft.  Ion, 

tul)ei.  and  then  some  time  elapws  l>ef.ire  the  i 

12*10  n  P.  pmvideil  wlih  a  large  llywhe<-l  for 

[lower  enoiit;!'  f"r  one  s<-t  of  rolls.    These  tlj  ■ 

such  great  speeds  that  Ibe  ordinary  inelliod  <  i 

followed.     A  wheel  at  the  MannesiiiAliD  Wi'i  l[-  mi,| 

in  the  usual  inanner,  broke  at  a  inngenltnl   '  vm 

*rhe  rty-wlieeU  deslKi'wl  to  hold  at  iiioi  e  Ilia;  .-en 

cast-iron  hub  to  which  two  slei^l  diskK,  ■:■' 

the  circunifeiviice  of  the  wheel  iImi»  foi 

tlildor  a  tension  of  50  lh«.     In  ihn  Man'  „ 

such  a  wheel  inakest  'JM  revolidionii  a  njlnule,  cu< i ta>t<uuULiW  iv  •  fc 

velocity  of  16,06U  ft.  or  ^.S.*)  miles  per  oiinutr. 

THE   SLIDE-VAI.^'K. 

I>«flnltiAnH.—7'>Yii>e<=  total  r 

Tliroirirf  llif  Kccentric  =  eccenn 
centre  of  tile  T>littft  to  the  centre  I'l 
yalve.    (8onie  wrltej-g  n»e  the  term  •■  thf 
the  valve.) 

Lnp  o/  the  rvr/tv.  also  calle<l  ntitfHde  Ian  or  nr«ni-lnp  = 
or  steam  edge  of  the  valve  exiHinlti  l.iyond  or  laps  over 
the  p'>rt  when  the  valve  Is  lu  lli«  lenlrol  |>o«itlon 


/njinfe  fa; 
valve  ex(.  1 
valve  lf»  11 
even    nxK 
valv 
lUfl 
/ 


nr  ■xhwff.h 


'UTaiiT  ilie   tnni-r 


*ni'-liitM>s  i-iill.-*l 


"xhaasi  nUi 
hd  port 

'  •*•  iim4i 
'I    the  Ml 

•  klLttUtf  dM 


■t  •Iu«., 


\k»A  wh«o 


Voice. 


THE  SLIDE-VALVB. 


825 


nice.  If  til*  piston  begins  Ha  ■troke  before  tht  Bdmiulon  of 
iuk  the  valve  issalil  to  have  ii«patlTr  lead,  and  Its  amount  is  the 
e^fSf  n(  the  vAl*e  over  the  ed^  of  the  port  at  thn  iiiiilant  wben 
St  r<jk«<  begins. 

rie  =  the  aiiffle  tliroiiKh  which  the  focentric  must  be  rotated  l« 
rttMP  edge  to  travel  frum  its  central  position  the  iltolanoe  of  the 

■  rtrlv  iiiri>  nt  tbe  eccentrjc  =  Inp-antrle  )  lend  nnisle. 

nlf',111,;'  -  )Hp+  lea''. 

of  L.&P,  VemAf  ete.,  npoii  the  Ktenm  Dlntrlbntlon.  - 

t-  travel  m^  in..  Iiip  i^  io..  leaii  1/\6  in.,  •xliauatlap  ^  in,  re- 
iik  |)oailioii  for  (iiliuissiou,  c-uiofT.  relviiKi-  imd  ciiiiipresiitan.  and 
»<krt-o})eiiiu^.  (H'tlH«5'  on  ^liile  vulve  Oeiim.)  I'Mnw  a  cii'cle  of 
fh  =  iruvcl  of  valve.  From  O  the  oiMiii*'  wi  <i(I  tki  =.  lap  and  tilt 
'ect  ptTpendlRiilnrx  Oe,  nr,  feci;  IIikii  ef.  in  tlir  Inp-nnu'le  and  cd  the 
«,  inenBiirml  hk  aruii.  Set  oft  /go.  cd,  llic  It-aa-aiiKle.  then  Off  ia 
in  of  the  crunk  fur  iitetini  iiiluiiiHiion.  Svt  <>IT  icr  ^-  rri  fn>m  /i  to  I'i 
tile  crnnkanKle  for  cut  off.  andfk-t-fh  in  llie  fmctlon  of  gtroke 
I  at  ciit-ofT.  Set  off  Oi  =  exhnuHtlap  and  draw  Im:  nu  ia  the 
ip  angle.  K<^t  off  Ak  =  *<'  t  i-it  -  em.  and  On  Ih  the  poallioa  of 
vleaae.  Set  off  /p  «  w  +  rrf  +  ewt,  and  (>/>  Ib  the  potHiion  of  oruik 
^rasion,  fct  -*■  fhiti  the  fraction  of  stroke  conipletr-d  at  releaae.  and 
I  t>ie  frni^liriii  nf  Ibt*  I'etiim  stroke  I'oinplettKl  wiien  L-omprenaiOti 
A,  the  lliriiw  of  lht>  rocentrir,  minim  ^>a  IIih  lap,  «^ualii  ah  the 
>  port-openiiiij. 
■btM  neither  Up  nor  lead,  lh«  line  JoiniiiK  the  centre  of  ibe  •ooen- 


('  Cut-ol 


Via.  146. 

the  cetitrn  of  Ui4f  thatt  lifittg  at  rJKht  anfcWs  lo  \\\«  \\\>«  ol  tt*' 

0nr'"'-  ••  '■'"■■'  (■../i-.ir  mil  stroke,  adiiiiiifiioii  of  etebin  Xjfci^t^V*"*  "  "' 
"■'■  '  en'""*?"*  Iheend  of  thr  slroVw.. 

' . .      .  '  ■*  "»  'o  L-iiC  off  sl«aiu  beCortt  IkM 

1....^  '."^^  ad^a;^t^\VThe''?^iSk£S°X^ 


826 


THfi  Sl'EAM-ENQINE. 


''<tol 


-  ttol 
.-tW 


before  lap  was  adde<1,  and  adTancitiK-  it  a  flirthpr  »ri..iiint  iviiiil  in  iW  l| 
anele  causes  i<tpam  to  be  admitted  before  the  t'  ^«» 

Having  (fiTen  lap  to  tlie  valve,  and  havinR  u 
■haft  from  Its  central   poKi'timi  ot  riRbt  nnsle- 
au^ular  advance  =  lap-aii);le  and  lead-anKle,   Ihc   ( 
cut-off.  release  or  exIiaiiKt-openini;.   and  coniprefsi.  i 
lake  place  as  follows;  AdnilsKinn,  when  tlie  irranW  I 
having  reached  the  centre;  cut-oiT,  when  the  crank  In 
one   lead-aof^le   of   having   reached    the  centre.     FVii 
steam  the  crank  turns  through  a  seniicircia  less  t«  i 
greatest  port-opeuin^  is  equal  !■)  half  the  travel  of 
Therefore  for  a  (riven   port -opening   the  travel  of     ' 
creased  if  the  lap  is  incren.sed.     When  exhaiixt-im.  ! 
delays  Uie  o|>eniii(;  of  the  exhaust  and  hasiei; 
rotation  equal  tn  the  exhaust- lap  angle,  wbicti 
the  eccentric  rutates  fmni  its  middle  position  w  !, 
valve  uncovers  its  lap.     Releniw  then  takes  place  »).- 
lap-an^rle  and  one  ieadangte  ndnu»>  one  exhaust-lap  ,>i 
the  centre,  and  eoninressibn  when  the  crank  lacks  Inj 
exhaust  lap  anxle  or  having  reached  the  ceJitre. 

The  above  ili:icus.sion  of  the  relative  position  of  the  eratilE.  p***j 
valve  for  the  different  iKiints  of  the  stroke  ia  accurate  only  »iih»<>«^l 
ine-rod  of  indnite  lengtli. 

For  actual    conneetinff-rods    the  aoKUlar  position   of   the  n"i  «■ 
distortion  of  the  position  of  the  valve,  causioK  the  events  1"  ink/-  lit^ 
late  in  tlie  forward  stroke  and  too  earlv  in  the  retn' 
this  distortion  may  be  accointjlislied  t  •  some  extent 
as  to  give  equal  lead  on  hotn  forward  and  return  >': 
.  the  exhnust-lap  on  one  end  so  as  u>e<|UHliz«  iherelea.^*'  ■• 
\  T.  A.  Halsey.  in  his  Slide-valve  Gears.  deHcribes  a  tneihinl  - 
cut-off  without  at  the  same  time  affectinic   ili''  ••'j>inBrv 
deniKninij- slide-valves  the  effect  of  angularity  I  ■ 
be  •itridierl  fin  the  drnwirig-lMtard,  and  preferaK. 
Sweet's  ValTO'-dlaKrain.— To  And  nut^i 
for  different  cut-offs  and  iMmpresBiotia  (see  Fig.  ilZi:  Uiaii  a  divl'  ** 


I'OT 


Fw.  I  IT.— Sweet's  ValTc-diaKTUa. 

diameter  equals  travel  of  valve.    Drnwr  illsineter  BA  attJl  f»wli«i»<j 
HO  that  the  length  AA'  b«ara  the  sojne  ratio  tn  Xd  m»  the  keMtii  of  ^"^ 
ing-rod  doM  to  leoKth  of  engine-crank.    Draw  small  clfrl>««lf 
eter  equal  to  lead.    Ij»t  off  .t'""  s^  ilmi   iMii.i  ^.f  .tc  19    " 
parts  of  the  stroke      I  ' 

araw  XS  perpendiculn 
To  And  release  ami 
through  X  parallel  to  f'/        /-iiMl  ^■n.il    h.'  | 
a;ifl  compression.    If  there  \*  an  »v»\Ae\ftv,'ii. 
niffius  .ri' equals  Inside  la\i      Viv  >».  Hi;  vut.v 

■:;  thfn  H  and   1. 

7A'»od,U«.th. 

«iav«,Ma<^  \a *•<»«•»•  ^*I  ™» 


THE  SLIDE-VALVK. 


827 


POTEk  end  of  valv«i.  To  determine  tltk  amount,  rhrouRh  it  with 
TfSf  =  AA*.  draw  arc  if  P.  from  Priraw  FT  pen*nillciilar  to  AB. 
f  in  die  anioiiiit  lo  be  lUJ'lvd  to  insidt*  t.'ip  on  vrAuk  i*iid.  and  to  be 
d  from  inside  lap  »in  back  end  of  valve,  inside  lap  bein^  XY, 
If  WiVwKiiii  I'lilvr  fiiiKtyiim.  8«-e  HqIshv  on  Slide-valve  Gears. 
Z«uncr  Valve-diagram  i,s  Kiven  in  iiiohC  ■>(  the  \Turks  on  the 

r,  and  iu  truati!>e8  ou  valve-gears,  as  ZeunrrV,  I'eabodjr'H,  and 


Flo.  IJB.— Zeuner's  Valve-dlaKrara. 

^1.    The  rollowiiiK  iHeuudrndiHl  from  Hultnes  on  (he  Rteam-en^ne: 
a  a  circle,  with   radiUN  (>A  eijiial   lo  the  half  travel  of  the  valve, 
'nieagureoff  OB  equal  to  the  oiUHlde  lap,  and  BC  equal  to  the  lead, 
be  crank-pin   occupies   the  dead  centiv  A,  the   valve   has  already 
to  the  riirht  of  its  central  ponition  hy  Ihe  space  <)H-\-  BC    From  O 
le  perpendicular  CE  and  join   OK.    Then  will  OE  lie  the  position 
d  bv  llie  line  j'^Inin^  the  cenlie  of  the  eeeentric  with  the  centre  of 
ikeliaft  ot  the  eoninieiicement  of  iho  mrnUe.     On   ihe  line  0£  aa 
rr  describe   the  i-ln:Ie  QCK;  then  any  clinnls,  as  Of.  OK,  Of',  Will 
Bt  the  K|iaces  travelled  hy  the  valve  from  it.s  central  position  when 
ak-plij  occupieu  respecllvely  the  positlun.-i  opposite  to  D.  E.  and  F. 
)be  port  is  opene<l  al  all  (he  valve  niu&t  linve  moved  from  it«  central 
1^  an  amount  equal  to  the  lap  OB.     Hence,  to  obtain  the  »pace  by , 
port  is  opened,  subtract  from  each  of  the  arcH  Ot.  OE.  etc., 
tX  to  OB     This  id  represented  graphically  by  describing  froml 
circle  with  radhig  equnl  to  the  hip  OH  \  then  the  iipaceA  fr.  gE, ' 
lied  between  tie  cjrcniiiA'fiHnces  of  the  lap-<_-irc\e  HJf'  &o&  >3ti»  j 
'(?r/.:  Mill  eive  the  exifnt  to  which  the  stfam-povl  W  oveneA. 
•rli  the  char  I  Ok  la  ci)Uilii0l\   to  bm\\  TaV^«  I      '  " 
■  the  raVve  /  aj5  moved  to  the  rlRht  li?  the  I 
"-riily  June  on  the  point   of  oueuiniz  v»>e»- 

vupiea  tut  poalUoa  OH,  aud  while  tlie  portion  HA 


398 


iiUon  lUII  remalni  to  be  acc(iiiiiil>.>li»-.i 
sitlon  A.  tliKt )»  to  SA.r.  at  t! 
jv»Ar  o|>eii>fLl    by  tbe  spao- 
Dint  forward  (ill  the  crank  '►■  ■  i 

,  but  when  the  crank  is  at  <>t^  Ui<r  tai' 


-anwM  af  Uw 
BC.emUeS  !■• 
xwuica  OMVm 
re  lm»  reanlMO  U» 


Ita  Ir&yel  to  tlie  rlBhl,  uiiii  then  comuM-iuses  torptnm 
iltlon  Oh't\im  ed^  of  the  valve  just  corvra  the  slraB-|«tt, 

by  the  chord  (>t^',  bt-iii^  again  common  to  both  Up  aftd  ralta 
wlicn  thB  crank  occupii^s  the  position  OF  tbe  cnt-olf  ■»>» 
kteatit  coiiiineuu«*R  to  expAiid,  mid  eontiuues  to  do  sa  tiB  tW 
Tor  the  relurn  slioke  the  Kteam  iiort  opens  a^^aiu  at  ^ 

There  remains  tht>  ••xhaiist  (o  )v^  cineidered.    Wbcs  iJieHM' 
Tceiitres  of  th«  wicfntrlc  and  crank-shaTt  (iviiDi-^^  tL--  ii-« 
OO  at  rlittit  an^le)^  to  tbt"  hnp  of  dead  coo' 
rixlit  Hii^les)  to  OE  ;  ami  as  OP  does  n.-r 
valve  occupies  its  central  poeitioii.  and  •>  ■ 
amount  of  the  Inside  lap.    The  crank  uv: 
an  an^^ular  diBlance  that  its  line  of  dire<" 
tim  valvBt-ircle  OAT  equal  in  len^^th  to  Hi- 
opened  to  the  ezlianKt     This  point  la  .> 
manner  aa  for  the  outside  lap,  namely,  t  ' 
with  •  radius  equal  to  the  icKide  lap;  ii 

Ifleure.    Where  tnlB  circle  internectis  tiie  t 
Which  show  the  positions  of  the  crank  v> 
during  each  reToliilion.    Th'.is  at  V  "i^  ^" 
of  the  piHton  which  we  liave  b««u  constdeiiu,.:,  \v  liiir 
and  eoinfir«88lijii  eoniim-neeii  and  conlinueg  till  tb' 
mitted  at  H. 

ThoB  the  diagram  enstdeg  us  to  narertain  tbf 
when  each  critical  operutinu  of  the  valve  tak<  - 
these  operations  of  one  side  of  (hi-  piston,  we  ) 
the  coniniencenient  of  the  stroke  nt //.     Al  tii. 
already  o|)eni'd  by  tho  amount  HO.    At  E  i\< 
TBlve  has  reached  one  end  of  Its  irnvel.   At  F  si  • 
adiuhislon  Ingled  from  H  to  F.    At  F  valve  occiipir 
ports  ar«  closed  both  to  sleain  and  exbaiMt,     At  V  ■' 
«)uently  expajiaion  latited  from  >'ta  Q.     At  K  enhaii-i 
extent,  and  valve  reached  the  end  <if  Ita  travel  to  ihr  l.fL     Ai  (>'  ■  ••* 
closed,  and  coiiipregalon  tM-giiiK  and  cootinuea  till  iliefrenh  iiiiiaui  !•  ■><■ 
at  //. 

Probukm.— The  simplest  problem  which  oo  i 
the  lengtli  of  throw,  the  anple  of  advance,  of  i 
the  valve,  find  the  uiiKles  of  Hie  i^rank  at  whii 
cut  off  and  the  exhaust  opened  and  olo(»e<J.  I" 
the  half  travel  of  the  vnlve  or  the  throw  of  tin 
of  advance  with  the  jierpendicuinr  ('G.     Pi  .hI, 

I  a*  diaiiietern  describe  tho  two  valvi' 
the  Kiven  laim  diMcribe  tlio  outlaid-' 
oei-'irou  of  Uiew  circles  with  the  t«. 
the  liiien  OH.  OF,  OU,  and  OR  can  Ir-  dr.iwn      Tl"--''  lo,.  ■. 
|MiHiiionH  of  iitu  cianlc. 
Kiimeroii^  other  prohlema  will  lie  found  In  Itoluiv^  ■m  i 
liM-lndinK  priMeins  in  valve-Mittlnic  and  n 
ipr.-im  ('I  Itiik  iiidtloii  and  loilie  Meyer  vji: 
Port  Op«"Uln|r. --The  urea  uf  p.irt  .1 

Ituciiy  uf  the  »teuiii  in  paKsini{  IhruUKh  It  sIi.miI.I  i,,,i 
The  ratio  of  |M)rl  area  to  pMon  an>a  will  Oieu  vary  v 
follow.^ 
l''o<'|-'  '"*■•<     11m   «an   MA   MO   Guo 


(' 


Hon 


'..11,1 
ion  (. 


IQO 


«io  aoo  400 

.(M  .OB   .007 


oiT  .OH*  .OS  .007  jam  ..    

f(ir  •  »eliKll)f  uf  0000  U.  VWT  tnln  , 


TEE    SLIDK-VALVE. 


829 


Wkllli  tit  <>xljrkust  port  —  wUth  jt  tUMa  purl  + 

wldlli  of  1irl<lge. 
Kin  PealxHly's  ValvM-K«sarM,»-  Tln»  load,  or  llie  amount  iti»* 
kn  when  tbo  •■mkIhk  U  on  ii  dratl  iwiiir,  variei,  «ith  tliu  type 
ifUKiifi,  from  a  very  8iniill  amoiiiil.  ori^ven  notljing,  up  Ui  |£ 
•or<-.  Btiil.loiii«ry-i'iieliiKi«  niniiiiii;  ui  hUiw  sp»«cl  may  havu 
|t)  ilU'li  !ea<l,  Tht-  pITtHTt  of  eaiii|inw«|oD  la  to  till  tb»  ir«l<» 
Jld  i.<f  titi' cyliiiilor  with  xteaiii;  c-onseqiifrilly,  rn^'ines  having 
IkIiiii  iiveit  ieSK  leAd  Lxjuxmolivo^nuinfa  liadUK  (lir  valveii 
rtlie  oriiinriiy  form  of  HlMfihcnuon  lipk-rnotinn  may  have 
BHii  ruuiiiuK  Klowly  iiu'i  with  hIi>ii<;  cut  off,  hiil  when  BtMXfat 
it-olT  t)ie  l»ail  Is  at  least  l-^  liicli:  and  lot'oniotivew  that  l]ii«-e 
leli  Kives  uonstant  lead  eoniiiKiiiiy  have  U  Inch  le/til.  The 
pe  aiiKlr:  lh<!  oratilc  iiinki-s  wlih  the  Uao  of  dead  puhib  at 
[may  vary  from  «)"  to  »". 

tlid,— W''l*li'ich  ivul.  ii-  p.  296)  sayn:  FKiMrlinent  Khowsthnt 
Mdoj^  i>f  Iho  Hxitau^^t  i^itrts  i<4  esptvially  of  advuntajdre.  and  iti 
^  rtiii  l<*ail  of  tliK  valve  li|Kin  the  iild<<  of  the  rxhaiist.  or  ihn 
g/i5  to  1/15:  !.■■..  ihe  Hlide-vrilvi?  at  ibe  lowe-^t  or  hliihest  ixi»l- 
tcn  bail  iiiudf  an  oi»-niu^'  nhus>-  hci^lit  is  [/a  tn  l/l.'i  of  tliu 
f  tlic  slide  valve.  Tln^  iiutdidM  lead  of  lilt-  slide-viilvi- or  tlio 
Katti  siiie,  on  Ihn  oilier  hand,  i^i  iniicli  aniAllMi',  and  is  often 
he  whult!  throw  of  the  valve, 


pev 


'CI>*pf2mi  Oalaide  I<tip,  lu*l|lr  Lap,  TniTel 
and  JtoKnlur  Advanva.    iThuj>tun> 


Ener. 
inper 
Iter, 
hn  a)  to  red 


Expansion 


occurs  <-arIIer, 

roniiuuesloi>i;er 

l)«(;l"s  as  Ixiforv, 

i-uiiliiitie^hinger 

beeina  Inter, 

eetisfrs  sooner 

hcRins  soi'Der, 

par.  th«  nanw 


Exiioiist 


is  tiiicliaiiKed 

ooourf  laipr, 

L-t!a»«  earlier 

liepins  later, 

ceatses  luter 

hejflns  earlier, 
fier.  »ncl<anK<'d 


Cotnprttwloii 


lie(flii-(  at 

pnnie  iKiint 

Ite^Iim  wionei*. 

CiiUlinii«>ilifnj<i-r 

l>e|[inH  fuiei', 

eudB  KooDel' 

li«lflnK  earlier, 
[I  T.  the  Kann* 


jibe  Mloti-irie  relations  iWeisUaL-li-Oubulu,  vol.  ii.  p.  aOTi; 
d  of  valve,  p  —  iiiaxliiiiiiii  poit  opeidn;;: 
|)>-lap,  t  =  e.xiiuuKt-la|i; 

«riteain-lap  to  half  travel  = 


I 


/.  =  ^XS5 


of  exhauHt  lap  to  half  tr»v»*l  =r  -  — ,    i  =  -  X  flj 


,^ip+ili  +  S; 


9  -  -*'' 


r 

tWOf  b^tireen  txMitloiiR  of  ci-aolc  at  admlmion  And  at  tjutotr, 
H  ^  s  aiiKlu  QOR  hetirtien  positions  of  crunlt  at  release  and  at 
.1  r.        ,,8ill<IH0"  -  a)  ..slnilW  - /J 

BpreiK  ou,  then  K  =  li .     t-         ;    c  =  H- -. — p-^ — •, 

6111  Ha  sin  >iJ3 

Lap  and  or  Port-o|»«ulne  to  Talve-traTel.-The 

lai.KlviUK  Ibe  i^lioof  lap  to  travel  of  valve  and  ratio  of  travel 
ft,  iB  al>rid[;ed  fioni  oua  (Hven  by  Buel  in  VVi'i8baeh'nulioi.<<, 
ticiilateil  from  the  above  forimilie.  IntJTinecJInte  values  limy 
f  forinulB),  or  with  KiifTii-i«iit  aeciirnoy  l>y  Inierpolaiioti  frum 
the  talde.  By  lite  tablH  on  pu^e  MaO  the  i;rank-an(?le  inuy  l>« 
,  the  auitle,  oetmien  its  |>o»itioii  when  the  eoKvne  l«  o«  ^V\6 
futtilthiii  m  nil. lift,  release,  or  coiiivreBiiitilk.  w\n"n  \.\\«»«  >!><» 

■' '  ■••   fitroki'.    To  liluairatK  tbo  use  of    IW  t»W.-<i  Wv 

;,  .  iiy  Ittwl:  Hidili  of  pun  =  S.-^ni  ;  w 

•   ('■3   "J  ;    over  ove<-lrave\  =  *.&  ' 

%  io^.    truai  tht)  flrsi  tabic  we  fttwi  craa 


THE  STBAM'ENOUTE. 


830 


add  leail-uiKle.  makiog  ISi.S.*    From  the  wvond  tabl«.  Fof  m 

Riaskm  aaJ  cut-off,  TA*.  wt^  hare  rado  of  traTei  t" 
or  lSl.t°  =  3.T4.  which.  multiplM^  by  port-opvi 
el.    The  ratio  of  lap  t*>  travel,  by  the  ibI.i--.  i~  .^^- 
t/p,.    For  exhau!it-lap  we  h«»e,  for  if 
iMtd-anglr  ]0=  =  iei.3=.     From  the  g^ 
p  to  iraTel  =  .Uell,  and  .Ocai  x  tf.45  ^ 

Lap-aiigl«  =  U  <1B0*  —  lead-angle  —  crank-angle  at  cut-i^lT) 

=  jjnso*  -  10  -  )u.6»  =  sr.r*. 

Angular  advance    =  lap-aueie  x  lead -angle  =  ST.*  -f  10  =  S7.T*. 
£xbau»t  lap- angle  =  crank-anele  at  rvlrasr  -f-  Lap-anglti  +  lead-r  ~ 

=  151.3  -J-  er.T  +  10  -  ISC  =  9*. 
Crank-angle  at  com- 1 
presioo  meosorad  ■  =  180*  -  lap-aoi^s  -  lead-angle  —  i 
oo  return  strnka     ) 

=  180  -  37.7  -  10  -  «  =  ISS.S*  ;  OOP 
table,  to  a  piston  podtiaa  of  .81  of  tta«  return  stroke;  or 
Crank-anglis  at  oaaxpttmioa  =  liU*  —  langle  at  releane  -  autlr  al  I 

+  lead- angle-. 
=  180  -  (151.3-  in.ti]-(- 10  =  inr 

The  positions  det«nnlii«d  aliove  for  cut-off  and  relni^-  nr--  T  ■<  'ht  t 
stroke  of  the  piston.     On  the  return  stroke  the  cut-^  silM 

the   same    angle.  114.6*.    correspoudiiig    by    table    t.  ■  Ht 

siruke,  iDStead  uf   7!<.    By  a  slight  aajustinent  of    i  •'*< 

and  the  length  of  the  e<.vei>lriu    rod  tu«  cut-ofl   ean    hr  <'>|i!.iliieil  1 
width  of  the  bridge  should  be  at  leajit  i.%  +  il.Ji  -  j.'.'  ^  0  .U  in 

CiWBk  Anelea  for  Connectlns^roda  of  DIffereBt  L«ifll| 


I 


•fell 

■ill 

Rado  of  Length  of  ConuecUng  rod  to  Length  of  Stt«kr. 

9 

ta 

S 

SM 

« 

»  J 

For. 

Bet. 

FW. 

Bet. 

For. 

Bet. 

For. 
'io!7 

Bet. 

1C.4 

For. 
108 

Ret. 

H'n 

.01 

10.3 

188 

*10.5 

ia.8 

lo.aj  12. « 

.OS 

14.6 

18.7 

14.0 

18.1 

15.1    17.8 

15.8 

17.5 

19.8 

17.^ 

.03 

17.» 

sa.d 

18. « 

e.g 

18.6 

81.8 

18.7 

81.5 

18,8 

n 

.0( 

so.r 

se.s 

«l.l 

25,7 

«,4 

85  8 

81.6 

«49 

81.8 

94  • 

.«5 

SB.-.' 

£9.6 

sa.8 

88.7 

«.o 

tB.8 

«  8 

ST. 8 

84.4 

K  t 

.10 

8S.1 

41.9 

33.8 

40.8 

84.8 

40.1 

S4  6 

ao.e 

M.I 

m.': 

.15 

41 

51.5 

41.9 

Bo.a 

484 

48.3 

48,9 

48.7 

48.8 

48. .< 

.30 

48 

50.6 

48.9 

S8.» 

49.6 

67.8 

W.I 

60.6 

«04 

a<  . 

.IS 

M.a 

00.9 

5fi.4 

es.4 

B«.l 

«4.4 

£«.« 

<8.7 

67.0 

an 

_,, .,.  _ 

.ao 

au.s 

73.6 

61.5 

7S.0 

68.3 

71.0 

68.8 

7V.8 

«88 

m.6 

«.»•'; 

.as 

M.l 

708 

67.8 

78.8 

68.1 

7T.J 

68.8 

n.« 

«at 

W.I 

w.iai 

H^      .40 

n.7 

86.8 

78.0 

84.3 

78.9 

83.3 

74.9 

K.6 

78.0 

mt< 

-^  •  *> » 

■      .45 

77.2   91  5 

78.8 

90.1 

79.6 

89.1 

80.8 

884 

80.7 

m-' 

■       .50 

82.8  ir  a 

M  8 

957 

8S« 

94.8 

8S.9 

94.1 

86  4 

»' 

■       .55 

W  5  v^>  ■'■  «-^  ''■  '■■'    • 

"■^  "  VXt.4 

91.6 

90.8 

K  '    '■" 

■       .00 

»>.■: 

»1.I 

97.4 

106.5 

» 

■       .05 

WO.-.                                                 1.9.108.4 

m.s 

ton 

■       -^ 

|(Jrt..-ri;,.  .                                  T.8.10a.7 

117.8 

no  . 

■        ■'^ 

11.1. 1  Lift  .                                     .  1  9  1I6.S 

lffi.4 

lie 

■      .80 

r.>o.4  las                           :>.4!i«a.4 

189.9 

VS". 

■^       89 

ra  M»   ,1. ^   .  .-■  .  .11  eisi  3 

l«7.I 

131 

_    -W 

i.w.ijue  a 

LoyuM-ri 

\\t\  hi  AW  .ttA'a  .W>!>  -^^^ 

^■M|JI90.4IISU 

■m 

^^^HiB'Sy^^^^^^^H' 

^^^^Hm^^^^^^^B                  \<j« 

^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^Ln  . 

.  ■'"■■- 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^■■u     '*-* 

«w    ,v»    .v*» 

_V^JM 

^ 

THE  SLIDE-VALVE. 


83f 


Hlotiona  of  Croas-head  and  Crank.— If  L  =  length 

stitiiig-rotl,  R  =  len^h  of  crank,  9  =  an^te  of  t^rank  nlih  centre  line 
le,  O  =  disploceiueiit  of  orois-liead  from  the  begiuiiiOK  of  its  stroke, 


H,           D^R(1 

-  COS  9)  + 

L- 

l^i"  -  /P  Hin'  ». 

t 

E>ap 

and  Travel  ofTalre, 

%4 

o  i 

Sofe's 

^ 

°s 

a'ceg 

•s 

Sg 

1 

a 

II 

ills 

1 

2 

>  ? 

3j  a  fl  ^ 

3| 

b 

Sc 

a 

a  o 

*%  S 

dO 

rii  -3 

^5 

"  c  .a  3!  B 

5 

^5 

^ 

t:^ 

1    OH 

^>^ 

=i  !ilii 

o£ 

|5J 

1'  =S 

< 

p 

< 

r 

.4830 

M.70 

8S» 

.3BSe 

7.111 

\2&' 

.1913 

3.24 

.4700 

43  K 

60 

.8636     G.8.3    1 

1-10 

.1710 

3.01 

.4609 

33.17 

OS 

.3378 

6.17 

145 

1504 

2.«6 

.46IS 

20.27 

IW 

.%!H 

5.C0 

ISO 

ISM 

a. 70 

.45:« 

21  34 

1105 

.3044 

5.11 

1S5 

.1082 

2. 86 

.4435 

17.70 

no 

.8868 

4.69 

IGO 

.0868 

■iA-i 

.4.'3aO 

14.93 

115 

.3687 

4.33 

lOTi 

.0653 

2.30 

.4217 

12.77 

VJQ 

.2500 

4.00 

170 

.04S6 

2.19 

.4096 

11.06 

las 

.8309 

3.72 

175 

.<W18 

2.09 

.3987 

B.S8 

130 

S113 

8.4b 

180 

oooo 

2.00 

.tsao 

8.SS 

I 


IOD8  OP  ADmiSSION,  OR  CITI^^FF,  FOR  VARIOVS 
L.APS  AND  TRAVei^S  OF  SLIDB-VALVES. 

wo  following  tallies  are  from  Clark  On  the  Stentn  engine.  In  the  first 
■e  (riven  the  periods  of  ailmisaion  correspondiup  to  trftveis  of  valve 
I  13  In.  to  2  in.,  and  laps  of  from  2  In.  to  ^  in.,  with  l^  in.  aiiil  %  in.  of 
IVich  grBOter  leads  than  those  tabulated,  the  8t«aui  would  be  cut  oft 
tbtixt  as  shown  iu  the  table. 

nfluence  of  a  lead  of  h/K  io.  for  travels  of  from  19^  in  to  6  in.,  and 
from  Mln.  to  1^  in.,  as  calculated  Cor  in  ||ie  second  table,  Is  exhibited 
PArisoD  of  tbo  periods  of  admissiOD  in  Cht  table,  for  the  same  lap  and 
The  (greater  lead  shortens  the  period  of  adiniKsioo,  and  iocreases  llie 
or  ezpaogive  working. 

'da  of  Admlaalon.  or  Points  of  Cnt^oO*,  for  tilTen 
Travel*  and  Lapn  of  Sll4«-T«lTpn. 


Periods  of  Admission,  or  Points  of  Ctitotr,  for  the  following; 

1 

Laps  of  Valves  in  inches. 

2 

J« 

IM 

iM 

1 

% 

» 

H 

« 

H 

In. 

« 

* 

% 

i 

t 

% 

t 

% 

« 

i 

1 

08 

90 

93 

9» 

96 

97 

98 

m 

99 

U9 

\ 

88 

87 

SO 

93 

95 

96 

OT 

98 

98 

eg 

\ 

78 

78 

a4 

fi8 

03 

94 

ua 

93 

98 

OP 

SO 

S3 

71 

79 

»6 

t«9 

01 

91 

BS 

HT 

'1  1 

43 

50 

m 

77 

85 

BU 

91 

94 

90 

»7 

■  i  , 

fti 

47 

6J 

78 

82 

BS 

m 

»2     \    %    \    "JT. 

A    J    N    /    as    1    5!    1    66    I 

7« 

63 

87    \   ao    \   «V   \  'A. 

M   L /    IT    1    39     f    S7     f     72 

78 
71 

«3     \    Bft     ',    »• 
70     \    &*     \ 

S  ....::..!:..  «  /  f    g 

r^"7fv.v,f ;:;/.-.    ^ 

61     1    71     V    7a    \ 

44          57     \    70    \ 

' ' / f \ 

aa  \  *4  \ 

^_      THE  SLIDE-VALVE. 

1 

Cut-off 
.J5     ..■»  „TS     JTS.IO       .«           .50              .W                .60 
1        f      1        1     t          t             1                /                  / 

B33^ 

J      f    / 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

J 

1 

3 
« 

.80 

.85             ' 

1 

itjr 

f 

1 

i 

/ 

J 

/ 

/     / 

1 

1 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/    / 

/ 

y 

1 

i 

/ 

/ 

J 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

f 

/ 

/ 

f 

f 

\  1 

/ 

i 

f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

J 

f 

/; 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

J 

T^ 

/ 

/ 

/  F  / 

1 

1 

/ 

i 

f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

'  / 

1 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

\h 

1 

/ 

f 

/ 

J 

f 

/ 

y 

/ 

III 

/ 

f 

1 

/ 

/ 

J 

/ 

/ 

'// 

/ 

1 

f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

Hi 

f 

1 

/ 

L 

0 

/ 

/ 

/ 

I 

1 

. 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

7/ 

/ 

/ 

V 

/ 

/ 

/ 

.if 

/ 

/// 

' 

/ 

^ 

f 

J 

/ 

/ 

y 

y 

// 

/ 

> 

/ 

/ 

V 

/ 

1 

/ 

/^ 

A 

/ 

/ 

z' 

/^ 

/ 

/ 

,/ 

/ 

y 

/// 

/ 

/ 

/ 

y 

' 

y 

y 

i^ 

y 

//^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

ff 

y 

> 

y 

" 

X 

^'i? 

/ 

'' 

/ 

/ 

y 

y 

-^ 

^ 

^ 

^^/ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

/ 

y 

y 

y 

x 

ff 

y/. 

/ 

y 

/ 

ft 

y 

y 

y 

^ 

// 

/ 

/^ 

^ 

y 

f' 

y 

<^y 

^ 

^. 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^^ 

>: 

> 

,«'' 

^/-^ 

2                         3                          i 
Xaxlmum  Steam  Port  opening  In  Incliea. 
OlAaRAM  FOR  SLIDE  VALVES.                            ^ 

1 

motton,  f^mpMWMiim  r^e,.  »n4  «<mi  h&  «fr«el#<l  ^mif«IK 
vttlve  lin«  Imh'u  wt  as  aocurotely  bh  iioBsible  whfii  cold,  t 
ih<*  fitiwarrl  uiid  return  strokes  l:M>iu^  pqimllstHj,  indfcaV 
IxMnkcii  niiil  tlu-  l>>nKth  of  tti^ecccntric-rod  adjusted. 

To  Pnl  an  Knglne  on  Its  Centre.— Place  j 

tloii  wlii?iu  (he  piitliiii  wilt  have  Dearly  coin|il>iled  its 
o|ipu6ila  some  point  on  the  cross -head,  such  as  a  com! 
tlie  Kiiitle.  Aik'iiiiiHi  ilin  rim  of  the  pulley  or  i-rank-ilial 
mark  a  line  Mil  hit  on  tli^  pulley.  Then  turn  Lbeeu^iM 
the  CI  i>sfi  head  l*  a^nin  in  the  sAine  posiiion  on  its  iDW 
hriiiK  the  crank  OS  much  heioH-  the  ct^ntre  as  it  wosaboi 
|»uiiler  III  the  name  iKwition  as  before  make  a  second 
rim.  Divide  llie  dislniice  between  the  niniks  in  two  ( 
i)»nnt.  Turn  Ihe  euRini'  until  llie  poiuter  in  opposite  t 
It  will  then  b"  pii  lis  centre.  To  aroid  the  error  tliM 
lo»Kenes.s  of  crank-pin  and  wrist-pin  bearing,  the  eng 
a  little  above  the  centre  and  then  be  biouKht  up  to  it, 
will  PICKS BgaiiiFit  the  Han>e  brans  that  il does  when  tli 
nindo. 

Llnk-molion.— Link-motlonE.  of  which  the  SI 
nit>(.t  ciMiniKiiil^*  iiseil,  aredeslgned  for  two  purpoKeK;  1 
motion  of  the  cnf^ine,  and  necond.  for  varyinptlie  poia 
Ihe  travel  of  the  valve.    The  Stephenson  link  inotloi 
two  eccentrics,  called  the  forwani  and  back  ecc«utrio» 
iiiK  the  extreineties  of  Iho  ecceutic-rods;  so  that  by  va 
the  link  the  valve  rod  may  be  put  in  direct  conneciioD 
or  may  lie  given  a  iiioveinent  controlled  in  part  by  one 
other  eccentric,    When  the  link  is  moved  by  the  reveral 
tlon  such  that  the  block  to  which  the  valve-roil  is  attac] 
of  the  link,  Ihe  valve  receives  it-s  DiaSlmum  travel,  ani 
nild-Reiir  the  travel  in  the  least  and  cut-off  takes  plaa 

In  the  ordinary  8hirtin(;-liuk  with  open  rods,  that  U, 
of  ilii«  valve  increaseM  an  th^  link  Ik  uioved  from  ftill  to 
the  iierioil  uf  steam  admission  is  tihorlenixl.  Th«i  varfa 
lizeif  for  Ihe  front  and  back  strokes  by  curving;  the  llnF 
eci-eniric-i  oris  coiicavely  to  the  axles.  With  crossed  o 
de(.'iHii.se.s  an  the  link  is  moved  from  full  to  uiid-geai 
with  xtntioFinry  link  the  lead  Cscotrntant,  (For  illust rati 
(inline,  vol.  ii.  p.  SS.) 

Tli«  iliiesj*  aiivaiioe  of  each  eccxtttric  is  equal  to  thi 


THE  SLIDE-VAITE. 


835 


in  ouKht  to  he  loiif;;  the  longer  they  are  In  proportion  to  ilie 
"be  more  syrniiielricnl  will  l.lie  (ravel  of  the  vftlve  he  nii  bolh 
BDtre  of  fiiotion.  S.  The  link  oiiehl  to  lie  Klinrt.  Eocli  rf  Us 
I  a  curve  in  a  verlicul  i)la!ie,  whose  ordiniitoaprow  Imifer  the 
seoDBidered  point  isfi-oiii  the  centre  o(  the  link',  nml  Hg  tliH  Imri- 
ion  oiily  i«  li-aiiMniitteil  lo  Ihe  valve,  vertk-al  n.Kcillatfon  will  eaiiHe 
ies.  4.  The  liiik-haiiKer  oukIh  to  ho  lotip.  The  lunjiei-  11.  Is  the 
Ibe  the  arc  lu  vrhk'li  the  link  swingF  to  n  straight.  line,  and  tlius 
p  vertical  oscillaciuu.  1(  (he  link  i»  susiienilftl  Id  Us  cnnlre,  the 
,t  are  descriheti  l>y  lloin((^etllli^hstallton  butli  sidew  fruiii  th<4<;ei)tre 
Ice.  and  hence  resulls  Ihrvariatiiin  t>etvcei'n  lli»*rin\vardniii1  baeW- 
If  the  link  is  .iuspend«l  at.  Its  lower  end,  its  kiwerhalf  will  have 
il  osc-illation  and  ttie  npf>er  half  nniie.  S.  The  centie  from  whiidi 
anther  swiri^a  chait^ee  Uk  |iositinn  hh  the  link  is  lowered  or  raised^ 
&nses  irregularities.  To  reduce  them  to  the  Htiiallest  amount  the 
^  liftineshaftBhould  he  made  as  lone  as  the  eccenlHi--rod,  and  llie 
he  lifiinK-flhaft  should  t>e  placed  at  the  hnit^ht  correspoiidiiit;  ti> 
.1  position  of  the  centre  on  wdiieh  the  linlr-haiij^er  Bwithj^s," 
;  conditions  CUD  never  be  fnUllleil  in  practice,  niid  the  varintions 
1  and  the  period  of  adniiission  can  he  sniiiewliai  ret^iiluled  In  an 
»»,  but  for  one  gear  only.  Thin  ia  arcomplishert  by  Ki  virii:  diffcr- 
ttnelwoecceotrica,  nhiuii  difference  will  lie  siualler  tt>u  longer  thu 
rods  are  and  the  shorter  the  link,  and  hy  inspeuding  'he  link  not 
I  its  centre  line  but  at  a  certain  distance  from  it,  ^vint;  h  liat  r« 
te  offaei." 

licatioQ  of  the  Zeuiier  diagram  to  link  motion,  see  HulineB  on  the 
fine,  p.  290.  See  also  Clark's  Railiriiy  Machinery  (18.'p.'5),  Olark's 
^ne    and  Zeunor's   and  Auchinctoss'a  Treatises  oii   Khdc-volve 

owioi;  rules  are  given  by  the  American.  ilcKhinint  for  laying'  out  a 
a  upright  alide-valve  engine.  By  the  term  radius  of  link  is  meant 
I  M  (be  Unk-urc  ab,  Fig.  IM,  drawn  through  ibe  centre  of  the  slot; 


1 

I 

I 


Fio.  190. 


II  la  fi^iterally  made  equal  lo  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  shaft 
of  the  link-block  pin  /'when  the  tatier  <itandfi  midway  of  its  travel, 
noe  between  the  centres  of  thf  ecfeutric fod  pitm  e^  e,  s^wixACl  t^ut 
aB -llf^tlwi-s.  HO  J,  n/hen  sfmee  will  permit,  three  timeA  vYte  vV'"-^  *( 
'nif.   By  the  llirow  we  tiiniii  twic^  'heeoceiitrleitv  rif  the  er 

>lnt  In  the  link-arc  prolougeil.     'J'his  will   ^ive  ctnuuW 

ue  increased  »iiev  the  link  In  ,i,  backward  y^^w.  TJW 


I 


l3G 


THK  BTEAM-EXOIlfE. 


fsllp  l«,  howerpr,  connldered  of  little  IniporiHnci'.  t)«>«-niiM>  i 

s  a  nile,  worlc  but  vt^ry  Htll*?  in  Ilie  liack  ■ 

bKl  tiiemolion  iihiill  l>i>  Hscfni.'ieiit  in  tm 

ben  tlia  liiil<  slinuld  l«5  SU8|iiMiilt>il  from 

^.CPDti'io  I'dd  pins;  in  marine  cnKiue  t)rii(  I Uv  (Iiik  i>uiul  u  k« 
^11  ihe  link-uiv;  for  equnl  cm  offa  il  is  l»-ii«?r  m  uiijre  II>it  | 
jlon  a  small  aiiiount  towarilH  llie  ec<.t?ntric's. 
For  otilainiiii;   Ihe  diiiieiisions  of  tlie  link  in   inciifx :  L«(  Xi  I 

Bngth  of  Ihe  valvf,  B  iba  breadth,  p  ilie  ab«olui<:  muani  in 
.,  and  A  a  factor  of  c<oniputatiouu»ed  as  ImAow;  tli«ii  i:~  M  \l 

Breadth  of  tli«  liDk <r   RylS 

^        Thickness  r  of  die  bar =  *x   J»l 

^L      Length  of  t-lidiiig-block „ s   H  >.  tA\ 

^H       Diaiiirler  of  eocentrie-iod  plus •.....«•'••   •  (A  X 

^V       Diaineiorof  Hiidijensioii-ro*!  pin =  illx 

1  Dioini^ler  of  suspfiiBioii-iod  pin  wlieii  overhunp..  =  iB  y 

Waineter  of  hlook-pin  wlii-n  DverhiiMB =   ff  +  J 

Dinuieler  of  block-piu  when  secured  at  both  eoils  s  (fi  x 

Tlie  length  nf  tho  link,  that  Is,  the  dlntancw  from  n  to  b,  i 
_lilrjiight  line  Joining  tlieendsof  the  link-uiv  1m  ilie  «li.l  >!i.ni" 
"  kilow  the  centre  of  ilie  link-block  piu /*  I.  i 
ri<;-r(i<l  pins,  leaving  suRicient  room  for  il 
link  mipientlj-  used  ia  marine  engliu 
ype  is  again  divided  Into  tnoclosseK:  oii' 
kre  the  e«ceniric-rod  ends  as  well  as  il-  ml  ' 

lirg,  as  showu  at  li  (niih  lh«8«  links  IIh 
he  throw  of  the  eccentric);  the  other  oln  cln 

"  for  which  iheeceenirie-rodBare  made  v  i  i)«,i  _ 

t\i'\»  on  the  oul«idH  of  tlie  hars,  allowlni?  i :  •lid*) 

liiilc,  so  that  the  centres  of  lliH  eccentric-roU  eudn  auii  ItM  ( 
line  when  in  full  gear,  niuking  the  travel  of  the  valve  c<|>M 
Ihe  eccentric.    The  dimeusions  of  these  links  when  the 
the  eccentric-iHxl  pina  la  U>i  to  t^i  tim«8  llie  throw  of  i 
found  as  follows: 

•        Depth  of  hars siffxl 
Thiokne<«  of  bars ......  s  <S  X 
Diameter  of  centre  of  sUdiag-block m  CxU' 

When  the  diistance  between  the  eccentric-roi]  plasii  «^|«tl  Hi 
the  throw  of  tlie  ecceiiU'lcs,  then 

tV)>th  of  tMnt a  «ff  X  ! 

ThickiMWS  of  iMirt =  «K  x 


iuwla\  V>MnW5 


■Rbi  tbewf 


GOVEBNOBS.  837 


.  the  weight  of  ibe  balis>  bisani  to  tlw  radius  r  of  the  cirole 

'tile  centres  of  the  balls  the  ratio 

I  ft weight in_  _  gr 

I^K  r  ~  centrifugal  foro«  **   tpp*  ~  »•' 

V 

6  <•  Independent  of  the  wnif^lit  of  the  balls,  v  beiDK  the  wloolty 
tres  of  the  balls  In  feut  pt-r  kvodiiU. 

lUmbcr  of  rnTolitUonii  of  the  balls  in  1  secoaii,  t>  =  SirrT  =  ar,  In 
the  anicular  velocity,  or  ShrT",  and 

ml  g  .        0.8U6,     .       9.7T5,     . 

kken  at  33.10,    If  AT  =  nnmlMr  of  revs,  per  minute,  h=  —gf 

roluttODS  per  minute 40        4r>        SO        60        "5 

ll^ht  In  lncbe«wlll  be 21.99    17. :«    1108    '.1.775    6.8M 

of  turuH  pt-r  minute  required  to  cause  (lie  nriiis  lo  take  a  ^iren 
,  the  vertical  axin:  Let  1  ==  length  of  the  nrui  in  iMi.'het4  from  the 
MMIieiiCiion  to  the  centre  of  gyralion,  and  a  the  i-equlreii  angle; 


l-Vr 


85190 
COS   < 


=  187.6i/i-J —  =  18T.Oi/4r 
y    I  COB  a  r       '^ 


pie  goTernor  is  not  Isochronous;  timt  is,  it  dovit  not  revolve  at  a 
peed  in  all  pu»iCioii8,  ifae  speed  clianKing  an  the  nn^le  uf  the  nrmii 
To  reuiedr  IhU  defect  loaded  ({oveinors,  siicli  as  I'lirlwr's.  are 
)ra  the  balls  of  a  common  erivt-rnor  whose  cnjleclive  wiMplit  Ih  A 
<e  bung  by  u  ixnir  of  links  of  leui;ihK  cqiinl  tir  tin.,  peuiltiliiiii  iii'iua 
Eapable  of  Hlidine  on  the  spindle.  haviiiK  its  centre  of  ftravily  In 
t  rotation.  Then  the  ceiitrifM^nl  furre  i.s  thntdue  to  A  alone,  and 
of  (crnvity  is  Unit  due  to  A  +  ^'A;  cousequently  tliti  alUtuile  for  a 
d  ia  increased  in  the  ratio  (A  -f  '43)  :  J,  as  compared  with  that  of 
evolving  pendulum,  and  a  Klven  ah^olnte  v&rintiou  in  alliludu  pro- 
laller  proportionate  variulluoi  in  speed  than  In  the  coninion  gover- 
Idne.  3.  E.,  p.  461.) 

weighted  governor  let  I  =  the  l^n^tli  of  the  arm  from  the  politt  of 
1  to  the  centre  of  gravity  or  Che  hall,  and  let  the  tongth  of  the  sua- 
ak,  I,  =  the  lenuth  of  t^ie  (jonlon  uf  the  nrin  from  the  point  of 
t  of  the  arm  to  the  |>oint  of  attaclnnent  of  ttie  link;  a  ^  tliu  wel|;hc 
I,  Q  =  half  the  weight  of  the  .sliding  weif;ht,  h  =  the  heiKht  of  the 
from  tilt)  |>oin(  of  6nR[)eiuioii  to  tlie  plane  uf  revolution  of  t)ie 
tbe  angular  velocity  —  'inT,  Titeing  the  nnmljerof  revolutions  per 

ben  „  =  V  -j^{^\+j  g};  /.  =-;^K^+j^)  '"  feet,  or 
I  +  — -'  ^^  in  inches.  If  being  the  number  of  revolutions  per 

ous  forms  of  governor  see  App.  Cyol.  Hech.,  vol.  il.  61,  and  Clark'a 

[ine,  vol.  ii.  p.  (K. 

•nee  tbe  Speed  of  an  Engine  HaTiuK  a  Fly»baU 

or.     A  slitrhi   ililTi'reiice  In  the  speed  of  a  governor  chaiim^t  tlie 

iv.in  that  required  Pu- full  loud  to  thar  required  for 

;  ere  Cure  that,  wlmleviT  the  speed  of  the  engine,  the 

'■rnor  intiKt  lie  that  for  whtch  tlio  governor  was  <" 

ibe  Kovenior  nnist  tie  kefit  (lie  same.   TochangQt 

problem  is  to  sto  adjn.st  ( lie  pullers  \vb\«\\  iVv' 

'■  sf  its  Dell- speed  shall  drive  it  just  i     " 

;  ...pt'ci/.    //;  onler  lo  increase  the  eneine-. 

■ipon  tlifhnn  of  (he  engine,  i.{^.,the  drV^ 

joc/..^;i5:'     "  '''■'''*"■ '"  '*'*  proportion  that  «l 


OONDBNSERS,  AIR-PtrMPS,  ETC. 


839 


he  fomiuls  (or  gtrength  and  ezteiulon  of  springs,  and  the 
be  sprluK  as  compressed  be  determined. 


The  goTemor-power  = 


Pt  +  P* 


t 
xii- 


bt  ceotripetal  line,  the  governor-power 

ninarr  determination  of  the  governor-power  it  may  be  taken 
is  in  all  cases,  althniigh  il  is  evident  that  with  a  ciirrnd  cen- 
t  will  b«  slightly  less.  Tlie  difference  D  must  be  coustaul  for 
iDg,  bowever  ^reai  or  little  its  initial  compreiselon.  Let  the 
iwed  up  until  ila  minimum  pressure  is  1\.  Then  to  Rnd  the 
■I>. 

(which  the  goveraoi  would  be  tsochroiioua  would  tM 
lOOi 


V^.- 


pressure  on  the  Hpring  with  a  speed  of  100  revolutions,  at  the 
minimum  radii,  was  ;!0D  Iba.  and  lOO  lbs.,  respectively,  then 
of  the  spring  to  suit  a  variation  froniSS  to  lOS  revolutions  will 
■  T  /105\> 

=  90.2  and  200  X  \Tgg)  =  220.5.      That    is,  the    Increase 

I  the  mlnbnum  to  the  maximum  radius  must  he^sO  —  40  = 

^  eeds  due  to  such  a  spring,  screwed  up  to  different  preas- 
iln  the  following  table: 


er  minute,  halls  shut 

:>ring!t,  balls  »]iut 

'vsstire  when  Imlia  open  fully. 

;>riiigB,  bflillH  open  fully 

er  tnlnute,  balls  open  fully.  . 
•  cent  of  mean  speed  


HO 

90 

9n 

100 

no 

64 

SI 

90 

100 

lai 

130 

ISO 

l»0 

130 

130 

191 

?]] 

2an 

aao 

as  I 

9N 

lOS 

lOfi 

107 

iiii 

10 

6 

6 

3 

1 

ISO 
U4 
180 
274 
117 
-1 


t  which  the  governor  would  become  isochronous  is  114. 
will  give  the  right  variation  at  s«>ine  speed:  httnce  in  experi- 
a  governor  tlie  eorrecl  spring  may  be  found  from  auy  wrong 
utmple  calculation.    Thus,  if  a  governor  witli  a  spring  whose 
l(>B.  per  iuch  acts  best  when  the  engine  runs  at  S6,  90  being  its 

tlien  SO  X  I  gi/    =  45  lbs.  Is  tlie  atidnesa  of  spring  required. 

le  tlie  speed  at  which  the  governor  acts  best,  the  springs  may 
>  until  It  b^lns  to  "  hunt "  and  then  sladteaed  until  the  gov- 
wltive  as  is  compatible  with  steadiness. 


{N8KRS,  AIR-PUMPS    CIIBCCI.ATING> 

PUHTPS,  ETC. 

kndenacr.    (Chiefly  abridged  from  Seaton's  Marine  Engi- 
Bt  condenser  ie.  now  iiuconimon,  Iwing  generally  supplanted 
Tctwdenser.    With  fbe  Jet  c'>Ddenser  a  vacuum  ol  'iA  to  wa^ 
fgood,  and  tS  In.  fl*  uiucii  as  was  possible  with  n\osl  con<^"T«. 
_atare  crim-tpoDdlog  Uj  04  in.  vncuujn.  or  S  \h».  pres?- 
JopracrJof  the  tfmperatun  m  the  bot-weU  varWst 
jjfooaV/r  asrnuah  as  ISO°  ie  maintained.  To  find  tbe 


1^' 


-i«iauBt  pressure;  T,  =  temperature  ot  ttj. 


lit©  BiiOWtOI'  ^I'UPI  HI  II  WiPI  K:"" 
Uon  oriflce  =  weight  of  injection- watal 

A  roBBftrulPsometlriifsiiseil  'n':  Allow  one  flfteenl 
erery  culitc  foot  ot  wiit*-r  condpLS«l  per  bour. 

AnolluT  rule:  Area  ot  injectlou  orioct'  =  area  of  pii 

Tbf  ToluiDP  of  tUe  Jet.  condoDser  is  from  one  fourth 
the  cyliniler.  It  need  not  be  more  tbaa  one  third,  < 
niiiMmtr  onifitiifs. 

KJrrior  <'ondciii«eri».— Forejw'o''  "t  injeclo^ 
Bclmito's,  clc  1  ilic  culeulati>>ii8  for  quantity  of  condi 
as  fi>r  jei  cfiiidenHprs. 

The  Snrfare  Condt-nner-  rooling  SiirOi 
Willi  oooliiiK  water  ot  an  Initial  t'/tuijciiituri'  of  »'*!'  to  ""^ 
plnie  cond'-'iiBed  '..M.."!  \bA.  of  Hteani  per  hour,  while  J 
per  hour  can  he  condensed  In  pmctice,  with  the  a 
coudenser-tulMM,  lt<  B.W.IJ  thick,  18  lbs.  of  steam  p< 
the  cdiiUntr  water  at  an  initial  tetnpemtiire  of  >;0', 
work  when  the  temporature  of  the  feed-water  is  to 
It  liOH  been  found  tlint  the  surface  in  tiie  cc-ndenseri 
surface  of  the  holler,  and  under  some  circiiniritane^ 
thiii.  In  ireueral  practicu  the  toUawiiig  holds  Kood  wa 
•ea-wuter  is  about  tiO'': 

Terminal  pres.,  lbs.,  ah8 30       SO  15         121 

Sq.  ft.  per  I  H.P 8      8.fi0       82S       2.0 

For  ship.^  whoHe  station  is  in  the  tropltx  the  altowai 
by  £0;.  and  for  sliips  which  occaKionally  visit  the  tn 
Kive  satisfactory  results.  If  a  ship  Is  cobstant]y  einp 
I0){  lepsaufflces 

Wl)l^h.a^l  iSteani-englDe  Design,  p.  ',!Ki,  also  Troi 

(fivea  the  toUowIng:  S  =  -j-y^, ,  In  which  S  =  eoi 

CA'(  Ti  —  tj 

ft.;  T,  -  temperature  Fahr.  of  steam  of  the  press 
vacuum -eaupe;  i  —  mean  tenipemture  of  the  circu 
nritbmelicnl  mean  of  the  Initial  and  floal  teuiiwratora 
Faturnted  steniu  ftt  teiuperalurw  7'i;  k  =  perfect  oontifl 
the  riieUil  tiscd  for  the  coiidenHioK-surfacc  f<jra  mnt^n 
|K'r  hour  for  brass,  acoordinj;  to  lBberwood*s  <£XrKTin^ 
□otinif  the  efflcieniyf  of  the  conden'Intr  surface;  W  :=J 


COKDEKSEBS,  AIR-PUilPS,  ETC. 


84tfl 


niraltv.  however,  aln'avs  specify  iIip  tiibeg  to  I*  made  of  TW  of  liest 
Mad  lo  have  i%  of  tlu  fii  the  coiupaKitiofi,  arid  te^t  tile  tubes 
JHIlbs.  per  sq.  in.    (Heatoii.) 

f  tlie  cunileui'er  Itibes  varies  from  t^  inch  in  siiiull  conden- 

t5u  tiiey  are  very  Bliort,  to  1  inch  in  very  laitte  coii<leii«'j-H  and  long^ 

Ui  the  mercantile  raarlue  tlie  tube*  are.  oh  a  rule,  %  ineli  <ilameter 

:iv.  i.!i,I   I»  B.W.IJ.  Illicit  (0  04l>  incln:  ami  10  B.W.U.  (O.OK).   umler 

il  ciri-urnstaui.-es.    In  the  Briliish  Navy  tlie  tubefl  are  al«o, 

ii  iliaiiieier,  and  )H  lo  lu  B.W.ti.  thieli,  tinned  on  both  sides; 

sser  iis  made  f>f  lirans  lhe„\>liiiii'alty  do  not  require  the  tubes 

weU.     tionie  of  the  smaller  enKines  have  tube«  }g  Inch  diameter,  and 

3.  thick.     Till-  smaller  the  liiiies,    the  larger  l«  the  surface  ivhich 

;ot  in  a  certain  space. 

merchant  service  the  almost  universal  pi-actice  is  to  circulala  the 
irotijjU  the  tubes. 

am  !uiyg  the  velocity  of  fluiv  through  the  tubt«  isLould  not  \3«  lM> 
nor  more  than  700  ft.  per  niin. 

»*plateB  are  usually  made  of  hra.ss.  HoIled-brasB  tube-plates 
le  t  j^'iii  1.1  to  l,.'j  tinius  the  diameter  of  tubes  in  thickness,  depending 
r  packing.  When  the  iiackinjfa  KO  ciiinpletely  throiiirh  the 
:.  but  when  only  partly  thioiierfi  the  farmer,  is  KulTlcient. 
.  Il  tube«  tile  plates  are  U!>ually  %  lo  1  inch  tliiuk  with  gluuds 
•  piiCiiiiiga,  and  1  to  1)^  inch  tliick  with  woo<lea  fernileH. 
ibe-plates  should  be  secured  to  their  sealiu^K  by  hi-asN  xliidH  and 
brass  screw-bolts;  in  fact  there  nuint  be  no  nroUKt't  i'on  of  (iny 
ide  a  coDdeneter,  When  the  tulie  pinte.s  are  of  laifCc'  area  it  la  advis- 
Itay  them  by  bra.««-rods,  to  prevent  iheni  from  collansinK. 
Ids  of  Tubes,  etc — The  holeK  for  ferrules,  K^nds,  or  indio- 
ire  usually  *4  iucli  lai-ger  in  diameter  than  llie  tubeii:  but  when  ab- 
necessary  the  wood  ferrules  may  be  only  i,31  inch  thick. 
Itch  of  lulies  when  packed  with  wood  fernileg  is  usually  )4  inch 
An  tlie  diameter  of  the  ferrule- bole.  For  example,  the  tubes  ara 
y^kiTAnged  ziftzaK.  and  the  number  whicli  may  b«  fitted  into  a 
boC  of  pl&le  (8  08  follows: 


I 


of 

i. 

No.  in  a 
sq.ft. 

Pitch  ot 
Tnbea. 

No.  in  a. 
iq.ft. 

Pitch  of 
Tubes. 

No.  in  a 

17*2 

IM 

137 

1 5,'3a" 

1  S/l«" 

1  7/aa" 

128 
121 

lis 

IW" 
lH/32'- 
1  5/16" 

no 

106 
90 

a 


Ikttty  of  CooIIhb  Water.— The  quantity  deiiends  chiefly  upon 
U  tenipeiatiiie,  wliicli  in  Atlunlic  practice  may  vary  frmn  •10°  in  the 
3t  tetiifwrate  zi>ne  to  fO"  in  «ubiroploal  s^a«.  'Vo  rai.-^e  the  tempera 
100°  in  (tie  condeoHer  will  require  three  tinieK  as  many  thermal  iinlta 
former  ca«e  as  in  the  latter,  and  therefore  only  one  third  as  much 
•  wat«r  vrlll  be  required  iu  the  former  case  as  in  the  latter. 

B  temperature  of  eteam  entering  the  condenser: 
B  "  "  citt;ulatiuK-wiUer  euteriui;  the  condenser; 

s  "  "  "  '"      leavlug^  the  condenser; 

_  •«  "  water  condetised  Iruui  tiia  steaui ; 


9=  quantity  of  circulating  wat«r  ta  lbs.  = f^  ^t~ 


r.) 


I 

I 


to  provide  pumping;  power  sufficient  to  supply  40  times  the 

I  of  steam  r.)r  Kciicral  troderit,  and  as  much  as  fO  ilrnes  for  ships  sltt- 

I1.S,  when  the  engines  are  compound.   U  lV\e  cVvcuVax- 

;(»/,',  /'(s  cji^iaciiy  may  be  l/i>S  in  tlie   tonufer  eLn^\|\<l 
■  oupneiiy  vt  Die  loiv-pressure  cylimier. 
u-iiiinip  in  all  coiiflensers  aljsti-acta  ibe  v.a\«T  tij 
iiially  coiiiHiiuHl  in   ihe  water  wlieu  It.  eiw.ucw'  ' 
/'■t'condfsisfu-i^  it  nl.so  p^iuipH  out  tVhe  wa.ljeT  o 
.  .-iiitj  ,  .„•  /,,,  ,,  „ici,  ir  oyntniiif il.    The  si/e of  tli>-  V'"ttiV>  **  '-'•'Vt 
eetmaniuaa.  making  allow ancv^  foi  efHciency  ot  tUe  {>\\n\V< 


» 


I 


842 


THE  STEAM-ENGIKK. 


Ordin&nr  sea-water  contains,  mechanically  mixed  with 
tune  o(  air  when  under  ihe  at  moH'l'^ric  pressure.  Suppote 
the  coudeuBer  to  be  3  lbs.  and  tin-  atuioyphcfric  preamre  l^ 
the  effect  of  temperature,  the  oir  onenlcrinR  tliecondeuserwi 
to  15/2  times  its  orizlnai  volume;  no  tbat  a  cubic  foot  of  BMt- 
hos  entered  the  condenser,  i»  represented  by  19/30  of  a  cubic 
and  15/40  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air. 

Let  g  be  the  volume  of  water  condensed  per  minute,  and  Q 
sea.  water  required  to  condense  it;  and  let  T,  l>e  the  temp 
condenser,  and  Ti  that  of  the  sed- water. 

Then  19/-J0  iq+  Q}  will  be  the  volume  of  water  to  be  pomi 
condenser  per  minute, 


'4 


and 


S«+e)x 


T,  +  461* 


Uie  quantity  of  air. 


If  the  temperature  of  the  condenser  be  taken  at  130*.  Odd  tlMl  I 
water  at  00°,  the  quautitj  of  air  will  then  be  .41819  +  ij).  aa  ibat  Ife 
volume  to  be  abstracted  will  t>e 

.S6<9  +  0  +  -418(9  +  ®  =  1.888(9  4-  Q>- 

If  tlie  average  quantity  of  inject  ion-water  be  taken  at  36  Umtt  th 
densed,  q  +  Q  will  equal  ST9.  Thereto»e,  volume  to  be  punpad  In 
condeuser  per  minute  =  STq,  nearly. 

In  siirracx  condensation  allowauce  must  be  made  for  tbe  watarM 
ally  Hdmitted  to  the  lx>il(^r»  to  ninke  uti  for  waste,  and  the  air  MMI 
it.  also  for  nliKht  lpal(  inihe  joints  ana  ciaiidK.so  that  iheair-puQVl 
•bout  hj<lf  an  lar^u  as  for  Jet-euudeusation. 

The  efficiency  of  a  sinRie-acting  air -pump  is  generally  lakra  it  I 
that  of  a  ilouble-aclingpump  at  0.35.  "'hen  the  trinperaiur  of  Oi 
DO*,  and  that  of  the  (jet )  couaeoser  is  I'.'D".  Q  beinjc  thr  volume  el  t0^ 
water  and  q  the  volume  of  the  condensed  water  in  cublo  (MkM' 
Dumt>er  of  strokes  per  minute. 


The  volunie  of  Uie  sln|$le-«ctUiK  pump  =  2.74  (^ — -)  • 

The  Tolume  of  the  double-acting  pump  =  4(^^l — 2.  ^. 

Tbo  ftvilowing  table  gires<he  mtio  of  capacity  of  eyiiader  «r 
of  the  compouiMl  eafUie.  liit  I 


4 


ibu  of  the  air-pump:  in  the  case 
cylinder  capacity  only  is  taken. 


Deaoriplion  of  Pomp. 


Stngto-aciuig  vertical.. 


iBgboriioauU.. 


]>escriptioa  of  Ettgiae. 


Jet-condensiag,  exp*n«laa  11%  lot 


Surface 
Jet 

Surface  " 
Surface  " 
Jet  * 

Surface  •' 
Jet  " 
Surface  " 
Surface  " 


* 


ezpau-si 


coni' 


Tk*  ArMk  throttcta  Val*e<«»«ta  and  Mat  tbm 

hwi  Ulan  sillaitmil  tlir  full  quantity  of  water  for  cowh 
Mwt  aacwillac  4Ui>  ft.  per  nilnule.    lo  praetlee  Ite  1 

4rM  tttrotti^  (oovv»l««     =^'^'L'*    «.  - 
t  rti«  Utrougb  hrad-valv**     •=  t^i*.a-*^  t»«i 

,  =  t>  -)«.  S^  ♦  «k' 
.8  =  te^>i 


■MUaa«l^ 
MM  m  ^^ 


COKDENSEnS,  AIR-PUMPS,  ETC.  843 

ed  with  jet-condonsens:  Volume  of  sinf^le-acling  air-pump  driven 
in^iue  =  volume  of  low-jiressure  cvUnder  in  cuiiic  feet,  niullijilied 

ai«iilcJ  by  llie  number  of  cubic  feet  cont«iD€>d  in  one  pound  of 
lemii  of  the  plven  density.     For  &  doubleaetInK  air  pump  the 

will  ap))ly.  hut  the  volume  of  steam  for  each  stroke  of  the  i>Hmp 
ut  one  batf.  Should  the  pump  be  driven  iDdependently  of  the 
en  the  relative  speed  must  be  considered.  Volume  of  jet-eoii- 
TOlunie  of  air-pump  X  4.  Area  of  injection  vaJve  =  vol.  of  atr- 
lubic  iiiolu'K  -f-  5vj0. 

Ing-pump.— I^t  Q  bo  che  qitantity  of  coolioe  wat«r  in  cabic 
muer  of  strokes  per  minute,  and  5  the  leiij!;th  of  stroke  in  feeU 

Capacity  of  clrculaliug-pump  =  Q  -*-  n  cubic  feet. 


1 


r 


Diameter  "         "  «        =  lS.55i/  — ^  Inches, 


■drie 


H 


owine  table  gives  the  ratio  of  capacity  of  steam-cyllnder  or  cylin- 
lat  of  the  circulating-pump: 

eriplion  of  Pimip.  Description  of  Engine.  Ratio. 

inrle-acttng.  Expansive  1!^  to  3  times.  13  to  1(1 

3     to  5    "  30  to  25 

Compound.  2B  to  iM 

Expangive  lU  to  !  times.  SS  to  SO 

S     to6    "  lieto<6 

CompouDd.  46  to  M 

Krart'a  through  the  valve-seats  and  pa^t  tha  valves  should  be  such 
mean  velocity  of  tlow  does  not  exceed  450  feet  per  minute.  The 
I  tlie  pipes  should  not  exceed  500  ft.  per  min.  iu  small  pipes  and 

F  pipes. 

'ri/UQal  Circutriting  pumps,  (he  veJncity  of  flow  In  the  Inlet  and 
Ma  should  not  exceecfjiK)  f  t.  iiermiu.  The  diameter  of  the  fan- wheel 
kto  S  times  the  diam.  of  the  pipe,  «nd  the  speed  at  its  periphery 
)  ft.  per  mill.  If  W  =  qnantiiy  of  water  i>er  minute.  In  American 
t  =  «littmet«r  of  pipes  in  inches,  R  =  revolutions  of  wheel  per  initt., 

;  dlam.  of  fan-wheel  ^  not  less  than  -^.    Breadth  of  blade  at 

HBMmii.  of  cylinder  fordHving  the  fan  =  about  3.6  V'diam.  ofpipe, 

R«e  =  0.88  X  diam.  »f  fnn. 

•yvBips  for  marine  Engine*. -^ With  surface'CnndensInpr 
be  amount  of  water  to  be  feci  by  tlie  pumpis  the  amount  condensed 
miiin  er^rlne  plus  what  may  be  needed  to  supply  auxilluiy  engrlnes 
upply  leakage  and  waste.  SInct!  an  accident,  may  hnpjxm  to  the 
tondenser,  requip-ing  the  use  of  jew:iiiiden.-«i.tliiii,  ilif  pinupH  of 
Itted  with  surface-roudenseiii  must  be  ><ufTiei«ntly  lar^e  lodo  duty 
Si  circumstances.  With  jL»t-oon(leiisei-s  ami  boilerK  uKins  «alt  water 
kialt  water  In  the  holler  miiBt  he  blown  uff  at  iiiler»als  to  keep  the 
blow  that  deposits  of  Milt  will  not  be  fornieil.  Sea-water  contains 
B  of  its  weight  of  Sfjlld  iiialter  in  solution .  The  boiler  of  a  surface- 
ngeoKine  may  be  worked  with  safety  when  the  quantity  of  salt  is 
)m  that  in  sea-water.  If  y  =  net  quantity  of  feed-water  required  in 
Inie  to  make  up  for  what  is  used  ns  si*^m,  71  =  number  of  times  the 
tf  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  to  that  of  sea-water,  then  the  gross  feed- 

-Q.    In  order  to  be  capable  of  fillinB  the  boiler  rapidly  each 

IP  i«  tnade  of  a  capacity  equal  to  twice  the  gross  feed- water.    Two 
Id  lie  8upplie<l.  .10  that  one  may  be  kept  in  reserve  Vo\s»> 
'  <•/■  is  nut  ot  re/mlr.    It  g  he  the  quantity  ot  net  te«&-^»IuM^ 
.■  /eagth  t>r  stroke  of  feed-pump  in  feet,  and  n  Vte 
ikes  per  minute, 

er«r  of  eaab  reed-puwp  plunger  in  inchen 


I 


844 


THE  STEAM-EKGIKE. 


If  TK  be  the  net  fe«<l-vrftt6r  Id  pounds, 

Diameter  of  each  feed-pump  plunger  In  biclu>&  =  *.-' 

Au  Evaporatlvft  Sarface  rondeniter  huilt  aiUtr  ' 

ciilturul  CoIIhko  is 'l''ricrllj«Hi  tiy  Jiuiies  H   KitisiTrnn-    * 

71  coiisisls  of  iwo  r»>ct9D;nilar  end  chninber»!  ci>one»-''   ' 

zoDtnl  rows  Of  tdlits,  each  row  or  mix's  imnn-i-- 

Throupb  the  spacts  between  the  Burfacp  of  Ihi^'  »«• 

bottom  of  Uie  pun  above  lUr  is  drawn  by  mean 

»op  of  one  of  tbe  cDil-cljtimbers  ig  on  iniet  for   - 

phragm  about  mitlway  cause-i  the  sleam  to  tii 

tubes  aDil  back  throui^h  the  lower.    An  ouMei  at  ili. 

pump.    TUe  conUeuser.  exclusive  of  conuectiou  to  i! 

tt  floor  space  of  5'  -lli"  >   r  Wi^".  and  4'  IVu"  hlch 

tubes,  H  in  some  and  "  in  others;  210  tubes  In  nil.     Tin-  (i(t<u»l 

JJo  i'U  B.W  Q,,  %"  external  (iiamcrt-r  and  4'  Si'i,"  in  length.  Tb»l 

face  (interuaU  is  176.5  sq.  ft.  There  are  27  ct>oluiL'  imos.  i  ncli  i    'i«* 

and  1  7/\6"  deep.     These  pans  have  irnlvamr.  »'!*• 

into  horizontal  prooTesi  t4"  wide  and  Jj"  deij-  ik** 

The  total  evapornling:  surface  is  284  S  aq.  ft.     v,  >  iMl 

tbroiiKb  siuaU  cockB.  ami  overflow  pipes  feed  i  -u*! 

nects  one  side  with  a  30"  Buffalo   Forge  t'li  « <■ 

belteii  to  a  8"  y  4"  vertical  eutrine     Thealr-ini    .  ,  i^  1 

C"  stroke,  is  vertu-al  and  sinele  actinj:. 

The  uctiou  of  thJB  ooudeii»er  is  us  fuUowR:  Tbe  posRiKe  of  air  <*< 
water  surfaces  reiiioveis  the  vu|wr  aE>  it  rises  and  thus  lui»tcn«  t 
The  beat  nece^^sarj-  to  produce  evaporation  is  obtained  frota  Ittt  i 
tubee,  causing  the  Hteam  to  cnudense.  U  was  de^iRoed  to  ««' 
steam  per  hour  and  fcise  a  vacuum  of  S  tn.,  with  a  lenotDaJ  yimmti 
cylinder  of  ,'0  lbs.  absohite. 

Rei'ults  of  les't.s  sbow  that  the  coolinf^-water  required  k  fmeUttifU 
atnount  to  the  sleani  used  by  the  eDKlne.  And  sioot  eonguiBiM<i*  CI  I 
is  reduced  bj  the  appUcatioD  of  a  oondenaer.  ita  use  wlU  aetuiUj  ltd* 
total  quantity  of  water  letiuired.  i''Yoni  a  curve  ttaowiuir  lin'  nsed^ 
tlon  per  square  foot  of  surface  in  rt^ll  air,  and  aiao  one  abow  at  ^ 
when  a  ctu-rent  of  air  of  about  :iS0O  ft.  per  min.  Telooitjr  la  Jia^id  •* 
surface,  Uie  following  approximale  flgurei  m«  Uken: 


Temp. 

F. 

Evaporation,  lbs.  per 
sq.  ft.  per  hour. 

Temp. 
F. 

Evaponthn,  M| 
sq  fl.  perhiBt 

Still  Air. 

Current. 

SUU  Air. 

1 

100" 
110 
190 

0.9 
0.S6 
0.4 
00 

1.1 

1.8 
S.5 
8.5 

140» 
ISO 
100 
170 

o.» 
I.I 
15 
t.O 

J 

Tko  Conllanooa  Vne  of  roiifTeii«iinK>««itlrr  hit 

seiiea  of  articles  in /'c'>' 
tioos  vbere  water  for  ■ 
In  San  Frauclwo  J 
well  hy  mean*  of  a  sy- 
troutrha  of  iralTanlaecl  i  > 
_waHriawB  hock  and  i 

I  it  tlo«(i. 
Ijidriith  of  nl' 
".!»•.     Til. 
■I  li  ■  Uii«  aaabui''e 

III  <.»W»M»* 


C0Nl>liiJ8EHH,  AlR-PUMl'S,  ETC.  845 

jratpr  is  taken  from  th«  city  mains  when  tbe  whole  apparatus 
»htn  (lie  engine  Is  run  noti-confieuslng.  u'3  to  33  iu.  of  vacuum 
1.  A  better  vacuum  is  (il>tHiDi-d  on  u  warm  <luy  with  a  Uriiik 
r  tbau  on  u  culd  day  with  i)iit  a  Hii^ht  tiiovemi^nt  of  the  air. 
ant  tbe  wat<T  from  the  hot- woll  is  sprayed  from  a  numlif  r  of 
alM>  Irom  a  pi|:«  exKtiidiu);  urouud  ilu  border,  into  a  lur^e 
sure  cooling  it  gufflcienlly  forthe  obiuiiiliig  of  u  gmtd  vacuum 
■Mnu)  iMt:. 

lem  patented  by  Me-asra  See,  of  Lille,  France,  the  water  Is  d!»- 
in  •  pipe  laid  in  the  form  of  a  rectanfrlt)  and  elevot«d  above  a 
h  a  nsriea  of  special  noules.  by  whiuli  It  is  projected  irto  a  tln« 
30iDing  Into  contact  with  the  air  Iu  this  state  of  extreme  divl- 
ec  is  cooled  40°  to  50°,  wilh  a  tons  by  evaporation  of  only  one 

nuUH,  and  prodiuTes  an  excellent  vacuuui.  A  :jOOQ-H.F.  cooler 
stem  has  lieeu  erected  at  Lonooy,  one  of  --iM)  H  .1'.  at  Madrid,  and 
ELP  at  Liejce,  as  well  as  others  at  Huuiroiix  and  Touruuiug.  The 
il  be  used  upon  n  roof  if  ground  space  were  limited. 
(I t-oooling"  system  of  H.  K.  WortliloKton  the  injection-water  is 
a  tank.  au<l  after  having  passed  thrnii^'h  (he  eondenger  is  dis- 
1  heated  ifiiidltinji  |o  ihe  lop  of  a  cooling  tower,  where  il  is  scat- 
rang  of  di»trihutiug'pl^ics  und  trickles  down  tliroiigh  a  cellular 
lade  of  tUn.  terra-«;nita  pipes,  a  ft.  long,  stood  on  end.  The 
led  by  a  blast  of  air  fiirnisheil  l>y  a  disl;  fan  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tie  absorplion  of  heai  eanserl  l)y  ii  ]xiili(>u  of  (he  water  bi-ing 
4ld  is  led  to  the  tank  to  be  again  started  on  its  circuit.  ^Kttrj'y 
n  5,  KJOR.) 

■poratlve  condenser  of  T.  Ledward  &  Ck).  of  Bro«kley,  London, 
ickles  over  the  pipes  of  the  large  condenser  or  radiator,  and  by 

CHrries  away  the  heat  neeestary  to  be  abstract-ed  to  condense 

luiide.  The  t^mdcnuiug  piws  are  fitted  with  corrugations 
ttfa  circular  ribs,  whenby  the  radiating  or  cooling  rurlace  is 
jfesed.  The  pipes,  which  are  cast  in  sections  nboiu  Ttt  in.  long  by 
Kave  a  c-Joling  surface  of  2ii  »q.  ft.,  wtiicli  is  ftiuiul  Bufllcieut 
W)le  ccniditlonii  to  permit  of  the  (.-(ludeiisation  of  20  to  30  lbs, 
<r  hour  when  producing  ii  vjicniitii  of  T3  lbs.  per  s(f.  in.  In  a 
>f  this  tyiH'  at  Hi.xdorf,  uaar  Berlin,  a  vacuum  ranging  from  24 
meivury  was  cooslantly  maintained  (luring  the  hotttst  weather 
The  initial  temperature  of  the  eoollng-wot<-r  used  iu  the  nppara- 
otice  ranged  from  HO"  to  86°  F.,  and  the  temperature  In  the  sun, 
>r  cr.rideiLser  was  exposed,  variiHj  eaili  day  fruui  10i>°  to  II.')''  F. 
BXperiments  it  was  found  that  it  was  possible  (ji  run  one  engine 
1  of  HO  horse-power  and  maintain  the  full  vncuiun  without  the 
wolingwater  at  all  on  the  pipes,  radtaliou  aflfordcd  by  the  pipes 
■K^>  condense  tlie  shtam  for  ibis  power, 

KondenMiiig  WMter  cooler,  the  hot  water  coming  from  the  con- 
pat  the  top  of  a  wooden  struirtiire  about  twenty  feet  in  height, 
reyed  Into  a  series  of  parallel  iiarroiv  uieia!  tanlis.    The  water 

from  these  tanks  is  spread  as  a  Ihin  film  over  a  series  of  w«x>dcn 
iuspended  vertically  about  3'^i  inches  apart  vtitlilu  the  lower, 
let  of  partitions,  correspMDd lug  to  th«  nimiber  of  metal  tanks, 
If-way  down  the  tower.  Krom  there  down  tti  the  well  Is  »u«- 
lOftnd  set  of  partitions  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  Brst  set.  This 
KTspldlty  of  the  downllnw  of  the  water,  ami  also  thoroughly 
flkr,  thus  affortti tig  a  better  cixiling.  A  fiin-blower  at  the  base  of 
HniNt  a  strong  current  of  air  with  a  veliK-lty  of  about  tweitity  feet 
■Cainst  the  thin  flim  of  water  running  down  oyer  tbe  partlilons. 
ted  that  for  an  effectual  cooling  two  thousand  tinies  more  air 

must  be  forced  throtjgh  the  apparaius.  With  such  a  velocity 
orb*  about  two  tier  cent  of  ariueoira  vapor.  The  iiction  of  the 
lurrent  is  twofold:  fli-st,  it  absorl>s  heat  fmrn  the  hot  water  by 

warmed  by  radlatjon;  and,  secondly,  it  Incfeases  the  evapora- 

SrocesH  alisorbs  a  great  amotint  ot  heat.    These  two  coo\\m^ 
ISerr^nt  riiiriii/r  iJie  dilTfreiit  seasons  of  the  year.    ti«r\\\g  VV* 
■rJis  r/if  rfirtft  cooling  etTKct  of  the  Cold   air  Is  Kveutev,  >kYi«~ 
''"''  'P,^^,'"'^'  «l>'!"n''ion  bv  evaporation  is  the  move,  imvo- 
'XsJ/  the  rear  muml,  (he  effect  reniaius  -very  miic\\  U^e 
iLLi'fjlf'  "7  *■'"''"'  """  "«■  d'-flciency  of  water  ■*•«« 
nJ^/d  l^nfl^"""""  r'  !'■'*'*"■  '•••«>>l'  inK  from  tVie  co. 
^^Vj^r     '{''""^'«,"  "'«>-  be  necessary  lo  oce* 
urpius  tiater.     If  was  found  that  the  noa^a^M 


84C  THE   STEAM-ElfGllfB. 


M-  varied  dm^M 


I 


I 


IbJA  continual  use  of  iiat  same  oonclensiDX-wator 
IwlfTPt-n  ST  .5  and  %Tinchra.    TIip  ereat  (ta*ios  of  fpac* 
the  fnct  that  onlf  the  nTe-liiindreilcii  part  or  the  floof'fpare  h  nf 
if  co^'lirj,:  ui!<k!'  or  I'^n^.]-^  »<'ie  u»«m}.    For  a  lOO-lwrw)  uomtr  m 
Lflporsp-t'  square  ]-arda  by  a  iieisnlaC  tVM 

l<%r  uiiH  '  yards  cooling-surfao*  la  aaoaM 

verticals  i  •ne  is  very  essaealial.    VTtth^wm 

ioctiea  ill  diaiiititr  aiid  a  tuucr  C  by  7  feel  atid  VO  feet  bigli.  IMM| 
water  per  hour  were  exiled  from  104'  F.  to  88'  F.  Tb»  fnlknrta 
was  inado  at  Mannlieiiii,  Uennany:  Vacuum  in  condenatr,  flLI  )M 
perature  of  condciioing-watrr  enterini;  al  top  of  tower.  KM*  M 
temperature  of  water  leaviu^  the  cooler.  OS.a"  to  T1.6*  F.  Tta  aV 
of  the  Stilxer  cpniixjunij  type,  of  !vn  her-..-  im.h-t  Tl>e  •BHMaxi 
necessary  for  the  orraii^feinerit  nr'  »ro»ot<i< 

horse-jjower  of  the  entrme  for  tli*  !•■«  aad  0* 

three  per  cent  for  the  liftinK  of  t:-  .leoooUr,  i 

beiiiK  four  and  one  faalf  to  six  per  c-.-iit. 

A  Corel  form  of  condenaer  has  lieen  used  with  consUeraU*  m 
Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent.  TVte  ezhaust-nleMB  1 
eDirine  pa»8es  through  a  series  of  braM  pipeii  Immerved  In  vaur, 
It  elve«  up  its  heat.  Between  each  section  of  tubes  a  uiimtiicr  of  fi 
disks  are  caused  tn  rotate.  These  disks  are  cooled  bj  a  enrrv 
M7pplied  by  a  fan  aud  pass  down  into  the  water,  c<M->llii|f  M  by  i 
ini;  the  heat  Rlvpu  out  by  the  exhaust-Kteam  and  carryloi;  tt  ap  wl 
drivj-u  iifT  by  the  air-ciirreDt.  The  disks  eerre  al-o  r..  aiiltai^  tbe  • 
thus  aid   ii  in  abstraciing  the  heat  from   i  at 

vacuum  the  leiiiperalure  of  the  ctwIinK  vn  .)•  | 

coQgiiniptlon  of  water  for  couc|pn»liig  is  i;UariL  ^tsi 

for  each  pcmml  of  steam  condensed.     For  an  '  « 

hitlons  per  minute,  80  lbs.  pre*sure,  there  is  n-  '  r« 

Burface.     Another  condenser.  ItWlO  aq.  ft.  of  !•'  -  1» 

three  eiiKiDfR,  :W  in.  y.  •)»  in.,  27  in.  x  40  in.,  aiiJ  30  ir^.  ■  (o  m..  raq 
— TTi''  .N/<"'iiii«/ii)). 

Tbe  Increane  of  Power  that  may  be  obtain«id  by  ailtflBKSt 
giving  a  vacuum  of  -X  inches  of  mercury  to  a  nou-««n<1enateK*M|^ 
approximated  by  considerliip  it  to  be  equivalent  lo  a  net  caiaM  ' 
mean  effectlTe  pressure  per  square  inch  of  piston  area.  It  A  a  ana 

in  sqiutre  iocfaes,  S  =  ptston-speed  In  ft.  per  minute,  tbra  =r^  —  s 

made  available  hy  the  vacuum.    If  the  vacuum  =  13.1  Km.  ^ 

In.  of  mercury,  then  H.P.  =  ^S  ■*■  -'500. 

TItt  saving  of  »leam  for  a  ifiven  horse-power  will  be  I 
malely  by  the  shortening  of  the  eut-off  when   tin-  »-ii 
coixhnser.     Oli-aiaiic«  alinuM  be  IncUnleil  in  ' 
elTeottve  presMiire  non^jondcnsinjr,  witii  a  . 
Ci>ii»|ilere<l,  add  H  lbs.  to  obtain  tlit-  apiT'X.r 

deiuiinK.     From  taMi»»of  expaii' i  ^I  i 

give  tills  mean  total  pressure.     '1 ': 
■CI  nal  cutoff,  divided  bylhelait  («tl 

Hitvintr. 

Tile  fiilliiHlnK  diuKruni  ifroiii  ei4t»J<>);i|B  of  ti.  K.  WortltlnftMll 
jieirr-iirii;;.'  ..f  (..  tvM-r  I  lull  iniM"  l»r  k:;iiiK'*i  \>^  itHin-liiiiiT  u  ri^tid^nfv 

Coll' 

(tnr 

«i]r< 

'I'llr  \n  fr,_.,ii|  . 

To  lliid  the  in 
ll»,  ^.'m.-.f  =  : 
te'i 

nil' 

fh 


I 


\,   PETnOLFA'M^   AND    TIOT-AIK    KXOIXRIS.        847 


uf   UitikUliii^  k   {    i      i    i     i     MIb 


3ISII3Ii33 


K 


Psr  Ctrrt  of  Bovwr  baincd  by  Vacuum . 


Fio.  151. 


^tfAra  mnd  Dl»tllter«  nre  URe<1  with  marine  pngines  for  the 

proTididj;  fresh  «nii'i'  Un-  tlii*  hoilcrs  nr  for  driukiiie:  iKirjwstes. 

Vaporalnr  coiibIhIs  i.f  a  sinnti  horizontal  boiler,  trniitrivptl  ko  OS 
takeu  to  pieces  and  cIhoiicI.    The  water  In  It  is  «"vn|«jrateil  by 

Iroin  the  main  bollem  passini;  thrnueh  a  Ret  of  IuIm^  placed  In  ita 
e  8U>aiii  (teiHTHted  in  this  boiler  is  adraitted  to  the  low- 
e-box,  (to  ihiil  thf  re  is  no  loss  of  energ)-,  and  Mie  wator  con- 
iretuniHd  to  tlm  main  boilers. 

^ed-hetiirr  t\n^  fr-eii-wAUfr  t)«fore  entering  tlie  boiler  is  heated 
1y  to  bolllnK- point  by  means  of  tho  waste  water  ami  ateaui 
^pressure  valve-box  of  a  compound  engine. 

PETBOLEUM,  AND  HOT-AIB  ENQDfES. 

fi*«. — For  theory   of  the  (tas-entrine.    see  paper  by  DiiRalil 
n«t.  C.  E.  IS8J,  vol.  Ixii.;  and  Van  NoBtraud's  Science  Series, 
Wood's  Therinodynamlcs.   For  eonstruotlon  of  Kas-eiiirlnes, 
i'»  Gas  and  Petroleum  EneineK;   arlicles  bv  Albert  Spleo  in 
— i»»iie,  18W;  al£0  Appleton*a  Cyc.  of  Mechanlcji.  and  Jloiiem 


~t  typeof  8lnjrle-cyl/nderg^a.»-enKine  (for  exttm\AB  V\\»OvVo> 
^jr-erele  engine  onv  Ignition  of  (jas  take*  vA**^*^  ^^  ^'^•^  "v^  "^ 
mrgrynio  rfvohitlotm  of  the  rtywhefl,  or  evei-y  \.*o  Ac.'uVA* 
eolJon:  •,'  ot  oi'orailoiis  tfik<>M  piace  i\«rVu(E  ^c--' 

K,->  •   duriiif;  nn  entire  strvikf.  <b>  coiin 

oTm"',     1         .  '■'"■  <'■'  'V"ftft>n  B<  the  Ue'ad-tMvVtu,  &v 

«a»udo  Hoch^  iu  isoj  laid  Uowt.  vUe  Vaw  Vi 


848        GA3,    PETBOLEUJi,   AND   HOT-AIR  BNOll 

four  conditloUB  necessory  to  realbte  llie  liH-.f  r.'siilti  from  th*  I 
of  gas:  (1)  Tbe  cyliudei-s  aIiouM  liave  tli'  iij 

clrciiiiiferetitinl  siirfiufi  rit  l  lie  sppf  d  s' 
cutoff  should  be  ttK  i»ai  ly  us  |Kissililn;  . 
high  OS  possible.     In  niiuiHri)  en(;liie«  it  is  . 
place,  not,  at  ihe  dpail  poiul.  ns  proi>osi-d  by  1 
later,  wht-n  the  pisl'jii  lius  al irmly  nuvle  pan  ■ 

siglit  It  iniKbt  be  sujiposed  lliot  this  voulcl  eiitnii  h  _ 

eiiee  sliowH  tliat  though  the  aiva  of  the  dliipriiiii  i  Ml 

iTglstert'd  liy  the  frlciiou-biake  Is  greater.    Sioriii'  I' I 

tlilK  method  of  woi-kiiig.   (Thp  Simplex  Eiigliip,  Hi'  ID 

In  th»  Otto  eriKlue  the  mixture  of  Ras  and  air  i-  t  M 

atntospherefi.     When  erplosion  takeH  place  the  teiii  ■  .'lj( 

to  Bomewhere  about  2900*  F.    iKobiiisou.) 

The  two  KTviit  soui't'es  of  waste  in  icas-taKliips  are:  1.  Thi'  liliA  I 
tun>  of  the  ri*j«;if-<]  pioduols  of  combimlloii :  i    Loss   nf  hmf  ilm 
pylinder  ivalls  to  thi"  »vot»?i -joclcot.     Awlhelii 
is  increased  the  elHcifncy  or  the  engine  liecoD 
With  ordinary  e<>al  fraa  the  coiii'uuintion  i 
hour  per  I.U.P.,  or  21  on.  ft.  per  brake  H.r.  '1  lir  ■: 
the  quality  of  tlie  gas.     When  binning  Donnoii  pr>' 
lion   of  antliracitu   (Welsh)  coal   i«  atiout    1.3  lli>. 
urdinonr  working'.    With  large  twin  eii^rineii,  i(X)  I: 
reduced  to  about  I.l  lb.    The  niechnniwil  •■ffli.'leii' 

ortlinary  enf;iues  is  about  85,1:  the  fiiclloii  IuA!)  !<.  I 

Sfflclency  oftbe  Gaa-cng-lne.    (Tiiuralon  on  tlem  ua 
Energy.) 

Heat  transftrrecl  Into  ust'ful  worlc 

"  "  to  ihe  jacket-water 

"     lost  In  the  exhaust  gas 

"       "    by  couductioa  atid  radiation 


i 


This  repreiientji  fairly  the  dlHtrlbution  of  heat  in  tb«  best  I 
c-nRine.    The  consumption  of  eas  in  the  li^st  rngiiieo  range*  : 
tunm  of  IB  to  'JO  cu.  ft.  p«r  I.ff.P  per  hout-  to  a  maxltnum  eiM 
snialliT  eninnes  K  en.  ft.  or  .10 eu.  ft.     In  ■mall  piic-;iii»»  »tip  cottntnt 
l)rake  horse-power  is  one  third  Rrenter  ihnn  I ! 

The  ifport  of  a  test  of  a  17d-H.l'.  Crossley 
189J,  using  prodiicerpns,  show.sa  consuoipti.> 
hour,  or  un  aljsolnte  ooinblued  eflieieucy  of  Ji..'.:   ' 
duoer.     The  elllciency  of  the  eiipine  alone  is  in  tlie 

The  Taylor  ^as-producer  is  used  in  mniiif^tirin  w  r 

tlie  works  of  Sc'bleiclier.  Scliumm  .';    '         

to  radiation  tlirougli  the  walls  uf 

carried  ofT  in  the  water  fronk  \l 

engine  sln>\v  ti  t'utisumptlon  of  6",  ioi'  lo.  "i  vzirt^ou  : 

ri'jiiill  Is  superior  to  any  ever  obtained  on  a  steam -•: 

Teats  of  the  Simplex   Gaa-«nc1iie.     (I 
t^liiiiler  JJf,  >  K>*;|  In.,  speed  1(A)  n-vs.  per  niin.   Ti  inls  »  n 
of  A  tieatiuK  value  of  C07  hrut-nnils  per  cubic  foiil     i 
,  rich  iu  CO,  of  alMUl  ISO  iMutunita  per  cubic  foot. 

TowD  Qoa.  Dvmmm 

1.  a.  S,          T            t 

tIteH.P 8.70  8  87  9.0         7.lt          »« 

IperU.I-.  (lerbour,  cu.  ft.  2I.&S  iO.lit  tU.TS  W.Ot       I14.HI 

Iter  per  H.P  p«>rhour,  lbs.  M.T  44.4  43.0  9H 

Tamp,  water  ent<>rihi;,  F BI»  6J*  Bl*          4B» 

••       rntuenl tSfi'  144*  iff  \M* 


'■"IS)  in 
..rki 


^^let'lnl  111 
[part*  i^r  ih 


GAS-ENGINES. 


iirruii^iiiciils   Imve  tieeii  (luvltHHl  in  order  U>  keep 
apriate  temperalui'e*.    The  coal  i 
111.  iwr  liiilii-'atfd  or  I  iW  Id.  pi-r  braku  horw-power. 


the 
r  I  hi- iiiaohliif  fit  appropriate  temperalui'e*.  The  coaf  usvd 
idicaifd  or  1  iWli).  pur  brakM  horw-power.  Ttie  water  used 
Hi'iis  |)er  brake  hori*  power  iter  lionr. 
of  an  Otto  Gas-euglne,  (Jmir.  F.  /.,  Firb.  ISOO,  p.  US.)— Cn- 
l.l".  iKiiiilua!;  Morkint:  i-!i|iiirlly  of  cylinder  .SMI  cii.  ft. ;  clearance 
790  uu.  fi. 

Percent 

Heat-units,  of  Heat 

receivfril. 

Trausferred  Into  work *!.84 

Takpii  by  jacket- water 49.91 

•■    exhaii.st  a7.*J 


I 


Ware  of  gas  Hupplled 


°  F. 

{tplled..     &i.-i 
laust...  77-1.3 


"  euteriaKwnter 
"  exit  water  . . . 

vof  ffrw,  in.  of<%«aier.. 

UtH  |>er  inin.,  av^e .  •  • . 

oiis  niiKHwl    per  niiii., 

Wf 

Iffeotlve  pressure,   Ikti. 

tin 
Wer.  iudkiattKl 

explosion,    foot 


M).4 
Wl  i 

s.on 
101. a 


ll.B 


St. SBM. 

ooa  per  minute  74. 

'd  per  lU.!*.  per  liour, 

SS.4 


I. 


C'onipo<<it!oii  of  tUe  t^as: 

Uy  Vuluiiie.    By  Welkin. 

CO,    O.BO*  l.!hi« 

Lvii. 4.38  ]U.r.a) 

O     1.00  S.797 

CO  4.88  15.419 

fH,  97.18  88.048 

H  5I.B7  U.O-JI 

N 9.08  M.MTS 

99. Wl  90.995 


ratarea  and  PreBsnrea  developed  In  aGas-engrlne. 

n  the  OiLH-enirine.l— .Mixtures  of  uir  unil  Oldliani  ctiftl-gii.s.     'I'einper- 
Dfore  explosion,  IT'  C. 


I 


Uixtiire. 

M 

ax.  FreMi 

aba 
lbs. 

ve  Atning. 
per  sq.  in. 

Air. 

L     14  vols. 

4U. 

13    " 

SI  5 

1-j    '• 

00. 

It     " 

61. 

9     ** 

78. 

7    *' 

87. 

6    ** 

90. 

91. 

ft     4 

HO. 

Temp,  of  Explo- 

Hion  calculated 

from  observed 

Pressure. 

VO&'C. 

1230 
15S7 
1733 
1T9S 
1813 
1595 


Theoretical 
Temp,  of  Explo- 
sion if  all  Heat 
were  evolved. 
1786°  C. 
19li.> 

aoss 

2228 
IAS70 
3334 
3806 


I' 
the  Clerk  Gaa-englne.    (Proc.  IiiHt.  C.  E.  18S2,  vol.  Ixix.)— 
X  14  ill,  150  rev!<.  per  lulu.;  iiieuii  .tvuilable  pressure  70. 1  lbs,  9 
tlfnuni  pressure, 'ii)  H;s.  ]ier  sq.  in.  ftl>ove  atmusphere;   preHsure 
lion.  41  lbs.    above  aim.;    teni|>erattire  l^fore  compression  00° 
'eonipressioii,  311"  F.;  teiiiperutiire  after  ignition  calculated  from 
»,  2Hi.^**  V. ;  K"**  reqiiiied  per  I. II. P.  per  liniir.  'il  tni.  ft. 
bnstlon  of  ttae  Gaa  In  tlir  Ottu  EnBlne.— John  liiiray,  in 
DU  of   Mr.  Clerk's  pa(x-r  on  Tiietiiy  of  the  (Jas-eiitfiiie,  nays;   The 
hrbicii  Mr.  Otto  intr(>duce<l,aii-l  wliicn  rendered  the  engine  a  success, 
I,  tn:ilead  of  burniut;  in  the  eyiluder  on  expiosE%'e  mixture  of  ^afi  and 
>uriie<l  U  ill  company  with,  aTui  arranged  iei  a  certain  way  in  reKi>fct 
ee  volume  of  iDComDUHtihle  gaii  whicii  waK  beutetl  by  it,  and  wiilch 
(led  the  upeed  of  combustion.    W.  H.  Bouslleld.  In  tlie  .same  dlwii*- 
in:  Id  the  Otto  enKbie  the  chiuRe  varied  from  n  charge  wbicli  wnn  , 
Mlve  Miixtiire  at  tlie  point  of  icniiioo  lo  a  charge  which  wa^  merely  i 
"""  'd  near  the  piston.    \\  heu  ignition  took  place  there  yeas    n  expio-  ] 
>tbe  p- 'lilt  of  Ignition  that  uiusgrailualiy  coimnunicateil  ihi»ii|:li' 
tA  of  llie  cylliiiler.    As  the  i>,'iiiiiuu  got  (arlUer  a^a.?  tvovv\  \\»>» 
hn  of  iKitltiiiii  thf  rate  of  rrnii.siiiisRioii  became  s\ower.Sii\ii.\$  A'^ 
(  not  trorkoil  (om  faul  ihe  ignition  should  (jraduaW?  en" 
furine  ill  irav^l.  nil  Die  <'oiiil.u.stible  cas  k>el.iB  l\\v« 
sr  alow  comOusii.m  is,  lionever.   <li*piile.\   l.v  »r 


850         GAS,  PETBOLEOM,  AND    HOT-AIB   ENQlIfl 


I 

I 


IRuaHne   or  volatile  petroleum  spirit  of  low  «p.  irr. .  0  (S  to  (.1 
aume  nt  th^  R&soiiiie,  and  Ihn  air  tnuit  saturated  with  vapor  isr' 
iUK  i^T  li^hliug  power  to  ordiuar;  coal-gas.     It  may  tberrfom  t 
fuel  f>ir  itus-enginrs.     Siiit-e  tim  vupor  i«  pivpu  m(T  iit  i.i.|;niiry  i. 
f^asoline  is  very  exploftlTe  and  dangerous,  and  shoul<i 
^rouiui  tank  out  of  diKirg.     A  defect  in  the  use  of  c. 
enclnes  in  that  the  more  volatili'  prodiiois  are  (jiven    ■ 
residuH  wljioli  is  often  useless,    t^mne  of  the  substancei  In  ili"  i 
talcen  up  by  the  air  are  apt  to  fonn  trouhlesome  depofiM  ailii  t 
wlien  huinf-d  in  the  enitine cylinder. 

Tb«    Otto    GaBollne-eng:tiie.     (iCjiti'g  Xna,  Ma;  <  I 
cliiiined  Iliac  where  hut  a  small  j;usr<liDe  eni;iue  is  oaed  mat  tt»l 
hoii^Ut  at  t-etali  the  liquid  fuel  will  be  on  a  par  with  a  it^aA-vti^ttil 
Ills,  of  coal  iier  hofne-power  per  hour,  and  coal  at  $3.S0 p«r  tt*"**^ 
besides  save  all  iIid  haudliui;  of  llie  solid  fuel  and  a«he«.«i  ircK| 
leDdiince  for  the  boilers.     An  very  few  stnall  liieam-englD 
lliiin  6  lbs.  of  coal  per  hour,  this  is  an  exceptional  ahowine  for« 
Sets,  per  Bnllon  for  euROUne  and  1,10  gal.  required  per  H.P.  ' 
C'lSl  per  It.l'.  i>er  hour  will  beO  8  cent. 

Tbe  Prlestman  P«troleum-enctne.  KJour.  fVtak.  J 
I.SW.S  I— Tlie  full«jwinR  is  a  lieseription  of  tne  oi>eratlon  of  th»  < 
tirdiniiry  hicli  lest  i.usually  ir>i>"  testi  oil  is  forewl  under  nir  1 
aiouiizer,  where  the  oil  is  met  by  a  current  of  air  on.i  ; 
nuil  sprayed  incoamixer,  where  ii  fg  mixed  with  Hi 
supplementiiry  air  and  sufHcienlly  beate<i  by  the  exi: 
jiaiAsine  around  tills  clinniber.  The  mixture  is  then  drawn  t'V'  r''^'* 
the  c>  Under,  where  it  is  coinpreiwed  by  the  piston  and  Ijfnited  by  !•■( 
spurk,  a  governor  con  trolling  the  supply  of  oil  and  air  propo™**" 
the  work  performed.  The  burnt  products  are  discharKsd  tJir(M|)l  V 
liaiist-valve  which  i.i  actuated  by  a  cam.  Part  of  the  aJr  «u|>por(lllM^ 
bust  ion  of  the  oil,  and  the  heat  generated  by  the  cnmbuiUaatf" 
expands  ilie  air  that  remains  and  live  protiuot-s  i°esuliiiig f rom  tlta^J 
and  thus  develops  its  power  from  air  tluit  it  lakes  in  wliilenwM 
other  words,  the  eni^ne  exerts  its  power  by  inbalini;  nIr,  brtilW*^ 
and  expelling  the  products  of  combustion  when  done  with  UlWt 
eoKioea  only  the  i/^M  pari  of  a  pint  of  oil  is  used  at  any  ua«lia«>i 
the  stnsUest  RJzes  the  fuel  is  prepared  lii  correct  quant itiiv  tarjkit 
1/7000 of  a  pint  upward,  according  to  whether  the  engine  tt  rmnlac* 
or  full  duty.  The  cycle  of  operations  bi  the  game  aa  that  i^  Ik*  M 
eniriiie. 

TrIaH  of  u.  6-B.P.  Piiestman  Po(r.  :>    ' 
W.  C.  Unwin.  Proc.  Inst.  (.'  E.  IKir.'  i^  Cylinder 
aiO  revs,  per  min.    Two  oils  were  usi.-<i.  Rus»<.i 
important  reaiUta  wereKivenin  the  following  tame: 


Oilu«ed... 

Brake  H.P 
I.H.I 


Trial  V. 

Full 
tower. 


Day. 
liebt. 
7.7HS 
».M0 
0.!S4 

0.M3 

O.tM 
33.4 

,151.4 

MeMi  eompresaion  pr«»  \ 
eur«,  Iba.  per  »q  In  . .  \    » .** 
ternjln«l  |»reti»ure, 


Mecbanioal  elBcienc 
Oil  used  Iter  brake  H.P.I 

hour,  lb ' 

Oil    use<I    per    Indicated 

H.P.  hour,  lb 

Lb.  of  air  per  lb.  of  oil . . 
Heao  explosion  pressure. 

llw.  pt>r  aq.  In 


Trial  I. 

FuU 
Power. 


Russu- 
lene. 
a.TOR 
T.4(« 
O.Qt 

O.M« 

0.854 
81. V 

1S4.8 


Trial  IV 

Full 

IVjwer. 

TxUt 

Pa«<4 

Uuno- 

8,«m 

8.S3I 

«.8ai 

)4 

ft.SM 

^ 

itt.a 

ma. 

\\.u 


EFFICIENCY   OF   L0C01I0TITB8.  8&1 

vine  was  equiralent,  in  Trialg  L,  IV.,  and  V.,  to  1  'ttlbn.,  1.48  IIm.. 
fof  coal  fier  br&k«  hur«e-poWrr  pf-r  hour.  From  Trial  IV.  the 
does  of  ine  expenditure  of  heat  were  obtained: 

PeroenL 

rork  at  brake 11.81 

ticlioii 8.81 

bwi)  on  iadicator -diagram 16. IS 

"  in  jat-ket- water 47.54 

in  exhaust -gases 98.78 

and  unaccounted  for 0.01 

d   99.99 

•cagintim  are  in  use  to  gome  extent  in  small  yac-hlit  and 

fill"  naphtha  is  vaporiwd  in  a  boiler,  and  the  vapor  i&  lined  ei- 

n  the  euKii»?  cylinder,  as  sleain  is  used;  it  is  ilien  condenKed  and 

>  the  boiler.     A  jKirtkiU  of  the  naphtha  Tapor  Is  used  for  fuel  uti- 

iter.    According  to  the  circular  of  the  builders,  the  Gas  Enpine 

0.  of   New  York,  a  "i-H.P.  engine  requires  from  3  to  4  quart."  of 

hour,  and  a  4-H.P-  cnRine  from  4  lotiquarts.     The  chief  advan- 

naphtlia-engine  uud  boiler  fur  launches  are  the  saving  of  »  eiiclil 

Ikneas  of  operation.     A  3-H.P.  engine  weighs  aoo  lbs.,  a  J-H.P.  300 

H  onir  about  two  minutes  to  get  imder  headway,    (Modem 

p.  aTO.) 

(or  Caloric)  EnElnea — Hot-air  engines  are  used  toaouie 
iieir  bulk  is  enormous  compared  with  their  effective  power.  For 
of  the  largest  bot-air  engine  erer  built  <a  total  failure)  see 
of  Ericsson.  For  theoretical  Investlgaton,  see  Ranlciiie's 
und  Hontgen's  Tliennodynamlca.  For  description  of  con- 
Applotiin  s  Cyc.  of  Mechanics  and  Modem  Mechanism,  and 
iSuhstiUites  for  Sieam.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Tii.,  p.  fiBS. 
ra  Hot-air  Engine  (Robinsons— A  vertical  double-cylinder 
igine  Co.  SI  \i  nominal  H.P.  enijine  Rave  20.19  I  H.I',  iu  the  work- 
r  and  11.38  l.H.P.  in  the  pump,  leaving  S.81  net  I.H.P.;  while  the 
«ke  U.P.  was  5.9,  giving  a  mecliatiical  eniciency  of  6T;(.  Con- 
af  coke.  3.7  lbs.  per  brake  H.P.  per  hour.  3Iean  pressure  on 
17  lbs.  i>er  square  inch,  and  in  pumps  15.9  lbs.,  the  area  of  working 
leing  twice  that  of  the  piirap«.  The  hot  air  supplied  was  about 
d  that  rejt-cted  at  end  of  stroke  about  H90*  F. 
result  of  Stirling's  heyt-engine  was  'J.T  lbs.  per  brake  HP.  per 
n's  hut-air  engine.  2  H.P.  nominal,  gave  4. J  l.H.l'.,  2.6  B.H.P.; 
refflciency  6iJ;  estimated  temperature  at  highest  pressure  I500° 
Itiiiospherio  pressure  TOU"  F.  Uigbest  pressure,  14  lbs.  per  square 
I  atmosphere.  Con.«umpiioo  of  fuel,  7  lbs.  per  hour  per  brake 
|(  Cooling  water,  30  lt>s. 


LOCOMOTIVES. 

of    EiOcomotlTes   and   Bealstance   of  Train*. 

HemiersoD.  Proc.  Engrs.  Cliibof  Phila.  18M6.)— The  efflciency  of 
ca<"  be  divided  into  ttvu  principal  parts:  the  flrst  dependlnt: 
Jw  of  the  cyliiiciers  and  wheels,  (lie  valTe-gear,  boiler  and  steam 
f  ivliich  the  tractive  power  is  a  function;  and  the  second  upon 
grade,  curvature,  and  friction,  which  combine  to  produce  the 

t  power  may  be  determined  aa  foUowa  : 
tive  power; 
erage  effective  pressure  in  cylmder; 
rj/re  of  pialoa: 
neter  ol  cyllniJerB: 

r  ot  driTing-wbeebi.    Then 

P—  *'^'P3  _  0*98 

4wD      ~      D    • 


852 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


Tb6   A^^^*^^'    ufT.uilipn    t.r^.^utir<>    c>aii    Vu>    itlil  fiirii^l     f  ri  iiii     A  ti    rmlhj"trijr-^t 

trmiM,  ur 
kuowii,  I 

jolhfHl   tjil .1.,.^..:..^ i      ^.-.  •  -.^i    f    f ^. ;.  :  .    .,,^. 

prrasure  la  boilrr-pmiaMire  kbuve  atinusplierti  for  various  prupvrUoos 
culroit. 


Stroka, 
CutaOat— 


.1 

.15 

.ITS 

.a 


lf.K.P, 

(Bottor- 

pros,  s  l\ 


Stroke, 
CiitoSat- 


I 


.15 

.3 

.'U 

.88 
.4 

M 


(ME.  P. 
Boiler- 
pres.  =  ]). 


.533=  W 
.3TS  =  ?| 

i 
.45 

5  =  K 
.55 


.56 
.57 
M 
.•7 
.78 


Stroke, 
Cutoff  at— 


.025  =  « 

•?  =  « 

.8 


M.K.P. 

(Bofler 

prea.  =  i 


.79 

.a 


Thcw  valura  were  deduced  from  eTperintenti  with  an  English  loconidU 
hy  Mr.  OoeK-h.  As  diaernms  vai-y  si)  much  from  differeut  cniL^es,  thi.s  tub 
will  (inly  fairlT  repn>8eDt  practical  cases.  It  is  evld^-nt  that  thi?  cui-olT  mm 
be  ouch  tlint  tlie  boiler  will  Iw  capuble  of  supplyinK  isufnclent  uteam  at  I 
Ijlven  wpet'd. 

In  the  following;  calculations  it  is  UR'-'iimed  that  the  adhesion  of  the  pmi 
i«at  leotit  equal  to  the  tractive  powKv.  which  ia  generally  the  ciue— if  I 
engine  he  well  deslm>ed -except  when  startinir,  or  running  at  a  rerjt  t 
rate  <if  spefd,  with  a  »iniall  fxpan.slve  ratio,  ^ylleu  ruiinitit;  fotiter,  ecoiioii 
and  nl!«o  thf  size  of  tlie  boiler,  rtecesaifate  a  iii^ber  ratio  of  expansion,  ll 
rcducinR  the  tractive  power  l.elow  the  adhesion.  If  the  adliesioo  be  I 
than  iJie  tractive  power,  substitute  U  for  the  latter  In  Lhe  followine  If 

lllullEl. 

The  renidtances  can  be  computed  In  the  following  naanner,  first  ctin^iji 
ine  the  traiu : 

Tht-rc  ii  a  i-esistonce  due  to  friction  of  the  jouniols,  pressure  of  wind,  e 
whlcli  Increases  with  the  speed.  Most  of  the  exp«'riment«  made  with  a  ti 
(if  rtr'tennfnini;  th**  re«l.sta.iice  of  train!s  have  been  with  European  rvilinir4i< 
and  irn  European  railways.  The  few  trials  Ihut  have  been  made  here  u 
to  prove  that  with  Aiiiei-fa^n  systems  thU  r«8Uttanc«  is  leas. 

The  followiii);  table  Kives  the  resistance  at  dlfferenC  speeds,  asnimed 
Anierican  pi-nctlce : 

Speed  iu  miles  per  hour  : 

J  =    5       10       15      ao 


40 


is     ao      as 

Resistance  in  pounds  per  ton  of  S340  lbs.: 
K  =     3.1        3.4         4,        4.8      5.8       7.1        8.B 

Coefflcient  of  resistance  in  terms  of  load  : 
I  =  .0015    .0017    .OO-.'O     .00S4  .0029   .OWK  .0043  .0051 


46 


se     u 


lO.a      12.1     14.8     16.8 


.0060   .0071    .0084 


I  =  .0015 


O+ili)- 


The  resistance  duo  to  tnirvalure  is  about  .5  lb.  per  ton  per  desroe  of  i 
rature,  or  the  coelBclent  =  .00025c,  where  c  =  the  curvature  in  rfeerer* 

The  effect  of  grades  may  he  determined  by  the  theory  of  the  iacIlM 
plane. 

Consider  a  load  JL  on  a  graile  of  m  feet  per  mile.    The  coiMponeut  of  11 
ueighl  L  acting'  iu  the  line  of  traction,  or  parallel  to  the  tracic,  Is 

r  sin  »  =  ;F^  =  .OOOlBtm. 

To  combine  these  (^oeff\cieMB  in  one  equatioB  representing  the  raiusi»' 
of  the  f  rain  ; 
LetJJ  =  weiRht  of  tram,  exc\M»\vcol  e\\s«n»i,VnV«»*»\ 
H  =  resistance  ot  iraiu,  Vn.  vovmAa. 
«.  c.  and  »n,  as  above,    t^veu  -^ 


if=x.t.oo<i-v'^>«««-^ 


KKTtA  AND  RESISTANCES  OF  Rj^lLHOAD  TRAINS.    853 


"inn  niPiin'wf;  tliat  this  coeflicieDt  is  poBitive  Cor  aaceudiun  and  oegtk- 
I  np  prudes. 

I''  ii|Hiii  whiuli  a  train  would  descend  b^  itself,  taJce  tiie  lost 
i>  auil  make  R  =  U,  whence 

ocomotives  usually  Ijave  a  lone  rUid  nherl-hase,  the  coeincient  tor 
lire  bad  lieUer  lie  duubled.  Tlie  resisiauce  due  U)  the  frlclion  of  Uie 
ig  parts  will  he  coiisI(lered  as  iH'ini;  pr(>p<>i'tii.>iial  to  the  (-motive  pri»*#?r, 
1  the  elTovtire  tractive  power  will  be  repreMnled  by  ui',  tlie  resiataooe 
'1  -  U)P. 

Muiug  all  tlieMi  valueR,  Ibere  retnilts  Ibe  equation  between  the  trac- 
wer  und  the  weight  ot  the  traio  uud  eogiue: 

uP-  tr<. 0003c  ±  .00019nO  =  LI  +  .OOOaSc  ±  .OOOIOwi, 

ir  weieht  of  eugine  and  tender,  aod  v  belDj;  probably  about  .8. 
iformiiiK,  we  have 


i  = 


uF-  ir(.00O5c  ±  .OOOianQ 


I  +  .oooaec  ±  .o(wi»iu    ' 

£(14-  .OOOaec  ±  .0001»nt>+  )r(.0005c  ±  .OOOIOm) 


I  deductions,  sa}'s  Mr.  Heuderson,  a^^e  well  with  railroad  praclf^ 
Igurefl  given  aliove  for  resistaiuxs  are  very  iiiucli  Ii'ks  tliaii  tlioM^ 
y  the  old  forinulce  (which  were  certainly  wrongl,  but  even  Sir.  Hen- 1 
»  figures  for  hig^li  s|>eeil  are  too  high,  aceonljUK  t<j  a d iarrain  given  bjT  | 
Unes  in  Eiig'g  Mug.,  June,  18SM,  from  which  the  following  figures  an»  ] 

i 

^niUesper hour SO 

^bnce,  pounds  per  gross  ton . .     13 

nwifj™.  March  8,  IS91,  gives  a  fnriunla  which  for  hieh  speeds  gives 
for  resistance  l.iotween  those  of  Mr.  Bariitg  and  Mr.  Heudersou.  See 
ported  in  Kng'g  Xews  of  June  9,  lf9-'.  The  formula  is,  resistance  in 
per  ton  =  J^  velocity  in  miles  per  hour  -f-  -'.    This  gives  for 


60   70 

80 

90 

100 

12.4  18.5 

15 

17 

80 

10  15  ao  t^     30 

35  40  43   50  60   70  80  BO  lOO 

4.5  5«  7  6^    (I.S 

lOJi  M  iSyi  14.5  IT  19.6  «  84.5  Vt 

iblee  showinK  that  the  resistAnce  varies  wiUi  the  area  exposed  to  the 
ice  »nd  friction  of  the  air  per  ton  of  load,  see  DastiieJI,  Trans.  A.  3. 
•ol.  xili.  p.  371. 
tlaand  Re)(lnta.ncesorRallroadTrminKat  IiiereasluK 

■, — A  series  of  table.t  and  dingrunis  is  g-iven  in  K.  K.  Gnz  ,  Oct,  .St, 
abow  the  resistances  due  to  inertia  in  starting  trains  and  accelerat- 
Ir  speeds, 
leeiuuilcal  principles  and  formuls  rroin  wliieb  these  data  were  cal- 

are  as  follows: 

peed  In  utiles  per  hour  to  lie  ac<)i>ired  at  the  end  of  a  mile. 

I  =  average  speed  in  mile.s  per  hour  during  the  first  mile  run. 

relocity  in  feet  per  second  at  ibe  f  ml  of  a  inilei  iheu  K-t-  S  =  aveiv 

ociiy  in  feet  per  second  during;  t.ho  flrst  mile  run, 

►■  iyi  =  time  in  seconds  retinired  to  nin  titst  niEle  =  10500  -i-  V. 

;i05«0  -f-  Vt  =!"-(- 106110  =  .0000947  r"  i.  Constu.nL  gain  in  velocity  or  M 

alion  in  feet  per  second  necessary  to  the  acquirement  of  a  velocity  V  H 

ind  of  a  mile.  ^ 

■toleration  due  to  the  force  of  gravity,  i.e.,  Zi.i  feet  per  second. 

Hses  re4)uire<l  to  a<!celerate  a  given  mass  In  a  given  tune  to  dilTi'rent 

^Sre  in  proportion  to  those  velocitle.-;.    The  weichtof  a  body  is  the 

eof  the  rorcH  widcli  accelerates  it  iu  the  case  of  gravity,  and  as  we 

aidering  I  lb.,  or  rlif  unii  <i{  weight,  iis  the  mass  to  \ie  BkCCfe\«a.\.v;4% 

do:  ( f  -*-  lOMOl : :  I  is  to  the  force  requii-ed  to  acceXevaUs  \  Vn.  Vo  \.\i» 

*/"'/'''' .*■"'! "/  "  ""'e  *•""■  or,  what  is  the  same,  to  acce\ett!LVe  W aX 
or  y  -r-  ItkilW  fert  f>er  sccoud. 

fti>xvu>.  ai;.S},   which  equals  .UOtSWhittiVi        ' 


—X^i^pUB     %«»Wlli     ■       II   II     ■■■     Bill      ■-■■-■         J  I      I  I      l-IJ      •■■!  BBH^M 

tTBCdve  rfHrtencT  of  locomoftrM;  WfJh  simple  wrjj-ejl 
ing  four  wheels  coupled.  exiMji-iinents  Kbvp  lHr«-n  made  I 
llTe  siiperinleDdeDt  of  ihe  tastt-rn  Railway  of  France.  1 
j^atest  possible  care  Bii(i  with  the  best  apparRtuB.  and  tj 
was  that  out  of  lOOI.H.P  in  the  cjliiidcrs  i3  H.P.  only  m 
ilraw-bar.  Th«  loss  of  571  was  rattier  a  hii;li  price  lo  pa 
of  the  engiiie.  How  much  of  Uiat  Ioks  »-a«  due  to  od 
could  vet  say;  but  a  cousidernble  amount,  of  it  niusttel 
cause  It  WAS  known  that  lai^e  eneiueH  with  r  sitiLrlc  pai 
not  coupled  were  doiiie  their  work  more  ecoiu  i 
motive  eoiirineers  who  bad  not  yet  Rono  in  for  . 
eoifif;  back  to  the  siDf^le jMiir  of  drivinij-wheels 
Kissof  STl  had  been  conaniied  independently  on  ibe  IVii 
trials  made  with  an  eiiKine  haviiil:  18^4  x  24  in.  oylind 
wheels  four-coupled;  by  takins  indicator  diagrams  itp  I 
which  were  pixjfessed  to  be  taken  correctly,  the  powd 
was  found  to  be  only  tSf  of  that  in  the  cylinders,  or  OOB 
French  expei^ments,  J 

The  Size  of  LoromotlTe  Cyilndera  Is  usuaU 
that  ib^  eii)£iiie  will  jusl  oven^uine  llieailheiiioii  t^f  Itfl  wlj 
der  favivrutjU-  circtimstances.  1 

The  adliesion  of  Uie  wheel  is  almut  one  third  the  wejf 
clean  and  sanded,  but  is  ugiiatly  assumed  at  0  -JS.  <Thura 

A  couiniittee  of  the  American  Association  of  Maslel 
studying  the  performance  rvports  of  the  best  engines,  n 

iiig  formula  for  weight  on  driTln<;-wheeJ»:  W  =  — — -5 
mean  pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  taken  at  0  86  of  tlM 
starting.  C  is  a  numerical  coeflicietit  of  adhesion .  d  the  d 

in  liiilies  i»  that  of  t)ie  drivers  in  inch--  '  :"  1  lesmj 
onnds  |>er  squari-  inrh,  .s  the  str<>ke  of  i  lie*. 

for  passenger  engines.  0  24  for  freiKhi,  -n  swi 

The  common  builder's  rule  for  delerit  -izv  ^ 

locomotive  ia  the  folloivintc,  in  which  "  1    F< 

tlial  the  steam  |)r,^i^sure  at  the  engine  ii..> 


MLEBS,    GRATE-SURFACE,   SMOKE-STACKS,    ETC. 

Tod  Borriea'ii  rule  for  the  illameter  of  the  low-prraaure  cylinder  of  a 

lad  locomoliTe  la  d^  =  — =-, 
ph 


w 


M 


=  diameter  of  I, p.  cylitiilor  in  Inchw;; 

=  diaiiK-lvr  of  driving-whefll  in  inches; 

=  mean   elTiH-tlre  pressure  per  Hi(.  in.,   after  deducting   internal 
machine  frlcilou;  ^h 

h  =  stralcH  of  pLutoii  in  Inches;  ^^M 

Z  =  traclivf  furce  required,  usuiilly  0.1-1  to  0.16  of  the  adhesion.  ^| 

iTalueof  p  depends  on  the  relative  volume  of  I  he  two  cylinders,  and 
Indicatar  experiments  may  l)e  talcen  as  foJIowa: 

I  of  Enffioe     H*''"  of  Cylinder      v  In  perceiilaKe      p  for  Boiler-nreaa 
«i  I!.  B  Volumes.  of  Boilernreggiire.       ure  of  17fi  fba. 


r 

«Moi  r.oB.nB.  volum'es.  of  Boifer  nr 

■^tender  eng's     1  :  d  or  1  :  2.05  ii  74 

K-enRlnea 1  i  i!  or  1  ;  i  3  40  71 

ho  Size  at  LoeomottTe  Bolli^ra.  (Forney's  Catechism  of  the 
uiiiutive.) — They  Hliould  be  propdruiiiied  to  the  amount  of  adhpoive 
j'ht  "-ntl  t4>  tlie  Hpe4>d  at  wiifoli  ihe  loconii,>ttve  if*  intended  to  wortc.  Tliuu 
ijoiiiotive  with  a  )crrat  deal  of  weiRlii  on  Che  drivlng-wlieels  could  pull  a 
rier  load,  would  have  a  greater  cylinder  capacity  than  one  with  little  ad- 
m  weiKhC.  would  coaaume  more  8team,  and  tlieretore  should  have  a 
M  boiler. 

le  weight  and  diuiensloos  of  locomotive  boilers  are  in  nearly  all  caaea 
irminwl  by  tlie  limits  of  weiglit  and  jipaoe  to  which  they  are  necessarily 
Ined.  It  liiay  be  staled  Rcneraiiy  that  uathin  these  limit  a  n  locomotive 
rr  cimtiot  lie  mode  too  turi/e.  lu  other  words,  boilers  for  locoiriotives 
lid  always  Ije  uiad>-  rh  Uri^e  as  is  possible  undt-r  the  ctmdltions  that  de 
rtine  tlie  weitrht  and  ilirnHji^inns  of  the  locuiuotivHS, 
ITootten'a  I>ocon)Otlve.  (Clark's  Steam-en^ne  ;  nee  also  Jour. 
Bk.  Inst.  IS9I,  and  Moileni  MeclianlKUi,  p.  4Sr)  I — J.  K.  Wootleii  deaifrued 
COiiatnjcted  a  locfiinotfvo  boiler  for  the  combu:>tion  of  aiitliracile  and 
ite,  though  specially  fur  the  ulilizstion  as  fuel  of  the  waste  produced  in 
mining  and  preparation  of  aulhracite.  Tbe  special  feature  of  Ihe  enf^ine 
ie  (Ire-bor.  wliich  U  made  of  ere-iil  length  iiud  breadth,  exlendinR  clear 
r  the  wheels,  Kivint;  a  crate-area  of  from  61  to  8.5  so.  fl.  The  draught 
;ised  over  liiese  larfi^e  areas  i^  8o  gentle  a.4  noC  (o  lift  tite  tine  pii*'4clHf(  of 
fuel.  A  iiuuilmr  of  erpress-enK'  "es  baving  this  type  of  t)niler  are  engai^ed 
,be  faat  trains  lietweeu  Fiiilailelpliia  and  Jersey  Ijily.  The  flre-box  ahell 
ft.  B  In.  wide  and  lU  ft.  5  (n.  long  ;  the  fli-e-box  Is  Bx9l^  ft  ,  mailing  T8  sq. 
C  grate-area.  The  grate  is  composed  of  bar.s  and  water.tubes  alternately. 
regular  types  of  cast-iron  shaKin^  grates  are  also  used.  Tlie  hul|tlit  of 
Br«.box  Ls  only'.'  ft.  1)  in,  above  the  graie.  The  grate  Is  tenninated  by 
Mge  of  flre-brick,  beyond  which  a  coMil>iisiioii  cliaiiiber,  £7  in.  long, 
I  lo  the  lluelubes,  aboiii  184  in  Dnaii3er.  \%  in.  diiim.  The  nylindersare 
I.  dlam..  with  a  stroke  of  •«  Inches.  The  driFlne-wlieela,  four-coiinled, 
\  ft.  8  in.  diain.  The  engine  weiEhs  44  tons,  of  which  29  tons  are  on  drlv- 
■rhenls.  Thf  healiiiit-surface  of  the  fire-box  is  1115  sq  ft,  that  of  the 
tube*  is  98J  sq.  ft.;  tofiether,  1117  sq.  ft.,  or  14.7  timea  the  grate-area, 
ling  15  paasenKcr-cars,  weitchiiiK  "  ith  paKsengers  300  Ums,  at  an  average 
d  of  4i  miles  per  liour.  over  niling  vrmdientsof  1  in  R9,  the  euRlne  oou- 
M  6d  lbs  of  fii.-l  per  mill-,  or  34^  ll(s.  per  sq.  fl  of  erate  per  himr. 
■•Iltlea  £i»enttaa  for  a  Pree-steamlnE  Loconiottve. 
u  a  paper  by  .A.  K  .Mitchell,  read  before  the  N  'i .  I<Jiilr,.Rv|  chib: 
a  .VeiriT  Jan.  ^4.  mBl.i-Si|uare  feet  of  Iwiler-henting  Kurfuce  fur  bitu- 
«u»  coal  nhould  not  b-  le«s  than  4  times  the  square  of  the  diameter  in 
s.of  a  cylinder  1  inch  larger  than  the  cy  inder  to  he  used.  Oi>g  tenth 
is  HhouUl  be  in  the  Are  box.  On  anlhrncite  locoraotives  more  heating 
^  iH  required  in  the  (Ire  l>ox,  on  ncconnt  of  the  larger  grate-ar^a 
tii^I  but    ti.e    heating  surface    of    the  flues  should   not  be  materially 

^S^tw".    iJn.    U.u-n..  Jan.  M,  lS91.i-For  Kr.vle-RMTta.,.,  Iw  *xwS' 
o»l-  Malliptr  the  dlsptat^emeal  in  cubic   feet  of  one,   v>v«.Vom   ^x„\w 

brSS;  ibe'pnyJiicl  »ill  be  the  area  of  the  ffcti^"  vu  »t\vkt».v«!.  ic^- 
bitamiuiius  coat:  Multiply  tlie  displao^jment.   in  teev  ot    < 
■  Btrokf  by  e'4:  Ibe  product  will  be  llie  Kiate-anMs.  ^^wMi 

with  i-jrlladfiv  fJ  In.  In  Jiatiieter  and    upwavAft.      r<j»  1 


1 


856 


LOCOMOTITES. 


Mn»ilr>rrvlinili<rKtli^  i«lh> uf  K>al<-  itn>atii  iiistaD'dlntIacementBhonldbef)( 
to  1  re,  it  ilii- ilt-fiith  ■■'  nil]  adiiiii  tlijs  proportion. 

T:  is  111  iliH  f..l|.miii;.  be«n  (tiiiiul  by  the  foregdnj 

mil   .  .      '   v«'ry  cl>i«i>-l.v  "Ith  '  ■practice: 

UtifLi -Htm  1,11.  Tli<;  Internal  arva  l'I  ihe  »iiialleat  croKs-MK-tioD  at  the  Mid 
■bouM  !)••  1   17  of  tilt-  nrrii  of  the  Kmie  In  Aoft-voal-huminc  enj^neB. 

A.  K.  Mltoliell,  Siipl  of  >1(jlive  Pdwcr  of  the  N.  Y.  K  E.  A  W.  R  R.,8«ij 
Uml  ivooiit  pra^'tiiv  vark«  frout  ihiK  rul.-  Snme  romls  use  the  sonio  »i» « 
utock,  IHU)  In.  illAMi.  nt   tlirunt,  for  nil  rnfi^iiies  up  to  311  in   liiaiii.  of  cylindri 

Thf*  areAof  the  oHflcfs  in  the  exliausl-T>o7jci*^  ilef>entis  cm  tbequautilyatt 
(inullty  nf  llie  coal  liurut.  hUu  of  cyliuiler,  coiiKtruciiou  of  Ktack,  aii3  ill 
uiioilitioii  of  the  outer  ainioKplitre.  U  U  ihi'rvfure  iiiipo?«ible  ioi;iverula 
fisr  eoinptilin^  the  exact  diameter  of  the  oiiflc^a.  All  that  can  be  done  Ut 
f^ve  a  rule  by  wliioli  an  Riiproxiinaie  diameter  cau  he  fouini.  Tlie  eiM 
iliafneter  ••an  only  Ijo  fouml  liy  trial.  Our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  tha 
iliH  area  of  each  oiilkt?  in  a  double  exhausl-nozzle  kIiouIiJ  be  equal  to  ir 
part  of  the  ffratesiirfiiee,  and  for  single  nozzles  1, 'JOO  of  the  ►;rale 
TheAe  ration  hiivu  iM^eu  inieil  in  tliuliiig  the  ilianieters  of  tlie  nozzles 
th«  following  table.  Tlie  tmuie  sixeg  are  often  used  for  either  bar 
coal -burners. 


inl  to  if4 
es  fjl^^^l 


Size  of 
Cylluilerx, 
ill  liiuhes. 


It  xai 
15  X  a 

I0XM 
17X84 
38  X  M 
]<iX  «4 
80x  24 


Grote-ftrea 
for  Anthra- 
cite Coal,  In 
tq.  In. 


IN9I 

isn 

«IT» 
1748 
UI5 
88BS 

«asi 

iSS! 


Orflt*-are« 

for  Bitumin- 

OUH  Ci>al,  ill 

eq.  In. 


1817 
1438 

S007 

aiii 

8948 
SSM 

xn 

4061 


Diameter 
of  Stacks, 
lu  iDchea. 


Double 
Koules. 


Piani,  of 

Orifioeis,  iu 

inches. 


8 

8  S/16 
a  9/ifl 

8  I/I6 

af/ie 

m 


Siorla 
Nocdw. 


Dlun-  ol 

Orifices,  ■ 
Indies. 


«ll/l» 

a 

4    l/H 
4    t/tt 


n 

6 


ibi 


ExbauHt-nozzlea  In  Locomotive  Boiler*,  — A  cotnmitier  o 
the  Am  Ity.  Mnsicr  Michimk-.-i'  A«>ii.  in  INIKI  r<-poited  lliat  they  had.  nfti 
two  yeurs  nt  e.\perinient  and  research,  come  to  the  eoneliision'tbat.  owii 
to  the  greui  iliverKily  in  the  relative  proportions  of  cylinders  and  boiler 
together  with  the  difTerenee  In  the  qiialily  of  fuel,  any  rule  wbicb  does  m 
reoogniae  eucli  atid  ail  of  lliese  factors  would  he  wurtliless. 

Tlie  committee  was  unable  to  deviw  an.v  plan  to  determine  il  . 
eilmust  no/jtle  In  propurilon  loanv  oLlii'r  pint  oC  the  engine  . 
believes  that  tlie  best  practice  is  for  eairli  user  of  loeoijuHiv. 
nozzle  tliat  will  make  steam  freely  and  fill  the  other  d>'!<ired  eomli 
determincil  liy  nii  inlellijjenl  use  of  the  itulioator  and  a  check  nn  thf  hi 
account.    The  cundlltuiiNdesiraUle  are  :  That,  it  must  create  draught  eiioui. 
<iii  the  (lie  to  make  sleaiti,  and  at  the  Kaiiie  lime  impose  the  leii-st  poislbj 
aiuoiiiil  lit  work  oil  the  piutoiiB  in  the  dlinpe  of  back  pressure      It  kIiimiU  ' 
liirtfe  enough  toprodinea  nearly  uniform  blast  wiihoiit   lining  or  tearii 
the  til'",  and  lie  I'couoiiiiL'iil  in  ilH  use  of  fuel. 

Fire-brick  Archoa  In  Loeoiuotlve  Plre-boxea.— A 
niitlce  uf  tlie  Am  liy  Master  SleilmiiifK"  AK.«n.  in  ISMO  reported  stroDKly  11 
favoi'  of  the  use  of  Inlclt  aiohes  in  locomotive  flre-boxes.  Tiiey  say:  It 
the  uniuiJiiionR  opinion  of  ail  who  use  bituminous  coul  and  brick  arch.  tL^ 
it  in  most  eflleient  in  consniiiiiiK'  tlie  various  gaaes  coiiiposine  lilail;  !;mcti\ 
and  by  inivedlnK  anil  delaying  their  passage  throu(cli  the  tiiii- 
lin;r  ami  subjecting  them  tn  the  heat  of  the  fiiriiaue,  grenih 
volume  ejected,  and  tuten^jllleH  conibnatloa,  and  does  not  in  ihf 
but  rather  auKnients  drauglit.  with  the  conseijuent  .savinjf  of  fni-l  anl  ii>:, 
tTea.sed  .-il.'ominK  capacity  that  nii^rlit  be  expected  from  uuch  reeulla 
iu  fj/irlii'iilitr  H  lien  iiaeil  in  cfinTiec\\ou«\\.ViexLeiisiou  front 
Mme,  ITelsbt,  Tractive  PoMi«T^«\e..^«TiHVS«T«ut  SUM 


I 

Hon 


8IZB,   WEIGHT,   TRACTIVE   POWEK,    ETC, 


Sol 


.  B.  188S.)~Tbe  troctlvn  power  should  not  lie  more  or  lesa  than 
aon.  In  column  3  o[  each  tahle  rheBdhcsiim  is  siveii,  nnd  Rince  the 
D  and  tractive  power  aru  expresiseil  by  ih^  saiii«  iiiiiiiber  of  pounds. 
fuit*s  nrp  olitHinffl  by  fliiilinp  tlit-  Iructivi-  power  of  ench  euKine,  for 
■jrHJSe  always  iisint;  the  small  dittiiipt>T  of  rlriviiijr  whi-els  (fiven  in 
a.  Tho  wfiijhl  on  drivers  Is  shown  In  iMliiuin  i,  wm<;h  is  ohtnined  liy 
iMiiK  the  adliesion  by  5  for  nil  clttsst's  of  engines.  Column  5  Kives  tlia 
on  (lie  trucks,  and  these  are  liaBed  upon  olittervatloiui.  Thus,  the 
m  the  truck  for  mi  eight-wheoled  engine  Is  about  one  half  of  that 
>ii  the  drivers. 

oenl  cDKlties^  we  multiply  the  total  weight  tin  drivers  by  the  decimal 
;he  proiluct  will  be  thi?  wei(jlit  on  the  tniek, 

in-wheeled  engines  the  total  weight  on  llie  drlvere,  multiplied  by  the 
1 .88,  will  be  equal  to  tlie  wt-i(;hl  on  the  truck. 

ftatly,  for  cotisolldailon  euirlnes.  tliu  tomi  weight  on  driven)  mulU- 
r  the  dectmni  16,  will  determine  the  welKht  on  the  truck. 
iimn  S  the  total  weight  of  each  engine  is  Riven,  which  is  obtained  by 
the  weiglil  on  the  drivers  to  the  weight  on  the  tnick.  Dlvldiuit  tbe 
n  given  In  I'olumn  I  hy  7^  will  give  the  number  of  tons  of  acxiO  ibs. 
r  eac^ne  is  capable  of  hauling  ona»tntig^lituiid  level  track,  ooluuin  T. 
•eleht  of  engines  given  in  these  tables  will  he  found  lo  nei-ee  Ren- 
riiS  the  actual  weijchls  of  locumolives  recenlly  luiilt,  (ilihoueh  il 
>t  be  expected  that  theise  weigliia  will  a^ree  inevpi'y  ease  with  the 
relRhtB,  because  ilje  different  builders  do  uol  build  the  engines  alike. 
etual  weight  on  trucks  for  eiKhl-wlieeled  or  renwheeled  engines  will 
►r  much  from  thowr  niven  in  the  tables,  hecnnse  the.se  weights  depend 
on  the  difference  hetwcen  the  total  and  ripiid  wheel-boBe,  and  t^iese 
often  changed  by  the  different  builders.  The  proportlou  betweeu 
I  and  total  wheel-base  is  generally  the  same. 
lie  for  findiag  the  tractive  power  is  : 


I 


I 


dia.  of  I  ^  J  Mean  effect.  Bteam  I  ^  I  stroke  j 
iuohes    (      I  pre6«.  per  Bq.  in.      f'^l  in  feet  I 


Diameter  of  wheel  iu  feet. 


=  tractive  power. 


I 

; 

1 


|T  WnEELEO  LOCJOMOTtVCS. 


TCN-WBCELKD  EnOINEB. 


I 


llM 

lown 

13310 
lifVifl 
17070 
JMM 
(WW    MIM;  9mu\  M*i7(i 

«M3  <;m5'  use  ;itu7 
iinoi  saoaoi  »oio.  imm 
uiti  frTWil  awaal  nmo! 


II*. 

MSI 
M7J 

USDS 


In. 
IK   :iu  ti 

la  41-<.'r 

VI  t.H  17 

•;■:  t.'.ao 

•:i  1H-UI116W 

•a  .M-MISM 

U  .il-M  1J7M 

211  M-««  HtM 


lb*. 
8SW7 

ssam 


lb*. 

isin 


•TMU'UMI 

;3W0' 13104 

I 


?3?l 


-=  =?i 


llM. 
1M77 
UOIO 
MIM 


TOT 


«oaH    ia» 

«MM      IMS 


Hooui.  ENoiMsa. 


Ihn.  I  Iba.   I  ItM.  I  III*. 

<•;«'  lurar    trrn  'mm*' 

S8MU    M*.i  smiw, 

TlMi  16M7  ;.r<V  M3M, 
«Mtf/  fisui  suit:  HKt 
saai  lomr  «.■««*, 

'  «I4M    ISBUI     7.».X» 

CDK-   iKTM   :tii:» 
Mtii  i.T;«  Hsasi 

TSim    tU4»    »M40 


CONaOUDATION  ENOIim. 


358 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


beadlns  American  Typ«i>  of  Locontoilv*  r«r  PrelctitJ 
Pfut««iieer  S*'PvJce, 

1.  The  L'iglit-wheel  or  "American  "  pnsseu|!er  Ijiw,  ba-ring  tour  i 
tlrivlng- wheels  and  a  four-wliwloi  tnjok  In  front. 

3.  Tfie  ■'  tt'nwlieel "  ty|»e,  for  riibted  traffic,  iiavijiK  six  coupled^ 
A  leading  fuur-wbeel  truck. 

8.  Tlie  "  Mogul "  freight  type,  hAvinf:  six  coupled   drivlng-wli 
pony  or  two-w'lieel  truck  in  front. 

4.  ThP  '•  Consolidation  "   type,  for  heary  freight  serrice,  h»*h 
coupled  driving -ivbeels  and  a  pony  truck  id  front. 

Besides  these  there  in  a  (rreat  variety  of  tyfiew  for  special  cond 
service,  as  four-wheel  and  six-wheel  Hwitcliing-engriueu,  wltlmiii  tru 
Forney  type  used  on  elevated  roilroadd,  wiiU  lour  of'"'"  ' 
eUKiue  and  a  four-wheeled  rear  truck  carry ioe  tl 
loconiolive»for  local  and  suburban  servicewiih  four 
with  a  two-wlieel  truck  front  and  rear,  or  a  two-Hin,.  . 
ruur-srbeel  truck  rear,  etc.    "  Decapod  "  enirines  for  beavr  freigb^ 
bave  ten  coupled  driviDg-wheoUanaa  two-wbeel  truck  ia  irwnL 

Steam-dlatrlbotlou  for  Hlgli-apeed   LooomvUi 

(C.  H.  Quereau.  Eng'g  A'ewi,  March  8,  ISSM.i 

Balanced  Valvfji.—yir.  Philip  'W'allis,  in  1886,  when  Cn^neer  nf 
the  C,  B.  &  Q.  R.  K.,  reported  that  whilt>  6  HP.  was  rrqulrvd  to  i 
balanced  valves  at  40  miiea  per  hour,  for  the  balanced  vulvns  z.t  I 

was  nroessaiT- 

Effect  of  .Spegit  an  Average  CyUndei-praifure.—Atgnme  I  bat  a  I 
ha»  a  train  In  motion,  the  reverse  lever  i«  placed  in  tfie  runuinx  I 
the  track  is  level:  by  what  is  the  niaximuni  speed  limited  T    Tin*  I 
of  the  train  and  the  lund  increase,  and  the  power   nf   the    Ir 
creases  with  inereaslug  Kpeed  till  the  resistance  and  [Miwer  nrmt 
the  speed  ijecomes  uniform.    The  power  of  tlie  eiiKliif<  dej" 
average  pi-e^surfl  In  the  cylinders.    Even  thoiijjIT  the  t-n! 
tireaaure  renmln  the  same,  ihiti  pressure  decit- 
because  of  tiie  higher  plston-speeil  and  moiv  .-J 

has  a  shorter  time  in  w/iicii  to  enter  the  cyliiitl- 
following  table,  from  indicator-cards  taken  Ironi  h   i.i<-oM;uiive 
speeds,  Khows  the  decrease  of  average  pressure  wiih  increaainx  i 

MUesperhour ,.    46       St       M        M  54        St 

Speed,  revolutions SZ4  S48  248  SB8  369  «7T 

Average  pressure  per  so.  in.: 

Actual 61.5  44  0  47  8  48  0  41.9  <•.»    STJ 

Calculated 46.5  40.5  44.7  49.8  41.6    li-A 

The  "average  pressure  calculate<l ''  was  flpurpil  on   ibr 
the  mean  etTective  pressure  would  decrease  ill  1 
increased.    The  inaiu  ilifTerence  llcji  in  ilie  h 
fi|ie«ds,  and  consecinent  higher  expansion-lin-  _ 

entered  the  cylinder.    The  back  pressure  and  coiiipressiuu  llune  ^ 
closely  for  all  the  cards,  tbougli  they  are  sllirbtir  bettor  tor 
speeds.    That  the  difTeretice  is  not  Kreattr  may  .i^arely  be  attninili 
large  exhaust-ports,  passages,  and  e>i  i  ^llicll  la  5  Ul  < 

These  are  matters  of  great  importanee  I  '-.is. 

tfui/er-jireMiirc— The  increase  of  trail  n-itb  liii  !■■>«<)  spwJ  i 

not  an  (he  square  of  the  velocltv.  a.s  isciinniinnlv  Huppo«e«l.  It  kiiau**  11^ 
that  it  increuses  as  the  speed  n^ter  about  30  miles  so  hour  to  rsactrt  Al 
snining  lh»t  the  IiittPr  is  true,  and  tliat  an  nverflp'Of  Vi  Its.  ^wr  ^|-.u»r'  i  -1 
iathegreii:  n  be  realized  In  th- 

miles  on  li  u  this  pressure  fu: 

•  traltl   :r  ',    It   f.-.llr.W.>;  th.1t.  I  .1   r,    ,1     '11 


:aad  n^4B.  Cor  cw*  ;-iiU 


w —^-^ 

SOME   LARGE  AKERICAK   LOCOXOTirBS,   189$.     85l9 

'Ta/vr-ti-atirl.  —  Ad  iomacnl  aTcn^  <jliilii  pre—*  aMT  •>■»  k« 
buUned  by  Jncreasini;  tbe  TaJ*e-Usvc)  wilfcol  isiiiar  Ike  hoOcr-pnaHBCi 
Rd  tx-tter  results  wjl)  be  obtaiticd  bjr  iaernaBe  batK.    1W  taosier  as««l 

Ires  &  liif^bcr  strani-prmmre  ia  Uw 

<t«r  exhaust-cl<>siire,  and  a  lar|c«r  exk 

leed^  an<l  econumy.    1  bclii^Te  Uiat  a  afrfa.  porti 

avel  could  lj«  successfully  iisedforki^i-iDeedam 

r  BO  doii]);  the  criinders  could  be  «ooao«aloB^]r  ndaoed  aa4  tbe  < 

aanc«  IlKh'eiird.    Or,  better  atiU.  the  iWiiitri  nf  tiw  driven  f 

eurin^  lighter  couoterbalanee  and  I 

Sire  of   />rityri-».— Ecooouijr  nill 

trers,  provided  the  work  at  awn 

iger  than  one  fourth  the  gtroke. 

in.  drivers  at  55  miles  per  boor  ia  I 

iTers  at  61  miles  per  hour. 

Steam-port*.— Tm  leDgth  of  steam-porta  ranees  from  IS  to.  to  S$  in..  waA 

a  eonsiderable  InSueDce  on  the  power,  speed,  and  eeooooiy  of  the  iooo- 

>tire.    In  cards  from  siiiiilar  engmwt  tlie  stean»4iae  of  tlw  eani  frwn  the 

ifioe  with  33-in.  ports  is  coDciderablT  oe«j«r  beOsruifiiiiii  than  that  d 

9  c»rd  from  tlie  eDicine  with  1714-in.  pons.    That  tbe  bigilwr  ttccm-iinfe  Is 

«  to  tbe  greater  len^tli  of  steam-port  there  is  little  room  for  doahc    Hie 

In.  port  produced  531  H.P.  in  an  ISVj-in.  ctliitder  at  a  cost  of  91.51118.  o( 

licateU  water  per  I. H.P.  per  hour.    The  17)4  in.  port,  «M  H.P.,  at  tbe  rate 

S2.9  ibe.  of  water,  iu  a  19-tD.  cylinder. 

41  ten  Vdlvft. — There  is  cnnsidera»le  ijifferenceof  opiaioaastollieadvao- 

fe  of  the  Allen  fKirti?<I-valve      <  :n:-^  Eng,  AVira.  July  6,  1MB.) 

|pe«d  of  Ball vrar  Tralna.  —Id  1^4  the  ave'race  speed  of  trains  on 

)  Liverpool  aud  UanclieMt«r  Railway  was  twenty  miles  an  hoon  in  ISH  it 

8  tweocy-flve  miles  aa  hour.     Bat  by  l»iO  there  were  engines  oa  the  Great 

Htem  Railway  capable  of  numinK  flfty  miles  an  liour  with  a  train,  and 

iity  miles  an  hour  without.    A  speed  of  86  miles  per  hour  wb$:  moile  in 

irland  with  the  T.  W.  WorsdeU  compouod  iocomoUve.    The  total  weiirbt 

tbe  eufrine,  tender,  and  train  h  as  6)5,000  lbs. :  indicator-card^  were  taken 

>«rlng  1068.6  H.P.  on  tbe  level.    At  a  speed  of  75  miles  it^r  imur  on  a 

el,  and  the  same  train,  tbe  indicator-caids  showed  1040  H.P.  developed. 

■noB.  A..  S.  H.  K.,  ToL  ziU.,  S6S.> 

The  limitation  to  the  increase  of  speed  of  heavy  Inconifitirps  seems  at 

saenttobe  thedifflculty  of  couniirbalani-ln!;  the  reciprocal lutt  parts.  The 

txtlanced  vertical  component  of  the  redprocatiiig  parw  causes  the  pres- 

•e  of  the  diriver  on  the  rail  to  vary  with  every  revdlution.     Whenever  the 

»ed  ia  hiKh,  it  I3  of  conquerable  matniitude,  and  iui  cban^  in  direction  is 

rapid  that  the  re*iuiiin^  effect  upon  the  rail  is  not  inappropriately  called 

'hamnter  blow,"     Heavy  rails  have  h^eo  kiukeil,  arul  l»riiiKe?*  have  been 


iken  to  their  fall  Under  tlie  action  of  iieavily  balaiii'ed  drivers  revolviuf; 
liigh  siMeds.  The  mean?  by  which  tho  evil  in  to  be  ovenvime  has  not  yet 
9B  maoe  clear.    See  paper  by  W.  F  M-  Ooss.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  K..  vol.  xvi. 


Eaeine  No.  U99  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad  ran  a  udle  in  Si 
uafto  113  miles  per  hour,  May  II,  \«a 


secoidH 


e«d  in  mile*  I  _  circum.  of  driylng-wbeels  in  in.  X  no.  of  rev,  per  mjn.  V  W 
jier  hour        f  —  68.S60 

■  =  diam,  ofdrivine-vrheeUlnln.  x  no  of  rev.  pennln.  X  .OM 

(approximate,  giving  result  8/10  of  I  per  cent  lf>o  vreac). 

9i]iiBN9ioNs  OP  sone  labgk  A.ifEnicAN  ^m 

LOCOnOTIVES,    1803.  ^M 

[Tie  four  locomotives  described  beluw  were  exhibited  at  the  Chlcaifo 
position  in  I8S3.  The  dimensions  are  from  Eiuihieerinu  Xeir»,  June,  IHflM. 
e  ftrst,  or  Decapod  encine,  has  ten-ooupled  driving- wheels.  It  Is  one  of 
»  heaviest  and  ma<il  powerful  eiigiiiea  ever  tiuill  for  trelKhi  service.  The 
iladtflp^te  <t  tUMtlintc  e/'S'ine  is  a  new  ly (>e  for  passeuRet  *er^'\v•^^, v!Vi\\\nv«. 
•pItHi  driven.  The  RtuMtf  Islaml  engine  lias  »ix  <\v\veTH,  >x\\\\  »  VviVv*« 
Un^  truck  ami  a  S-w/ieel  (miling  truck.  The^ei  i\-ivee  m>»;\i\b>  ViweJ 
pound  cyllndem  TIw  fourth  is  a  siiiinle  enniHe,  til  V,\\*-  »Va»\ABXA  IWT 
^hffl^'^-  *.  rf'"''"«-«'««5«^l».  and  a  4-whBe\  trucV.  \ii.  Uor*" 
muJ'io  ^'iZonds^  '^^"^  '*""  "^^  ^'»93>  tor  sYtort,  4\*Xa* 


860     ' 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


Baldwin. 
N.  Y..  L.  E, 
& 
W.  R,  R, 
Iiecapod 
Freight. 


BaldwiD. 

Phlla. 

A 

KMid.  ILR 

Express 

Passeuger. 


Running-Kear: 

Driving- nheelii,  diam  .... 

Tnick  '■  •■     

Journal!:,  driving-axles... 
"  truck-  "  ... 
"  tender-     "     ... 

Wheel-baae : 

Uririiift 

Total eneine...  

"     tender 

"  engineandtender... 
Wt.  in  working-order: 

Ou  drivers 

On  rruek-wlieeU 

Kngiue,  total 

Triiiier      '•    

]t:iigiiia  and  leader,  loaded 
C'ylluder»  : 

Ii.p.(8) 

l.p.(S) 

DlHtatice  centre  to  centre. 

Pixton-rod,  diam 

Connecting  rod,  lengtli.. 

Sleain-ports 

Extiau8t-|)orts 

Stlde-valveg,  ont,  lap,  Ij.p, 

"         "       out.  lap,  l.p.. 

"         "       In.  Inp,  ii.p... 

'•         "       ill.  lap.  t.p. . 

"         "       uin.'c.  travel  . 

"  "        l<>ad,b.p 

"  "        lead.  l.p.    ... 

Il«iler-Tri>e  

Diiim.  of  barrel  inside 

Tliifikness  of  bniTel-plale* 
lleiKiil  from  mil  to  ventre 

line -  - 

Lea»;tli  of  itmoke-box 

Worlchi(f  steain-pn'SHiure.. 

Kir*"  Imx  — typo 

l^rnK'li  inside 

Width       ••     

fx-piliul  front  

TliiL'kiieas  of  iride  plates. . 
"  "  back  plate... 

Tlilokiietssof  orown-flheet, 
'•  tube 

(lrat«-ftrtta 

8tay-bi>ltK,  diam.,  1^  In. 

Til bew— iron, 

Plioh . 

bioin,  oiitnlde 

f ^>" '"'"  tub0-pla(e« 

'IOCS 

r 


4fl.8iD. 
2  .,    e  .• 

0  » 10  In. 
B  lilO  •• 
ii^x  9  " 

18  ft.  10  In. 

S7  "  3  •' 

16  "  8  " 

63  •'  4  " 

170,000  lbs. 
iS,500    " 
198,fi00   " 

117,500  '• 
310,000    •' 


DIMENSIOKS  OF   AJfEBICAK   LOCOMOTITES- 


aj  ba 


'uuua  «u 


Sggg'gi'  :Sg2'«'ggS'§2'?SSgg'gSg§f^ 


-^, 


I 


usssj^ffsss.-tsfsssstsfsgggzfasasJ 


>qM-q3nJX 


•»-»-r»-»-y»-r-»-r-»-w»»3«9t»«o»'jt»»»«»«»«t»«» 


lAHO  JO  ON 


1863 
■     nil 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


Blmenslona  of  Some  American  I.ocoiualiv<>*.-TV3n^ 

paKb  Sll   is  condensed  from  oub  given  by  D.  L.  Bum 
"  Disliuetive  Features  and  AdvonUiges  of  Auiericttii  i 
Trttns.  A.S.C.E.,  1898.    The  forrnuitt  from  which  coin n 
cyiinder-power  to  weight  available  foradhealou"  Ucoliu Morn  m  !!»-■« 
2  X  cylinder  areA  X  boller-presgure  X  gin>kt 
Weight  on  drivers  X  diameter  of  drlring-»1i««l'        ^j 

(Ratio  of  cylinder-power  of  coiiipuund  engines  cuioot  b*CO«(Wa"| 
that  of  ihe  single-eximnsiim  engines. )  -J 

Where  the  boller-i>reiwure  could  not  be  det-  '     iZ!^S 

of  thf  locomotives,  as  given  by  (he  builders  AUil  .nlooi^"^ 

i(  lias  been  assiitned  to  be  ICO  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  ali-  '''*1[^ 

For  compound  locomotives  the  figures  In  the  lusi  colunnocn 
Imsed  im  tlie  ca|)aeily  of  the  low-pressure  cylinders  only,  ilie' 
liigli-presmire  being  omitted.    This  has  been  done  forihup" 
pariKiiu,  and  because  there  is  no  accurate  ainiple  w*y  «f  < 
cylinder-power  of  Biugle-expausion  and  compound  locouioUfo. 

Iklmeiialonif  oT  Standard    I.ocoinotlTen  on  Ik*  !*• 
U.  U.  B.  and  P«nna.  R.  R.,  1882  and  tin 

C.  H.  Quereau,  Eng'tj  .\rwii,  March  »,1W)I 


Grate  surface,  sq.  ft 

Heating  surf «<.'«,  sq.  ft. 

Boiler,  aiain.,  in 

Driver,  diam.,  in  

Steam  pi-ejssure,  Itw. 
Cylln.,  diam.  and  strolce. 

Valve-travel,  ins 

Lead  at  full  gear,  ins . . . 

CitKBlde  lap 

Inside  lap  or  clearance. 

Sleam-ports,  l<«nElh 

width 

Type  of  engine 


N.  y.  C.  A  H.  R.  R. 

Peai 

lU^IMM 

Through 

Through 

TlinrtiBh  1  ' 

Pamenger. 

Freight. 

P»Sicnr*-| 

188:1. 

latn. 

1883. 

isse. 

l«K.|l»ll« 

17.87 

87  3 

17  87 

39.8 

1 
17.8  I  r  •• 

18S3 

I8S1 

ISSi) 

1783 

1(B7  1  V 

fiO 

IHt 

no 

68    1     50 

70 

TS.  He 

M 

87          f^- 

IM 

IflO 

IM 

IflO 

17X«  19x31 

17x81 

wxas  i: 

a 

v^ 

1^81 

5«        3           .-i 
1/16      1/18         0    1 

"t 

1 

0 

S^% 

4 

K4 

18 

'^ 

18    '     l« 

<^ 

ll4 

Hi 

IH       lU 

tit 

Am.  '  Am. 

.Mil. 

Mog. 

Am. 

Ami 

Indicated  Water  ConBiimptlon  of  Slugrlc  and  Cm 
IiOcomotlTC  Engines  at  Varylnc  Sp««4l 

C.  H.  Quereau.  Eiig'g  iVfiiM.  Marrli  f.  lym. 


Two-cylinder  Compound. 


Revolu- 
Uona. 


100  tolfiO 
ISO  ■■  SOO 
900  •■  SSO 
880  "  875 


8pe«d, 

mi  lea  per 

hour. 


SI  toai 

31  ••  41 

41  "  51 

61  "  56 


Water 
per  1  HP. 
per  hour. 


18.83  lbs. 

Id.g  " 

19.7  " 

81 .4  " 


Single- exyamlt^ 

Rerolu-      Mrtes  p*r    ^| 
tiODS.  Hour.        ^M 

l&I  <l  II 

219  « 


i&i 

219 

-£3 

am 
am 


kappeam  that  the  compoiir  '  ^-  - 
'onoiny  deoreasinK  a«  i 
>  in  economy  \ii\U\ 
'  economical  thhu  tuc  ti 


„  ^,>oOOIBlO«l«tl»l 

<■  ih*«  llH  ilNl 


M 


DVAXTAOES  0^  COMPOrKDIxr,.  ^03 


r  hour. 

i.ji.r 

37.1 

648.3 

60.8 

738 

44 

551 

58 

6D1 

SO 

900 

69 

963 

Kle-expansion  enKlne,  and  SfK'iiiore  econointcal  than  tbo 
40  fdimile  eni!:liip»  of  the  xniDc  c-Iknh  on  (lii'  snnie  divigioD. 
ata  of  a  LoeomotiTc  at  HiKb  Speed.  tLiiconio- 
189S.I-  CardH  were  luken  hy  Mr.  Augus  Sinclair  on  the 
ig  the  Empire  State  Exprtf«g. 

SKstTLTS  or  Indicator- 01  AciRiHs. 
Miles       ,  „  o         g^^  j;„      p^^g    pe"r"h^  IH^- 

V  304        T0.5  '     9rr 

8  398  68.6  972 

a  aoo        69.S     i,04& 

10  a04  70.5       I.OSB 

11  »0  78.9        1,190 
13              SIO  71. D       i,a» 

I  was  of  the  eight-wheel  type,  built  by  the  Schenectady 
ItK,  with  19  X  'M  in.  cylinders.  78-ln.  drivers,  anit  a  tanta 
ox.  Details  of  important  dimoDsinns  are  as  fnllnws: 
»f  fire-box,  150.8  Kq.  ft.:  of  (nbejs,  lfiT0.7>«).  ft.;  of  Imilrr. 
te  area,  27.3  s<i.  ft.  Kire-boi;  lenifth,  C  f t . ;  widtli,  8  ft  4J6 
utslde  diameter,  'J  in.  Ports:  steam.  W  ;•  It-i  In. ;  cxhauHt, 
e-travel,  5^  in.  Outside  lap.  1  Ir.:  inside  lap,  1/04  In. 
-axle,  8U  x  10^  iu.;  trucliaxle,  6  X  10  in. 
ited  of  four  coaches,  weighinK,  with  estimated  load,  340,000 
tiTB  and  t«nder  weighed  iq  workinK  oi'der  JOO.oiX)  lbs,, 
weiphtof  tlje  train  about  2T0  tiins.  DiiriuR  Ihe  time  that 
at  UftinK  the  train  into  speed  diagram  No.  1  w&s  taken.  It 
rlluder-prPHsiire  of  .59  lbs.  .^ccorrlinE  (o  this,  the  power 
ils  to  move  the  traiu  la  655S  lbs.,  or  S4  lbs.  per  ton.  TliB 
Ln  hour.  When  a  speed  of  nearly  60  miles  an  hour  waa 
rage  cylinder-pres.-'urc  is  40.7  lbs..  repreKi-nthiE  a  total 
ifiSo lbs.,  without  inakin>{  dediictionii  fur  internal  friction, 
'or  friction,  it  leave.H  i&  IbH.  per  ton  to  keep  the  train  koIdk 
ed.     Cards  6,  7,  and  8  represent  the  work  of  keeping  the 

miles  an  hour.  They  were  taken  liiree  inllK«  apart,  when 
lost  unlfortu.  The  average  rylinder-pressiire  for  the  three 
Deducting  10^  agnin  for  friction.  thi9  leaves  17. E  Iba.  per 
exerted  Id  keepihi;  the  ti'aiii  np  to  a  velocity  of  70  iniles, 
rip  7  Iba.  of  water  were  evaporated  jier  ih.  of  coal.  The 
!•  train  from  New  York  tji  Albany  was  dune  oi>  a  coal  con- 
t  3^  lbs.  per  H.P.  ijer  honr.    The  liighest  power  recorded 

I12BH.P. 

-teatlug  Apparataa  at  the  Laboratorjr  of 
eralty.  (W.  l-.  M.  Goss.  Trans.  A.  H.  M.  E.,  vol.  xiv.  (jJO.)— 
I  mounted  with  its  drivers  upon  aupportlug  wheels  which 
tfta  turning  in  fixed  hearlcgx,  lhn»  ailowfipg  the  engine  to 
langing  ll8  position  as  a  wnoli?.  Diad  in  supplied  by  fotir 
ted  to  the  Bupporting  shafts  oud  offering  resistance  to  the 
jporting  wheel*.  Traction  is  mea«tiri*d  IjJ'  a.  dynamoineler 
Jraw-bar.  The  boiler  is  fired  In  the  usual  way,  and  an 
!>ove  the  engitie.  but  not  In  pipe  couneclioti  with  it.  carries 
«  giren  <iut  at  llie  stack. 

thod  of  Cnntint'tint}  L(iftuitaCive-ieatx  is  given  in  a  report 
f  the  A.  8.  H.  K  in  vol,  xiv.  of  the  TraiisaclionH,  page  1313. 
lel  In  Iiocoinotlvea,  — In  Ameriean  prarilceecoijotny 
larlly  sacrificed  to  obtain  (greater  economy  due  to  heavy 
Barnes,  in  Enii.  Mng.,  June.  1894.  gives  a  diagram  abowlDg 
efficiency  of  boiierH  due  to  high  ratea  of  combusUon,  from 
ig  figures  are  taken: 

1.  ft.  of  grate  per  hour 13      40      80      130      160      iiOO 

fOfboiler 80      75      67       69       51        48 

is  given  as  representing  gtatlonary-holler  practice,  40  lbs. 
tive  practice.  I'fti  lbs.  average  American,  ami '.MO  \^,Yn«.x- 
tororriotir^  practice. 

t>fCo/upoandlng,— Report  of   a  CoxntxAMVee   ol  ^.^^«. 
WfljjfpriVfc/miiics'.As.sociatioii  cm  C'omiKmud  VjccotooVv^"' 

Iti90j  /firns  the  foJIowiug  aiiminarv  ot   V\w   ad^aV" 
Idmir:    iii/  it  hHK  auhleved  a  saviiie   Vn  V\\e  tv»«^ 
wuable  bo/Jer-presaurei;,  with  eacouraglae  powtW 


1 

4 


< 


I 


864 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


I 


of  further  improTemeDt  in  pressure  aoi)  in  fuel  und  »  uterj 

has  lensAnod  the  amount  of  walvr  (deui  wcipl  i 

tender  and  its  load  are  materiailr  rerlncrd  u  <(| 

the  posslbllitiea  of  spewl   far  beyond   6<>  n, 

Htrainin^  the  niolion.  frames,  axles,  or  axle-' 

iTicreased  the  linulnpepower  at  full  spred.  n: 

the  coiiliuuous  U.P.  developed,  pier  civeii  w  eiL  i 

«oino  classes  lias  increased  tli*»siarllDji-powei-.    i'j]  ■ 

tlio  .slide-vnlvo  friolioii  per  H.r.  d>-veliipe<i.     (/il  It  i 

died  the  tnrninp  forc<;  on  the  orank-iiir,  mv.t  n  Ii  : 

which,  of  course,  tends  to  lenRlhen  llif  i 

two-cylinder  type  It  hiiK  decreased  the  ■ 

so  in  the  Woolf  four-cylinder  enpiiie.   (. 

on  the  lire  is  favorable  to  the  combnsiinn  ii 

sparltH  tbronru  beinc  tjinaller  and  leHs  in  nunii 

erty  from  destruction  by  lire.    (I)  Tliene  <i 

f;ained  without  baviuK  to  improve  llie  man  b 
eft  to  his  discretion  (or  earelesg  indifference  i 
Vnlve-motion,  of  every  locomotive  type,  can  i 
most  effective  position.    <m'i  A  wider  elaMicity  in  loc'iiiollM^ 
mitted:  oa.  If  desired, sIde-rodH  can  l>e  diKi>enB<'d  with,  ora<tl 
of  lOO  tons  weight,  with  inde|>endeut  truika.  UHnl  for  (h*rp< 
tain  service,  as  sureealed  by  Mallet  am.!  Brunner, 

Of  37  compound  locomotives  in  use  on  the  Phila.  and  ] 
189*2),  I'Jnre  in  ii8e  on  heavy  moinitain  ^radna,  and  ar*  da 
<^uivalent  of  '.'3  y  'it  In.  simple  consolidatloni.:  10  arc  Ina 
aervlce  and  cnrrespnnd  to  ^JO  y  '.ii  in.  cnnsolidBtiona;  5  are  In  I 
service.    Theiuontlily  coal  reconl  showa: 

Class  of  Engine.  No. 

Mountain  li">comotives U 

Heavy  freight  service 10  }i 

Fa«t  passenger ,, 5 

{Report  of  Com.  A.  H.  M.  M.  Assn.  \fSl)    For  a  der-- -  ''I 

^pes  of  compound  locomotive,  wirh  disousnion  tpf  i ' 
paper  by  A.  Von  Borrles,  of  Oermanv,  The  Deveic, 
Locomotive.  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.  3H9J,  vol,  xiv.,  p.  IT..:. 

ConiitfirbalanctiiK  E>ocomo(lTe«.— The  (••llowiac' 
by  different  locoriiotive^uildBri<,  are  ijiioteid  in  a  paper  I J 
(Trans.  A.  S,  M.  E..  x.  303): 

A.  "  For  the  main  drivers,  place  opposite  ilie  cnuik  pin  a  •■ 
Oue  half  the  'weight  of  the  bock  end  of  lb«  riiiitie«Un2-rnil  |4ir 
weight  of  the  front  end  of  thei-onneoliir--'  ■  •  ■ 
head.  For  balancing  the  coupled  nbrel 
pill  ettual  to  one  half  the  parallel  rod  i  tt 

front  end  of  the  main-rod,  pimon,  plsivi. 

of  gravity  of  the  almve  weights  miut  t>e  at  ilw  aam*  dlrftl 
ax  lex  as  the  crank-pin." 

B.  The  rule  given  by  D.  K.  Clark:    "  V'--'  •'  '  -•••■ 
of  crnnk-piu  1>c>kk,  coiiiiliiig-roda,  and  • 
the  reoipiocntiiip  weiKiit  of  the  piilon 
connectmp-rod,  divide  the  reciprocntii;. 
and  add  the  part  ao  nll>Ue(l  to  ilie  i 
suniK  IhuR  obtained  are  the  weit;ht6  to  I 

al  the   Mil !i.:t.liw..    fr,  .111    ."i..    .,.,.;  T 

when  til- 

weight  h 

lance."     i.i    ; ;-    ;..  ::.:    |.,... ,;  ,,.  ,„ 

placed  In  t^uuit  wtir«l. 

«■:(«• -7) 
0.  "  W  =  . -^-  '     .In  which  S  =  od«  half  the  1 

flllrV  of  wheel    to  ri-ntli-  mT    V'■^v^'^*-^    V\  ^-''^wvV'tV.nN* 


;UM-BrBNING    LOCOMOTIVES.  865 


bd  one  half  of  each  parBlIel-rod  connectiog  to  thi* 

d  the  reciprocatJiiK  weii;nt  dlTlclerl  by  the  number  ot 
tving  weight  for  the  rcnialiKler  i>f  the  wlitvls  in  found  in 
%g  for  theiixiiii  wheel.  eii'p|it  obh  hulf  oT  tlip  main  rod  is 
rp|c;lit  of  tite  i!rauk'inn  liijl>  Hiicl  tlir  uocinlertmlaiice  clo«a 
'iuht  of  Ihf  spokes,  nut  of  tlip  metal  inclofiJnir  them.  This 
si  for  one  eyliuUei  anil  Its  correspoudiuB  wliet'lH." 
ifi  nearly  as  possible  the  weiRhtsof  crank-pin,  additional 
toss  for  tlie  same,  add  side  rud.  and  mam  connections, 
Ld,  with  cross-head  on  one  side:  tlie  sum  of  thej>e  niulti- 
ice  In  Inches  of  tlie  centre  of  ihefranlt-itin  from  the  centre 
I  divideil  by  the  dixlanee  ficnii  tlie  centre  of  the  wtii?el  tn 
e  of  gravity  ot  the  connierwfii^lils,  Ih  taken  fur  the  total 

that  side  of  the  locotnotlTe  nbicii  is  to  be  divided  anions 
I  side." 

B  wheals  of  the  locotiiotive  with  it  weifrht  e(|iial  Co  the 
pin,  crank-pin  bub,  inaiD  and  (>arallpl  roilK,  hra.'^se!!,  etc., 

the  weight  of  the  reciprocatiug  parts  (cross-head,  piston 

DR)." 

!  weights  of  the  revoKinK  parts  which  are  attached  to 
xactnesH.  and  divide  eqnftyly  two  thirds  of  tiie  weights  of 
parts  between  ail  the  wlieel.s.  One  half  of  (he  main  rod  in 
irocating,  and  Uie  other  as  rerolriii^  weight." 
OD  Counterbalancing  Locomotives,  in  K.  K.  ft  £ng.  Joky., 
1890,  and  a  paper  by  VV.  F.  M.  tioas,  in  Traii.s.  A.  S.  M.  E., 

Safe   lioad  for  Steel  Tires  on   Steel   RaUa. 

>.  786.)— Mr.  Chanute's  eiperiinents  led  to  the  deduction 
nild  be  the  limit  of  load  for  anyone  drivinK-wheel.  Mr. 
jetts  to  Mr.  Chanute'g  flgure  of  12,000  lbs,,  und  says  that 
^hich  has  a  light  load  on  it  is  more  injurious  to  tlie  rail 
as  a  heavy  Inml.  In  Ecglisli  practice  a  and  10  tons  are 
Oberlin  Smith  has  used  litevl  catstingB  for  cam-rollers  4  In. 
ce,  which  stooci  well  under  loads  of  from  10,000  to  iO.OOO 
r  Smith  proposed  a  formula  for  the  rolls  of  a  pirot-bridge 
luced  to  the  form  :  Load  =  1760  x  face  X    V'diom,,  all  in 

of  Bome  large  American  locomotives  on  pages  WSO  and  8flJ. 

I "  the  load  on  each  driving-wheel  Is  17,000  lb?.,  and  on 

ba. 

ire    Railirayn   In    Iffannf^rtnrlng    Works.— 

inches  gauge,  ^everul  miles  in  leiifilli.  is  in  tlie  works  of 
d  YorkFliIre  Ralltvav.  Cnrven  of  i-'i  fe<'t  rajdius  are  used. 
wed  have  the  following  dimensions  (Pmc,  Inst.  M.  E..  July, 
irs  were  B  In.  diameter  with  8  in  stroke,  and  !i  ft.  3W  in. 


The  wheels  were  16W   in.  diameter,    the    wheel-bns* 
41*  in.  long,  and  the 
,  of  steel,  i  ft.  Sin,  outside  diameter  and  "i  ft.  long  lictwcen 


ne  7  ft.  "ll*  In.  long,  and  the  extreme  width  of  the  engine 


InlnglW  iiibes  of  \^  in.  outside  diameter:  the  fire-box,  of 
III,  S  ft.  3  in.  long  and  17  in.  lDsld<>  ilintiieler.  The  beatlng- 
t.  In  the  flre-boi  nnd  36  13  in  the  tubes,  total  (6.54  sq.  ft. ; 
8  «q.  ft.;  ca parity  of  tank,  aoj^gsllons;  working- prewsure. 
;  tmctlTe  power,  say.  HIS  lbs.,  or  (i.a!  lbs.  pf r  lb.  of  effec- 
ttq.  In.  on  tlH»  plstfm.  Weight,  when  eitipty,  S.80  tons; 
'orking  order,  3.10  tons. 

of  a  system  of  narrow-gauge  railways  for  mannfactorlea, 
!  C.  W.  Hunt  Co.,  New  York. 

BOtlven.— For  diiiieni^ions  of  light  ocninotives  used  for. 
or  much  viilnaljle  Information  concerning  them, see  cata- 
ler  4  Co  ,  rittsinirgli 

inrnloK  liocomatlves.     (From  Clark's    Steam-eu- 
ration  of  jietroloiim  refuse  inlocomotivcahashftctv  wkr«iss 
Mr.  Thos.  t^njijliflrt,  on  the  Orazi  attA  TaanU\ttVl8.\V«»-'!J , 
Since  A'oreniber,  1881,  the  whole  stocV  ot  \4&\oc«-^ 
Bifence  has  been  flresl  with  petroleuvn  retuse. 
t/ef/jronj?h  a  tubular  ..peniiif;  In  tli>;\uvc\s.ot» 
at«ani,  wii/i  aji  induced  current  ot  aVr. 
[S^  i^ireoeratlve  or  accumuValWe  coWit 
>BlVbox,  Into  which  the  combined  cuvt 


866  LOCOMOTIVES. 

spr&y  a^inst  the  ruin;ed  hiickwork  Klope.  In  thls*rraaK<MDflnilN 
work  is  miiintiiinf  (1  at  a  white  beat,  and  t^jmbuntion  is  complete  unl  • 
less.  Tlie  form,  iiiiiss,  and  dimpntiioii)!  '>f  tlii?  brickwork  »rr  lfc»  na 
portant  elements  in  sjuch  a  cctiiibinntuju. 

Oouiiiri^xeil  (lirwas  tried  iiiBtHiid  of  st»'aiii  for  Injection,  butooai^ 
VeducI  11111  iu  eoiisiiiiipllon  of  fuel  was  noli<?ed. 

The  lioalinK  power  of  petroleum  refuse  is  piveji  Ba  t9,BMhcit 
eqiiivftlent  to  the  eva|Miration  of  30.53  Ibn.  of  nnti^r  from  ami  mtttFT 
IT.l  Ills,  al  HJ4  atnioapliores,  or  1^  lbs.  per  mj.  in.,  e(T«<tiTe  pnmiBn 
biehest  evaporative  duty  was  14  lbs.  of  water  under  t*^  acnioopikm* 
of  the  fuel,  or  nearly  H-if  efficiency. 

There  Is  no  probablliiy  of  any  extensive  use  of  petroleiitn  a*  fiw*  I* 
motives  In  the  United  States,  on  account  of  the  unltinlt«<l  supply  of  « 
the  eoniparatively  limiied  nupply  of  petroleum. 

Flreleaa  IjoconiotiTe.— The  prlm-iple  of  tho  Fnuicq 


that  it.  depends  for  tht'  Kupply  of  steam  on  itx  spcintaneou*  i.'>-ri<T«i w 

a  hotly  ol^  heated  water  in  a  reset^olr.    As  »lin 

off  the  pres.siire  falls;  hut  by  provldlDK  a  sutli.  r 

heated  to  a  hlKli  tenipemture,  at  a  pressure  cor      , 

of  Burplu.s  pres-snre  maybe  secured,  and  means  iiia>  ilui&  In-  ftiun 

RupiilyiDK  the  ret|Uir<'d  quantity  of  steam  for  the  trip. 

The"  fireletw  locomotive  desipfned  for  the  ftt-rvjii- nf  the  M«-!r.im4n 
way  of  Paris  has  a  cylindrical  reservoir  1.  ab( 

Tin.  In  diameter,  S6^  ft.  in  length,  with   '  cab 

Four  flfthB  of  the  capacity  is  occupied  hr  >.v 

of  a  powerful  jet  of  steam  supplied  from  sialionaiy 
heated  until  equilibrium  Is  etsiablisbed  between  the  ' 
voir.  The  temperature  is  raised  to  ahoiit  390"  F  ,  c"!  1 
per  sq.  in.  The  steam  from  the  reservoir  is  i>as-.e<l 
valve,  by  which  the  steam  Ih  reduced  to  the  required  ,  ^ 
passed  through  a  tubular  superheater  situated  within'  ih^ 
upper  part,  and  thence  througb  the  onlinary  repn 
The  exhaust-steam  is  expanded  to  a  low  pressure,  in 
of  escape.  In  certain  cases  the  eihflii.it-sleam  i-. 
vessels,  which  are  only  in  part  fHled  with  water.  In 
pipe  is  placed,  Into  which  the  steam  is  exhausted,  ^\ 
pipe  iii  fixed,  p4.'rforated,  from  which  cold  water  is  p: 
rounding  steaui,  so  aa  to  effect  the  coudeosation  a.^  ctiiti) 
The  healed  water  falls  on  an  inclined  plane,  and  flow*  .it; 
with  the  cold  water.  The  coudenslnic  wator  i>  i-ircnlui^- 
cenlrlfuf^al  pump  driven  by  a  small  thret- 

In  ivorl<inK  off  the  steam  from  a  press 
feet  of  Water  at  .IIW"  F.,is  sufBcient  for  tli. 
the  circulating  pump  for  the  condenser^ 
lll{liiin);  of  the  train.     A.t  the  stations  th-' 
lbs  of  steam — nearly  the  same  a.^  the  u  < 
run  between  two  consecutiv.- 
condensing  water.    Taking  :  I 
lure  rises  to  about  IH)"  F.  af  I' 

The  loonmotive  has  ten  wheels,  on  »  .f 

coupled.  4^  ft.  in  diameter.    The  eictreni  .-idul] 

cylinders  are  23^  in.  Id  diameteir,  with  a  ^' 

The  eufrine  weifdls,  in  working  order,  53  ions,  of  which  36  1 

coupled  wheels.    The  speed  varies  from  IS  milsa  to  V  mOM  paf 
traliiK  wciirh  about  140  tons. 

Compr«Ba«d-alr  LocomotlTea.— For  an  aeooaatof  ttol 
•ysteja  o(  compresaed-Air  locomotiTW  SM  pic«  SOO,  a«t«k 


i  eod  of  A 
raJne*  uv,  far 
to,  (jrustiS. 
ktablj  appHea 


abafta  weO 
•gainst 


Chaftine, 
•part: 


HJ>.  =  ^:  <{  =  w  "^l^-,  far  tiilil  I  garf  li  am. 


«5 


»fo«rrr  traiumltted,  d  s 
nlDnte. 


cCahifk  la  iadiea,  «  =  m^ 


I  gives  tor  twrned-Jroo  diafting  d=  a/ 


ljiUKhlio«  elTo  ih<>  icam«  rormuto  as  Prof.  Tfaurstoo,  vftb  the 
beptlous:  For  «ii«  ahaftinp,  haceers  !<  ft  apart: 

coM-rolled Iron,  HP.  =  ^.  <*  =  f^" |^- 

trananiitUDg  poorer  and  short  conoters; 

, ,  ,         „  „       tt^S     .       '/so  H.P.. 

tamed  Iptm. H.P.  =  -^.  rf  =  i/      ^  ~; 

oold-rolled  Iron,  H.P.  ==  -^g- .  d  =  |/  —5 — . 

jjlve  fhe  fol  lowing  notes:    ReceiviiiK  fttw*  tTatiBmW.ttTV*' 
Wt  hf  pinceii  as  chme  to  I  eariiiR'S  B-s  po8«iV>\e',  Mv4\V\ft("''^ 
K'siori  •■/feat/frK  "  between  the  main  lie-beams,  ol  s 
be  mitin  rrceivfis,  oarrfpd    by  th«»  heaA  sAiatl^  N»\Xjc 
^de  AS  IB  cnnrf  mpliit.'d  in  the  fortntUai.    Buv  \t  V«.  1 
Brtasabsn  coaoaa  ihR  full  vMtK  r>r  tVu>'' Vtan'' 


r 


I  abaft  coapaa  ihe  full  -trldth  ot  the"  Vmci* 


ms 


BBAFTntfl. 


terniiidliite  bearlDKs,  or  for  the  piiUt-v  lu  In-  nlao*-!!  awafj 

towards  or  at  the  niiiWlw  i)f  iht  !■ 

jnereasiiJ  lo  secure  tlie  stifftitug 

tlMe(l«>tlection.     Shafts  may  nor  •!  -'1  ( 

foot  of  clear  lenpili  with  snfpty. 

To  find  the  diainpfer  of  Rhuf t  iiMiMMr;  to  turry  Mf^fr  ttM 
l}ie  centri;  of  a  liay:   lliiltlply  tlie  fouilli  power  of  Uie  dlatnii 
alH>vi'  roriiiulie  hy  lh«  lenKth  of  the  "  buy,"  nod  ditMe  tbia 
ill?tnnoe  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  liearlnKs*  when  tlie  i  ' 
as  required  by  tlie  formula.    The  fourth  root  of  tbia 
diameter  required. 

The  followiug  tAbie,  computed  by  this  nU«,  is  praetioaUjr  < 


In. 


Diameter  of  Shnft  neoeasary  to  rarrj  the  Load  i 
a  Bay,  which  k  tiatu  Ceolre  to  Centre  ot ', 


an. 


in. 


SHft. 


In. 


4n. 


8  ft. 


As  the  strain    ii}ion  a  shaft  from  a  load  upon  it  is 
prcduoT.  of  th(»  partu  of  the  shaft  multiplied  ifiti.  oooB 
ahoiilil  the  load  be  applied  near  one  end  of  ii"  i>a 

centre,  multiply  the  fourth  |K)wer  of  the  tli:-  im 

carry  the  loud  at  th»  centre  of  the  span  01 
parts  of  the  nlioft  when  the  load  Is  near  one  enij,  uiid  J|a 
the  product  of  the  two  part*  of  the  shnft  when  tlie  la 
centre.    The  fourth  root  of  this  quotient  n  ill  l)e  ihe  dial 

The  ehaft  in  a  line  which  carries  a  r«cel«inK-pull<>]r|l 
iransiiiiitinp-puliey  to  drive  anoltier  line.  -liiiiuiij  nlwaJT 
head  slinft.  and  should  Lie  of  the  size  given  by  the  ruleal 
main  riullevK  or  (renrR. 

Deflection  of  .SbaflluS-  <P»ncoyd  tron  tTorknl 
of  stenl  iiiid  iron  Is  nrncticallj  alike  iimler  Kiniilnr  eonillll* 
and  loadH,  and  as  sImftiUK  '*  u»ually  rietermlnrtlby  lt<i  Ir 
r«thei-  than  itK  iillliiiate  streDirth,  liearly  l]ie  tAnie  illtno 
used  fur  steel  as  for  iron. 

For  continuous  liiie-sliBftin(t  it  is 

ilellection  to  a  inailiiiutn  oi'  1/1(X)  iif  tr- 
ot bare  Hhaftio)!:  in  pounds  =  ':n,ni 
pulleys  Oh  is  c'UHtomury  in   i 
for  the  Tertical  pull  of  lli' 

alMul  ISd'h  =  »'.    Talciiit  .i«tl4 

lt>8.,  we  derive  from  suthuhculive  («iiiiuliL-  thi.-  followUig: 

L  =    ^87S<i».  rf  =  i/J|.  for  bare  ahAfUttx; 

L  m   r  iTOtP,  d  =  i/tsi.  for  abaftinr  owrylnc i 
|r     kia 

»Mii.>  Miihl^twd  to  h«uJ\ttR  Hire"- 
^^^       XTftm  I*  Uirerwtv  v 

«.a«UV  i\oV\>«>  ti-AvAv.  'T  «'        . 
5SI  toTTO^At^  w«r\tv*  x^-" 


HORSK-POVVER  AT   DIFFEKENT   SPEEDS, 


86M 


'  utinttle  for  pmclicnl  application,  but  the  followlai;  rules  art^  coireot 
tin-  rantTf  of  VflocUiMi  iiHiinl  in  pratliiw. 
ponttnuiMis  Rhnftiiitr  so  proporl lonHd  bs  to  deflect  not  more  tlisu  1/100 
iucb  p«r  Toot  of  length,  Bllowunoe  bviiig  made  (or  the  weakening 
of  key-seats, 

I  =  //"LSi,  L  =  f  TiSOtP,  for  b«re  shafts; 

I  =  j/ i?iL£:,  L  =    V  HOd>,  for  shafts  cairylngf  pulleys,  etc. 
f         * 

am.  in  inches.  L  —  leiiKtb  in  fest,  R  =  nr»s.  r^r  min. 
folkiwing  table  (by  J.  B.  FratiuiK)  (fives  the  (jreatest  adniidglble  dia-| 
between  Ihp  IwarinRB  of  t.-ontiDuotis  shafts  subjw't  lo  no  transversal 
except  from  ilieir  own  weijfhl,  aa  would  bn  Die  case  wer>»  the  poweirl 
]ff  from  the  &UhIi  equal  ou  all  fides,  and  at  an  eqiiEil  diatanve  (ron 
Dger-bearlDgK. 


Dintance  between 
Bearings,  In  ft. 

f— — -'*• * 

Dlam.ofSliart,  Wrought-tron   Steel 
In  inr<he«.  Shafts.       Shafl«.1 

0  2S.S0  88.1 

T  a.48  «.] 

8  M.B5  8S.i 

9  85.B8  U,i 


Pbitance  between 
Bearing,  In  ft. 

of  Shaft,  Wrought-lron    Steel 
Bcbes.  Bhafts,       Shnrts. 

►  18.48  IS. 811 

I  17.70  18.10 

I  10. 48  80.02 

(  aC.99  SI. 57 

te  oondition;),  however,  do  not  usually  obtain  in  the  transmission  of 
by  belts  and  pulleys,  and  the  varying  circmnstancei!  of  each  ease 
•  It  iinprocticablc  to  give  any  rule  wlikli  would  be  of  vnlue  for  uulrer- 
pllcation. 

example,  the  theorotioal  reqtiirpments  would  demand  that  the  bear- 
>e  nearer  tugether  on  lliofie  «ecll<jnH  of  hliafling  wliere  lunst  power 
ivered  from  the  shaft,  while  coUHideialinn.s  as  to  the  location  and 
i  contiguity  of  the  driven  niacldiier;  nm.v  reinler  It  inipraoiicable  tu 
i.ie  the  drUing-puUeya  by  the  iiiterveiiliou  of  a  liauger  at  the  theo- 
lljr  required  IocaUod,    (Joshua  Rose.)  . 

re-power   Tranninltted    by  Tnrned    Iron  Shallliig  at 
Dtilrrent   SpeedN, 

IMR  MOVKR  OR  HBAO  SraPT  C.^RHYINO  MaIN  IlRJVI.sa  PI'U.ET  or  Gkar, 
WIU.U  siTiWRTgD  B¥  Uearingb.     FoiniiiUi :  H.l'.  -i  ii>K  m-  1>!5. 


Number  of  Revolullona  per 

Minute. 

60 

go 

JOff 

125 

ISO 

175 

200 

SHfl 

250 

275 

SCO 

H.P. 

HP. 

HP. 

H.P. 

HP. 

HP. 

H.P. 

HP. 

HP. 

HP. 

H  P. 

a.« 

a. 4 

4.a 

0.4 

B.4 

7.^ 

tt.6 

».? 

lO.T 

ll.t^ 

n.fl 

8.8 

.^.l 

B.4 

8 

9.fi 

11. J 

K>.« 

14.4 

16 

17. B 

19.:; 

ft.4 

7.8 

8.1 

10 

lU 

14 

10 

18 

•M 

a-j 

34 

7.5 

10 

U.'j 

15 

18 

ea 

m 

8» 

Hi 

at 

a: 

10 

n 

16 

8l> 

'H 

88 

a> 

a« 

40 

41 

48 

IS 

17 

SO 

25 

DO 

35 

4i) 

4-'. 

M 

5.5 

60 

le 

«! 

ST 

S'l 

40 

47 

51 

ai 

fi7 

tt 

<  ^\ 

so 

«r 

»/ 

4/ 

fil 

.W 

(W 

■;a  \  »i  \  ^  Xwi 

«is        i$  1  4i   i   M    \ 

03 

73 

ft4 

i   W  \\«»  \w->  \v-«> 

90           41         51    I    64    \    76     ^ 

S9 

\fri 

\  H5    \  V.n    \  \W   \  NSJ' 

iS     /  i?    /    W    /    fW    /  J08 

126 

144 

\  tR3     \  \*0    \  Wft    \«^ 

?        .^   "^    "^    /'SO        17B 

200 

\  y.  \  •£«  \^'t»  \si 

a    J  lOB  1  m     m  1  loa     am 

208 

\  299  \  aaa  \ ' 

*!LJi 

^70 


SHAFTIirO. 

As  Second  Movkra  oa  LiNK-BEArriKO,  BEABllia*  8  T.  iMC' 
Formula:  H.P.  =  d'A-nW. 


?.  ii 

Number  of  {Uivulutioiin  per  MinUle. 

a^a 

Q      DC 

]00 

125 

150 

175 

SCO 

335 

3S0 

875 

Ml 

Ids. 

H  K 

H.P 

H.P. 

HP. 

H.P. 

R.P. 

H.P. 

HP. 

HI- 

i 

n 

6 

7.4 

8.9 

10.4 

11, a 

13,1 

14.» 

10  4 

i:,> 

7.3 

».l 

10.9 

IS. 7 

14,5 

16,3 

IS. 3 

90 

!1.* 

•i 

8.9 

11. 1 

Ll.-S 

15..^ 

17.7 

20 

sa.i 

ii4.4 

a,c 

'M 

10. e 

la.s 

15.9 

18.5 

21 .3 

8S.8 

se.s 

iW.l 

91.1) 

2M 

12.  e 

1SK 

19 

S3 

35 

38 

81 

» 

St 

■^ 

15 

18 

2S 

as 

39 

33 

37 

41 

44 

A 

17 

81 

«6 

so 

84 

89 

4S 

47 

U 

m 

23 

29 

34 

40 

4« 

52 

58 

H 

W 

s 

m 

37 

45 

53 

00 

67 

75 

U 

» 

3S 

47 

57 

64 

7fl 

B5 

95 

IM 

114 

1 

3« 

47 

fi9 

n 

R» 

9S 

107 

I1» 

in 

Itf 

^^ 

68 

73 

68 

102 

117 

m 

146 

163 

1T« 

4 

71 

89 

lOT 

ISS 

143 

lOO 

J78 

IM 

Ml 

Hf 
IK 
»i 
*i. 
MX 
41 
41 
H 
•A 

in 

I9t 

IM 
tSl 


For  SiHPty  TiLUistiiTTiMa  Powiii. 
ronimla ;  H.P.  =  d'/T  t-  iO. 


Nuiaber 

of  RavoluUoiiii  {tar 

Minuw. 

i 

100 

185 

150 

175 

300 

tSi 

967 

aoo 

s» 

H.P. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

HP. 

HP. 

HP 

'm 

8.7 

8.4 

10.1 

11.8 

13.  B 

15.7 

17.9 

30.3 

8.6 

10.7 

13.8 

IS 

17.1 

30 

32.8 

35.8 

*» 

8 

10.7 

18.4 

in 

18.7 

21.5 

2.-. 

S8 

« 

« 

18.2 

16.5 

19.7 

S3 

36.4 

31 

35 

39 

44 

If, 

30 

34 

38 

33 

87 

42 

48 

» 

la 

34 

39 

33 

sa 

44 

51 

« 

a 

23 

38 

3t 

S9 

45 

62 

60 

«e 

TS 

2- 

«J 

40 

47 

.M 

63 

70 

79 

141 

Sl 

89 

47 

54 

03 

731 

88 

U3 

104   IIJM 

41 

53 

63 

78 

83 

97 

111 

t« 

\mMM 

S4 

07 

HI 

91 

too 

130 

144 

m    ]S^M 

68 

86 

103 

130 

187 

160 

183 

306    aff^H 

K, 

107 

1S» 

1W 

171 

300 

338 

357 

1  M 

IS* 

(orrM-power  TranninUted  by  Cold-rolled  !»•■ 
at  DlOerent  Speed*. 

Primi  Moveb  or   Hud  Sbaft  oahrtuio  Maiit  Dunw-r 
Oeab,  wkll  acPFOttTED  ar  Beakikos.     FoniiuU:  H.P.  s  iPt< 


.fiORSE-t'OWER   AT   DIFFERENT  SPEEDS.  871 

OND  Movers  or  LiKB-SBAmvo,  Biarinob  8  rr.  apuci. 
roi  inula  :  H.P.  =  rf'B  ■*- 10. 
Number  of  Revoluliong  per  Miiiutt?. 


w 

T25 

150 

175 

stn 

235 

SSO 

375 

30C1 

M 

300 

p. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

HP 

HP. 

HP. 

H.P. 

H.P 

H  P. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

-7 

«.4 

10,1 

11. s 

13.5 

15.-i 

Ifi.H 

1,S.5 

•JO -J 

31  9 

83.0 

.6 

10.7 

IS.S 

15 

17.1 

19..? 

21.  S 

23.0 

25.7 

as.o 

3] 

.7 

IS. 4 

16 

18.7 

21.5 

!M.3! 

ai  8 

■jsi.r< 

*!.l 

84.8 

8» 

.« 

IS  .% 

IB. 7 

23 

S6.4 

89.6 

Si.Q 

36.2 

39.5 

4S.8 

46 

ao 

21 

38 

S3 

»6 

4U 

44 

4H 

.%a 

Ml 

21 

»a 

!i3 

as 

43 

4H 

5S 

57 

6.i 

«7 

28 

ai 

.« 

4.> 

.V) 

no 

61 

6« 

74 

NO 

83 

40 

47 

.VI 

60 

87 

7a 

80 

813 

i)l 

S9 

4" 

51 

(W 

6» 

78 

R6 

9:4 

](i| 

J  09 

BS 

.  Hi 

78 

a^ 

93 

101 

111 

l-i5 

IS.i 

145 

6T 

til 

!)4 

KIH 

lai 

134 

148 

Itij 

K5 

189 

M 

103 

Iffl 

137 

154 

17i 

1H8 

aiA 

•ja-j 

IMI) 

107 

lUB 

151) 

171 

Wi 

ai4 

235 

!BT 

S7» 

300 

I 


t 


BlliPL.T  TbASSKITTISO  PoWKB   AMD  SHORT    CoUNTBRS. 

Formula:  HP.  =  rf'B  +  30. 


Number  of  Kevolutiong  p«r  Miuute. 


M)|    13S 

IfiO 

17B 

300 

238 

SM7 

300 

333 

807 

400 

P.    HP. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

HP. 

HP. 

H.P. 

H.P. 

HP. 

H.P. 

n.p. 

e      8.1 

9.7 

11. a 

13 

15.2 

17.4 

19.5 

21.7 

23  9 

26 

fi     10.7 

12.8 

15 

17 

19.8 

22.7 

25.5 

28.1 

31 

34 

.V  1     14 

16  8 

19  e 

22.5 

sa 

30 

33 

87 

41 

45 

*1    17  7 

21  2 

■■liM 

28.4 

33 

!M 

48 

47 

52 

67 

■    ••'i 

27 

31 

35 

4t 

47 

53 

m 

65 

n 

■    if? 

m 

38 

44 

51 

S8 

fi5 

72 

7» 

87 

■    33 

40 

4(5 

63 

ea 

71 

80 

88 

»7 

108 

■    «) 

4" 

55 

«3 

73 

84 

S5 

105 

lis 

127 

m  47 

57 

m 

76 

89 

101 

114 

137 

139 

isa 

P     85 

60 

77 

m 

101 

118 

i;« 

148 

IBS 

178 

65 

7S 

HI 

104 

121 

138 

155 

172 

i'M 

807 

1          84 

00 

113 

1.W 

161 

184 

207 

■ai 

254 

277 

1        112 

lii.'; 

157 

IHO 

210 

Wi 

a!7U 

300 

SW 

H60 

US  or  SnArTTKO.— Machine  Khop8  ....  ISO  to  180 

i                           Wood-working 850to3»0 
Cotton  aud.  woollen  ni  Ills  300  to  4(10 
n  i«iine  factories  lines  1000  ft.  long,  ilie  power  bein?  applied  at 

•ir  Sh«ftB>— L.pt  d  be  the  diameter  of  a  Boliil  ^baft,  and  r},rf,  Ul« 
and  JDteriiul  diumeterg  uf  a  liollow  Rtiofl  of  ihe  same  in«terial, 

sbafts  will  be  of  equal  torsional  streiijflb  when  rP  =  — -, 

CI, 

hollow  shaft  with  Internal  tli«m»'tHrof  i  inches  will  weiifh  Itlj  less 
III  10-iiioh  nhaft,  b  it  lU  sUt-FiElh  will  he  only  2  .'iCJ  lens.  If  The  hole 
*a.<ed  to  .*>  inches  t.'iaiiit* l^r  the  weight  would  lye  2!j%  less  than  that 
d  almft.  ami  the  streiiirlli  4.2^;(  less. 

for  Vaytne  Out  Shafttng,—Th\i  table  on  tV\«  ovvo^^^ V*''!^ 
Siavent  Imiuutoi;   .\\,r\\.    1892)  U  used  by  Wm.  S>i\^W*  ?"  '*'    '" 
Se  hiriiiK "lit  of  shn flint;. 

Uiutatt  the  head  of  this  table  show  the  position  .- 
'  .^J"!.'''',"^'  ''"^"'''  ^'""  ""^  '^^ase  of  extensiou  \n\ 
Ml  beoa-abaft  or  ©xtensiou  ia  one  direcllon  Irom  1 


FOR   LAYIKG   OUT  SMAmUd. 


I 


0""9*»  v«a4 


Ct-0tSlCj;«»2*  £  SSSI 


tZ  *•—  *»i  . 


r 


'■a  6.1 


?5S 


X3 


3» 

_  2288 

S'-5SS 


*•         3! 


<^  |C  o  I-  flp  «  S 


9^^97  V2  '^  -r  n^ 


^^nis^nsF-i-A 


^?„«, 


^«?5lif»^. 


-•^>n%««f^i. 


PROPORTIONS   OF   PULLEYS.  873 


PtTLliEYS. 

ona  of  Pulley ■•  (S«e  aUo  Fly-wbeeli.  naReg  S20  to  8-33.)— 
_  ber  of  arms,  D  —  diameter  of  pulley,  S  =  thicknuss  of  halt.  r  = 
of  Hm  at  edge,  3'  =  ihickfifFO  In  middle,  H  =  w  tritli  of  Hm,  $  = 
)«1(,  h  =  hrpsdth  of  arm  at  huti,  h,  =  breaiUli  nf  m-ni  at  Mm,  f  = 
of  arm  at  bub  r^  =r  thickneasof  arm  at  rliti,  c  =  amount  of  orowii- 
~*>n8in  inchet. 

Unwin.  Reiileaiix. 

rim 9/8  0  f  0.4)  9/-»$  Uih/iff 

•  atedgeofrim  0.TS+.006O       {^*^^{%i"Jx^r^ 

"   middle  i^f  rim S<  +  f ' 

{   For  single      j/^P 

\    belts  =.63aT|/     „       ^„       a  ^ 

1    For   double    *  /  BD      *         *        aOu 
I     belts  =  sasy  ~ii"" 

rim %h  OM 

Hof  arm  at  bub. 0.4A  O.BA. 

"     "     "  rira 0.4/1,  0.5Ji, 

(»«■  of  arma.   for  «l  .  ,  'SO  ,,/,       /)  \ 

!fc^t.  f-  '+m  «C6-,-a^ 

°  """''' 1  la  often  ?4B.  ,'  2S  "  do.ible-arm  " 

neitsof  mel&I  in  hub h<(>%h 

"rof  pulley 1/'34B 

Br  of  «rm.i  in  really  arbitrary,  and  may  b«  altered  if  nec<>Kgary. 

^Ib  two  or  tlirefl  bcIb  of  arms  lunv  bo  cnnnldpred  Bi  t  no  or  tliree 
Jiteys  combined  In  one,  except  tliat  the  ivroportiona  of  tbeariim 
10.8  or  0.7  time  that  of  slufcle-arni  iiulleys.    (Beule&iix.l 
^.-Dimensions  of  a  puUev  00"  diani  ,  IB"  Iw',  tor  cUniblp  belt  W 


r-' 


h       h,       t       e, 
t.TS  t.W   \M   1.01 


•qx  .  ...       4      B.O     4.0     3.5     !i.O  1.2S         IQ       S 

owing  proportions  are  (riven  in  an  article  In  the  Ainer.  liacUiniit, 

r;  stated: 
+  ,0  In.,  A,  =  .04O-t-81Sain,,««  .0»D+  .«  In.,  »i  =  .Oiei>  + 
fortbeatiove  example:  h  =  4.!i.Mn..  A,  =  8.71  In.,  r  =  l.Tld., 
Id,  The  sei-tion  of  the  arms  in  all  oatM-s  is  taken  an  ellfpHcal. 
lowing  Rolutlon  for  breadtli  of  arm  '\»  proixwed  hy  tlie  author: 
t  belt  pull  of  IS  lbs.  jMr  Incli  ut  uUllb  of  a  Bint^ie  lielt,  timt  the 
lln  ia  tal<en  in  equal  proporMuiiK  on  one  half  of  the  aritm,  ami  Ihai 
IB  beam  loaded  at  one  end  hu<)  (ijipil  at  I  be  otliet*.     ^^'e  have  the 

bra  beam  of  elllptieal  9n-t\onfl'  =  .(mi  '^''^',  in  which   f  =  llje 

■m  modulunof  rupture  of  the  onat  iron,  h  n  lu'eiulih,  il  =  depth, 
mfph  of  tht'  beam.  afui/=  ftKitor  <if  Kiifeli-      a-shidhh  it   luodulun 
e  of  3(i,o0O  His.,  a  factor  of  safety  of  irt,  and  nn  ndrUtituial  allow 
lately  iu  taking/  ^  y,  ibu  diuinHt,«<r  nf  the  pullt^y  Inntead  of  ^[i 
Aua  of  the  hub. 

■A,  the  broMltli  of  the  arm  at  tli«  bub.  aud  ■■  =  t  =  <i.Mv<  >X\« 
^'e  tbea  ftara//'=  10  X  ^  =  m^l  ^  «r^^  ^  ^AK^^^y^,,^ 
'  , n-t-i  11  \4D 

-  =  .03sy  — ,  which  ia  practically  t\ve  •aa»« 
hwii,  from  a  dinersol  a»t  of  assuropltona, 


I'LLLEYS. 


f 

^     Convexttx  of  Pnlleya.- Aiiihoriii-' 

to  I  10  of  iJieface;  Molt-sworth,  1/24;  n: 
SniUh  aays  the  ci-own  should  not  he  i>»er  ■ 
for  shifting  bijlU  Sibould  be  "strnisht,"  ili-. 


•  trtoH 
M 

i 


CONE  OB  STEP  Pri.liBVS. 

To  flnti  the  illameters  for  thp  si'veral  bteps  of  a  paii     ' 

1.  Crossed   Belts, — I^t  l>  and  >/  \ie  tlie  ilianifi  -  -iiajl 

[iievtfil  hy  A  L-ro-sseti  belt.  L  =  the  distance  Ijelwevii   i  %  lal 

I  the  angle  either  half  of  (he  belt  makes  with  a  iine  joiniup  lut-  <-Ymi«l 

piilleja  :   theu  total    length  of  hell  =  (D  -f  d)?  +  ,p  -^  d>^  -hSL  e 
p  =  angrle  whose aineta^i^.     Oos/l  =  i/i»  -  (^^)  .    Tbr  In 

Ihe  belt  U  constant  when  Z)  ^- il  Is  eon.xtaiit;  that    ia.  In   %  (-sir  « 
pulleys  the  belt  feuslon  will  be  uiiifonii  wlim  lli>>  -iiiin  of  the  if 
eueli  <i|)i>OBit«  pair  of  steps  Is  constant.    Crossed  beltn  are  ai?Id< 
cuiie-pLilleyB,  on  accuimt  of  the  friction  between  ihe  nibblOK  | 

To  (te.->if;;D    a    pair  of  tapering    speedconeii,    no    that    Hf 
e<|iiall.v  lisrlil  ill  all  positions  :  When  the  belt  is  crossed,  u»e  a  pkirii 
and  siiiiiilBf  eoneo  tapering:  opposite  waj's. 

■-'.  Open  Belts.— Wheu  the  belt  is  uncroBti-.i   ii*>-   n  t'""-  "f  «(« 
liimilar  eoiioid^  tapering  opposite  ways,  and  Iji  I  1|«H 

lug  to  the  fullowiiifc  formula:  Let  L  denotr  tli- 

of  the  tranolds:  /{  the  radius  of  the  largerend..   ,„ _ 

■ni&ller  end;  theu  the  radius  in  the  middle,  r,,  m  found  aa  tviii 


1 


-  ^  +  '"   ,   <«  -  »-'' 
•  ~       3       "^     6.28i  • 


lltanfcine.) 


the  diameter  of  equal  iit«p*  of  a  pair  of  oone'Rulleya.  D 
iters  of   unequal  opposite  steps,  and  L  s  dmiaoo*  tan 


It  Dt 
the  diamSters 

axes.  O.  =  ^_  +   ^j^-j^. 

If  a  series  of  differences  of  radU  of  the  atepa,  A  -  r,  tie 

for  each  pair  of  steps    -5 —  =  r,  -  ,  and  the  radU  of  1 

computed  from  their  half  sum  and  half  di&ereoce,  aa  follow* ) 

_  ^  +  ''  _  ?^z. 
~      -J  * 


„_.R-fr    ,    fi-r. 


A.  J.  Frith  iTrans.  A.  8.  M.  E.,  i.  SiKh  shows  the  foll.v»ir 
Kauldne's  method:  If  we  had  a  set  of  cones  to  desie' 
Ifrsof  which,  including  thloltiie'»s  of  belt,  were  40"    , 
desired  4,  3,  'J,  and  1,  we  would  make  a  table  sm  follo» 


^  Trial 
nSiini  of 

O  +  d. 


Ratio. 


Trial  Diameters. 


D 


40 

S7.S 

Sa.833 

35 


ID 
US 

16  oea 
ss 


itwre  fnnniil 

ililterence 
; •iillHyy  ar>' 

i.riir;ll.-    ~ 


are  approilmiite,  and  fh^-y  do  iMt  r 


•■twpalslaiceaM 

' WV  »lll  MMtl 

■>  *wi»vi^rw 


cosz  o>  mr  pcixm. 


b  .tliC.    With  O  M  a 

:  frircic  will  be  miMlilii  eC  ik» 

'  thi-  nrsi  pulkTS  J>i  a«rf  ^  a 

Tlie  b«>li-lioe  ot  aay  adki-pur  ^f  j 
1;  hence  any  One.  aa  /Car  IJK,  * 


Fie.  at. 

diameters  P,,  (f,  or  ^  tf, a(  Ifea 

The  ahr.Tc  metht'xl  ii  tohe  aa 

When  it  IS  betirc«a  JS'  tmt        „ 

,  in  aiJiliticm  T  thr  |iriiaf  r  liiiali  aa  rtii  |ii*al  mtm  Ifeahar  iBi 

-•*«  &     nraw  a  tanggat  fce  to  the  ciette  g.  ■uAiag  a»  aag>i  «rf  Ml 

III?  nr  <.-entr<^  SF,  aod  fnaB  tke  peia(  •  4ra«  aa  anc  nag«f  la  fl 

etilline.    ■"  '-'•  '— rt~1l*  i^n  ga^aylt— »y  ■wrl«ajM>f  II 

J  =  an^lf  in  degree*  tetwMa  the  ccMi»  toe  asl  Ike  Ml  afaMf 

pulley*: 
a  =  .SH  for  belt-aogiea  ieaa  ttea  U'.mtd  jm  ttr  mffm  ^ttm 
and  30*: 
P*  =  »B  aDKle  defwodtag  oa  ibe  vcfaekr  falf»: 
C  —  the  CfntrvdMaaee  of  Ike  lv«  nAyi; 
d  =  duini)>(ers  of  the  laneer  a^  iMalkr  of  Ibe  pair  «r  ygt/i: 
£>  sz  an  ao^le  dependiae  oa  S>: 
t  =  the  lei.Bth  of  the  Ml  »t  _ 

t-=  C-<-rf,  ortfaeTeKK<crra«feiW8cr«TMe«hr4 

/>  -  -^  _  .       _      ai^r-f» 


(II  Bin  A 


aXMmB'  : 


tU  ~    r4-l    • 

(3^  Sin  P  =  sin  ^(oo*  A  -  -^-  )  : 

\A  =  B°-  £■  vbeo  lio  fi>  i*  poabire:  =  a*  +  E*  abrD  ila  nt  w 
seeing 


d  = 


=  SlSk£,-SO«lKB^  =  0aaar=  I: 


T  -  1 

D=  r<i; 
.  t  =  2C coa  ^  +  .017*Srf[]»  + 1/^  -  l.«*)  +  A)l 

Equation  il)is  t»>>d  nnl/ noor  fur  aar  pair  «f  cone* to  o\Ai$<' ' 
oo«  A,  by  tite  *id  ot  laMaa  atttotm  And  ooaiaea,  f«r  nan  la  «q' 


^ 


r 


BELTINQ. 


BELTINO. 


Tkeorr  «f  Belt*  and  Bands.— A  puller  >"  diiveo 

meaDs  of  the  frictlun  botwt-en  the  surfaces  in  contart.  T>>t  7', 

on  the  drivinK  sUie  of  llie  liell, '/',  llis  li-n.siiin  "11  til. 

-  7", ,  is  the  total  friction  l^tween  the  band  an<l  tl)- 

the  tractive  or  driving  foif«-    I^et  1  —  iht  cofflifir' 

of  the  len^b  of  t|ie  ore  of  L-ontact  to  the  le»Ktb  of  i 

of  the  arc  of  contoct  in  dejrrees.  f  —  the  hnse  of  ' 

=  2.T1H38,  III  =  tb<>  moduluB  of  the  coinruoo   Iovj 

followliiit  forrauliB  are  derived  by  caJculm  i  RaDkiiir 

p.  851 ;  Carpenter's  Exper.  Eug'g,  p.  I78i: 


7-, 


r,  -  T,  =  T,fl  -  e  -/»)  =  T,{1  -  lO"''*")  =  r,(l  -  10"'' 

the  arc  of  contact  between  the  kaed  &n<)  the  puUey  t-spmwd  ti  I 
fractions  of  a  turn  =  .i,  #  =  2irii;   e^'  =  10^^**/'-;  ^,^1,  |^  ^  | 
natural  numbfr  forrespoodinj;  lo  the  comniou  loKOrithia  W.T.'W'/n 

The  vnliit  of  the  coelTicieut  of  friction  /itppend*  OD  th*"  ulntt-  air!  i 
of  UiB  riihbinK  Hiirfuces.     For  leather  '    '•      ■■ 
/  =   56  when  dry,  .86  when  wet.  i'»wh.-i 
latiDK  the  proper  mean  tension  for  ii  i 
lo  be  tal<en  if  there  is  a  pnitinhillly  of  \ 
experinieut-s  of  Retiry  R  Towneand  !;• 
Inst.,  ]8(l»!i.  show  that  puch  a  state  of  i 
rence;  and  timt  in  'lef.idninB  inoebin^n  >>  r  .i.m  , 
f  -  O.-l*-    Reuleaiix  takes/  =  O-iS.    The  fi'llmi  iok  i 
the  coefBcient    -  T*s/,  bv  which  n  (»  Inlil'Jplled  In   i 
gpoudiiiK  I o  different  valuer  of  f\  a^»'  the  corrtwi 
ratios  among  the  forces,  when  the  arc  of  contact  1*  ; 


f  =  0  15 
?.73i^»/  =  0  41 


0  •-•5 
0.C8 


0  I 

i.r, 


9  18S 
1  K4 
I  » 


tff  =  V  and  n  c:  H,  then 
r,  -4-  'l\  -  1  mw 
r,  -I-  .s  =  J  66 
r,  +  r,  ■i-2s  =  a.iii 

In  ordinary  practice  it  la  usual  to  aiiAiai*    T, 
%S  =\h.     llilBOorrespoiid*  toy  -  O.-HnmxW . 

For  a  wire  rope  ou  cast  iron   f  i- — '■■■   '-\'-"  ■ 
groove  of  the  piillev  is  liotlouied 

Ceutrlt'uKaJ  TeuKlvii  ot  ) 
high  veliM.'iiy,  ceutrifujfal  foi-ce  pi 
inK  nhun  the  Iwll  lis  at  rest  or  e 
telitiinn  dlniinislies  the  elleotive  il 

Rankin"  »aj-»  :  If  a"  endless  l>. •   ,.... 

Ki»m  »pee<l.  the  eentrifugiil  force  iinxiiices  n  - 
section  of  the  liaiul.  rtjiiiu  to  the  mi^lit  nf  a  | 
^^ice  the  beikrbl  from  which  a  heavjr  hudr  u.... 
^Hvelocily  of  tlie  baud.    iSee  Cooper  uu  BeltiiiK,  p.  im.  j 

^^b7V  =  eeiii:  iTii,:'!!  tenaioo; 

^^B  V  -  '  !  i-et  per  Ke<K)tid ; 

^K  p  ^  ii  dU«  to  BTCkV  tV*)-  =  %l  V, 

^BWc    ......       ^  |>teoeottt«!\>»\V\tvV»»MA\»p^.>%.i 


BELTIXO  PRACTICE.  877 

tlni;   Prartlce.    Handr  Formulie  tor  Belting.   -  Siuce 

prtn  '  .tioQ  of  the  arjOT«  tonnulee  the  value  uf  tbc  c'oefficietit 

Ifoii  iini-d,  ilB  nctiial  value  yaryitig  nitliio  wide  llnilte  iIS]( 

1,  ati  1  aluw  of  7j  aiii  T.2  also  art  AjteU  arbltraiily,  it  ib  cus- 

tiaviiuiUix  i<j euitf^Hul*: lor  ihntm  ijieorstical  formulee  oovre simple 
^  lormule?  and  rul«£,  soiuo  of  h  lik-h  are  girea  below. 

1 1»  diani.  or  puUer  m  indus;  nd  =  circumference: 

r  =  vf"locir3-  of  It.'I)  iu  ft.  per  eecond;  c  =  vel.  to  ft.  per  miaute; 

»  B  aiiifle  r'f  tbe  arc  f>f  contact; 

L  s  leDKtb  of  arc  of  contact  iu  feet  x  trdii  -t-  (13  X  860); 

rs  tractive  force  per  Bquore  inrh  of  %ctionaJ  area  of  belt; 

V  s  widtb  io  incbes;  (  =  itii<!kne«i: 

9  c:  tractive  force  per  inch  of  width  xs  F-*-t\ 

L  B  revs,  per  minute;  rps.  =  revs,  per  eecoa^  =  rpm  ■*■  00. 

» • -js- X  nan.;  =  .asiM  X  rpm. 

=  workiuK  teoaioa  per  square  iscfa  ^  'Ji?>  lbs.,  and  t  =  T/33  iticli,  5  = 
Dearly,  tlien 

H.P.  =  ^  =  .mvxo  =  .00M7e<«i  X  rpm.  -  "^  gj^"--  ■        UH 

s  ISO  Um.  per  square  inch,  and  t  s  1/6  inch,  9  =  SO  lbs.,  then 

H.P.  =  j^=.oBr»=.oooa38u.dXT>m.  =^^1^^.   .  mi 

m  vorkin?  atrsin  is  60  lb?,  per  inch  of  width,  a  bell  1  inch  wide  IraTet- 
B  ft.  per  iuiuuf«  will  traiiiiiiiit  I  born*- power.  If  the  working  strain  ia 
per  inch  of  widtli.  a  bell  1  incli  wl<le,  iravelliiif;  1100  ft.  permlnuie, 
Uiatnit  1  ho rhe- power.  NiimeroUR  rules  are  given  by  diflferent  writers 
:iDir  which  vary  belwcen  these  extreineK.  A  rule  coiuuiouly  uKed  la : 
■ride  travelllog  lOOU  ft-  per  ruin.  =  I.U.P. 

H.V.=^^.06Vw=.OOOmu,dXrpm.  =  l^^^p-.    .     .    (i9;| 

nrespoiida  to  a  working  strain  of  33  lbs.  per  inch  of  width. 

.    Thii 

'™  _    naiair.,  _    imtT..^  ^ _  '«*  X  ''P'" 


f  wrKers  ^ve  aa  Kafe  practice  for  KlnfFre  belt*  in  good  coadltlop  M 
ig  teiisioD  of  15  lbs.  per  inch  of  width.    This  gives 


H.p.  =  ^  =  reiertu  =  .ooviKwd  x  rpn).  =       aw        •   **' 

ieuhl«  belta  of  average  thickness,  some  writers  aay  that  tbe  Irans- 
t  cllcieccy  Is  to  tlua  of  siugle  belt«  as  10  to  T,  wbfcli  w  ould  give 

t  double  belts  =  gjg=  .1109riti=  .OOOSlird  Xrpiu.  =r  jaao       *   *' 

Wlthoritles,  however,  make  the  transmlttiOK-power  of  double  belta 
hni  of  slniflK  Im-Uk,  i>n  Uik  atwumiition  ihac  the  tb|i:kne.ss  of  a  doubl«- 
twiL-e  that  of  a  single  belt. 

p  for  li»i»'-p<«wer  uf  belts  are  sonieClmea  batted  on  tile  nuinber  Of 
1  feet  of  iiiirfaoe  of  tbe  belt  which  pass  over  the  pulley  in  a  mlDUt«. 
per  Diiu.  =  lev  -•■  1:2,    Tbt:  above  formulie  irantoated  \n\o  \^'i&\.qtiii 

ror  S=  eoihs.  per  inch  wide  ;  H.P.  =  46  sn.  ft.  pet  H«Vi«».\.e> 
"     S^M    "  -  "     •    H.P.  =  92        "  " 

"     S -m  4S     •'  -  "  H  !•    —  M  •» 

-    S^tH^"  "  ..  H.P.  =^        "  "W 


I 


878 


BELTING. 


I 
I 


The  above  formulm  are  all  based  on  the  luppotition  Uial  t)i«m4 
tact  is  180'*  For  other  arc?,  tlie  irausmiitintc  power  Is  afipitiaaiMl^ 
porlioiial  to  ihe  ratio  of  the  lU-grei-s  o!  arc  to  180°. 

Sonw  rules  base  the  horse-pouer  on  the  Icn^ih  of  Ihe  arc  of  wi* 

obtain  by  substitution  H .  P .  =  -^^^  X  i  X  rpni. .  and  the  0»» 
take  the  followiiiK  form  (or  the  lieveral  values  of  S: 


H.P  =  I2^^|IH5!-o), 


wL  X  rpm. 


NSO 


(9U 


wL  X  rpm. 
SOO 


(»: 


H.P.  (double  belt)  = 


toL  X  rpm. 
857 


(B). 


None  of  the  handy  formula?  take  into  consldemtlon  lh« 
fiion  of  bells  at  hiRh  velocities.     When  the  velrjoiiy  is  over 
tile  llie  effect  of  this  teiisiion  liecomt-n  appncialile,  ati.l  it 
acctiuiitof  as  iu  Mr.  Nacle's  furmnla,  which  ia  given  bciow. 

Horae-'power  of  k  LeatUer  B«lt  One  Kncli  irld« 

Formula:  H.P.  =  CVtwt,9  -  MiV*)^  5S0. 
For  /  =  .40,  a  =  IflO*.  (?=  .715.  w  =  I. 


I 


Lacbd  Bsi.Ta.  3  s  275. 
ThIcItneRs  lo  inches  =  t. 


7/aa 


.H4 

l.S-J 

1. 7.1 


.Ml   .681   .6.1      7S 

5    .88  I.O0I.I6 
1.00  1.17  I -Sa' I.St 

i.aa !.« i.Bri.Bc 

1,47  t.  7^11.9.1  -iMTyVi  .W 

1  69  I 

1.90 
!!  U9 

a.«7 

«4l 

a.s8 

■J.Bl 
«.80 
8.94 
•J.  97 
8.97 


6/10 
.313 


1.05  I.IH 
1.66  I. 77 
■i  19  J. 31 
!.',()«  J  8l) 


-J 


Rrnmtp  Bki.t*,  i<  s  Jfll 
Tlilckcirsi  iu  InchM  ■ 


1/4 1 5/ie  I  i/'s  I  a,s 
■JBo'  .sul  .aw'   rr 


I  .fiU  1 
•J  S4''J 


•i.\H  3.  lit  a  75i4  itiS 

.t.Oi.).:w3.o,i4.rii 

8.16i.t.5.'.l4.14  4.74 


3.i7 
8.W 

3  4.1 
.1.47 
3.47 


S.M  t.'Jtrt.OI 
3.79.4.4i.'.  O.'i 
i  86:4.50  5  1.1 
H  90'4.,Vi'.'-..»l 
3  90  4  .W.^.VO 


.'l.ll.   ;.; 

0  31  11.7 
B  J !  ■    - 

*:>  ■ 

li.' 


1 

4 
-   I 

■Ml 

'  > 

:  I 


75 
Ml 


7.<r!)1,II|10.1 


The  H.P.  becomes  •  maxiniurn 
at  87.41  ft.  p.T»ec,  =  5845  ft.  p.  mIn.llOS  4  ft.  p«<r  *f>' 

in  the  sb<}Te  table  the  angle  of  subtemlon,  a.  i»  taken  atl 

Bhnuld  It  be I  90«|100°,110«|19J«i:aO«  14t>«!l(»rfl 

Multiply  above  values  by  \  .(15  !  .TO  I  .75  I  .7U  I  .88  I    l$7  J  .91  I  , 

8.  M.  £..  i«l 


^^^MDg  8  at  3T&  lbs.  per  eq.  In.  for  1act*a  b«lta  and  400  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  f«r 
^^^■11  and  rbrted  belts,  the  fornmla  becunies 


VUDTH  OF  BELT  FOR   A   GIVEN   HOHSE-POWEB.     879 


H.P.  =  CVtiiiM  -  .OOOOSlSr')  for  laced  belta; 
H.P.  =  Crtio(.787  -  .0OOO318F*)  for  riveted  belts. 


11 

V 

I>efrreea  of  contact  = 

a. 

to. 

iw 

]10» 

ISO" 

180° 

140* 

ISO- 

ISO" 

1T0» 

180» 

200° 

M 

.210 

.ao 

.aso 

.270 

.2S8 

,807 

.8-35 

.842 

.359 

.376 

.408 

M 
J6 

.»! 

.29,'i 

.3IU 

.342 

.384 

.SW 

.408 

.428 

.44U 

.4»7 

..VIS 

.8«3 

.AM 

.sai 

.407 

Am 

.4Si 

.480 

.IiO^i 

.S34 

.544 

.588 

.378 

,<4W 

.4:iS 

.■107 

.494 

.590 

.,%44 

.507 

.^«^ 

.010 

.040 

.Hi 

.WT 

.4B9 

.B-ai 

.MS 

.57.'i 

.600 

.6^4 

.MS 

.667 

.705 

.» 
.« 
.00 

,487 

.Mi 

.i36 

.667 

.&!t7 

.6-J4 

.&19 

.673 

.695 

,715 

.75.1 

.WT 

..SM 

.s;i) 

.BIO 

040 

.867 

.6B3 

.716 

.787 

.757 

.792 

.478 

.6IT 

.6.M 

.e«4 

.71.^ 

.739 

.76-4 

.785 

.SOS 

.8aj 

.858 

.610 

.Mil 

.OW 

.713 

.744 

.709 

MS 

.BIS 

.flS2 

,848 

.877 

:,K 

82,5 

.85:1 

.877 

.837 

.013 

JIT, 

.937 

.947 

.956 

.969 

1™  following  table  ftlvea  a  comparison  of  the  fonnuta  already  given  for 
FOue  or  a  belt  one  inch  wWe,  with  arc  of  coDtact  180°. 

'•'•e-power  of  a  Hel*  One  Inch  wide,  Arc  ofCoutact  1 80'. 

CoMPiaiSON  OF  UlPFKKE.MT   tYiRMfUt 


Form.  1 
HP.  s= 

nil 

Iso" 


1.09 
2.18 
3.97 
4.30 
a. 45 
6.55 
7.63 
8.78 
9.8! 
10.91 


Form.  S 
H.P.  = 

10V 

1100 


.OS 
1  09 
1.64 

2.18 
8  78 
3.47 
8.83 
4.80 
4.91 
G.45 


Form,  a' Fo rill.  4 

H.P.  =|H.P.  = 

iev  u<ii 

iooo        7^' 


.60 

i.ao 

1.80 

a. 40 

3.00 

s.m 

4.30 
4.80 
5.40 
6.00 


.82 
1.64 

a.46 

8  27 
4.09 
4  dl 

0.S5 
7.37 

8.18 


Fomi.  5 

(Ibl.belt 

H.P.  = 

wv 

513  ' 


i.ir 

S.34 
S.5I 

4.68 
5.K5 
7.02 
8.19 
S.Sii 
10.53 
11.70 


NftBle's  Form. 

;/33"«i!iKlebeIt 


Laced.  Riveted 


.73 
1.54 

a. as 

3.90 
3  48 
3.8S 
4.SS 
4.60 
4.55 
4.41 
i.OH 
3  49 


1.14 
2.84 
8.81 
4.88 
S.Sfl 
6.00 
6.78 
7.88 
7.74 
7.96 
7.97 
7.75 


i 

i 


Ith  of  Belt  for  a  GIv«t>  Home-f^o-iver.— Tbe  width  of  belt 
y^^  for  any  tjiven  horsepower  may  ho  obtainnl  hy  lri>nspo.sinf:  "le  fw- 
"^^t  bflrse-power  so  as  to  give  tlie  value  of  n:   Tljus; 

680  H.P.       9  J7  H.P.       2101  H.P.        276  H.P. 


-  X)nniila  (1), 

'-  ^rmula  (8), 

formula  (8), 

ormuJa  (4), 


moat 


loUe  beJu. 


UOO  HP. 


1000  H.P. 


73SH.P. 


B13U.P. 


i8.ai  HP. 
~         V 
_  16.87  HP. 
V 
1S.SQH.V. 

r 
BM  HP. 


d  X  rpm. 

_  4aoa  HP. 

~  d  X  rpm.  ~ 
_  aSJO  H  P.  _ 
^  (1  X  rpm. 
_  8800  H.P. 
d  X  tpm. ' 
liICO  B.P- 


L  X  rpm.  ■ 
5.30  HP. 


L  X  rpm." 
GOO  H.P. 
L  X  rpm.* 

L.-X.TV'^ 


I 


880 


BELTING. 


I 
I 
I 


Many  auUioritkiB  um  (ormuladt  for  double  bvltK  mm!  tomiola 

BflO  Il.P. 
To  obtalii  the  width  by  NsKie'B  formula,  u  ~  fr/  y—  in*n 

tbe  Kivou  horae-power  bv  the  fl^nu^  hi  the  table  oonvepoodlac 
thicKneas  of  belt  luid  Tefoolt y  in  feet  per  second. 

Tht    fiiniinUi      In    be     nfii     in     iiiiy     ymrlictihi'      ■■••-    '- 
matter  of  jud^fraent.    A  biD({le  IwJt  pro^urtloui^d  ii' 
if  tightly  fctretclied,  ond  if  the  surface  is  in  pmid  ctui' 
horse-power  cnlculiited  by  the  forniiiltt.  but  op.-  <• 
lioualile,  first,  because  it  requires  so  great  on  i; 
stretch,  slip,  and    requti-e  frequent  restretehui 
tiecause  this  teofil on  will  cause  an  undue  pre^Mi. 
therefore  an  undue  loss  of  power  by  friction       I. 
formula  (■!),  (!ii.  or  i4.i  or  Mr  N'oeVs  table,  shoukl  1. 
daily  in  oasew  in  which  the  relociiv  exeeeds  .lOKi !'    > 

Taylor's   Ituies   for  Beltlug. -i'  N\ 
XV.  *.^>4>  de.scriUes  a  nine  years'  eipeiitneiil    > 
Kivln?  results  of  testa  of  4d  belts  runnlni;  ni;;!.. 
Uelts  were  run  oo  cone  pulleys  and  othera  on  »hil  tuJK.  < 
leys.    The  aventKo  net  working  load  on  the  BliifiiiiK  lielis  wMJi 
I  hat  of  the  cone  belta. 

Tlje  shlftliiK  iK'lts  varied  In  dimensions  from  ;j9  fr 
.»  in.  tliicli,  to  61  ft.  5  In.  lonp,  6.S  in.  wide.  .37  in. 
varied  in  diuieasioiis  from  ',24  ft.  T  in.  Iouk,  ^  In.  wlU: .  . 
10  in.  long,  4  in.  wide,  .37  in.  thick. 

Geit-clamps  were  u.sed  having  sprinfj^balances  belwem 
cliinipi!,  so  that   the  exact  teuniou  to  which  the   belt  "^ 
accurately  weighod  whou  the  belt  was  first  put  on,  ucU  ea 
tiKhfenetl. 

Tlie  teniiiou  under  which  each  belt  was  spliced  *r»n  cart'fnilrl 
to  place  it  under  an  luitial  strain— while  the  belt  was  at  rc«t 
after  liKhleninK— of  71  Iba.  per  inch  of  width  of  double  belta. 
aleiit,  in  the  ease  of 

Oak  tanned  and  fulled  belt«,  to  103 lbs.  per  a^.  la. 

Oak  tanned,  not  fulled  belts,  to  aJB 

t^eml  raw-hide  belts,  to«3 " 

Kawbkle  belts,  to S84  "      "     "    "* 

Friini  the  nine  years"  experiment  Mr.  Taylor  drawa  a  anmh 
siuus,  some  of  which  are  triveu  in  an  abridged  fonii  lieluw. 

In  u^ii)^  belling  Ko  a.s  to  obtain  the  ^ivateui  eeoitorny  asd 
tuotoi'y  results,  the  following  ruleit  sitould  be  oltserveii: 


A  double  t>elt,  having:  on  arc  of  contact  of 

18U*,  will  giva  an  effective  pull  ou  the  face 

of  a  pulley  per  inch  of  width  of  Iwlt  of. 

1)1,  u  dilTerenl  tunn  of  sjiine  rule: 

The  nuiiilwr  c,f  sq.  ft.  nf  double  Belt  passing 
around  a  puih-y  per  ininule  requireil  to 
transmit  one  hurM)  i>ower  Is 

Or;  The  number  of  lineal  feel  of  double- 
belliDK  1  in.  wide  pawilii(;  around  a  iMiliey 
pemiaute  require>l  to  transuiit  one  horK»- 


OakTunMd 

and  FnlliNl 
Leatlter  Bdta. 


SB  lb*. 


aoaq.n. 


Etayj.ok's  kules  fok  belting.  88iH 

pfi'lu.  of  widili,  or  iiq,  in,  of  sectiou,  lo   which  od«  of  ibe  ^H 


\ 


6r  Uie  bf-lt  its  tigbtpued,  w  hen  at  i-est-.  After  the  Wib  (irt-  iu  motion 
isiiiitlliii;  power,  tlie  glresx  on  llie  slaok  Bide,  or  Ktrarid,  i<t  lite  t>fJ( 
I  less,  wliiln  thsi.  on  the  light  gide— or  Ihe  side  wbicli  iIobb  Ihe  |.ull- 
Hiiiies  greater  than  when  the  bell  was  at  reiit.  Uy  ttie  trriii  "  tela) 
e  nie«n  the  total  Ktres^  per  iu.  of  vidth,  or  itq.  Id.  uf  aeciion,  on  Ibc 
©of  belt  wiitlH  in  niLitioii. 

ffereiice  between  tlie  stress  on  the  lifclit  side  of  tlie  belt  mid  iti  Black 
lie  iu  motion,  reiirt-sent!;  the  effecliTe  force  or  pull  which  ta  trans- 
rom  one  pulley  tu  another.     Uy  the  lerma  "workiDK;  load,"  "  net 

load,"  or   "eiTet'lirc  pull,"  we  nieaa  IhB  difTerencH   in  ibe  leosioD 
ight  and   slack  sidets   uf  the  belt  per  In.  of  width,  or  sq.  In.  section, 
nioliou,  or  the  net  effective  foroe  that  is  trangmitt^d  from  one  pul- 
lother  per  iu.  of  width  or  sq.  i».  of  section, 
scovery  of  Messrs.  I^wis  and  Bancroft  iTrans.  A.  S.  M.  K.,  *it.  <49j 

"Biini  of  tlie  tension  on  both  Kiiieg  of  the  belt  does  not  reniaiu 
."  upsets  all  previous  theoretical  beltinff  fomiulie. 
lit  gpeed  for  tnaximum  economy  plK>nld  lie  from  4000  to  (SCO  tt.  per 

<e,t  distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  shafts  iu  from  I'O  to  S5  ft. 
lUlleyiv  work  most  Ratisfactorily  when  located  on  the  alack  side  of 
about  one  Quarter  way  from  the  iliiving-pullej'. 
are  more  durable  and  work  more  fiatisfactorily  made  narrow  and 
ther  than  wide  and  tiiin. 
fo  and  oilvisable  to  use:  o  double  belt  on  a  jiullcy  IS  in.  diameter  or 
t  Uijile  belt  on  a  pulley  M  In.  diameter  or  laricer;  a  quadruple  bflt 
ley  30  ill.  diaiueler  or  larKCr, 

ta  lDcrea8«  In  width  they  should  ako  be  made  thicker. 
ida  of  the  belt  Hhould  be  faatene  t  toother  by  splicing  and  eement> 
Md  of  lacine,  wiring,  or  u^tuj;  hooks  or  clamps  of  aiijr  kind. 
lUce  should  be  UKed  on  triple  and  quadruple  l>eltii  and  when  IdlerA 
.  Stepped  Kplice,  coated  with  rubber  and  volcaDized  In  place,  lo  best 
Br  belts. 

uble  belliDK  the  rule  works  well  of  making  the  splice  for  all  belt« 
In.  wide,  10  in.  lonj;;  from  10  iu.  to  lii  in.  wide  the  splice  »hould  be 
i  width  an  iJie  l)elt,  18  in.  Iieing  the  greatest  leDgth  of  splice  requiml 
le  beltini;. 

hould  be  cleaned  and  greased  every  Ave  lo  six  monihs, 
»  leather  l)ellg  will  last  well  wlien  repeatedly  tightened  under  a 
ben  al  re.'.^ci  of  71  lbs.  per  iu.  of  width,  or  'iW  lbs  per  sq  in.  section. 
.1  not  Riaiutaiu  thin  tension  for  auy  leugtli  of  lliue,  however, 
auifrs  liaving  spring- 1^ lances  between  the  two  |:iairs  of  clampa 
e  Uiieii  for  weighini;  the  tension  of  the  belt  accurately  each  llnie  it 
ited. 

retch,  durability,  cost  nf  niaintenaiice,  etc.,  of  bells  proportioned 
rding  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  a  total  load  of  111  lb«.  ner  Inch  of 
rrexpoodiiig  to  an  effective  pull  of  06  Iba.  per  inch  of  width,  and  (B) 
g  t.>  a  more  economical  rule  of  a  total  load  of  54  lbs,,  coneKixindiiig 
«.'llve  pull  of  26  IbF.  i)er  inch  of  widtb,  are  found  to  be  as  folIowR: 
t  is  impraoiicahle  to  accurately  weigh  the  tension  of  a  bell  in  tight- 
it  is  safe  to  shorten  a  double  bell  one  half  inch  for  everr  10  ft  of 
ir<Al  and  one  inch  for  every  10  ft.  for(B),  if  it  requires  ligiitening. 
I  leather  beltK,  wlien  treated  with  great  care  and  run  night  and  akj 
■ate  speed,  should  last  for  7  years  i A);  18  years  (B> 
St  of  all  labor  and  materials  used  In  the  msintenance  and  re|ialrv  of 
eltM.  added  lo  ih<i  cost  of  renewals  as  they  give  out,  ilirough  a  term 
,  will  amount  on  an  average  per  year  to  Vit  of  the  ori0nal  cost  of 
(A);  UjSor  lessiBi. 

iring  tli»  total  expense  of  belting,  and   the  manufacturing  coat 
tie  to  I  Ilia  account,  by  far  Ihe  largest  item  is  the  limn  lost  on  the 
i  wliila  belts  are  being  relaced  and  rei>aired. 
lal  mretch  of  leather  belting  exceeds  OS  of  the  ortginaV  Wi\^,vV\. 
r«ich  during  th«  Rrataix  montlu  of  the  lite  ol  b«\V»  \aW)>  ol  \>k»\Y 
TJtc^J  I A  i:  I.V  (B>. 

la  belt  will  ttretch  17/100  of  If  of  its  lenKth  betore  temiSrtiH.  ^  'w* 
<A);  ei/HXIon'.  (U).                                          " 
t  imnuftABt  cousidemtloa  In  making  \ip  t&Y>\««  an*  Tiitei* 
^f7L.^,f.'!^  '"  '""^  **>  ■««""'  i*»«»  wlntoutn  ot  ta^*i 


^•rh' 


BBLTINO. 


i 


le  aTersKe  doable  belt  (A),  when  rvinninc  ni^-lit  3.n:l  <isr  n  •  i 
sliop,  Villi  onuse  at  leajit  ^6  iulerruuilona  to  r: 
Interruptions  per  year,  but  with  (B)  iuterrii! 
erapw  ofteiirr  for  eacli  belt  than  one  ill  Si  « 
~!he  oiik-tniiiit'd  and  fulled  bells shutred  ilieniHelvu^  in  l/u  «i|< 
puds  except  the  coefficient  of  friction  to  either  the  oak-t»nnedi 
J  ftemi-raw-uide,  or  raw-hiile  wdh  launed  face. 
Belts  of  any  width  can  he  succeKSfiiU.v  ehifted  tiackwani  and  I 
tight,  and  loose  pulleys.     Belts  runiiini:  heliveeu  5(100  and  ()iu>fi.| 
and  driving  'KO  H.  I'  are  now  l>eiii(f  ilnijy  shifted  on  light  axd  lo 
to  throw  lines  of  »baf  tiiif;  in  and  out  of  use. 
The  best  foriii  of  l>olt-shifter  for  wide  belts  Ia  a  pair  uf  mDtftt 
Idth  of  belt,  either  of  which  can  be  pressed  onto  the  flat  ■  "^' 
'ton  Its  Black  gldeclube  to  (he  driven  pulley,  theazieof  itie' 
anffle  of  71°  with  tlie  centre  line  of  the  l)elr. 
^emarka  on  mr.  Tajrior'a  Rnlea.    (Trnn<i  .\.  S  K.J 
(The  tiiugt  iiolal)le  feature  in  Mr.  Taytnr'.s  paper  i 
Sreen  his  rules  for  pro|)er  proportioning  of  l>elts 
_'rlters.    A  very  cnmnionly  uHed  rule  is.  one  burs«--j 
by  a  Kingia  lielt  1  in.  wide  runnlner  x  ft.  per  biin..  sub.ttutiiiii;  I 
vulues,  according  to  the  ideas  of  dt£ferent  engineers,  ranir<OEl 
530  to  1100. 

The  piacllcal  mechanic  of  the  old  aehnol  is  apt  to  Kwenr  bj  i 
"  118  l)eing  thoroughly  reliable,  while  the  modem  enttint^r  '•  m 

the  flxure  lOlW.     Mr.  Tayloc.  however,  iiij-h-jul  .  f  usiiic  *  ntun>| 

ta  1100  for  a  single  belt,  uses  950  to  nOO  for  :  Iftro 

a  double  belt  is  twice  ast  f>trong,  or  will  .  ><  niiirti  | 

aingle  belt,  then  he  uses  a  tlKUi'e  at  K-ost   '  hii;«  i 

luodern  practice,  and  would  make  the  coRt  of  lj.-ltinu  ri>ra|Cl*ts* 
B-S  large  tt.s  if  the  helling  were  proportioned  accordini;:  to  tM  r  ^ 
the  cnstoniaiy  rules. 

This  great  difference  i»  to  Home  extent  explu) 
problem  which  Mr.  Ta.vlor  undertakes  lo  sulve  i.-^  "•' 

that  which  i«  solved  liy  the  oirliiiHry  rules  with  ti. 
lent  of  tlie  latter  genei-aliy  i»,  "How  wide  a  belt  r 
row   a  l)elt  may   be  used,  to  traniinili  a  given  h.  i  1' 

probloin  is:  "How  wide  a  belt  inusl  tie  iiwd  go  t 
may  be  transmitted  with  the  nilnimum  co«t  for  Im-U  r-|>«ii-.  ii»l 
to  the  belt,  and  the  Ntnallefit  lostt  and  inconvenience  from 
machine  while  the  lielt  is  being  tightened  or  i<'|>aii.-d  "" 

The  difference  between  Ihe  old  practical  i  ■ 

single  belt.  000  ft.  per  niin..  transmits  one  1 
monly  used  by  engineers,  in  which  lOOO  is>  s 
'ief  of  the  engineers,  not  that  a  horse-powi-r  n 
belt  proportioned  by  the  •■Ider  rule,  hut  that  - 
due  strain  from  overtightening  to  prevent  till  pi 
too  iniicli  Journal  friction,  neces.sitated  frequent  lighirnini:.  < 
tlie  length  of  the  life  of  the  hell. 

Mr.  Taylor's  rule  suhstituiiug  I  KW  ft   per  iiiln    nnl  i1.  r.lt'nc  lk»J 
further  step,  and  a  long  one.  In  the  same  till.  Ill 

in  any  case  by  eiigioeera  will  depend  ui>on 
tent  of  the  losses  due  to  slippage  of  helts  sl.i. 

1  the  lo^it  of  time  In  lightening  and  lefiairiiit;  i.>-ii*  i..»o.hi 
nee  tle-m  to  allow  tu«  first  cost  of  the  belia  to  be  doabled  nt 
.'Old  these  losses. 

'It.  fhould  Im*  noted  that  Mr.  Ta\|nr'«  «xi  '  inle  < 

rrow  l>elti,  iiseil  for  transmitting  power  ! 
concUisloiis  innr  not  lie  applicable  K  ikIi* 

Ine  By  nhcel  hefts. 

niJU'BLLANEOVS  NOTB9  ON   SBLTI^C. 

ormiilai  air  useful  for  \.Toviort\o'n\mt^\^»»»A  v'a^'' 
•n*  of  efltlmatint!  *iow  mMO>i  voNier  a  va-^V">'>«^ 
ral  aiiv  irivi-;  .  vVvan  \.V« »ii*- <  ^  "■ 

•'  '  TlieooX^  t«- ^> 

„iU»ttitUc-.A  in  aow  lo"u  "I  ^v r^u^ 


XANEOUS  NOTES  OX   BELTING.  883 


ihicknesfi.  the  power  transmitted  ought  tolncrrain  in 
juhle  IipIIh  we  Hhould  hiiT«  half  th<*  widtli  i-cqiiiml  far 
B  saiiif  roiiclitinns.     Wilh  ];ur|c«  pullpys  niiil  iiiiMlenile 

proliable  IhulihiB  hdlds  jjofid.  Wtih  uinaU  ihiIIp.vb. 
able  bi'lt  is  used,  there  hi  iiul  such  jjerfeui  coiitncr 
,l;e  and  the  belt,  due  lo  the  rlifldity  rif  thp  laltf  r,  mid 
Bry  to  bend  the  ^lelt-flbres  tlian  whi*!!  a  lhinin*r  iind 
iwstl.  Tlie  cf iitrifiiMl  force  teniUug  to  throw  the  twit 
increases  with  the  tliicknens,  and  for  these  rranoiiK  Ib^ 
t  required  to  tmu^mit  a  given  horse-power  when  uBcd 
s  generally  avHuincd  Dot  Ifrr  tiiaii  fieven  teutliB  tlie 
to  transmit  the  same  power.  (Flalher  on  "  Dynnnioin- 
nt  of  Power,") 

t»er,  flnde  that  great  pliability  is  object innalile,  and 
a  for  unall  pulleyn.-  The  iiower  coinium»'d  in  Iwudiiig 
iUlley  l)e  CoBdiders  inappreciabie.  According  to  Kan- 
'Dtrjruj;al  tension,  this  tension  is  projiorlional  to  llie 
I  belt,  and  hence  it  does  not  ijicrease  willi  Increase  of 
idth  is  decreased  iu  tlie  Kauie  pru]K)rti<ifi,  the  t;ectloiiat 
ant. 

IDS.  A,  S.  tl.  E..  X.  Te.V)  gays:  The  he«t  belts  are  made 
eslher,  and  curried  with  the  URe  of  cod  oil  and  tallow, 

quality.  Such  belts  have  continued  In  um>  thirty  to 
d  as  siinple  drivlnplielts,  driving  i\  proper  nniciin't  of 
ad  Riiltuble  care.  The  flesh  side  should  tiot  tu-  run  to 
he  reason  iliat  the  wear  from  contucl  wiili  the  pulley 
;raiD  side,  as  that  surface  of  the  belt  is  (nnch  wewker 

than  the  llesli  side;  also  as  lh«>  fcrain  Ik  iiard  it  is  more 
r  of  attrition;  further,  if  the  grain  is  actualiy  worn  off, 
t  suffer  in  its  integrity  from  a  ready  tendency  of  the 
ick. 

contact  of  a  belt  with  a  pulley  conies.  (Irst,  in  the 
y-fnce,  including;  freecJuni  from  ridges  and  lioilows  left 
and,  in  tlie  iiniuolhi]e.ss  of  the  Hurface  and  evenness  in 
'a  belt;  tlilrd.iu  iiiiving  the  crown  nf  Ihedrivingaiid  f. 
ly  alike, —ns  nearly  go  as  is  praoi  iciilile  In  a  coinni<-rcial 
ag  the  crown  tif  iniileys  not  over  ^"  for  a  "4"  face,  tliat 
ley  is  not  to  be  over  ^4"  larger  in  <liftiiieter  in  its  centre; 
crown  other  than  two  nlBces  uieeiing  at  the  centre: 
naterial  on  oi-  iti  a  beir,  hi  sddii.ion  to  those  necessarily 
process,  to  keep  Iheui  pliable  or  increase  their  Irnctive 
y  depend  (ipcn  the  exigencien  ari.King  iu  the  use  of 
rtlian  over-use:  Fevenlli,  willt  reference  10  the  lacing 
le  a  goo<i  practice  to  cut  the  ends  to  a  convex  sliope  by 
at  there  may  lie  a  nearly  uniform  stress  on  the  lacing 
R  compared  with  the  edges.  For  a  belt  10"  wide,  the 
lould  recede  l/IO". 

(.—In  punching  a  lielt  for  luring,  use  an  ovslpuncli, 
Df  the  punch  l>eing  imrallel  with  the  sides  of  ihe  liell. 
loles  in  each  end,  placed  zigzag.  In  a  8^in.  Iult  then- 
in  each  end— two  In  each  row.  In  a  (i-incli  belt,  seven 
on  nearest  the  end.  A  10-lnch  telt  should  have  nine 
e  holes ahould  not  c<jme  nearer  Ihaii  %  ol  au  inch  from 
I  inch  from  the  ends  of  the  bell.  T7ie second  row  should 

from  the  end.    On  wide  belts  these  distances  should 
)r. 
le  centre  of  the  belt  and  take  care  to  keep  the  ends 

to  laoB  both  aides  with  equal   tightness.     The  lacing 
I  on  the  side  of  the  bell  that  runs  nert  the  ptilli-y.    In 
rre  the  name  nilea  ub  putting  on  in-cv  ones. 
>B  <tamrter-twlrt.— A  belt  umsl  nin  aqnarety  on  to 
i>ct  with  a   bell    two  liorizontal  shafts  at  right  angles 

an  engine-shaft  near  the  floor  with  aWrve.  &v\tje\\«&  vo 
rea  <ju«rter-fnm.  First,  aBcertaAn  ^^^e  cev\\.To.\  ■v«*ss.V 
'lleyat  the  exlr<?mity  of  ttie  \»orizo\aa\  4\i!Lm«\« -«\«[tr 
pulley,  and  then  set  that  po^Bl  on  v\\«  av\-<ie\i  V''"^" 
pnnrlinr  r'ofnt  on  the  ririvpr.  T\\\k  wrt\  c».vi%fc  V\v«'' 
icb  pulley,  and  It  will  leave  «kt  an  an^fe  «v<!«»r 
ee  or  the  pu/leya  and  their  diBlance  ttota  b»«»  " 


I 


IB  nnici  a  uaiuwi  vnvuuiu  is  vkiiuc^i  ui^v«vu^.u  ujv-ot 

IiIrIi  velocity.    The  pi-pKsure  U  Mien  greater  than  ttl 
tensfaiis  in  the  lifll,  ami  th?  lesislance  to  slipping  S^ 
advantage  of  i>i'riiiiitluK  ii  irw4iier  power  to  be  transl 
Btid  of  dlnimisiitnK  ihf  sri'nlu  on  the  sliivfiinK.  j 

On  ilif> other  hnnJ,  »oni*«  writers  claim  tliiit  tlie  fai 
itself  aud  tlio  piille.v.  wliicli  tend^i  to  diniiuish  itao  fl 
tractive  force.  On  this  tli*-ory  some  rnauuractiireni  j 
numerous  IioIhh  to  lei  ibe  air  esoBpe.  1 

Cure  of  Belta. — Leather  belt^s  should  be  nr«ll  p 
and  even  loose  steam  and  other  moisture. 

Belt«  o(  coarse,  loose  lealbei-  will  do  better  service  it 
wet  or  molgt  situatlous  the  fluetit  and  firmest  leal 
Hgyt  &  Co.) 

Do  not  allow  oil  to  drip  upon  the  belts.    It  cte 

Ijealher  t)eltin(r  cannot  safely  stand  above  11 

Ktrength  ot  BelllOK. -The  uliimate  tennOi*  ! 
not  genenilly  enter  an  a  fttetor  in  calculations  of  pow 

The  streniithof  the  ^<olld  leather  in  Ijells  i*  fr..ir[  J1I01 
inch;  at  the  lacings,  even  if  well  put  toK>-i 
riveted,  the  joint  should  have  half  1  he  strei 
ing  strain  on  the  driving  side  Is  generally  ta; 
mrength  of  the  Incint;,  or  from  one  eixhtb  lu  on 
of  the  HOiid  belt.     Dr.  MiirliK  found  that  the  tetu 
30  to  M'J  itiR.  per  t«|iiur»  iiieli.  averapinir  liTS  lbs. 

Adhealon  Independent  of  Diameter.  <! 
1,  The  ttiibi->ion  of  lh>-  ln'ii  in  ilie  piilli-)  in  tlo'  shio>- 
deprees  of  contact,  rtj^creifiite  t^iMiHion  or  wel^iit  Iw-i 
reference  to  wiiltli  of  belt  or  diameter  of  nulli*}-. 

'.'.  A  bell  win  slip  just  n»  readily  on  a  pulley  rmr  fe«i 
on  a  pulley  two  feel  in  dinnieler.  provided  the  i*ondiLii 
pulleytt,  llie  arc  of  contact,  the  tension,  and  the  iiul 
irave'lg  per  minute  are  the  same  in  both  caseH. 

8    .\  belt  of  a  Riven  width,  and  maliintr  "nv    i;o.-ii 
minute,  will  tranHuiil  a!t  much  power  riiiirM 
eter  as  it  will  on  pulley.s  four  fet-l  in  diam. 
trneioD,  and  conditiona  of  pulley  facex  are  tij    ~  ,  in"  ii 
'  :.4.  To  obtain  a  ereater  ammint  ot  Da*ar_tnuii.^B 


service  It 
lealb|^ 

deot^l 

tensBi*  !« 


TOOTHED-WHEBL  GKASIXO. 

id  belte  Ui is  belt  would  tw  dnteMd  for  SK  H.P.    Bfib.  TaytoT** 

be  U«ed  to  iransniit  onlr  12S  H.I*. 

nay  hti  taken  IL><  f\aMi(>l«s  of  w)i«t  •  brit  n-ar  ht  RM<I«  iotfo, 
:  d  not  >ie  ii.'nl  as  [>r>-<-ml«iiti>  in  ijesij|7iin(r.  It  i>  doc  «tat<4  IMW 
was  lust  by  Ihtf  journal  frk-tiua  ilue  to  over-tight eaine  of  til   ~~ 

^•Inga.— Wr  advim.  irbrn  Ifae  brit  i«  frfi^fatv,  and  only  dry  I 
|>licuiion  <<f  hiocMl-warni  tallow.  This  apiili«l.  Bod  drint  ir 
'  Hiin,  will  ipud  to  keep  the  lealjirr  to  fmod  worklnfr  eoodM 

ttillow  pjiKiie>i  into  the  Uillow  of  tli*r  l«iiher.  wrvii.jT  f.>  tta     

rine  in  left  itn  ihr-  tmisidt*.  to  till  tfir  |...r>-»  ;«i  .1  i-Ah 

addition  of  iv»in  i<>  the  (allow  f'.r  U-lt-,  if  h^^i  nip 

of  .Sfi'vlw;  UFid  help  iirf^HffT**  ih+T"  f  tr^-D^ih.     t'*-  >■(»««• 

iiid  dry  (<liiinl(l  havt*au  a|>plii*ati4ifi  of  iifat'iL-fo'):  <>r  itvtr  i>il, 
tiiiall  qiiuiitlty  of  rf^in.  Tlili*  prpTt'DtH  th^  oil  from  injiirtiiff  Ih*? 
to  preservi-  it.  Theiv  ^hnul.!  not  l<e  bo  much  irrfn  as  to  leara 
■.    (J.  B.  Hoyt  &  fomp«ny.» 

I  not  lie  Koakeil  in  waiter  before  oiliiij;.  and  penetrating  oil* 
cloin  l»e  !i!i«*il.  rxcept  ocL'a«ionally  wUru  a  btit  >cft>  yrry  dry 
ilH  iieifleet-  It  11. ay  ilwii  In-  tiii'i^r.-n^-d  a  liitl<>.  ami  linient-at's- 
il.  Frt-'jtjftit  sppiicaiK'n-'  ul  smli  oils  to  a  n<;w  hieli  rt-ndcr  the 
^d  flubhy.  tbiis  I'liUKiiJi;  11  to  >.(rrToli.  and  iiinkini;  it  liable  to 
A  coiiipt>sltiou  of  tallow  stid  oil.  w  itL  a  little  rralu  (<r  l>Re»* 
10  UHC.  lYf pared  ca»t'ir-oil  drf-«sin(r  is  l-'>o<I.  nnd  inny  l>e 
•  bnish  or  rae  wbllr-  tin-  bell  ia  runniUK.  lAJcxund-r  Bro«.i 
for  doth  or  l>eatbcr.  (>loW>rorth.  1— 1«  pmto  cittt*- 
iii-i  iililn-r. '.' pitvb,  1  hIk^IIuo.  :;  linheed-oit,  cut  Kiuall.  melted  to- 
lell  miif-<i. 

Belting.-  The  advntitng«58  claimed  for  riibb»T  l>eltlnjr  «|» 
iniiily  iu  ivlilth  aud  ihicknetMi;  it  wilt  enUinf  a  >rrear  degree  of 
(  witlioiii  injury;  it  is  also  s|jecinlly  adapte>l  for  use  in  damp  <>r 
ir  whi-re  eif«)>i«-'i1  to  the  actiiin  of  sleain;  It  is  very  durable,  and 
(Bilestreiiplli,  and  «hen  adjii>tte<l  for  wrvice  it  lia<ilhe  most  [ler- 
liie  piilleVH.  hence  Is  less  liable  to  slip  iIihm  leather. 
UnimnI  oil  or  urrii.v  on  rnbbrr  heltn.  ««  ii  will  gn-aily  injure  and 
rtbeiii. 

Itit  will  be  liiiprov*^.  and  their  durability  increnwd.  by  piittine 
inier'e  brush,  and  lettinir  it  dry.  a  c>-in|K>8ilioii  iiiaile  of  equal 
lead,  black  lead.  F'leiich  jellow. and  lllharpe.  tiilTteil  with  boiled 
Bd  japan  enouj^li  10  make  it  dry  quickly.  The  effe<.*t  of  tlii*  »  ill 
is  a  Huely  i*ol&lie<l  mirface.  If,  froiiiduttt  or  01  her  cinise,  the 
Up,  it  fihould  he  lli;litly  niois|i>ned  on  the  Kide  next  the  pulley 
edoil.    (Kniiii  circulars  of  manufoeturers.i 


r 


GEARING. 


TOOTHKD-WHKBI.  KKARINO. 

mch>clrcle,  etc.—U  two  cylinders  uiili  i>arallt<l  axes  ar« 
•tfaer  and  uue  ot  ilieiii  is  rutateil  onita  bzIh,  it  will  drlv«  the  other 
f  ihe  friction  i)elween  the  siirfnces.  Tlie  cylindera  may  lie  oon- 
k  pjilr  of  npur-wlieel8  with  an  inftnlie  nuinlier  of  very  Hinall  leetii. 
eth  are  formed  upon  the  eylinders,  mnkinp  alternate  elevation* 
lions  In  the  cylindrical  mirfaces,  the  disilBDce  lietweeii  Iho  aie« 
ihe  same,  we  have  a  pair  of  ^enr.wheels  which  will  drive  one  AD- 
rfssure  upon  the  faces  of  the  teeih,  if  the  teeth  are  jiroixrly 
I  raakiiiB  the  teeth  the  eyllndricaJ  surface  n>oy  etitiiely  diMip- 
he  position  it  occupie<|  niav  still  lie  coiiRldered  as  ac3lindrlcal 
ilch  is  called  the  "  pllchKiirrace,"and  its  trace  on  Ihe  end  of  the 
D  a  plane  cuttint;  the  wheel  at  right  angles  to  its  axis,  ix  called 
circle"  or  •"piich-line."  The  diameter  of  iWs  circle  \scsi\s4VV\ft 
•tar.  nnd  tl>t>  liinance  from  the  face  of  oni?  toot.\k  lo  \\\e  i»itT»- 
\^  of  ibf  iifil  tonth  on  (he  same  wheel,  ineRsuveA  u«  »l«  *tc  «A 
rie  in  cii/lfJ  tlie  "p/feli  uf  Ihe  todih,"  ortbe  c\rc\i\B.t  v>\\cV 
■/*f.«i///«rteeih  of  the  .same  pitch  are  Reared  \ov;evVet  «J 
^^fi'A  ,'f  *"  "  P^f'e/ty  of  th^  pitch  cireVes  t^at.V\\«\t" 
mif>nmi  to  the  number  of  teeth  iu  the  wheeW,  tuv*  vic« 


890 


CEABtNQ. 


Chordal  pitch  =  diam.  of  pitch-clrele  >:  line  of  y^    „f  „,,f| 

f'  )lti:h  of  a  wheel  of  10  in.  pitch  diameter  and  10  ireth,  tfl  »  i 
u.    Circular  pitch  of  s«m«  wlieol  =  fi.iAid.   Cbordnl  pitch  (•< 
I  or  uproclcet  wheals,  to  conform  to  tli«  pitch  of  the  clukin. 

I  FormalK  for  DetermininK  the  Dlnicn*lonBori 

(Brown  Jt  Shuriw  Mf>:.  Cj.  \ 
P  =  diametral  pitch,  or  the  number  of  tevih  lo  one  loch  u(  i 
pitch- circle; 


I 


ly  =  iliainHer  of  pitch  circle 

/?=  whole  diameter 

V       nitmtH^r  of  teeth ......*.•,... 

Whenl 

i 

V  —  Telocity 

d' =  diameter  of  pitch-drcJo 

BmaOtT 
WheeL 

n  :=  number  of  teeth ..■ 

a  s  distance  betw«>eii  the  centres  of  the  two  whatiit 

b  =  number  of  teeth  in  both  wheels; 

I  =  thickness  of  tooth  or  cutter  on  pitch-circle; 

«  =  addendum; 
/)"=  workinR  depth  of  tooth; 

/  =  amount   added  to  depth  of  tooth  for  ronodinc  tlw 
clearance ; 
D"+f  =  whole  depth  of  tooth; 

ir  =  3.1416. 

P  =  circular  pitch,  or  the  distance  from  the  ceulw  of  a 
centre  of  the  next  measured  on  the  pilcb<irvle. 


Formulie  for  a  single  wheel: 


••f/ 


dr  m 


Thickness  of  riiti  below  root  =  depth  of  tooth. 

Idtli  of  Teetfa.— Tlie  widt'.i  of  the  fao««  of  tet*th  U  generally  mode 
■i  ici  a  liiiips  ili<-  eiifular  pitc)-  -  from  fi.*  to  ft.4..'  divided  by  the  dtain- 
pilch.    There  is  uo  stand  rd  rule  tor  \.  lath. 
»  following  sizes  Arc  given  li  a  itock  Ust  of  cut  gears  li>  "Oram' 


^etral  pitch, 

-  Inches 


8 
3  and  4 


Wnllter  Mf^.  Co.  clve: 
pitch,  in..    H      a 

....  m  IK 


Hm 


4 


6 
1%  and  £ 


8  1-2 

l>^aDdlJ4  ^and  1 


18 

Ml  nod  H 


% 


2 


1 


*i4    u     'A 


ror  ralcnlatlng  ibe  Speed  orc^ara  and  Palleya.^^H 

»"vl«tlons  of  the  size  niHl  hiiei'd  <if  drivliic  and  iliiveii  t^eni-  u lieel.s  oj^^l 
*Aine  as  those  of  heh  pulleys.  In  euk-iilalini;  for  ^'''^''h.  iiiiilliiily  ^^I 
Iw   by  the  diameter  of  tlie   piu-h-circle  or  iy  Hie  nuiitlier  of  U'tt.h.S^ 

hf   required.    In  caloulaJ/fur  for  pulleyB,  niulUply   or  a\v V\fc V>^  x.Vvw\« 
►^ler  III  fricbes. 

p  =  d/."jn.  of  diiriag  iiAce',  rf  -  d/aiti.  of  driven,  R  =  r«vo\nV^o^M  V^X 
ff  of  driver,  r  ~  revs,  jermln.  of  dr'ven 

^"/^-^.^s     r  -  RD  -,-d;    D~  dr-t-  S\    d  =  DB  -< 
\(mberofUM)tti  of  driver  c.::C  u  -  number  of  l*eU>  ol  art^« 


^^^  nr  -t- 


t 


GEARING. 


B£94 

^     Tlie  rack  in  the  cyoloidal  system  is  fv|UlvaU'>'t  t 
mimlier  of  leetli.    The  pitcli  is  equal  to  ihe 
Kflar      Boih  faies  and  flaults  are  cyclol.ls  fori: 
circle  of  the  mating  gear-wheeJ  on  each  side  >.. 
the  rack. 


Auother  method  of  drawini;  the  cycloidai  ciirrea  ia  sltitani 
ia  knowu  as  the  method  of  tanfrent  «rc?s.    The  irfnemttnc 
ape  drawn  with  equal  radii,  llic  length  <>f  the  r 
radius  of  o(,  Ihe  suinller  pttc'.-cli-ele.     E<iubI 
marked  nit  on  llie  pltehelrcle*  aod  divisinUi-  ' 
on  one  of  ibe  KHneraCinK-uircles,  asoa6c.  eic. 
the  line  )f>,  wlih  radii  succcr.jively  equal  to  li 
od,  OP,  draw  the  Ave  small  arcs  F.    A  line  drm 
these  Kmall  arcs,  tant^ent  to  them  all,  will  be  th- 
llaiilc  of  a  touth  below  the  pitch-line  pi.    From 
line  o'.  Willi  radii  as  liefore,  dinw  lliesniftll   n-- 
ares  will  be  cIih  epicycloid  for  the  face  if" 
curve  liBM  already  been  ilratVK.     In  thr 
f.,  and  '>L.  with  tlie  name  railil,  Un-  in 
which  will  }[\\v  the  toolh  for    ' 

If  Ihe  KeueratlnK-i'lrcle  hii 
hypocyelold  F  \vi>tdd  Im*  «   -         -  .» 

hare  been  ralial. 

The   Involute  Tootli.-V^v  «3iT«.«i,n«  the  toroiut* 

SBIcIf  iif  "I'll'inl'v    "T  'Vi'-  «i>cie  ««\>V-V.  »  i-<->TO««<»>  \%»,t»«*' 


•  of  oV.\iq««»lX  vo  ft  TOTOUWUWut 


FORMS   OP  THE  TKETH. 


895 


lie  i«  30°'  From  the  centres  of  the  pitch-cfrelea  dr&w  circles  e 
t  to  ihe  Wne  AH.  Tlipue  circles  ore  called  baHc-lliies  or  base- 
which  the  iiivoIiiteB  Fiiml  A'  are  drawn.  Uy  \ayingntt  cmiveii- 
s  0,  I,  2,  a,  which  should  eaoh  he  Ioks  than  1,  Iflnf  tiii?  dimriHter 
;lrcle,  small  arcs  can  be  drawn  with  suecrssivt-ly  iticrpa«itn» 
will  form  the  iavolule.   The  involute  extenda  from  thf  poiDtn  F 


Via.  166. 

their  respective  bane-circles,  where  a  tAngent  to  the  invo- 
la  radii's  of  the  circle,  and  ihe  reiiiaiiiders  of  the  toolh  ciirveK, 
are  radial  Ktrai^ht  lines. 

'Olute  .system  the  ciistoniary  stantlflni  form  of  tooth  iv.  one 
gle  of  obliquitv  of  lA"  iBruwn  aud  Sbarpe  ubb  14t<i"i,  an  odden 
ll  one  ihlnl  the  circular  pitch,  aiiJ  a  ctearanci-  of  nltout  one 
»  addendum.  In  this  system  the  .•iiiiallest  gear  of  a  Met  han  1'i 
'liig  the  smallest  number  of  teeth  that  will  R^ar  tofct'lher  when 
,bls  arntle  of  obliquity.  In  pears  with  le.ss  than  iW  teeth  the 
I  teet'i  must  bf  sll|{htly  rounded  over  to  avoid  iDterfereiicc  (^ee 
h  of  0<rars>,  Ail  involute  terth  of  the  satue  pitch  ami  with  llif 
if  ohiiqnity  work  :unootlil}  toRPther.  The  rack  to  Rear  wllh  an 
liod  wBcti  has  nirnieht  foces  mi  its  teeth,  which  make  on  angle 
die  lino  of  the  tooth  equal  to  the  ancle  of  obliquity,  or  in  tlu' 
in  the  faces  ure  inclined  at  an  ant^ln  .if  so*'  m  ilh  rach  other 
le  trelh  of  a  rark  which  Is  *o  gear  with  iiii  invulnle  wheel  if''ip 
"""  1  the  pttcb-line  of  the  rack  and  AI  =  li  '= the  plt(3h.  Thronpli 


Int/draw  EJi'atthe  Blven  angle  of  obliquity.    Draw  v4J?and 
Icular  to  EF.    ThrouRli  i^aml  Fdraw  iini-s  FrjO'  and  FH  (>ar- 
litch-Une.    EQO'  will  be  the  addt-ndumline  and  HF  the  flank- 
'd.'«w  /iT perpendicular  to  AB  I'liual  to  the  greatest  adiVwlunv 
wheel.'  of  ::;:■  given  pitch  and  obliquity  ji\u»  un  r\V)»b.iw;>;  tot 
uai  to  y:  ot  the  nddenduiu,     Tlironifli  K,  para\V\  Vo  AB.vXtk* 
■Jine.     '..J  f roots  of  tJie  teeth  are  pin  ties  \>e.vv>emV\v>i\ttT  vuT'^  i 
Mre  planes  lacUneii  at  (he  same  anRlw  to  ^B  vn  v\w  ssnw 

It »  clroQUr  arc  drawn  fioni  a  oeiar«  on  Dvve  vW 


Sftd 


GBARHfO. 


I 


with  ■  raditi*  =  tl.l  InchM  divided  hy  the  diametral  HMhiffJ 
eulnrpHuh. 

To  Dratv  an  Angtt  of  li*  K^fAoitf  Htiny  n   Protraetnr.- 

Due  ,«(?,  nitii  nv'ii 
on  nr. 
ihe  «« 
W.  1'. 
inn  sr.; 

wlii.'l: 
hulf  .1 
at  E. 
st*cl  I  ' 
and  iIm 
A  P 
wheel-* 

tho  axi's  uf  11  >'4lt 
altered    to  a   c<m«] 
wichniit  in(<-rrFrlrii 
fioii.     The 
variahlv  al 
justcii  1)7  niuvliiK  Ih"!  wheels  farlher  from  or  ii^urvr  r 
tlius  be  ailjiitiled  so  as  tn  be  uo  greater  Ihan  is  iieor<j>ui }  '■• 
mill);  iiT  ihB  teetll. 

The  rt^liitive  merits  of  oycloldal  uikI  hivoliile-shapeil  Uwtli  i 
jivt  (>r  ilisiiiite.  bul  tht^rc  is  nn  Incrraging  tttniliMicy  to  hiIk 
lootli  for  nil  pmiioKen. 

Clark  <R.  T.  D..  )i.  ;84)  says:    Involute  terth  li<k\R  llie 
beiiiir  too  iniicli  ItirliruMl  to  lb?  radial  line,  \>y  wIiIcIi  an  und 
exerted  on  tha  beanuK''. 

Un«lii  (ICIeiiieiitit  nr  Mnchlne  DesfKii.  8tli  nd..  p.  9H)  ■ir> ' 
of  action  ia  ordluaiily  allogni  at)  a  aerioug  o)iJeclktn  to  iDrohiWl 
liiHX)riai]<'e  has  pfrliiips  bci'ii  overrated. 
Orar)^>  B,  arnnt  (.-I'd.  .VoWi..  Dm;.  26.  t885i  Bays: 
1,  The  work  iloiiH  lij'  the  friuliou  uf  Aii  liivoluie  tooth  btala 
tlie«niiid  u'oi'k  for  any  |)ossibli>  npicycloidal  inotb. 

•J.  Willi  ii«"iis<-t  to  work  ilouw  by  friftlr.n,  u  eliaiKru  of  lh» 
^ar  uf  Vi  tt-cth  to  one  of  15  teeth  makes  un  iniprovamnut  fut  t 
of  leiiH  tliaii  0I1U  linir  of  one  itt<rutiiit. 

.'».  For  the  li!  tontli  system  Ih*  inviliiti'  lui«  ,ili  nli.|iit«f» 
c«ul,  and  for  the  15-liii.ilh  systviii  all  nt 

4.  Tlinl  n  iiittximuMi  im|ii'Ovt)iitei  ou  I 

pIfKliml  lir  tht<  ailopUuii  of  any  \y 

tO'^lh  ill  pri^fHreuee  to  tiie  l;j-tootii  \-  <,r 

h.  Tlmi  Til' ({Hum  of  very  few  twii  .  a 

6.  Thill  theooinuiou  upiiiiitti  aiiii"  .Itiiai 

Itf  In  ifetieral  in  favor  of  the  epicycloi'l  is  n.  pi>  jijaiow  Uu 
loiiir  t.'oiitii]iie<l  ciiHloiii,  and  not  on  an  iDtininlc  knonicdicr  nf 
of  I  hat  curve. 

Wll frill   I^wls  (Pro.-   '  I 

>  rcuulion  ill  favor  of  tli ' 
an  Involute  tooth  of  lt.'i 

ApproxIniBtion   hy  rirciil' 
the  actual  tm^tli-rur^f  'Ui  liie  tlrau  r 
(rial  wliiuh  will  glvt»  approxiiiiali<  i< 


WjC 


n*  SfSWS" 


""  \         P1TCM 


-'^ff^ 


^7^- 


Tin    '»- 


[ 


FORMS   OP   THE   TKETH. 


8!t7 


litetiiiir  tl)«  clniAvlii^  niid  (lie  pattern  of  the  Kcar-wtiecls.    Tliia 

»  ciifve  is  coil]  ;li«clrar»nce  by  n  fillet,  wliicli  should  be 

iposKiblf  to  K  streniJtih  tn  i)ie  tooth, piuvifleil  it  is  not 

\f;\\  111  oauKf  H/i 

irtli  (rivcB  the  follow  iiij;  im-thfxl  of  i'onstriii:tli>ii  hy  circuUr  »TV  ; 
e  iiididl  line  (it  ihp  edge  of  the  tooth  on  I  hi'  ptteh-lliif-,  hiy  ci(T  the 
'  an  aiiKle  of  '.b'  with  ihe  radial  Hut;  uu  tliis  Ihie  will  lit-  llie  oit- 
{  root  AB  awl  tlie  point  EF.  The  iirms  struck  from  these  i-enlrex 
in  thii-li  iiijfs.  Circles  drawn  ihrtJii^h  rentrps  tliiis  found  will 
in«?»  in  Willi  h  lim  reuioiniriK  cf  iiti*es  will  be.  The  radhiK /).l  fur 
IM  rcMit  .1/;  iu  =  pilch  +  lli«  thickuexii  of  ihe  tooth,  The  indius 
ikiii^  the  poiut  of  th«  tooth  EF  =  Iho  pitoh. 

U.  (Irant  aiiys  :  It  is  sometiiiips  attempted  to  constniet  the  cuive 
inndy  method  or  empirical  rule,  but  such  methodit  ai'e  Kfueriill)' 

»d  Geam.  Two  et;ars  of  the  E^ame  pitoh  and  diameter  niounle<l 
le  nu  ilie  same  sliiiil  will  net  at)  h  slnpjle  gear.  Tf  one  gear  in  keye<l 
aft  so  Ihnt   the   teeth  of  the  two  wheelH  are  uot  iu  line,  tiut  the 

10  wheel  KliKhtly  in  ailvnin'e  of  II ther,  the  two  gears  foiTii  a 

i^ar.  If  mat«-d  with  a  similar  stepped  geav  on  a  parallel  shuft  the 
'  teeih  in  conlai^t  will  tie  twice  an  great  as  in  an  ordiiifiry  ^ear, 
I  iin-iea>e  the  NPienBth  of  the  ({ear  anil  ils  ^iiioolhiie>H  of  action. 
ed  Teeth.  If  uirreat  niiiiilxM'  of  very  thiu  K<>ai'ii  were  pla<*tv| 
•  me  >lit:h'ly  in  mlvnnce  of  the  utiier,  they  would  atill  act  asa 
rear,      (.'oniinnini;    the  KiilHlivi>ioM    until  the 

of  eavh  sepiirate  eeii  r  in  iiiHuiteBiinal.  the 
the  teeth  insteail  of   being:  i"  ftep.s  take  the 

opirnl  ur  twlsteil  BUi'tace.  and  we  have  a. 
tar.  The  twiitt  may  take  nny  Kliape,  and  If  it  in 
•ction  for  liiilf  the  width  of  the  t;ear  and  in  the 
lireclioii  fnr  the  othfr  half,  we  have  what,  is 
the  heriiinf-lioiie  or  dNjuble  helitiol  tooth.  The 
3f  the  twisted  tooUi  if  twisted  ia  one  tiirecili'ii 

end  thriuil  on  llie  shaft,  but  if  the  heiTinj.' 
t  iii  iiNed.  the  opilii^lte  oblii|iiilies  ueillrali.'.- 
r.    This  foini  of  t'loih  ia  iiiiiHi  ij*''l  in  hem-. 

11  practice,  where  Kreat  strentti  b  iiixl  resisluM''' 
ani  ueeestuiry.  They  are  fn-qnenily  made  of 
Inn  (Fix.  li»i-  The  on»,'le  of  the  tooth  with  a 
lello  the  nils  of  the  gear  is  iiRiially  30°. 

Geam.  -If  a  iwisted  gear  has  a  uniform  twist  It  becotues  a 
r  Tile  line  in  which  the  pitch-surface  Intersects  the  face  of  the 
»rt  of  a  helix  di-awn  on  the  pitch-surface.  A  spiral  wheel  may  lie 
h  only  one  lielicnl  tooth  wrapped  around  the  cylinder  several 
ihich  It  beconieH  a  s»;rew  or  worm.  If  it  has  two  or  three  leeth 
d.  it  is  A  ilouhle-  or  liiple-threailed  gcrew  or  worm.  A  spiral-jfear 
Ilia  a  rack  in  iixed  to  drive  the  table  of  some  fornix  of  planini;- 

tasearluii;.— When  the  ares  of   two  spiral  geam  are  at  riKui 
'        heel  of  one,  two.  or  three  thread*  worko  with  a  lurster  wheel 
ds,  II   becomes  a  worm-gear,  or  endless  screw,  the  KuitUIer 


I 
I 


no.  160. 


I 


•  hrintr  cuIIimI  the  H'f>rni,  and  the  larger,  or  Artvew  nsA^^hN. 
'iiih  thfH  ariaugewient  a  hluli  relocity  ratio  u\o,v  Vi«b  W*' 
-  of  iriief  is.    For  a  one-threaded  wheel  vVi«  veVtisftVS  1 


GEARINO. 


the  number  of  teeth  in  the  worm-wh«el.    The  worm  ut^  whnt\ 
mniily  so  constnjcteil  that  llie  worm  will  drive  thewbwl  ' 
not  drire  tlie  worm. 

To  find  thf  tiiiinirtfir  nf  n  v^rm-wheel  at  the  throat,  "' 
pitj:h  of  I  lie  worm  kieiiie  (ri>>?ii:  Add  2  to  the  iiuintjer  of  ! 
sum  by  0  S1^3.  and  hy  Hit-  pit  Hi  of  the  worm  in  inchrs. 

To.rturf  fur  itiiniftpr  o/ ((fCi,  ilinmet«?r  <»t  iliroat  ami  in- 

KJveri:    Divide"  3.14115  time*  the.  ilixiiiifler  by  Ihe  pitch,  a'' 

t.be  quotient. 

lu  FiK.  181  ab  is  the  diatn.  of  the  pttfh-ciivle,  erf  In  tlie  <3i 

ExiMPLE.— Pitch  of  worm  hi  in.,  niitnlier  of  tiwth  TO,  r 

at  the  throat.     i;(»  f-  2|  v  .HI'S  .;    ■i%  =  5.7S  In. 

Teetb  of  B«TeI-tvhevlB«     (Rankine's  Maohiuer.t 
The  teetb  of  a  l)evi-l -wheel  have  aotiu^  siirf-iees  of  the 
prated  by  the  moiion  of  a  line  Iruvensitig  the  ajiex  of  i 
surface,  while  a  point  in  it  ia  carried  round  the  trikc*!)  of 
spherical  surface  described  about  that  ajiex. 

The  operations  of  dniwinp  tlie  trai.t*i  of  the  t«?eth  of  br> 
whether  l>y  involiitiwor  hy  rollintrciirveB.  are  in  ererv  r ^ 
those  for  drawiDi;  tike  trace-y  of  the  teeth  of  stpur-wtM--'-  ■ 
caaeof  beTel-whe«lK  all  those  oiterationii  are  to  be  | 
of  a  sphere  deacribeil  atmut  the  apex.  Instead  nf  . 

poles  for  centres  aiad  (rreivt  circles  tor  ^traiKliT  '  

In  consideiBtion  of  the  practical  diflilciilty.  • 
wheels,  of  obtaitiin^  an  accurate  spherical  »\v 
when  obtained,  the  following  approximate  intii..->,  ,....i 
TredKold.  is  generally  iise<l: 

I..et  o,  Kig.  16J,  be  the  common  apes  of  the  pitch-con- 
pair  of  beirel-whecls;  OC,  OC,  the  axes  of  those  coi---     ' 

tact.        Peri  ■ 
AlA',  cuttii 
make  the  otii 
and  of   the 
coi>es  ABl. 
row  ion. -■ 
be  mi  Hi 
poaesi 
II  t^ 


Fio.  162. 


.•ly.  A  I:   th 
TelopnientK 

,.ir.-l^.i     //;     ' 

faces  AHl,  .-I'B'/are  spread  out  Hat.     I ' 

develo|ied  arcs  an  for  a  pair  of  (ipiir-« 

on  tlie  fiorinalcones,  .so  aiv  to  make  theLLt  . — ^.^..w  ...^u  ,, 

trace  the  teeth  on  the  conical  surfaces. 

For  formula!  and  instnictions  fordesiiminit  bevel-«c*r». 
valuable   Inrormatiou  on  the  subj^-i'i  ,.i  ....ini.i-   ^,t"  |., 

liearlni;."  and  ""  Formulas  In  fleiir 

f'o.j  and  "Teeth  of  i.;enr8,"'  bv 

student  may  also  eon.'tiill  Rank'iu  •  .    ..  .    ... 

Con-tiiictor,  and  UnwinVs  Elenieiils  of 
Geariii>r.  I)y  L-.  W.  Miicr..rd  in  Apfi,  Cv 

Alinulmr  and  DKrerentlnl  (;. 
Aug. -.'l.  1HI«J.I-In  in».- 
etrcle*  for  faces  and  il 

diaiuetera  of  the  pinioN  ..  ,    .^m  tii^j  m 

difference  or  It  may  !>.•  Wrs;    it  il  i>  .>^ual.  Ibe  faces  of  tlw  .^_ 
irhitrl  will  drive  the  facrs  as  weU  ft^  vW-  Akti^lk  >t*  \\i»  uh^  «(  ( 

K /ji 


■     ...iwork.  n 
iL-n.    Bmi  al»i 

II. 

W.  BaJch..  Ji 

Mounv  uf  tWil 
iilT»r»«x»i  in 


ulll  IIMy  l«  «M 


Till.  «eeth  will  therefore  i\>>iV.«  c««vUip\,  -wVOx  t«^u lA^Mt  <*< 
I  tn,"ih.curv#«  Tor  \tl\eTcYv»wKeo,V.V  «e»T»w^*jj|'i 


[ 


EFFICIESCT  OP  GEARING. 


899 


. ■  or  teeth  in  Uie  internal  gear  should  exceed  the  number  in 

r  18  or  more,  if  tlie  tent li  ai-e  (it  tlie  customary  proportions  and 
led  in  iniercliniigeable  iroHrinK. 

a  less  difference  is  desiralili",  and  tlie  teetli  may  be  niodifled  in 
I  to  make  iIiIa  po8sible. 

e  tooth  curves  ivsultimr  from  smaller  describing  circles  may  be 
These  will  xl'f  ti-eth  which  are  more  rounding  and  narrower  at 
nd  therefore  not  ns  drslrahle  as  ihe  rej^ular  forms. 
Pile  tliw  of  the  teeth  may  be  rouiidfd  until  thi-y  clear.  Tills  In  a 
method  which  aims  at  modify ing  the  teeth  to  such  outUiiBS  aK 
Tilling  circles  would  Kive. 

ue  of  the  describing  cireles  may  be  omitted  and  one  only  iiwd. 
M<  equal  to  tlie  difference  between  the  pitch  circles.  TIiIh  will 
ueshinj:  of  gears  differing  by  six  teeth.  It  will  usually  prove 
to  put  nheel»  in  inside  f^ura  tliat  differ  4iy  luuch  leisH  than  I'.' 

ir  diametral  jiiich  anil  standard  tooth  forms  are  d^'terniiiiHl  mi. 
r  to  » lrl<-li  the  internal  jj-^ai  blank  in  to  lie  boi'etl  Im  caleulaieil  by 
8  from  the  nuiubei'  of  teeth,  and  dividing  the  reumimler  liy  the 
tcb. 

outlines  are  the  match  of  a  spur-Rear  of  Ihe  sanl^«  numUer  nf 
ametral  pitch,  so  that  the  spur-Kear  will  fit  ihe  itileriinl  i;eiir  as 

it«  die-,  except  tltat  the  teeth  of  each  nhouKl  fail  to  liottom  iu 
Aces  of  the  other  by  the  cuHtonmry  clearance  ol^  one  tenth  (lie 
'  the  tooth. 

gearing  la  particularly  valuable  Then  employei)  in  dilTei-enlinl 
is  Is  a  mechanical  movement  in  which  one  of  the  wheels  i» 

a  crank  so  that  its  ceutre  can  move  iu  a  circle  aboui  the  centra 

wheel.  Means  are  added  to  the  device  which  restrain  Ihe  wheel 
c  from  turning  over  an<l  c'oiitlue  it  to  the  revolutitiu  of  Ihe  crank, 
of  the  number  of  teeth  in  Ihe  reTolving  whec-l  coinpiireil  with 
ce  between  the  two  will  nprcspnt  tlie  ratio  betwi-fii  the  revolv- 
iid  the  crankshaft  by  whicb  the  niher  is  caiiii^'d.  The  advan- 
ompliabinK  the  chniiKC  of  sijeed  with  such  uu  arrauReuient,  aa 
fith  ordinary  sfiur-Ki-ittinK,  lies  in  the  almo!it  entire  absence  of 

consequent  wtar  ijf  the  teeth. 

le  limitation  that  ihe  dilTervnce  between  the  wheels  must  not  bo 
je  possible  ratio  of  speed  iiii|;ht  be  increased  almost  liidediiludy. 
r  of  differential  gears  made  to  do  the  service  of  a  whole  train  of 
the  problem  is  properly  worked  out  with  bevel-cears  this  liniita- 
e  completely  set  aside,  and  external  and  internal  bevel-^eani, 
'  but  a  single  tooth  if  need  be,  made  t-o  mesh  perfectly  with  each 

al  bevel-gears  have  been  used  with  ailvantage  In  mowing  nia- 
Jescriptiou  of  their  construclicin  and  operation  i»  given  bj-  Mr. 
)  article  from  which  the  above  extracts  are  taken. 

h  EPPiriBNClT  OF  GEARING. 

|m  aeries  of  experiments  <<n  tlii^  eftli^iency  of  gearing,  chiefly 
plral  gearing,  is  described  by  Wilfred  Lewis  in  Trans.  A.  8.  M,  K., 
le  average  results  are  sliown  in  a  diaicram,  from  which  the  fol- 
oxiiiiate  average  figures  are  taken  : 

ITlt^lBNCV  or  SPPB,  SPtBil,.   AND   WORM  OkaRISO, 


902 


QEARING. 


Tbevaluegof  4  In  the  above  table  ure  (jirpii  iiv  Mr  l^nrlt 
theabeenoe  of  sufficit^nt  diita  upon  wliUrh  to  I  ■ 
they  have  lMt^■n  fouoil  to  jjlve  sulisfaptory  resi 

Mr.  Lewis  gives  lh>'  following  •■xamiilf  tn  ll!i.. 
tiCt  It  b«  requireil  to  find  llie  wortlng  strenfftli  c.f  u  ii  t-wiH 
iDoh  pitch,  Scinch  face,  ilrivini;  a  wheel  of  GOteelli  at  100  fn<< 
niiiiule,  and  let  the   teeth   lie  of   ili--  Aulntu*! 
form.    In  the  formula  n'=  »p/i/  "• 

pinion  .1  =  aXK).  fj/  =  a  6.  and  v  =  0> 

(V  '*  '     '      j^^)  ▼allies  togefbcr.  we  hnve  ir  —  ;rj 
I    -v     .^K  .t^m'l  -^e  have  v  =  -184  a>iil  "^  =  "-'<'• 
The    cast-iron    pinlnn    is. 
Strength;  but  if   a  steel  pltu 
■  =  90,000   and  It' =  3900    pouKdt,,  Oi  vtUiclt 
tbe  wheel  is  the  weaker,  and  it  Uier«ft«v  ' 
measure  of  strenRlh. 

For  lievel-wheels  Mr.  Lewis  ft''''' 
ring  to  FiK.  laB:  D  =  larg«  dl.i 
small  diameter  of  bevel;  p  —  pli 
n  =  actual  nuinlier  of  teeth;  /  =r  f 
matire  number  of  teeth  =;  n  >:  »i . 
corresponding  to  radhis  fC  ;  jt  ~  i. 


Fio. 163. 
■bape  of  teeth  and  foniiative  number  N ;  W  s'workinti  luail  uo  I 


I 


W  =  «p/v 


If  -d* 


or,  more  alraply,   W  =  'pflfh,' 


which  gives  almost  Identical  resuluwheod  is  not  less  UiaiiHft<N 
case  ill  |>ood  practice. 


In  Am.  Much.,  June  ZS,  189S,  Hr.  Lewis  grives  ilie  followlDC  n 
......  .  .  .^ 


the  worltlng  streni^th  of  the  three  systems  of  g«ariik^,  nil 
closely  with  those  obtained  by  use  of  the  table: 


For  involute.  ao»  obliquity,  IT  =  «/i/(.l.M  -  — )j 

For  involuto  16*, and  <7cIoidal,  ll'  =  *p/(^.i«  -  ^ — ); 
For  radial  (tank  system,  W=  «p/(  .0T5  —  ^—^  ) : 


1 


I 


In  which  the  factor  within  the  parenthesis  corresponds  to  >  taths  J 
furmula.    For  the  horse-power  transmitted,  Mr.  liewla's  frensnl  i 


W  =  itpfy,  ■ 


1«,OOOH.P. 


may  take  the  form  H.P. 


velocity  In  feet  per  minute;  or  since  v  =  dw  y.  rpni 

wlilcii  (I  =  diameter  in  inches  and  rpm.  =  revolutions  |)er  mloui*. 


33,000 


sp/iixdy.  rpm.  _ 
138,0M 


oooimteaiUpfy  X  i 


It  must  lie  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  the  c  > 
CiiiiMliiie  power  iiitermltti-ntly,  siilIi  as  hUiK.-hiiiK  ;i 
the  Keiirini;  should  be  riesijrned  with  reference  to  i 
he  teeth  at 


STRENHTU    OF    GEAU-TliKTIl. 


003 


n  Bl  200  -s-  60  =  ^  feet  per  second.    Vi  f  0.6»T  =  V  8.1«7  =  1.78, 

010 
P.=  i-^Vpf=-  .671p/r,  or  about  82^  of  the  rosultgivenby  Hr.tiewiVR 

K.  Tlii«  i8  probably  as  close  an  agreement  as  rjiii  be  exj)ecte<l.  xince 
[arknem  derived  bis  forniiila  from  an  invpHtif^atinn  of  ancient  prece- 
lad  nile-of-thumb  practice,  largely  with  i.'otnnion  ca.st  gean?,  wbils 
■will's  formula  was  derived  from  cojieideratloua  of  modem  practice 
achine  moulded  and  cut  gears. 

jovris  take*  into  consideration  the  reduction  In  worliinR  strenjfth  of  a 
loe  to  Increase  in  velocity  by  the  flgnres  in  liis  table  of  the  values  of 
t  working  stress  *  for  tllilerent  »i>eeds.  Prof.  Harltness  (fives  eipres- 
the  same  reduction  by  nieaus  of  the  denoininnCnr  of  ni§  formula, 
V.KV.  The  decrease  in  strength  a.'i  oomputed  by  this  formula  is 
that  le.ss  than  that  given  In  Mr.  Lewis's  table,  andas  the  flgure*  iflven 
tftlileare  not  based  nn  aecurnle  data,  a  mean  lielweeii  the  values  given 
'formula  and  the  table  Is  probabl}'  as  near  to  ibe  true  value  as  may 
slued  from  our  present  knowledge.  The  fnllowiUK  labln  pive»  the 
I  for  different  speeds  accordini?  to  Mr.  I^ewis'B  table  and  Prof.  Hark- 
tormula,  taliine  for  a.  basitj  a  woi'kine  slreMt  n,  lav  vasl-iron  8000,  and 
!cl  u'O.OOO  lbs.  at  speeds  of  100  ft,  per  mivute  and  less: 


Med  of  teeth,  ft.  per  mitt, . 
ft.  persec.. 

.ress  (,  cast-iron,  Lewis. .. 

le  do-  «  -!-  6000  

1-  fl  +0.65F 

re  val.  c-«-.698  

100  X  (c -*- .898) 

if  «  and  <!,  cast-iron  =  Xf 
'  •*  for  steel  =  s,. 
reM  for  steel,  lywis 


ICO 

200 

300 

em 

900 

law 

IBOO 

m 

am 

3M 

6 

10 

IS 

so 

3400 

30 

«oao 

4800 

4000 

aooo 

2000 

1 

.7fi 

.6 

.li 

.87fl 

.3 

.35 

.8830 

.saat 

.4S.10 

,3850 

.30M1 

.«79 

.**»! 

1 

.Hn 

.7(K1 

..M6 

.4.19 

.SS5 

.318 

800C 

(MSH 

5IXKI 

•laiw 

a'jia 

StMtl 

2.544 

HOOd 

ojoo,  saw 

^ln(l 

;roii 

svno 

2300 

atiooo 

is.TOOirwoo 

10:iOO 

fiuo 

GHIKI 

5700 

3O00O 

15000 

12O00 

JOOOO 

;.tOO 

(MlOO 

sooo 

iMOO 
40 

ITOO 
.St  25 

.377 
W16 

aooo 

41100 
4S00 


inring-  the  two  formulas  for  the  cose  of  ir  =  8000,  corresponding  to  a 
if  100  ft.  per  min.,  we  have 

SM:  H,P.  =  1 1-  t'l+O.tlsr  X  .ilOVpf  =  .W5  X  .91  x  l%p/=  \M)pf 

■  "•'^'  -  83,000  -      550  550  "  ■*<  «P/». 

I^Taries  accordlnj;  to  the  shape  and  number  of  the  teeth. 


V-  .061:  Qitiip/u  =  1.2fl0p/t 


•dial-flank  gear  with  IS  teeth 

0»  iuvolute,  19  teeth,  or  15"  iuv.,  27  teeth  y  =  .100;  •ii.Sipf 

0°  involute,  300  teeth  y  =  .160;  •i'i.Up/i  =  3.636J./." 

the  weakest-shaped  tooth,  according  to  Mr.  Lewis,  will  transmit  LiO    ' 
It  more  liorse-power  than  is  given  by  Prof,  Hntkness's  foniinlu.  in 
the  shape  of  the  touth  Is  not  considered,  and   the  averat'e-fhaped 
accflrding  to  Mr.  Lewis,  will   triinsmlt  more  than  double  the  horse- 
given  by  Prof.  Harl<iirs'<'<  furinntn, 

»parl«oii  or  Other  Formulie.— Mr.  Cooper,  in  summing  up 
.iiiinaiioii,  si'lecied  !>n  old  t^Tigtish  rule,  which  Mr.  Lewis  considers  as 
ibly  correct  expres-xioii  of  gond  general  averages,  vis.  :  X  =  aOOOp/, 
'eaJcing  load  of  tooth  in  pounds,  p  =  pitchj  /  =  face.    If  a  factor  of 
of  10  be  taken,  this  woiiM  give  for  safe  worlitng  load  W  —  iWOji/. 
ge  B.  Grant,  in  his  Teeth  of  Oeais,  page  33.  takes  the  breaking  load 
»/,  and,  "itli  a  fainor  of  Rafeiy  of  10,  gives  W  =  30*>j;A 
ram's  Pocltet-Uoolf.  -JOlh  ed  ,  18»l,  says  :  "  The  strength  and  durability 
-Iron  teeth  reqiiin'  iliat  Ihey  shall  transmit  a  force  »t  %0\Vitt,T^K\\\<5vk 
h  and  ptT lach  hrfU'lth  of  face."    This  is  equWaVeiM  vo  VT  =  ^fipj ,«« 
r of  climt  given  by  ilie  KitfflMt  rule.  i 

Haiaer  (Clark  g  P.'ckft  Book>  glvea  a  tab\e  ca.\<:M\«kV«4  ttoW'j 

tZ*«*/.«„«  ^,ve  i[^=j^  5  Zu.X'^. 

trmulw  tnnaformed  give  rr  =  issp/  a«d  W  =  «\ftj»y.  ««««< 


904  GEARINQ. 

Unwin,  on  the  aasumptioD_thac  ibe  load  acts  on  'h 
dei'ives  a  formula  p  =  K  V'W,  In  which  X"  i»  ■  cc*n'\' 
{kIiiii^  whefla.  Its  values  lieinR  :  for  slowly  rnoTliifL.- 
THHoh  vibratliiii  nr  shock  K=  .01;  in   ordinary   n 
groatei'  sp'H'd  on-1  oiibjeol  to  considerablf  riljratjor 
tiuhjfctt'ii  lo  exo-sstvt-  vibration  and  shock,  and  in  n 
Re(Jucv<i  to  the  form  Wzz  Cuf,  assiiminK  that/  =  -;j. 
ir=  -JSipf.  iOOpf,  and  13W,  resi^-ctively- 

UnwiD  also  gives  the  fullotving  formula,  based  on  the  a^- 

prEwsure  la  diatrlbated  alonK  the  edge  of  tba  lootli :   p^St^l^ 

where  K,  =  ahout  .0707  for  Iron  wheels  and  .0&18  for  r ■  -^• 

the  bi'eauth  of  face  is  not  leas  than  twice  the  piloh 
and   the  given  valueH  of  JT,  this  reduces  to   ir  - 
respectivBly, 

Box,  in  his  Treatts*  on  Mill  Gearing,  gires  HI".  =  ^'^'^'^,| 

=  niinilierof  revnliiMons  per  minute.  This  formula  differs  fn 
niculHrn  formulae  in  ninkliig  the  R  P.  vary  an  p»/.  instead  of  I 
Uil.s  resiject  it  is  no  doubt  incorrect. 

Making  the  H  P.  vary  as  f'tiii  or  as   ic.  itisteaU  of  directtjrl 
the  velocity  a  factor  of  the  working  stretiglii  as  Id  the  Harknc  ' 

!/«  1 

foimulsB,  the  relatlre  strength  varying  aa  -^—,  or  •■~7',  whklltefl 

velocities  is  as  follows  : 

Spevil  of  teethln  ft.  permin.,!;  i^lOO    900    300     6O0    SW    HN   III 

Relative  strength  =  1     .707   .S:4    .406   .tat    .M    H 

Showine  a  somewhat  more  rapid  reduction  than  ia  arlrrn  b;  Mr.  I#«l 
For  the  purpose  of  comparing  different  formulae  ihey  may  lit  m 
reduced  to  either  of  the  following  forms  : 

H.P.  =  Cp/f,       HP.  =  C,pfd  >;  rpm  .         H*  =  ni^J 

ill  which  p  =  pitch,  /=  face,  d  =  diameter,  all  In  lncb£»  ;  r^H^ 
feet  pur  minute,  i-pm.  revolutions  (ler  minute,  and  C,  Ci  Mdi^B 
The  formulffi  fur  transformation  are  as  follow* :  ^^M 

HP        "'"  _  O^  '<  rf  X  rpm.  ^B 

■   •  '^  S3000  ~         K'C.OM         • 

V  dx  rpm.  >v  .  jv       qo       ^al<^B 

JH  C,  =  .S618C;    e  =  88.0000!    C^S.tOOt .  =  ^g;    e  s  nMM 

speed,  and  is  equal  to  »y  •*■  83,000,  In  which  y  and  •  on  liw  vi 
tlie  "  ■  ■ 


Til  the  Lewis  formula  C  varies  with  the  form  of  ttaft 
led.  and  is  equal  to 
!  table,  ami  c  =  «y. 

In  the  Uarkness  formula  0  varies  with  tba  speMl  and  la  f^u*!  W~k 

( r  being  in  feet  per  second).  =         """^ 


H  +.01 10. 
In  the  B<>x  fiirniula  c  vgiies  with  the  plteb  Mod  atoo  wllb  I 

P<i^uaj,'>^;;^;>''°- =  ..»&«. -^^.  c^>w««,^, 

V  =  m  ft   nei  '■  Vi  ••   to»  «  =  «»  ^\ 


[ 


FBICTIONAL  GKARLKQ.  i^Ofi 

OF  DlTFEBENT  FoBHCLS  FOR  STRENOTU  OF  CJEiLR-TEETB. 

I'lcing  pressure  per  inch  pitch  and  per  inch  of  face,  or  value  of  <■  In 
^■  =  cpj: 

V  =  100  ft.    I'  =  «oo  rt. 

per  min.        per  niln. 
eak  form  of  (ootli.  mdial  «Unk,  is  teeth. , .  c  =   418  iwe 

sdiuin  tootli,  ln».  15°,  or  cycloid,  itrteetta..  c  =    800  400 

i-ong  roriii  of  tuoib,  or  cycloid,  SOO  teeth. ..  c=  laOO  600 

Average  tooih c=    847  184 

hot  1  inch  pitch c=     77.4  81.8 

"  S  iiicbes  pitch c=    239  95 

In  which  r  Is  independent  of  form  and  speed:  Old  English 
(00;  Gmnt.  c  =  350;  Nyalrom,  c  =  H);  Halpey,  c  =  ISM;  Jones  & 
I,  c  =  218;  Unwin,  c  =  8*8,  SOO,  or  1.39,  nccording  to  speed,  shock, 
[Ion. 

le  gIvHti  hy  Nyslrom  nnd  tlioso  priven  by  Box  for  te^-th  of  ftmnll 
■io  ninch  smolW  tliati  thiwt-  given  h\  Hie  other  uiithoriti^'H  that  tliev 
iJecitHl  as  havlQK  nii!  entirely  unnecessary  surpluK  of  KtieiiBili.  The 
'en  by  Mr.  l^ewis  sewn  in  rest  on  the  innst  loglcHl  luislB,  llie  form  of 
>■  Wfil  am  the  velocity  beirR  considered;  and  since  they  are  s«ld  to 
en  satisfnclory  in  nii  cxU-nilrd  iiiaoUine  plod  ice.  iIic.t  mib.v  becon- 
f]iable  fur  seal's  that  are  so  well  nuide  that  llic  pivsHiire  Iveurs 
face  of  the  teelh  inslend  of  ujion  the  corners  For  rough  ordi 
E  the  olil  EnKllsh  rule  IV  =  iOiipf  in  probably  as  good  B'*  -iiy,  ex 
the  fl^ire  iUi  may  be  too  hi^h  for  weak  forms  of  tooth  and  for 
da. 

•mula   W  =  iOOpfis  equivalent  to  H.P.  =  ''^'^  ^'^'^'"'  =  ^'  °'" 

H.'!RT3f<«  X  rtiin.  -  .n0B0CH/</u. 

nnni'Speed  orCeartnK.— A.  Towier,  Ena'a,  April  19,  1BB9, 
ife  tlie  iiin.iliiMJHi  speeds  ut  wlileh  it  was  possible  under  favorable 
I  to  run  toothed  gearing  sitfely  as  follows: 

Ft.  per  mta. 

U7  cast-iron  wheels .. IttOO 

kl       "       "        " 9400 

le      aioo 

ary  cast-steel  wheels  8600 

il       ' 3000 

il  caat-ii-oii  mnchlne-cut  wheels 8000 

!>]entan  Sellers  (Stevetia  ludlcainr,  April,  1803)  recommends  that 
m  not  run  over  1200  ft.  per  minute,  to  avoid  xreat  noise.  The 
tg.  Co..  Cleveland,  O.,  say  tlmt  2aOO  ft.  per  iitlii.  for  iron  pears  and 
>r  wood  find  Iron  (moitlse  Bearsi  are  cxcepslvc,  and  should  be 
'pos.«ibU'.  The  Corliss  engine  iil  the  Philadelpliiii  l''xhibilion  (1870) 
whe**l  30  ft.  in  diameter  rnnnuif;  H^i  rpm.  pearetl  Into  a  pinion  12  ft, 
le  speed  of  the  pitfliline  >vos  MrKKI  ft.  ;>er  mill. 
^▼7  raachlne-cnt  Spur-iecar  wa^^  mode  in  ItiSl  by  the 
fg'.  Co.,  Ulevelaml.  O.,  for  u  Uiiiiiiou<l  mine  in  South  Africa,  with 
IB  OS  follows:  Number  nf  It-i  th,  lOs!:  pitch  dinmcter,  30'  BM";  face, 
I,  8";  bore,  87";  diaoieter  of  hub,  9'  S";  weight  of  hub,  15  tons;  and 
:nt  of  gear,  GB-)^  tons.  The  rlin  was  made  in  13  sepnientB.  the  Joints 
•nieiilji  being  fastened  with  two  bolts  encli.  The  spokes  were  bolted 
Idle  of  'he  sfiiinents  and  lo  the  hub  with  four  bolls  in  each  end. 
,onaI  Gearlag.— In  friclional  gearing  tiie  whrels  are  toothless, 
wheel  driven  Hie  other  by  means  ot  the  friction  between  the  two 
Wlilch  are  pressed  together.  The,v  mft.v  he  used  where  the  power 
ISinitted  Is  not  very  great;  when  the  speed  is  so  high  that  toothed 
Wild  be  nolsv:  when  the  siiafts  require  to  he  frer}iieiitly  put  into 
»f  Rear  or  to  have  their  relative  direetlon  nf  motirm  reversed;  or 
idealred  to  change  the  velocity-ratio  wliile  the  machiucry  is  iu  mo- 
I  the  case  of  disk  frietJon-nheels  for  changing  tVve  teei Vn \t\ttcV«»» 

t  Oie normal  presmire  In  pounds  at  the  line  ot  coviVacVVj'v  Ni\i\.c>x 
t  »re  pressed  togettiM:  T-  fangeiil.lal   vesUtaxice  ol  Mt\e  tV\ifw 
mlfnenfconlact.   f=  the  coefflcieiit  of  friction,  V  ^  v\\ei  N-eNocj^ 
b-turfaoe  In  fet-t.  per  second,   and   H.P.  =  tiorae-V"^'"*^^  ♦. 
gumi  to  or  leaa  than  J^P;  n.P.  =  n*  -t-  560.    t\ie  vttWe  ot 


I 


I 


I 


I 


HOISTING. 


niet&l  on  metal  may  be  taken  at  .15  to  .SO:  for  wood  oii  m»ial 
fur  wood  on  eonipresHed  paper,  .90.    Tht-  • 
Its  liii;h  as  80  lbs. p«r  inch  wliltli  of  face  <•' 
conipanied  by  grenl  pressure  and  fricliui; 

In  friotional  (trooved  KvariUR  circunifi 
cut  in  the  faces  of  two  whetls  in  eotii 
wheels  together,  Bud  N  =  the  normal  i^ 
(sin  rt  +/C08  (I),  in  which  3a  =  thn  inclii 
and  the  I'naximuin  tangential  avuilablu  i' 
Bides  nf  the  (froovpa  to  a  pUn-*  at  rielii  ai,  , 

Prlrdoual  Grooved  Gearing. -- .v  •i.i  <.r  rnci^uu 

initliii^  IdOli.P.  is  on   a  steHin-iirt*iiKe  d»-.»M:rilifd   in  tVoc,J 

ISft^.   Two  grooved  plnionn  of  Si  in.  diani.,  with  a  cronvtw  « 

an>(le  of  40°  cut  on  their  face,  are  Keared  intt>  two  w)ie«>li 

similarly  grooved.     The  wheels  can  be  tlirowu  in  and  otit 

oi>eratin(c  eccontric  htishen  on  the  larg«  wheelMii.l'i       I  li«l 

Kpeeil  of  the  wheel*  Is  &botlt  SOO  ft.  per  mln. 

if  half  the  power  is  trammitted  throueb  ea<:i  iH  the  tu 

force  at  the  I'iinK  is  about  3900  IbK.,  requiring,  if 

elflcient  of  friction    0  18.   a  presaure   of  TSSM  lb&.  betwe 

pliitiu  to  prevent  Klippiiif;. 

I'he  wear  of  the  wheels  provini;  ezces.sive.  the  (reara  wer«1 
R-ear  wheels  and  brake- wheels  with  steel  brake-bands,  wh* 
lian  prov'n  more  durable  than  the  (frooviKl  wheals.     Mr. 
states  that  if  the  frictional  wheela  had  tieen  run  at  a  higher  i 
would  have  been  better,  and  s^jm  they  ibould  run  at  I 


HOISTING. 


Approximate  fVelcbt  and  StreniEtli   of  CeHUicc 

and  Lockport  Block  Co.) — dee  also  pai;eH  SHil  to  X4o. 


SiMin 

Cli\!um- 

ference. 


Slxeln 
Diam- 
eter. 


inch. 

li/ia 


Weljthtof 
100  ft. 
ManUa, 
to  lbs. 


IS 
lit 
SO 
24 

JW 

n 

18 
4S 

61 
M 
OS 


StreiiEtli 

jf  Mtinila 

Huiie, 

in  lbs. 


4,000 

n.ooo 

7,500 
9,000 
111,500 
I  i  ■.'.'« 
11,000 
ltt,000 
16,008 
90400 


Size  In 
(.'ircum- 
CerencB. 


inch. 

7 


Slaeiu 
Uiam- 
eter. 


w«tc<bt«ri 

jflOfLn<» 


Intte 


1 » ■!« 


mrorklnc  Streng^tb  of  Blocka. 

Keenlar  Mortise  blockH  Sin^cle  and    Wide 
Double,  or  Two  Double  Iron- 
Klrapped  Blocks,  will  hoist  about — 


iB.  M  U  GHocikOM 

Mnnise     and    Extia 
^inkfleaod  DoubX^arl 


rrnUhy  PniC  ■.  H.  ThMMM 


« 

I 


WoHx  or  Botsnxs. 
Load  of  3000  Bib. 


aj.so  ni.50 
69.00  si.on 

ri.wi  «.» 

73.96,  «.04 
75. M:  -.M.St 
TT.OO  iS.OO 
81.03)  18.0; 


1  rtJ     fc 

.40       ^   il 

jci.n: 


*  '•J 

te. 

UK  , 

•4.0 

at. 

CIO*  1 

K.» 

H*. 

Ki»P 

».« 

M». 

tfgsa* 

ts.» 

ttJi 

t.** 

M.« 

SI. 

m.Mt 

S5.M 

sw. 

KJM 

«.W 

4». 

a^eoo 

0  n 
s  a  1  ap 

10  4I>    1  ■'« 
«  «>  2  50 

o.n  J  » 

U  W   1.81 

>  «et  <.75 

11  OOl  3.75 


it* 


.99 


No.  1  was  We«tao'«  oiplex  Uoek;  Ro.1.  We*MNi'<  dUrercBti*!:  X<l4 
'(Eton's  imported.  Tlie  od»m  were  from  differeat  malcei*,  aboae  aajma 
■p  not  (riven  All  the  bloAs  were ot  oecUMi  cmpadlT. 
Proportfona  of  Cloaks. — Tlir  foUowinif  fcnmilf  mrv  pvea  b] 
eiiry  K.  Towiic,  in  his  TremtUe  on  Craaea,  aa  a  tcaoh  ot  an  exteoai'n 
rperiiiieatal  and  Diatbemalical  Inresti- 
ttion.  Tbey  apply  lo  books  of  capaci. 
m  from  2S0  lbs.  to  90,000  lbs.  Each  siae 
'  bcx>lc  io  made  from  some  commercial 
He  of  roiintl  iroo.  The  basis  in  each 
ise  is.  therefore,  the  sise  of  iroo  of 
hich  the  hi>ol(  is  to  be  Riade,  indicated 
r  A  ill  the  dioKi^m.  Tlie  dimension  D 
arljitrarilj-  anSitraed.  The  other  di- 
lensiOMX.  fut  Riven  by  tiie  ronnule,  are 
io««>  which,  while  preservinB  a  proper 
eariDif-frti'e  on  the  iDterior  ol  the  liu'.tk 
the  rop*^  or  chnini^  whicii  may  be 
"  lhr»iie:h  il.  Rive  the  (rivate«t  rv- 
to  spreading  atid  l"  iiliniiai« 
atv.  wliioli  the  airiount  of  inaieri^kl 
)  orig'inal  bar  adrnitK  of.  The  syiii- 
lol  A  is  usi-d  to  indicate  the  nominal  ca- 
locily  of  the  hook  iu  tons  of  -OffJ  lbs. 
?he  u>miuliB  whifli  deteniiine  the  lines 
if  tbe  other  parts  of  the  hooks  of  ili« 
everal  Mzea  are  as  follows,  the  nieasure- 
IMnta  bein^  all  expressed  in  locbes; 

+-1.2R        G  =  .7^n. 

1.00        O  =  .3(18  A  4-    .00 
.80         Q  =  .64    A-f  1  60 


ar  tbe 
nhe  oi 


I  =  .MA-)- I.I 
P  =  .83  A  4-    -I 


M  =    .tOA 
If  =    .85B  - 
I/e    .800^ 


The  dimensions  A  are  necessarily  lia.sp(1  upon  llie  orrlinary  merchant  *iv> 
if  round  Iron.  Tlie  Hires  whicli  it  lias  been  tuuud  \»;*l  lo  w\ecV  tt-te  V\ 
loUawiujr.- 

ilcjr  ot  book: 

H      H  1         Iki 

itoii  .4: 

it/ie    ft    1  t/te    i^ 


i« 


VA     2Vi     «V^ 


i 


A 


910  HOISTIKO. 

h,  =  reduced  lelkgUi  of  tope  in  I  aUocIimI  in  asoendtng  c«g»; 
h%  -=■  Incre-ased  length  of  rope  in  I  attAofaed  to  deao^nUUic  c«|tC 
\D  =  weiKht  of  roi>e  per  foot  in  pounds.    Tben 

pysc. 

Applying  Ihe  nbove  formula  when  ileslfrninK  new  ei)(tln»«,  * 
found  iliat  30  incites  dlRinHtcr of  eylinders  would  |>ro<liKv  nq<ul  i»«« 
balanced,  to  those  of  tiie  36-iuch  cylinder  in  use,  ibe  Uticr  bH« 
Bnced. 

Countprbalancinx  may  be  cmploywl  in  tljp  followlDir  niPtb'Td" ; 

(11)  Ttipvifng  Hope.— At  the  Initial  stai^.'e  tlie  laprriiig  tnpf  <   ' 
wind  from  greater  ilpyilhs  than  is  possiljle  writli  iu|w<«  i>f  unl^ 
The  tliidcneKd  of  such  a  rope  at  any  point  should  only  I"?  vtet 
bear  llie  load  on  it  at  that  poiut. 

Witli  taiicriiiK  rones  we  obtain  a  snmller  differenctr  )>olwe<fnl 
final  load,  Init  ilie  dilTerence  is  still  considerable,  and  for  p^rf 
tinn  of  tile  load  we  nui^t  rely  on  some  oilier  reH«>uri'«-       ri ,..  r 
ropes  la  to  obtHln  a  rope  of  iiufform  strength,  ihitwi 
the  weielit  is  least,  and  thicker  nl  the  drum  end  kIm 

ih)  Thh  t'ounterjioUe  Sysift^t  consists  oT  a  liea-v  . 
down  a  staple  pit,  tlie  motion  Ijeing  obtained  liy  n 
drum  placed  on  tl>e same  axis  an  the  uitMlin^  dniin 
the  cliain  bani^  in  full  lenfsrth  donn  the  staple  pit  n 
the  windlnjt;  in  the  centre  of  the  run  the  wliole  «i 
boitxim  of  ihe  pit,  and,  flnully,  at  the  end  of  the  « 
has  been  rewouml  upi>n  the  small  drum,  and  is  in  u. 
waK  at  the  coniinenceiiient. 

(CI  /.oil i/prf-iivi poll  S]/ttfm.  —  A.  plan,  formerly  much 
have  a  loaded  wa^on  ruiiniDKon  a  short  incline  in  plu.-- 
Ihe  rope  actuating  tliis  wagon  being  Ciiutiei-trd  in  t ' 
above  to  a  subsidiary  drum.    Tiie  incline  was  ooiinr 
iiienceiueut.  the  iuolitiation  (ifraduully  decreasitift  |. 
liiliK  of  a  winti  tlie  wagon  was  ut  the  top  of  tiie  incl  i : 
of  the  run  );radiially  passed  down  it  till,  at   Ibe  iii> 
exerted  on  the  engine  — Ihe  wuKon  by  liii-  I'lni-  l,.ir 
latter  ymrt  of  the  wind  the  resistance  m 
it«  hn\'ine  to  pull   Ilie  wuf;on  up  the  in- 

from  nothing  at  Ihe  meet  of  cauesto  its^:  ,     - 

of  (he  lift. 

Id)  TUe  Entlleiu  roi)f  Suatem  U  preferable  to  all  olherx.  If 
dent  sump  room  and  the  sliaft  is  free  from  tubeo.  rr<.<.  1 1.    ■ 
linpedimenls.     It  consists  in  plucliiK  l>eueatli  the  cm 
in  diameter  to  the  windinp  rope,  and,  after  conveyit 
Btlaclied  beneath  the  other  cape. 

1*1  Fim  fiiipi/K  Cuilinij  on  Hfeh—T) 
tain  eqiiaii74itioQ.  fur  ilie  raiiins  nf  ilie  < 
increase,  wliile  that  of  tlie  di-scenilin(4     ' 

ipiently.  as  Ihe   resistance  decreases  n>   Ibr  _ 

increa.ses,  and  as  the  iMnver  increases  in  the  '■■  ■■  H 

Tlie  variation  in  the  leverage  is  i<  ronMimi  _  sq( 

IhicknesR  of  the  rope  where  it  is  " 

Uy  Ilie  ahuve  means  a  reniHil.  ..  thf  l<vatl 

tabled,  thei'iilv  I'liir-iMum  Ih'hu  i 
and  only  i 


CBANES.  911 

-  the  other  bead-Kear  pulley,  i»  connected  with  the  seoond  cage.  The  1 
'rope  thUB  eiiclruws  about  half  the  periphery  of  the  drum  In  the  I 
anncras  a  drivin;.'-lielt  on  an  ordlnor.v  pulh-y.  There  ja  a  halanea 
lealh  the  ciiKi^s,  i>UKsiu3  round  a  pulley  in  the  8ump;  the  arrauHe-  i 
ay  be  likened  to  au  eadles«  rofw,  the  ttvo  cat^es  behig  simply  po^te  | 
luuent. 

BEbT-€ONVE¥OR8. 

a<«lev«tors.  American  Orainelevators  are  described  in  a 
f  E.  l^ee  HeiUenreioli,  read  at  the  International  EnKlneerlngr  Con- 
ChicaRO  (TraiiB,  A.  S.  f :.  K.  lH!»3i.  See  also  Traus.  A.  S.  M.  E.  vii,  660. 
!•  Tor  carrying  Uraln.—  Flexible-rubber  bands  are  exleu- 
led  tor  carr5-inK  Kraui  in  amJ  orouiiU  elevators  and  warehous>»s.  An 
n  the  gi-ain-storaKe  wart-houses  of  the  Alexandria  Bock.  Liverpool 
ist.  M.  E.,  July,  1891),  descriliea  the  performance  of  these  liauds, 
tiuif  three  niilea  Id  length.  A  band  16}i  IneheK  wide,  It-TiJ  feel  loop, 
9  to  10  feet  i)er  Betoiid  has  a  carryinif  capacity  of  50  tons  per  hour, 
paper  on  Helta  as  OraIn  Conveyors,  by  T.  W.  Hugo,  Traus.  A.  8. 
.400. 

f^nK-baiids  or  Belta  are  iiiied  for  the  purpose  both  of  sortiiie 
of  removiij);  linixirities.  These  carryinp-lmndsniay  be  sakl  to  1)« 
to  l«o  desopipiluns,  namely,  the  wire  belt,  uliieh  consists  of  an 
lentil  of  woTfii  wire;  and  the  steel-plate  belt,  which  consists  of 
tree  endless  cbuins,  carrylne  Kteel  plates  varylDg  in  width  from  ti 
)  U  inches.    iProc.  Inst.  M.  E.,  July,  1890.) 

CHANGS. 
Iflcatlon  of  Cranea,    (Henry  R.  Towne,  Trass.  A.  S.  M.  B.,  iv. 
I'laed  In  ILtMing.  published  by  The  Yale  iS  Towne  Mfg.  Co.) 
St  is   a  machine   for  raising  and   lowering  Heights.     A  Crane  is  a 
h  the  added  capacity  of  moving  the  load  in  a  liorizontal  or  lateral 
I. 

I  are  divided  Into  two  claxaes,  as  to  their  motions,  vlx. ,  Rotary  and 
ior,  and  Into  four  Kroups,  as  to  their  Houree  o[  uiot Ive  power,  viz.; 
—when  operatt*d  by  ntanual  power. 
,— When  driven  by  power  derived  from  line  shafting. 
,  Eleclric.  Hudia'iUic,  or  fnenmo/fc.— When  driven  by  an  engine  or 
ttached  to  the  crane,  and  operated  by  steaiu,  electricity,  water,  or 
iinitted  to  the  crane  from  a  llxed  source  of  supply, 
ofiw.  — When  the  crane  ia  provided  vritii  Itii  own  boiler  or  other 
ir  of  power,  and  is  self-propelling  ;  usually  being  capa.ble  of  both 
lid  rectilinear  inoiioos. 
'  and  Rectilinear  Cranes  are  thus  subdivided : 

HoTARY  Crakes. 
[tig-eraiie*. — Having  rotation,  but  no  trolley  motion. 
-crime*. — Having  rotation,  and  a  trolley  travelling  on  the  jib. 
umn-iTfiiira.— Identical  with  the  jih-cranes,  but  rotating  around  a 
unm  (whicli  URimliv  supp<M'ts  a  floor  abovt^). 

(ar-crnne*.— navin'g  rotation  only;  the  pillar  or  column  Vieing  sup- 
DtireJy  from  the  foiiuilailun. 

lni-./io-craiie«.— Identical  with  the  last,  except  in  having  a  Jib  and 
lotion. 

■)-irt-ornnc».— Identical  with  jib-cranes,  except  that  the  head  of  the 
held  in  position  by  guy- rods,  Instead  of  by  attachment  to  a  roof  or 

i/Jki?io-cranM.— Consisting  of  a  pillar  or  Jlli-crane  mounted  on  wheels 
nged  to  travel  longitudinally  upnn  one  or  more  rails. 
M?no(u'e-craiie)).— ("orisii.stlng  of  a  pillar  crane  mounted  on  a  truck, 
rided  with  u  Hleatfiengine  capable  of  pru)i«lllng  and  rotating  the 
id  of  hoisting  and  loiveriug  the  load. 

Rectilikeab  Crakbs. 

Hffv-emn^f.—HariaK  a  Hxed  bridge  spannktiK  a.n  opcnVc^,  va^  ». 
orlag  across  the  bridge.  -^m 

M-eivnes.—CoaBiatlnc  of  a  truck,  or  sUoi't  'brtdKe,  ttaveWVo* 
^  oa  overhead  rails,  and  without  troUev  mot\on. 

wcit3,  taa  a  trolley  moviug  traiisveraely  ou  vXw  \.r 


I 
I 

i 


InutM 


A  t<arar«  TrittetnnB-rniiie,  ilesTf^ned  ancl  tiull 
Khk'"'^''iiiK  *'"■•  AlliBin'f,  (I,,  for  iljt-  IS-iDcli-ijfiin  sdiop  at; 
Siivy  YurJ,  !■<  ilwK'riljwl  In  Amnuiiii  Mnrhiniiif.  June  13, 
l.vi  I'lPl  tons;  iliMflnce  Irt-twHcij  ot-iitii<s  of  iii#i(i<?  rails,  50  ft.  6 
cuioH  imvel.  4i  ft.  a  ill.;  cffeiTin-  lift,  4(1  ft.;  four  S()e«'ils  for  ii 
4.  and  H  ft.  por  iiiiii.;  l<ui(l!ifortlie««'  uijeedx.  15l>,  75.  HTj^.  andl' 
lively  ;  traviTsinsr  sp'^'ls  of  liollt*_v  iiti  liridgrf .  25  aud  50« 
m|i«mIs  nf  liridjif  on  main  track,  30  aiij  60  ft.  per  minute.  " 
fiiiplov""!  fur  ill  l»l"L'. 

A    ISO-toii   Plllar-4'rane  wa»  etH<c(e<1  in  ISEtS  on] 
(IlioiKo^^      Til'-  Jill  i^  forliivxl  of  two  iit*«l  tiilwH,  each  39  in 
IniiK      Tin-  ruillus  of  swi-rp  for  li<-av>'  liftH  is  C.'>  ft.     Tlio  jib  1 
oonutorljaluiicfd  liy  n  bulhiiee  liox  vv*-lifliti>J  with  100  toiia  o( 
piiDolilniCs.    Ill  a  tBKt  u  1.10  ton  load  »v»s  liftetl  at  the  rateot4 
and  II  i-oniplcto  rovoliitioti  imule  niili  thl><  toad  in  5  mlnul 
July  '.ti.  iNli-l. 

ruin|>reaa«d*iilr  TravellliiK*rrane«.— Conipr 
tittii'llio;;  iTiiiiei  li.ivi-  Ijfeii  built  by  tlii' Ijini- Jt  Bodley 
TliHV  «ri»  of  'W  tons  nominal  capncily.  each  aboiii  50  ft.  span  a 
of  travel,  niid  are  of  the  ti'iple-tnoior  type,  a  pair  of  siiiiple  rei 
lieloK  Used  for  caoli  of  tlie  uei.-eH>yir.v  ojiepatioiiK.  the  pair  of 
biidee  and  tim  pair  for  the  trollt-y  travel  beine  eacli  .Vlncl 
HlioWe,  whil*-  the  pair  for  hoist iiiK  Is  T-lncdi  bore  by  9-iiitJi 
forniwbcsl  by  a  conipre>4.sor  havinj^  .«iteaiii  and  air  cylinders  4 
and  I'J-lii.  stroke,  whk'h  with  a  bolli>r  pieMiureof  about  80  pa' 

Kn"!wure  when  rtmulrwl  of  «otiiewlmt  over  1(K)  pouncLs.  TM 
I  allowed  CO  run  contiuiioiiRly  without  a  governor,  the  sp 
by  the  rwKlwiiiiu'e  of  the  air  in  a  rt'ceiv4*r.  From  a  pipe  exte 
re.'eiver  alonj;  one  of  llie  aiipportliiK  iruHftes  t'Oiniuiinication 
inaintuiuetJ  with  an  niixillar.v  re.-t?lver  on  each  traveller  by  : 
Inoli  liose.  the  object  of  the  auxiliary  recflver  beiiiK  to  priiv 
air  near  the  engines  for  linMie<liate  (leinnn  Ik  and  iiidepend 
connection,  wldfh  may  iIuik  lieof  small  diinenNlon.  Some  of 
Mtlil  to  l>e]K>s.'»'i4si-.l  by  lliNlypeof  crane  are;  simplicity:  abn 
Inj:  parts,  excepting  iho,-.-  required  for  a  iMirliculnr  motion  w\ 
i«  in  use:  nii  danj^er  from  fire,  leakage,  electric  shocks,  or  Q 
repair;  variable  sf»eeds  and  rever'sal  without  glaring;  aJniQfl 
of  uiiiKe;  and  iitnilerate  cost  ^ 

<luay-craueK.    An  illustrated  description  of  Keverttlfl 
tioimry  and  iraveilUiK  cranes,  with  i^esuUs  of  experiment 


l-rope  Sf  stem. 
Uess-rope  System. 
ble  Tramway. 

K  brief  .1 
;*Wirc-rope  , 
piiic'K  Sons 
tir-actlnt;  liKim 

Mined  plant-  !••  gr.i 
.S|j])licali<>n  <ailj  - 
bwer  point  and  •- 
(dine  cars  to  raif»^ 
I  of  IDb  plane  Ihf:  ■ 
tog  a  (lianiet+T  of  •*= 
•lid  car<>  to  ymFn  im  1'  r  k. 
Sjjiy  or  in  «:•:»  .  r  ;»  ..  ^« 
Mr  speed  in  dncndHC  M 

rollers,  rr>  umiat  Itar  Mqpv 
hrood.  5  to  6  laehM  to  4k«Mi 
Pmn  s<i1e&    The 
er  planes  rrquiruHt 
(Ulj-  the  reducti-jn  o*  fi 
i  a  general  rut*  miy  kr 
letei'.  aii'l  to  iiUeftUinM 
It  an?ie  .  .f  inelinafiM  M  « 


)  '  ItK  I 

■be  vf^^  ttf  U»  •■H'/  ' 

t> ^'■1':  i<K4M»ii«*caw^aM  Wi 

bK  rulleni     Tfar  frt  H—  <#  A* 
r  may  t^  nnlecwC  AfBMM' 
I  lenxUi  uf  Um  yiMw  or  IB  lk> 
the  foroec 
o  of  tlie  road. 


'  to'mtife  Ilk'  pImh 
the  nuoiijfr  ot tmr% 


lcUii«d  ptaac 

mom.     ThFH 


, to  a« 

>  IB  Mr^  fcaderf  can  »n  < 
I  Mniidrt  ptoae  «■  fcci  ta«r  «•  •  cn^  «r  tKaecttolt^ 
-    it!4IM»toH»i*a#«etoar7(«r  tker * — 


»!?»*• 


parwinjiititoili  ttrgtr, 

tke  taB4«g«  irMnB  taw  tamai  tbt?  niuai  apjpi 
,  nadcr  aliBcai  anj  eonttiaa.   ne  ixnd 
or  ttsdotadog,  to  o«e  contlwww  Boe  orwi 
-incipte  a  laU  rvi^Kr  jrfaae  Utbr  Mne  asaai 
bo«li<lirii!ctk>nsT>tti  ttro  r'ipea.  One  ivpe.oalledtke' 
for  dTBOlXBC  tba  s«^   of  r<Jl  csrvmiiran!;  Uieodier, 
I  ■eeeHaiT  to  Ukke  bacJc  die  mipty  set,  whidi  am  i 
td  taauui  reSani   bj  praTily.    The  t«o  AruSBS  1 
irtte  eoeb  of  the  rcud.  Mid  <3rt»fn  \»5  se\>iTO\e  er,) 
r  thef  »re  on  the  same  sli&t\  U  one  •- 
ae  ircniid  rvy]uire  tbe  tenglh  ot  ^^  ^ 
.  '  nuK  be  tirioe  as  Vioe,  'btAuK  \'-'- 
socher  ead  of  tlm  plaiw  i^ad  bac>L  avH^o  va  \,v&  i 


H0I8TIK0. 


point.    When  Ibe  main  rope  draws  a  set  o(  full  con  out. 
runs  loose  on  the  shaft,  and  the  rop*;,  being  alia'-' 
winds  Itself  steadily.     Going  in,  tlie   reve-rst-   laid- 
provided  with  a  brake  to  clieclt  lhi>  speed  of  the  tf » 
prevent  its  OTerruniiini;  (he  forwaiil  ropt).    As    i 
strained  less  than  the  main  io|»?.  liiit  in  east*:*  of  lie 
ward  it  is  po.ssiljle  timl  tlu'  xtiain  In  the  furuier  in 
eren  larger,  than  in  Lhp  Iftlter.  nnd  in  tin-  aek'Ctioii   m£  lUc 
should  lie  liad  lo  this  fin-uiiistaiinf. 

IV.  Tbc   EiidleBB-rope  Sjmtein, -Tlie  princlpAt  f* 
syalvin  are  as  follow*.; 

1.  The  rope,  as  the  iiuaic-  Indicates,  isencllesii. 

S.  Motion  la  given  lo  lii«  rop<4  by  n  siuitln  wliMfl  or  itriim,  i 
obtaiued  either  by  a  pip-wheel  or  by  paasint;  tlie  rope  3«ver>l  ( 
the  wheel. 

3.  Tlie  rope  muNt  lie  IcepI  constantly  tii;ht.  the  ten^^i.  m  tn  in 
artificial  means.    It  is  done  in  ulachiR  either  tlie  Pf  ' 
tensiou  whe«-l  «n  a  carriage  aiirl  cnnneetinc  it  «itli  ;. 
pulley,  or  altaolitiif;  it  to  a  fixed  post  Ijy  a  screw  w  h . 
stiorieiieU. 

4.  The  ears  ar«  athiched  to  tlie  rope  by  a  grip  or  clutcb.  urivtcb  i 
hold  at  any  place  and  let  go  ugaiu,  Htartint;  and  stoppiui;  ibc  irmia] 
without  stopping  the  engine  or  tlie  laolion  of  tlie  rope. 

5.  On  a sin;;le-tracl<  road  the  ro|M^  woriis  forwaitl  auil  biu-lcnanl, 
double  li'dck  it  l.-i  pos.sllile  lo  run  it  aiwayit  in  the  Miiiie  clirr«linBil 
ears  going  on  one  track  and  the  empty  cars  on  the  other. 

Thin  iiieihod  of  conveying  ooal,  as  a  rule.  ha..<  not  fum>J  a*  g»n*alt 
trodtictioD  an  the  tail-rope  systeiu.  probably  l»eoaijs<'    its    t.f*\»-i»cj  ts  I 
apparent  and  the  opposijig  JifBculties  require  greni. 
more  complicated  auplla'nces.     Its  advaniage.^    m 
one  third  less  rope  tlinn  the  tail-rope  system.     Tli 
is  partially'  coiiiiterl>alaiiced   by  the  cireunistauce   : 
the  roiie  requiiesa  heavier  .tiite  to  move  llie  same 
and  tali  rupe  are  used.    The  seooiid  and  prlncit<al 
possible  to  start  and  stop  trains  al  will  withoiil  ..-iv 
Oa  the  other  baud,  it  is  more  diOlcult  to  work  cuiv 
tern,  and  still  more  so  to  work  difTereiil  branches,  n 
of  the  rope  under  tension  or  its  elongation  under  . 
frequenlly  causes  the  n>pf>  to  slip  on  (he  wheel,  in 
caiwlog  delay  in  tlie  transportation  and  iiijnnr  to  tS 

V.  Wire-rope  Xramwayo Tli. 

a  suspeiideil  rope  tramway  find  especl'i 

Is  located  on  one  side  of  a  river  or  deei 

the  other,    A  wire  rope  8us|iended  between  t!i> 

on  which  material  in  properly  constructed 

transported.    It  saves  tlie  onnstruotlou  of  u 

practical  for  a  distance  of  aax)  feel  without  an  iiitfnnedi;«i<> 

There  are  two  disliiiel  elnsses  of  rope  tramways: 

1.  The  rope  is  stationary,  forming  the  tracic  on  which  a  buekal  MM 
tile  material  moves  forward  and  bocicw&rd,  pulled  by  a  -.mallw^  **^ 
wire  rope.  ' 

'i.  The  rope  is  movable,  forming  itelf  nn  pndless  tin'',  widck  •»*»••  ^ 
the  same  time  as  Kuppirting  trnei. 

Of  these  two  the  (li'st  method  li  >  .ttloti, 

especially  adapted  for  long  span> 
second  metlKHl  is  used  for  h  ' 
only  applicable  fur  liglit  lo.i 

Fordetailetl  de.soripiioii>  . 
tion,  see  clrinilars  of  John  .\   it  ■.•iiin^-  fn 

"tiler   wlri'-rope   niannfacttirens.      Sei- 
Systems,  Viv  R.  Vnii    V.  Nort-l«.  Traii*    \ 

/" :■-  ir 

««f  .rr^l. 


SUSPENSION   CABLEWAYS  OR  CABLE   HOISTS. 


I 


■  to  run  I  lie  nn?  crii«lier  and  elevator.    It  ts  capable  of  dellTCriog 

I  of  iiiattM-ial  in  10  liouts. 

SrSPENSION   CABLEWAVS  OR  CABLE  BOISTS. 

^Treiilon  Iron  Co.) 

quarrjrini;,  rr>uk-r!Utting,  stripping,  piliiif;,  dam  -  building,  aud  many 
T  operations  where  it  is  necessary  to  hoist  and  convey  large  individual 
m  economically,  it  (itMiueiitly  liappvns  that  the  application  of  a  system 
»rricks  is  iinpriioticabi*',  by  reason  of  the  liniit«<l  area  of  their  efflciency 
the  room  h  hifli  ilit-y  occupy. 

meet  such  conditions  cable  hoists  aro  aJaptoil,  ils  tin'y  can  be  edlciently 
ated  111  clear  apatiK  up  to  15<>0  feet,  and  in  lifririg  indivldiinl  londn  up  tn 
ns.  Two  types  ar<«  itmile— one  in  wliicli  Oie  liukriUK  uuil  conveylu)?  are 
(  by  Beparatfi  ruiiniu|Br  rnpi'Si.  and  llin  other  applicable  only  to  Inclineii, 
hick  the  carriage  descends  tiy  Rravity.  and  but  one  nmiiiup  rope  is  re- 
Sd.  The  luoviu);  of  the  curriai;e  in  the  former  in  elTected  by  means  of 
niUeas  rnpp,  and  tlieNe  are  vonnnonly  known  an  "enilieits  roiw  "  cat>le- 
la  to  disting'niiiili  them  from  tiie  loiter,  which  ore  termed  "inclined" 
{•hoiitts. 

e  general  arrariKemeut  of  the  endless-rope  cable-hoists  consiHis  of  a 
I  CAble  passine  over  lowers,  A  frames  or  inasis.  as  may  be  most  eonve- 
!,  and  nnohorfd  flrmly  to  the  grounil  at  eacli  end,  the  retjnlsite  tenKion 
le  cable  Iteint;  maintained  by  a  tnrnbuckle  at  uue  anelioi'ot^e. 
on  tliin  cable  travels  the  carriage,  Hhidi  Is  niovwl  Imck  ami  forth  over 
|ne  by  means  of  the  endless  ro|>e.  The  ImlstiUK  is  done  by  a  separate 
,  both  rones  lieliii;  operated  by  an  eni^inc  specially  deslKnefl  for  the 
nae,  which  may  be  locnted  at  either  end  of  the  line,  and  Js  constrncted 
cb  a  way  that  the  hojRiint;-r<i|>e  is  coiled  np  nr  tmid  out  aiirnmatlcally 
e  carriaj;e  is  moved  in  arid  out.  Loads  may  be  pielted  U|i  or  diHcbarKed 
ly  point  alorf^  tlie  line.  Wliere  BiifTlclent  Inclination  can  be  nhiained  Jn 
iiain  calde  fur  the  carriage  to  descend  liy  gravity,  ntid  Die  landing  and 
»<linK  i^  done  at  tixed  pomtis,  the  endlens  rope  can  IxMli-spenswii  Willi, 
^ikrrlaKe.  wliicli  is  aimllar  in  coimtnictioti  to  the  carriat^'  iii>e<l  in  the 
•sw-njfM*  oaiilewayi!;,  is  arrested   in  Ita  descs'iit  by  a  Btiifi-bkiclc,  which 

be  clatii|Mtd  lo  the  main  cable  at  any  de.sirrd  point,  ibe  Hpeeti  of  the 
sudiiiic  carriajte  l*iii(i:  under  control  "f  a  brake  on  the  enpine-drum. 
Btresa  In  HolntiiiK-ropeM  on   Inclined  PlaneH. 
(Trenton  Iron  t,'o.  i 


<  a 


140 
240 

.tW 
4.« 
527 
BIS 

7(» 

rsi 

1400 

9m 


2"! 
~ft7~ 

55 
60 
6,5 
70 
75 
M) 
85 
W 
95 
1(10 


£  1 

?1 


80«58' 
83«02' 
3.')»00' 
88°  53' 
88°  W 

4-»  00- 
«=  33' 

«»0«' 


K  ^  r^ 


looa 

IfflJT 
1128 
UM 

list; 
if«a 

I3TS 
1415 
1150 


^s.i 


ft. 

no 

139 
140 
150 
160 

170 

im 

100 
200 


us 

<1 


SB^ 


IB16 
1578 

loao 

1IW3 
1690 
1790 
1T88 
17B3 
1801 


le  above  table  Ui  baaed  on  an  allowance  of  4C  IIhi.  per  ton  for  rolling  fric- 
but  an  additional  altowauee  must  be  made  for  streati  due  to  the  weight 

le  rop«  prop<irtional  to  the  length  of  the  plane.    A  factor  of  safety  of  5 

•ihoiild  be  Ifiicen. 

Iioisiiui;  the  Hlack-rope  should  be  ial<en  up  genlly  before  beKiniiInK  the 

otiierw  Iw  a  severe  f-ntra  strain  will  be  brought  on  tbe  T<>v*- 

e  l)est  r'V'  f"''  locliiiei  I  pin  nes  i.>«  com  posed  ot  »lx  utrtmAi  ot  wvew  '«\vt»_ 
larJ  Hb'iiit  a  hfnifii-n  centric.     The  wires  are  much  coav&er  V         '*~ 

-  n-l-vir,-  rviH- ,,(  thf  sanif  diameter,  and  for  tlais  Teaaoii 

U  btrttiT  ailapted  to  wjtijstaiid  the  roueb  usacfs  an4  W3 

itered  upon  luclinetl  rdanea 

iMe.inupe,uim  Oa/iletmu,  carrying  loada  Of  86  U>M, 


016 


BOISTIKO. 


Wtlliaiiii>r»ii  I .  Vn  .  liv  th"  Trfiiton  Iron  Po  ,  is  ile,<frit>e<1  by  K.  C,  Siiil>^li(irf  1 

III  'I'  •  V.  Tini     TlH'  span  !•■ 

Rtv  s  <?Ai:ll  J  ill.  tlillri. 

I'ttri    ..  *< 'iir  w  Imrlj*  ami  i 

illaiii.     '1  '  'I  crtjre  fAi-f  \  ..a-cai'  JijailfJ  uiLLluuj 

Wr,  lliB  I"  'It  14  «f<u*.  fiirnislieil  by  a  ,WH  P.j 

(•nitine,  111'  i  iie  rivrr  Is  ii  :  it  Uiree  niiaul*^s 

A  lii^tKlini;  cnblewnj"  on  iliif  emlless-ropt-  s^*steiii,  erected   hy  the 
•'(>< III  Mfic   I'll ,  •!   (lip  Austin   Dam,  TexaM,  hHd  a  siiitrle   Kpan   ISSO] 
l<-iiiflli,  Willi  iiiftin  ittiile  Sli  in.  ilium. ,  nml  lKil!>tin(r-r'"'pe'l»jj  in.  diani. 
ot  «  111  B  foriK  >v>'te  tmiiilleil  a(  a  >peei1  Mf  min  i(i  mv  ft.  iier  riiiiiuie. 

Tpnalnn  r«<qnlrrd  to  Prrvriit  Slippinic  of  Wire  on  Dram.l 
iTi'**liiiMi  lr«>ii  < 'ij  .1— 'I'lie  aiiKiiitit  (tf  ni-titli'iul  U'lisinn  tn  be  applieii  in  on  I 
euilliiw  ruin.' Ifi  ineveiu  sli|ipln»r  oil  Hie  drivinp-iimm  Jepencls  oi>  tlieLh«r-| 
MOtt'i' of  tlifi  ilruiii,  llit>  euiKlidoii  i<r  tlie  I'ope  uiiii  number  of  laps  wliicli  1(1 
ni»ki'i«.  If  i'mid  .•>'  represent  reK|ie(;ti»ely  tlie  tensions  in  the  IBiit  uiiil  sispltl 
liiieK  of  tile  ro|ie;  W,  Llin  iteCRKMiry  n'«i|;ht  to  be  ap|>tieii  to  (lie  tJki]>slieHvi*:l 
I!,  llir  ios>lstoiici'  of  the  o«in  ami  rope,  allowing  for  frictiou :  h.  Ilie  nunibcrj 
of  hnlfliin*;  of  the  rope  on  ibe  drivlnKilniiii:  and  /,  liie  coelflcienl  of  f 
lion,  ili«  /ollowlng  relalioiiH  must  exist  to  prevent  slippio^: 

T=Sef",     ir=r  +  S,    aiid    R=l'-S; 

efff  t-  1 
from  wliiuh  we  obtain  H"= ! — R, 

in  wliioli  ■■  =  2.7l8iR,  the  base  of  the  Kaperian  system  uf  logarttbni«. 
The  followihi;  are  swnue  of  Hie  vnliie»  of  / : 

Dry.        Wet.        Greasy. 

Ropti  on  a  trrooved  iron  drum rJB  .086  ,(OT 

K<'l>eon  wuoil-ftlled  HhiiavcK ,, 2.%  .170  .140 

llo|ie  OD  rubber  and  leather  fllUnf; 4I»  .400  .'JOB 

The  Talues  of  tlie  coefflciuut  ,  coirespondlUK  to  the  above nJu 

*/"'  -  I 

of/,  for  one  up  tu  nix  lialf-laiM  of  the  roim  on  tbe  drivinic-dntui  or  shear 
are  an  followa: 


f 

H 

s  Kutnbcr  of  Balf-lap^  on  DrlTing;-wheel.            M 

1 

8 

3 

4 

5 

jm 

.070 

O.lUO 

4.6«l 

».I4I 

3.418 

1.900 

.IVB 

7.5a6 

8.838 

s.(ad 

2.047 

1  714 

1  .idS^I 

.VJO 

fi.SlS 

a.rrr 

LOSS 

1.570 

1.S58 

1.SS2  1 

.110 

i.tan 

a.418          1.W9 

1.416 

1.340 

1  .isi  V 

.170 

Ji.M3 

9047          t.303 

1.968 

1.149 

i.ffib  ■ 

.305 

3.113 

1.788           1,838 

1.165 

1.0S3 

l.OIS   ■ 

.3H5 

■J.88I 

1..59a          1.8J5 

I.IIO 

l.OSl 

1  IHft  fl 

.400 

l.TtB 

1.176          1.047 

1.018 

1.0(M 

i.dOl  1 

.400 

1.U8 

1.098          1,019 

1.001 

1.001 

— -i 

Th*  linporiauce  of  keeping  the  rope  di^  is  evident  from  the&e  flpures. 

When  the  rope  is  nt  rvst  tbe  tension  is  dislribiileii  equally  on  the  two  lines 
of  the  T'lpe,  but  when  ruiiului;  Ihere  will  be  a  difTerBoee  in  tlie  lensloM  of 
ilie  lAui  and  slack  litie.'<  etiuttFlo  the  resistance,  nod  the  values  of  T  ami 
iiijiv  lie  ri'aditv  eoinpiited  frinii  liie  f(ireEiilii[r  for'iimltp 

Xaper   Ro|»«fi    of  Uniform   Tcnnlle    Strensth.— Pinf    .\ 
HerRchol    in    77ie   K^nintrrr,  April.  l8tW.  p,  307.  jiive-s  nii   elabo 
tnntical  invesfiicntioii  of  ttie   problem  of  making  a.  tniJerhn! 
iiniforiii  tensile  .sirengih  al  every  point  in  its  leDKtli.     Jlr.  CliHi.' 
foniinentine  on  Prof.  Herscliefs  paper,  gives  a  similar  solution,  and  ilein 
llierefrom  the  follon-ine  rorinolB.  Iinsed  on  a  breakinp  strain  of  SO.tKW  " 

I    per  »q.  in.  of  tho  rope,  core  included,  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  10: 
F=  8«80[loK  tf  -  \<y%  nl;    log  C?  =  ^  +  log  3; 
fa  wbwh  F-  lengtli  infaUwm»,ax«VG  is.tiigV\iti^tW"a^\-B..3o!U^^iosi 
lasct/oxis  .^fathoiUB  apart. 


WIRE- ROPE  TRjLIfSinSSIOlf. 


91t 


txPLR     Lot  it  be  roqnired  to  find  (he  dimensioiM  of  a  st««l-wirc  rop«  to 
I'atte.  trains,  aod  coal — From  a  dt-plh  of  400  fathoms. 
iri  at  lower  end  =  678)  +  8000  =    SI  s<j.  iii.;  therefore  Ki'rth  = 

■til. 

U>g  O  -400  -I-  3«flO+  log  8.85  =  .10869  -f-  .5I18S  =  .6206; 


(fore  G  =  4.\74.  or.  Sivy,  4  8/16  io.  girth  at  top. 

teqiiations  show  tliat  the  true  form  of  rope  is  not  a  re«rulnr  taper 
flUeU  cone,  but  toUovrs  a  logarithmic  curve,  the  Kirth  rapidly  inci 
■ds  the  upper  end. 


KflTect  of  Varloas-Hlzed  Sheaves  or  Drum*  on  (be 
Life  of  Wire  Ropes. 

(Tbos.  E.  Hughes,  OAVy  Euy.,  April.  1893  ) 
Cast-bteel  Ropes  por  Incusks. 
I  of  6  strands,  of  7  wires  each,  laid  nroand  a  hemp  core. 


li 

Dlkmeters  of  Shearer  or  Drums  Io  feet,  showing  percent-     } 

K 

ages  of  life  for  Tarious  diameters. 

tes. 

lOOjf. 

w. 

ao*. 

7B«. 

tot. 

m. 

»«. 

b 

ie 

14 

12 

U 

9 

7 

4.75 

1 

14 

IS 

10 

8.5 

T 

e 

4.5 

1 

t8 

10 

8 

7.a 

6.5 

5.5 

4.3S 

2 

10 

8.5 

7.75 

7 

6 

6 

4 

n.5 

t.n 

6.T5 

6 

5 

4.6 

875 

1 

7.J6 

7 

6.25 

6.7S 

4.5 

a  75 

8.35 

7 

fl.as 

5.5 

5 

4.i» 

3.5 

a  75 

1 

6 

6.35 

4.5 

4 

a.33 

8 

3.5 

B 

4.& 

4 

3.6 

8.7S 

2.S> 

1.75 

4 


I 


» use  of  iron  ropea  for  iuclines  has  been  ^oeraliy  abaDdoued,  steel 
I  being  more  satisfactory  and  econumleal. 

CaST-STEEI.  HolSTI<<Q-ltOPES. 

Made  of  6  strands,  o(  19  wire«  each,  laid  aixtund  a  hemp  core, 


Diameter«  of  Sheavest  or  Drums  In  feet,  ahiiwllig  percent-     1 

!l,Ol 
0iB 

agea  of  life  fur  various  diameters. 

m 

lOOiC. 

BOX. 

BOf- 

75ji. 

OO^t. 

BOjt. 
6 

sisje. 

14 

12 

10 

S,5 

7 

4.5    , 

13 

10 

8 

d 

8 

5.25 

4  39  1 

10 

S.5 

7,5 

(!.75 

5.5 

5 

4        ' 

9 

7.5 

6.5 

6 

6 

4.6 

.1  75 

6 

7 

6 

5.6 

4.5 

4 

8  GO 

1 

7.B 

e.Ts 

5.75 

5 

4.3.1 

3.,'j 

.1 

? 

B.6 

4.B 

4 

8.75 

3.35 

8 

325^ 

1 

4.5 

4 

8.75 

S.25 

3 

3.,'. 

«       1 

1 

4 

a 

8 

a.  75 

3.35 

3 

1.5 

1 

8 

3 

1.5 

J 

I 


WIRE-ROPE  TRANSMISSION. 

;  foJloniiiK  data  and  furuiulnj  arc  lakeii  from  a  paper  by  Win.  Hewitt, 
e  Tieii'on  Iron  Co.,  1800,    (See  also  clrcularK    of  .John  A.  KoebllPK'^ 
<"•>.,  T'reiiloii,  S.  .1.;  "Transmission  of  Ptiwer  by  Wire  Hopes."  hy  A. 
hIi).  Villi  NMslriiiid'sSi'lenficSHrifs  Hi).38;ftn(l  Reiileaux's  Constructor.! 
u<  Section  of  Wire  nope  best  suited,  iiinler  0Vi\\i»ai~v  cooiWAowr, 
\tt  (r<iusiiiisaii)i)  "t  punvr  la  loiii/io.sed  of  0  strands  ott  \i.'Vnr»  *!l)^A^,\».V^ 
)/.-/•  alxuit  a  Jjeiiipeu  ciftiire.    Ropes  of  13  aart  1ft  wVre.s  to  t.\w  sV.va.tiA  w:« 
.wt/.     Tliey  arv  more  ffexible,  and  ;iiay  hn  HijplieU  with  BuAv aii^^a^a  liw- 
'itHnnns  vhlcb  da  not  allow  the  use  of  laiKe  transmlfisto^  vitve<\». V)« 
f  ^^J£!^-^rV!^^' ""^^ .""'^ '^  well  adapted  to  attm4  »\»lft«»r" 
r.  oD  aocpuof  of  the  smaller  size  ot  the  wires  ! 


9l8 


WIRB-KOPE  TaAXSMlSSlOK. 


Tke  DrivlUB-wbeela   (Fig.  165)   are  usuiUlv  of  cmI 

tnade  as  lijibl  »»  possible  consisient  wilh  IIk-  t-.-.m^n"  . 
TnatPk'ialH  havi 


Section 
Qt  Rim. 


toDi  of  I  he 
jutev«rq.hui>; 
Thf  flIlliiK  wli 


howeTt'r.  con-i  '  I«| 

t  blocks  of    IsU;.; s:   M 
pacbed  slteruately    in  llie  Ktvcn*. 
turned  to  a  true  surface 
In    lonif    spp.'"      ,i.i,.,i,— .i.i..    u 
wiiHels  are  f  c . 
suflicietu  to  vt:\ 
ingsifieof  the  i.  ,  . 
that  the  power  is  1 1  ii  i 
of  the  rope  will  rt-iji: 
ports  llian  (h«  >(1ack 
porting  the  drjvint; 
pb-    1,^                        alt  ca8ej<l>e  oreqiiiil ' 

pw.  iiH.  wheels.    Willi  the  !>;.. _  . 

may  bo  used,  but  their  diameter  should  not  be  less  tliAn  oirD  luul  u 
ilrivinB-slieaves. 

The  Hj'stem  of  cnrryiMR  sheaves  may  generally  !»**   if^i .!-■*< -fii  (on 
liy  that  nf  interinediate  stullons      The  ropfi  thus 
whole  k'liKth  of  the  transmiMion,  runs  imly  from  on- 
it  is  Hiirisalile  to  make  the  .«tntiuns  equidistant,  »;</ 
oil  hiiiid,  ready  spliced,  to  put  on  the  wheels  of  :.  iili 

give  Dill.     ThtB  method  Is  to  be  preferred  where  ili. 
motion  to  the  rope,  as  it  prevents  suddeu  movemeu. 
lug  lianamiited  over  the  entire  line. 

Gross  hor8«-|K)wer  I  rausniitted  =  Ng  =  .OOOSiKD'v  (It  -tj 

yi  =  diameter  of  rope  In  inches  1=  B  times  illuiieier  of 
velociiv  "f  rope  in  feet  per  second;  k  -  safe  otrwea  per  rauart 
=  for  iron  S5,:O0  lbs.;  K  =  moduUiB  of  elasticity-  =  W:tiO»,WO 

radius  of  drtving-wheeUin  iiiohea.     Tlie  term  ;^=  =  lira     ' 

Inch  due  to  liending  of  wires  around  shenvea. 

I.OS8  due  to  centrifugal  force  =  A',  =  .00001 84 !;«»■»; 

l.ossdiieto  journal  friction  of  drlvlng-«beels=  !Vt—  0 

"      ' "  ■■  Ititerinediale^wheeu  =  . 

In  whicb  W  =  total  weight  of  rope;  w  =  weight  of  wlieeJ 

Ket  borgepower  transmitted, 

N  =  A'o  -  y,  -  A',  =  Vv  [.(»0iWT5(k  -  ^)  -  .(MO(k«»vJ  -  ' 

For  a  niaxiuiuui  value  of  A'' the  diameter  of  the  v. ' 
iimi»'ly  froni  IW  to  19i  limes  Ihe  dlamelnr  of  the   • 

ratio  of  diamelerji  an  approximate    formula   for  i  .      

transmitteil   in   i\r  =  3  0148O*r,  in  whicb    I'  =  ouiul«r   ol    rv*i 
wheels  iier  minute. 

TJie  prfii>er  detlevtions  when  the  roj*  i«  at  rest  «r«  obtatned  tti 
inula  Uetlection  =  .00005765  npan>,  and  are  as  follown; 
S|>aii  in  feet..      SO      IfX)       l.'iO         'JtlO         S.V)         SOO         SbO 
Deflection.   ..     i^"    7"  1'3)4"  3' 3»r'  S' 7V4"  5'8«<"  ?'H"  •' 

It  hoM  lieeii  found  In  practice  that  when  the  defl««t(««l  Of  i 
is  leM  thuii  .t  inches  the  IransiniRsion  cannot  hu  ■•iT«ot<^  i 
mill  shafllnj;  or  bolting  in  to  l>e  iireferred.    Ti 
iinan  of  alioiii  fti  feci.     It  la  ciisloiuory  to  na  ■  tr  i 

Ifir  ilrlving  side.     The  mnxliiunn  limit Hf  «;.  , 
mtira  deflecHoii  that  ran\  \  •  tbtfi 

I  WOUOO.    AHHiimiiigl\ih.lVV'  vMiVvii 

lllf  r,,iu-  »l, ,,111(1  1.1,1   1,.-  \..- 


WIKK-BOPE  TRASSinSSTOlf. 


I  crooiDfc  ^allies  or  valteyk.  and  lhet«  i<>  iMXhiDC  to  intarhravitb 

jbe  proper  deflections.    Some  Tcry  lone  tranamiarioos  of  power 

1  effected  in  this  wajr  without  an  iDtrrrenioe  rapport.   There  iaooe 

ut,  N.  Y.,  for  installed,  wjili  a  cl««r  apan  of  about  1700  f*«t- 

ater  circular  of  the  Trenton  Iitm  Oo.  (1093)  lb*  abore   flsurM  ai« 

rhac  modified,  ^vin?  lower  raluea  forthe power  tiammiited  or  a  ^ven 

IB  follou-K: 

B  proper  ratio  bntu'eeii  ilit-  -    •  r^f  rope  and  sheaves  is  that  which 

l|)eniiit  the  iiinziinntn  «..i  „  •  br  ofilaine^l  without orerBtraiu- 

^Ibe  wireH  in  Iwiutini;.    F"  vire  siramls  tbi«  ratio  i£  about 

ifor  rope  of  li-wiri-  sirnnu    )     )l''>:ao<1  for  rop^- of  ]9-«ire8tnui<is, 

Niicb  gives  llit-  followinir  iniulninm  diameter  of  ghesTes,  in  inchea, 

boding  to  inaxiiniitii  efficiency. 


^Htpe,  lu  Inches.  1)4 

-VIS 

66      66     75  i  84      M 
SI     as  1  45     SI     S6 

108      112      ..1   .. 
78       W,  101    lis 

ei  '   e»    71    90 

i« 

nitratida. 37 

1 

iUiaiuing  the  slieares  are  of  equal  diameter,  aod  not  smaller  than  con- 
Idjot  with  niaziiiiuDi  ef&i-irnc}-  as  dt-termined  br  the  precedinfr  table,  the 
inal  horse-power  lniu«n>iiied  approximaielj  equals  3  1  times  the  square 
ikt  diameter  of  the  rope  iu  incites  multiplied  by  the  Telodly  iu  feet  per 
load.  ^_ 

ftom  this  rule  ue  deduce  the  follbwinK:  ^^| 

Borse-poiarar  or  IVIre-rope  Tranatnlaslon^  ^1 


ikwity.lnreet  I 
per  tecoDd.      \ 

«, 

30 

40 

50      1      60 

70 

ail 

ffaun.  Bope,  in 
inctaea. 

n 

orse-po 

irer  Trknsmitted 

i 

y* 

4 

« 

8 

10 

19 

14 

M 

6/K 

0 

a 

IS 

15 

18 

21 

sV 

8/8 

» 

IS 

17 

9i 

SB 

81 

7/18 

U 

IS 

S4 

80 

86 

48 

4T 

1/8 

18 

83 

SI 

80 

47 

M 

fte 

9/18 

20 

sa 

w 

48 

99 

<9 

7H 

5/8 

34 

SB 

48 

61 

73 

85 

»7 

11/16 

•1» 

44 

SS 

78 

88 

108 

117 

*/•* 

35 

U 

70 

87 

106 

ta 

'*>  — 

Bi^ 

48 

71 

95 

lis 

143 

166 

»eS 

m^ 

Itt 

S3 

134 

155 

166 

217 

=m^ 

lie  proper  deflection  to  give  the  rope  lu  order  to  iseuure  the  necessary 
■lotl  iB 

h  =  .00000958*. 


J 


:  the  deflection  with  the  n>i)e  at  rest,  and  3  =  the  span,  both  lo  feet.  ■ 
•orabllltr  of  Wire  Bop«a.-.^i  the  Risdou  Iron  Works,  San  Krafi 
^a  steel  wire  rope  i'?4  mcUes  in  circumference  niniiin);  over  10-foot 
Ktves  nt  .'xXKI  ft.  per  minute  ha.*  iranKinitted  40  H.P.  for  sit  years  without 
lewliiK  the  rnjte.  At  the  «ire-tnills a  steel  wire  rope  JW  in.  in  circumfer 
!c  runninjr  over  8-foot  slieave^  lias  l>een  ninninK  steadily  for  a  period  of 
ee  vears  iit  a  Telr«'ily  of  4.VK1  ft.  per  minute,  tran.sniittliigtiO  H.P. 
lM  'Inclined  TrannnifMalnn*,  nlieu  tlie  ani;Ie  of  inclination  is 
ml,  the  proiHT  iletle<rtiiin>  cauttot  In-  ittidily  ileierniined.  and  the  rope  be- 
n«s  more  seuaitice  to  the  nnlinarj'  variations  in  the  deHei-tions,  so  that 
btonlnif  sheaves  inuKt  be  resorted  to  for  prwlucing  the  requisite  tension. 
In  the  ca.se  of  very  short  cpatM.  Wlieu  tlie  liorizontal  distance  betwe«a 
I  two  wheel*  is  fes.i  f/i«n  Sift.,  or  when  the  atii;ieot  \t\c\\u&v\o\\ «.-u«fiO« 
;£>  4S  degrees,  it  will  he  found  desirable  to  IIW!  t\Kl>Ve«roKft\\«ii'ie». 
'eliteniniT  pulleys  sliouhi  he  plni-eil  iin  the  slack  sl'\e  ot  t\\e  TOV^ 
fco^  IFirp-rope  Cmtenary.  iKrom  jut  avtic\e  o» 
minlaaiuij.  by  M.  Arthur  Aclmrd,  Pixm;.  ln»t  M  ■£,.,  JlM* 
iMVe  to  bvar  i«v  distiuct  inole«>ul«r  stvai.w.  V\r»V,  ^ 


•rii  M  tuMw  lu  UHMi  wettiit.  tiMt  ma  imwimi  f 

ii'iiiN.  (l>  rixliit;  tlif  wi-ijrli'  "t  llie  i'op>-  (inJ  Us  len^li.  tl 
i»ij  a|>ai>>  Mu-iini"  hi  iMititiiuii.  when  m  ifs.t,  Udrlennliied 
ilii-lr  I'litu  :      wliicli  loiler  miisl  be  siicli  BO  In  I 

ilii'  iwn   ..  iiiiis,  7°  Mii'1  I,  uvvennry  for  the  tl 

IMinifr.     'li  "ife  =  7"  —  f . 

M<iri-iivri  I  Ik-  i>  iininn  in  rilliT  iipnn  is  not  Ihp  same  till 
iHiiirili:  II  i»a  Miliiiniiiin  itt  llii*  kiut^t  jxilut  or  tliecui-veoi 
tiiK  N.wiinis  (ho  two  rxtri-niilifii.  Thf  calculation  I'l  ihol 
i»i  |«iini  la  vi-iy  0()Mi|'lli'H'f<l  if  )>aaml  npon  the  true  fori 
but  h>-  MLi^jMtidilhiK  II  |MirtttH<lu  far  the*  catenary,  wliich  Ul 
Mil  'iiHt'H.  Ilic  (.'iili'iilaiiuii  li«>ouiiit<M  hluiple.  If  the  two 
rami'  Irvfl,  till'  Idweitt  iioitii  Is  aiUlwny  lietweeu  theiu.i 

IIiIh  iioliil  la>''i,  =  \,j-.  p  l)einK  the  linonl  weight,  or  \w\M 

rn|H-,  /  ii.h  !  ,1       nhii'ii  isapiirniimatPlyet 

ljctu'i>i<u  I  ,  aiiit  h  \\\v  ilflWction  il 

•'ntriiiiiy  !■  .        I  I"  nitM-hiiiiical  prupprty 

Iwtu'iM'il  till-  it'usiciijs  ut  any  two  (lolnu  M  eijual  to  the  we{ 
rii|ir  e(>i're8|MitullU((  to  the  dlfferKtice  ih  level  between  III 

I<'ii!<liiii8  therefore  at  the  two  f nils  wtll  he  .S,  =  ^« -I- 11 

KiiliHllliiliiii^  fur  N,  ill  tliH  )iIk<<<-  M|iiHtlou  the  required  vol 
polvlii)^  It  with  ■'••Intioii  t<i  Ji,  Ihp  ileflrolioaB  /i,  and  Ag 
iralilng  N|ittiie  will  he  ulilalneil.  The  detliH'lliin  ha ,  cotnn; 
at  rest,  Is  K'ven  hy  the  eiiimllon  /<,  =  t'l/'jA,'  -f  \/ili^, 
urea  nf  tlie  Iron  iinil  ion  or  the  ropv.  and  Sthtf  unit  8t  rnni  M 

lenHlon  7'  |>rmliiet'H  on  il,  we  liuve  irS  =  T  =  ^  -  -f-  /»A,.  1 

nreil  "'  of  the  rope  In  K<|unie  hictiea.  and  Its  weight  p  In  pi 
liie  ratio  ir  -i-  )>  ilitrei-N  liille  from  n  iiiouii  value  of  0.^4. 
working  ten>ii>n  ii:iiuilly  lUtsiRiu'il  for  iion-vritv?  ropes  is 
•u^iinreTlich.     Hem>e  ir»  +  l>  =  ^.'U  X  H.-J-JO  =  M410;  anil  » 

liiiate  ei|unllon  ■:    +  ft,  =  8410,  which  is  useful  a?  (.'ivingf 

the  li'iigtli  t  nnd  ileflectloti  h^  for  llie  drivinp-span  of  a 
It'iilher,  II'  t   i>       '.'.Th^  nnproxirnnlely,  and  it  is  iinposxiblo 
vahie  than  aluiut  Kb  llw.  per  «juar«  Inch;  the  retailun, 

.v;-   I-  fi  I  =  BOO.  wblcli  with  miubI  deHecUoiu  would  ffina 


WIBE-ROPB  TRAK8M1SS10K. 


921 


Extremities:  the  tension  at  the  upper  end  of  each  exceed*  that  »t  the 
r  by  the  qiiAntliy  pH.  //  twInR  Ine  iUffei-once  In  level  betrnwri  the  (wo 
ITDilieH.  or,  whicli  is  approxiiiinti-ly  the  eame,  l>etwe«ii  the  centres  of 
wo  pulleys.  It  Is  evidently  ihe  tension  ot  tJie  driviiiit-span  at  lis  lower 
which  must  be  regulated  so  as  to  obtain  the  pro)}i>r  driving  teiiHioii  T 
tbe  ti-an>ni  KKiun:  so  (bat  there  i»  a  certain  excess  of  lennion  at  the 
►rijiiliey  Liirge  diameter  of  iiulleyg  tends  ttt  preserve  th»  rou*w,  itiakeR 
tflecl  ul'  titiRnesa  lDsi);ni>icatit,  and  Jimiuishes  the  effect  of  ti'iction 
^eariDKs. 
tother  formula  fur  the  tension  at  the  ends  of  a  catenary  (assutnini;  it 

,  1^     _ 

SWi«bulal  is  S|  =  J,-  t  IH'J'  +  (^ip.  In  which  S  =  the  teDBiou  in  ll» 

I  weizlir.  iif  thMrnpe  In  llw. ;  /  =  stian.  and  fi  =  deflection,  in  feet. 
lameter  and  weight  of  Pallejr*  for  IVlre  Bope,  Ordt> 

■      Diatneter,  ft 18  14.9  12.4  T.d 

Single  groove,  lbs...     6333  5180  IMaS  tas 

Double  groove,  lbs..     8267  698S  407d  1104 

M«  of  Tranamlatiton  of  Power  by  Wire  Ropen. 

(J.  A.  Roebling's  Son.s  Co.,  1886.) 


M 

100 


Z8 


31 
SI 

«1 

90 
SO 

no 


IDS, 


8 


14 


I 
I 


ttance  Trai|iiintaaIoiii|.    (Fruiii  Ciruulsr  of  tlie  Ti«nC< 
|M8".'.)— Ipi  very  l')nK  liannniiKsinMs  of  pow^r  the  conclltlonK  do  U8l 
liuit  of  oblainine  the  propfr  tensions  rrqnii-ed  in  the  ordinary  gyU 
fflylPir  traiiBiuin»iou  nf  jiower,"  as  It  Is  termed.    In  other  words.  l(> 
•  proper  condiiiiitis,  It.  wonlil  necessitate  nnniemiis  and  expensive 
jMe  Btntlons.  In  cns»*,  for  inKiiijice,  It  is  rl«<ired  to  uliViie  \.\\b  y"**^ 
mt-Ano  to  drive  fl  factory,  sity  a  niilf  away,  the  henl  »net\\oA  VsVoetn- 
II  Imeger  rope  tbsa  would  oi\lina.rily   be  used,  runnVnp;  Vv  At.  ft  \v\iciActiA* 


ported,  i^l 


fl25  ROPE-DRIVING. 

■iM-xd      Till'  rriixi   mity  h«  in  onp  cori1iiiiinii$  )>>n|rth,  aiipportf 

nf  111  on  ahenveii  of  •■■  W    small  (lianiM«"r,  mm 

prvpi  f  tlnHW  rop«*  t-r-  ficun  iimlin- Iw-Dilinijitr 

\Vll'  '  K'l**"l'l^lll"   '"   '"'■  I   '  '■  HllHBVFD  niuiit  Iw  iiiol 

«t»"  **<,rn-j.|«jiulii»^  lo  Ihf  jiwxf*'  limit  *>!  Ifjisitm  ilu»*  to  iienditikt.  Thero 
nin  iiiiiliT  ft  liiBli  ivurkiiitr  ti-iifilon,  fiir  in  excess  of  tthni  ip  the  nil 
«y»ti«m  woiilil  I'jiiiHf  Urn  rupe  to  slip  on  the  sheivves.  The  «i.irVinK  t« 
niAy  be  fmir  or  live  tiinen  ait  n^reat  hs  th«  tenslou  in  ihefUaek  portion  c 
r«()e,  nnil  In  iirder  to  pri>veDt  clipping,  the  rtnie  is  wnnjjied  spreral  i 
nhoiit  i;rnovtfl  iJnitiiH,  or  a  Rert<«  of  olu-Aves  at  each  eud  of  tlit'  line 
provide  for  the  -ilack  dne  to  the  strelfh  of  the  rope,  one  of  thf  »ln«' 
plBee<l  .111  ft  »lide  workevi  by  lonf;-llireaded  lioltH,  or.  better  still.  <«  I 
>lat;e  piuvlded  with  counlerweightH,  which  riiiiH  back  and  forth  onit 
The  latter  prcriiei-teH  ■  uniform  tenaioo  in  tbe  »lack  portion  of  tin 
uhieh  Ik  very  lMi|><>rlnnt. 

\Vir»-n'|ie  trninwuyK  are  pracllCBlly  iransnilRfions  of  power  of  tbii 
in  %()ifi'h  the  liittd,  hxMever,  instead  of  Lreint<  e«)nc'entrated  atODtftem 
l«  di«trlhnl<^l  nniformly  over  the  entire  hue.  i;&ble  railways  amtbaC 
inlKHlonK  of  this  clang.  '  Tiie  amount  of  horse-power  transinitted  ilgto 
Ibe  formula 

rr  =H.756Z>»  -  .want  {W+  g  +  (?,)>; 

Ill  which  D  ^  diftniet«r  of  tbe  rope  in  inclieg;  t<  =  velocity  In  (t 
W  _  welijhi  of  the  rope;  g  =■-  weiKlit  of  the  terminal  sheaves  am 
U'^  -  u  eight  of  the  iotermediMe  sheaves  aud  axles. 


I 

idulli 


ROPE-DRIVnfG. 


4 

oniUMWai 


hi"  trantmiisfion  of  power  by  eollnn  i.r  nionila  ropes  proiuH 
a  foniiidablc  competitor  with  Kenrlnt  uni1  leailier  belling  for  usewhei 
Auiuiinl  of  flower  is  larice.  or  the  ilislaiice  between  the  fwwer  aud  th« 
In  ojitipai-utii'elv  Kieat.  Tlie  following  is  cuudeuced  from  a  paper byCI 
W.  II lint.  TransC^  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  Jtii.  n.  230: 

But  few  arciirale  data  are  available,  on  account  of  the  lonit  pei* 
quired  in  eacli  experiment,  a  rope  lasiiujt  from  three  to  six  yeara.  to 
of  the  early  application);  so  ^reai  a  strain  waH  ptu  upon  the  ropetfai 
wear  was  rapid,  and  success  only  came  when  the  work  require<l  of  llx 
wae  ereatly  rednced.  The  strain  iiiK>n  the  rojie  has  lieen  decreased  « 
is  approsiiiiateir  known  what  ii  .should  be  to  H.'cure  reasonable  dura 
Inalallatlons  which  have  l)eeu  successful,  af  well  ag  those  in  wbieb  tlM 
of  the  rope  was  destructive,  indicate  that  SCO  lbs.  on  a  rope  one  loch  it 
eter  is  a  aafe  and  economical  working  straiu.  When  the  atrain  ismati 
Increased,  the  wear  l«  rapid. 

In  the  following  equations  ^m 

C  =  circiimfer«nce  of  rope  in  Inches;       a  =  Ki-avity:  ^| 

/' =  Bag  of  the  rojie  In  Inchea;  H=  iiorse-power;  ^ 

F=  centiifuenl  force  in  pounds;  L  =  d igtnnce between^uDeT 

P  =  pounds  per  font  of  rope;  w  =  working  slrain  io  pout* 

R  =  force  in  pounds  doing  iiKeftil  work ; 
S  =  strain  in  pounds  on  the  rope  nt  the  pulley: 
T  =  tension  in  pounds  of  driving  .side  of  the  rope; 
t  =  t-eusioa  Iti  boiiudn  on  slack  ^ide  of  the  rope;     ^i 
V  =  velocity  of  the  rope  in  feet  per  second;  ^H 

W  =  ulthnale  breaking  strain  in  ]iouuUs.  ^H 

H"  =  TSiOC*:      P  -  ,03817';       lo  =  »0C». 

This  makes  the  normal  working  strain  equal  to  1/38  of  the  l« 
strength,  and  shout  r/a,"i  of  the  strength  at  the  splice  The  actual  >tn 
ordinarily  niiii'h  greater,  owlne  to  the  vibrations  in  running,  amtelll 
innjerfecttv  adjuRled  tension  niechairliim. 

I'or  this  (nvestigailon  »e  as.sume  that  the  strain  on  the  dri»ln(t  lit 

rope  is  equal  to  AX!  lbs.  on  a  rope  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  on  «J0 

sfraia  for  other  size*,  and  U\4t.  Uie  vove  te  in  tuoiion  at  various  vekw 

from  10  to  140  ft.  per  second. 

The  cehtHfugut  force  of  v\»e  to\ie\i>.TO.Tav\3iHrtM«ofc^i!Sii!j-^ 


P  = 

Ii 


ROPE-DRIVING.  933 

EMMnt  of  force  available  (or  tbu  transmiiSHion  of  power.  The  centrifu- 
ne  F  =  Pv''  -t-  ff 

I  spi*ed  of  about  HO  ft,  per  second,  the  ceutrifuRal  force  lacrctoses  faster 
lie  jH)wer  from  Inoieaseil  velocitj-  of  tUe  lupe,  and  at  about  UO  ft.  per 
pi  equals  the  aiisuni*>cl  allowahlt>  tension  of  the  rope,  (.'ortiputlnft  this 
M  varioiM  HpeedH  and  then  ^iilitrucliiig  it  from  thrt  ati,HUtiicd  iiiaxiriiiini 
►o,  we  have  the  forcH  available  for  the  traiiaiiiissioii  ot  power.  The 
I  of  this  force  cannot  be  used,  because  a  cermin  auiuunt  of  t<'nuioii  on 
tKk  side  of  the  rupe  is  needed  to  give  mlhexiun  to  the  policy.  What 
^11  should  be  given  to  tlie  rope  ft>r  this  purpose  isi  nucerUiin,  aw  there 
^experiineiits  which  Kive  accurate  data.  U  is  known  from  coiwiderablt) 
Fiance  that  wlien  the  rope  niiiB  in  a  groove  whose  sides  are  iucliued 
Ml  each  other  at  an  angle  of  4!>''  there  is  sufllcieDt  adheBion  wbeu  the 
k)f  the  tea»ions  T  -t-  /  =  a. 

I  Ibe  present  purpose,  2' can  be  divided  Into  three  paitu-,  1.  Tension 
}  uiMful  work;  'i.  Tensiou  from  cetiCrifuf;al  force;  3.  Tension  to  balance 
Win  for  adheKJon. 

k  tension  t  can  be  divide<l  into  two  parts;  1,  Tenxion  for  adheKiuii; 
i«ion  fromceutiifiiKal  force. 

»  evident,  however,  tliat  the  leitsirm  required  to  do  a  given  work  .>i]ioulil 
»  materially  exceeded  durinj;  the  lite  of  the  rope. 
^re  are  two  methods  of  putting  ropes  on  the  pulleys;  one  in  which  the 
\  «re  siUKle  and  spliced  on,  bein^  made  verj'  taut  at  first,  and  les.s  so  as 
>p*  lengthens,  stretching  uidil  it  slips,  wlieu  it  i.s  resphced.  The  other 
od  Is  to  wind  a  siuKle  rope  ovei-  the  pulley  as  many  lurnfl.  an  neeiietl  to 
l»  tlie  necessary  horse  power  and  put  «  tension  pulley  to  give  the  neces- 
kdhesion  and  also  take  up  the  wear.  TIk>  tension  i  required  to  trans- 
Ike  iiortnal  horae-power  for  trie  ortlinaryspeed.H  and  aizeaof  rope  iacom- 
by  formula  11),  l»ilo\v.  The  total  tcuHinn  Ton  the  driving  aide  of  the 
Isusuaied  to  be  the  same  at  all  Kiieeds.  The  cenirifu^al  fmce,  an  well 
•mount  equal  to  the  leusion  tor  adhesion  on  the  slack  side  of  the  m])?, 
I  be  taken  from  the  total  tension  T  to  ascertain  the  uinOTinl  of  force 
Ulle  for  the  transmission  of  pnwer. 

«  jsnimed  that  the  teivsioii  uti  the  Black  aide  necesitar^  for  glTiiiif 
aOD  iii  equal  to  one  half  the  force  doing  u^ieful  work  ou  the  driving  side 

.1.  'Tl  pi 

p  rope;  hence  the  force  fur  useful  work  is  A'  =  ^^ — -  ;  and  the  ten- 

•n  the  slack  side  to  give  the  required  adhesion  is  iHT  —  F).    Hence 

t^'^^  +  F. (,) 

I  mm  of  the  tensiotu  Tand  t  is  not  the  same  at  different  speeds,  as  Che 

km  (1)  Indicates. 

W  varies  a.s  the  square  of  the  Telocity,  there  Ib,  with  an  increaaiiii? 

I  of  the  rope,  a  decreasing  useful  force,  and  an  IncreaHlng  total  tensitm, 

Lhe  alack  side. 

ii  these  asstunptlona  of  allowable  strains  the  horse-power  will  be 


i 


4 


|HraBi( 


Bion  ropes  are  uaiially  from  1  to  ISj  inches  in  diameter.  A  com- 
lon  of  the  horse-power  for  tour  sijwK  at  vurloua  speeds  and  mider 
try  conditions,  baaed  on  a  maxitnum  strain  equivalent  to  2iW  lbs.  for  a 
me  inch  in  diameter.  Is  given  iu  Ftg.  IflB.  The  hoi-se-power  of  other 
g  readily  nlilaiwd  from  these.  The  nmnimuin  power  Ik  liuiiMiiiltted, 
Uie  assumed  conditions,  at  a  speed  of  about  80  feet  per  second, 
wear  of  the  rooe  1«  both  inlernat  snd  external;  the  inieriiol  Is  caused 
»  movement  or  tin-  fibres  on  each  other,  under  pressure  in  bending' 
b«  gheaves,  and  the  external  is  Ciiused  by  the  slipping  and  the  wed^- 
Uie  grooves  ot  the  ptilley.  Bisth  of  Ihe.^  causes  of  wear  are,  within 
)ili8  of  ordinary  practice,  assiuned  to  be  directly  ptoportloiial  to  the 
Hence,  if  we  assume  the  ctielHcient  of  the  wear  to  l)e  A',  the  wear 
»  kv,  in  which  the  wear  inci-eases  directly  as  the  velocity,  but  the 
power  that  can  be  transmitted,  as  equation  iji)  shows,  will  not  vary  at 
^le  rate.  j 

rope  is  HuppoiFed  to  bare  the  strain  T  constant  at  A^\  spepv^a  on  ^^>^^^ 
itide,  Btid  la  direct  proportion  Co  the  area  ot  the  crusH-sect\oiv\  tkViiiq^^l 


a 

I 

4 


Mr                                    ROPE-DKIVUfO.                                 ^ 

Hie  cftfenary  of  Hie  ilrlrlnit  «IJe  Is  ni>t  affected  by  the  speed  or  by  thedl 
ptfr  iif  the  ron»<. 

Tlic  ilf-nrs^tli'iii   of  Hip  rop<>  bntweeii  the  ptilleya  on  the  slack  (tide  M 
with  i-afli  cluuiKe  o(  the  loiul  or  clMORe  of  the  ipeed,  as  the  tensioo  equi 
ID  IndiuateH. 

The  dertecUon  of  the  rope  Is  cumputed  for  the  Bssumed  value  of  T  « 

4U 

ROrt     DNIVINQ, 
Uorw  Vowfrat  BuftailU 

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0     WKXiOXeOIOMiOiOl)  uO'l^^Uitf 
Vcloftl/  of  Drvinjf  Ra|ia  In  feet  per  sf-conX 

Kia.  166. 

PL* 

by  the  parabolic  foiiitula  S  =  —  +  PD,  S  being  the  oasumed  itnlfti 

tlir  ilririUf;  Hide,  and  1,  calculated  by  equation  (]),  on  the  slock  side.  < 
leiirrion  t  varies  with  the  Epeod. 

Hornr-power  of  TraiiainlMion  Rope  at  Tarlons  8pe«4 

Computed  from  furtnula  (2>,  given  above. 

!* 

Speed  of  the  Rope  In  feet  per  nilnate. 

i 

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isoo 

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8000  >  aaM 

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Tlie  foliowUig  notes  are  from  the  circular  of  the  C.  W.  HuntOfcil 
Yoi  k  :  ^ 

Kof  a  twmnorary  instttllatlon.  when  the  rope  Is  nottobeloogL 
inltcbt  lit-  adv(9nbl<?  to  incrense  the  work  lo  double  llmt  given  In  Ilijl 

for  c( linen terjce  in  estliiiatlti^  tlie  necessary  clearauce  on  lliedclf 
DPI.  the  slack  sides,  we  insert  n  table  sliowing  Hie  sag  of  the  I'opc *ti 
siXM'ds  when  tranKinittiujr  the  Ivor.'je-power  given  in  Uie  pn-c*iJll^ 
WluMi  at  n-st  Hip  sag  is  not  thi"  same  an  when  niniiliiK.  bf  lug  greaw^ 
driving  and  les.s  mi  the  slack  niiieB  of  the  rope.  The  sag  t,f  the  ilriTlnf  ■ 
when  trailBMIitlin^  ti\e  nm tvva\  Wr**  ^owi-v  \%tUe  same  no  ncaltcr  "1^"' f 
of  ro(ie  is  used  or  what  V\ie  Rv*^tti\  dt\Nf.vi  *.v,\y«:i»iifc  Vftt.  •ose.MTOVtliw  '*  '■ 
(he  strain  oo  ihe  rope  a\\&UV>e\\\e  saw*  a.v«»*v<«'Vi.'«\w.'B.vwBa»s»s*-v« 


ROPE-DRIVINQ. 


rree  Available  for  the  transmission  of  ponrcr.    The  centrifu-— 

boul  80  fi,  p«r  wcond,  llieceutrifuK&l  force  iDcreaseg  Fas 
Iruiu  iocrvascil  velocity  of  the  ra)>e,  ami  at  about  UU  ft. 
le  asHuimM  allowahlf  t«tii»iiiiii  of  ihu  rope.    ComputiDt; 
speeds  and  then  t^ubtraotiii);  it  from  Che  assumed  iiiaxiiii 
>  Iht?  fi)ive  availal)]e  for  ihe  iranHiuissioii  of   powi'r.    Th 
Ice  CADitot  be  ij8e<i,  l}ei:aii.se  a  certain  aiiiuiint  of  teuHioii 

the  rope  ij5  uecdeil  to  give  aithesimi  to  the  pulley      WUi 
e  (liven  Uj  the  rope  for  thii;  purpose  Ib  uncertain,  as  theri! 
Its  which  ^ive  accurate  data.    It  [?•  known  from  cun!<iderHljlf 

when  the  rope  riin»  in  a  groove  whose  »ides  are  luetJiied 
ler  At  an  aui;le  ot  4a°  there  is  sufHcient  adhesion  when  the 
dona  T-*- 1  =  a. 

K  purpoae,  'i' can  be  divided  into  three  parts:  1.  Tenai 
ik;  3.  Teuaiou  from  centrifu^  force;  3.  Tension  to  balam 
hesion. 

i  can  be  divide^l  Into  tiro  parte:  1.  Tension  for  adliefdi 
ceuirifugai  force. 

Dwever,  that  the  tPiision  required  to  do  a  given  work  shi 
f  exceeded  during  the  life  of  the  rope. 
methods  of  piiitiuj;  ropes  on  the  pulleys;  one  iu  whioJi  liie 
knd  spliced  on,  lieliie  made  very  laul  at  lirxt,  and  iesvi  so  as 
tns,  stretching  iiiitil  a  slips,  wlien  it  is  respiieeil.  Tlie  oilier 
td  a  single  rope  over  the  pulley  as  many  turns  as  nifetled  to 
■ary  horse  power  and  put  a  tension  pulley  to  give  the  ueces- 
4d  also  take  up  the  wear.  The  tension  t  reqiilred  to  traiis- 
^ors^power  for  ttte  ordinary  speeds  and  sizes  of  rope  itt  cotn-.^ 
■  U).  oelow-    The  total  tension  Ton  the  drivinR  side  of  il 

to  t>e  the  same  at  all  speeds.    The  centrifugal  force,  as  w« 
(Ual  to  the  tension  for  adhesion  on  the  Klack  side  of  the  rop 

from  the  total  tension  T  to  ascertain  the  auiuuni  of  foixw 
( transmission  of  power. 

,  that  the  tension  on  the  slock  side  necessary  for  gi*iiif[^ 
1  to  one  half  the  force  doing  utteful  work  on  the  driving  side 


[jed 
Hie 

lion         J 
nc«^J 

om 

.uM        ! 


Bee  the  force  for  useful  work  is  «  = 


•AT-  F) 


;  and  the  teii' 


falde  to  give  the  required  adhesion  is  yHT  —  F).    Hence 


I 


t- 


iT-  F) 


+  F. 


^  tensions  Tand  I  is  not  the  same  at  different  speeds,  as  the 

l^aCes. 

Ss  the  square  of  the  velocity,  there  Is,  with  an  increasing 

e,  a  decreasing  useful  force,  and  an  increasing  total  tensioii^ 

lumptlons  of  allowable  strains  the  horse-power  will  be 
8tKr  -  F) 


■^^^niua 

HH^BTon  I 
roBraeter,  Is  | 


3  x;  NSO 


;en-       | 


I 

im-         I 


ually  from  I  to  18^  inches  in  diameter.    A  com- 
•  for  four  sizes  at  varlou.s  speeds  and   under 
I  a  maximum  strain  equivalent  to  300  lbs.  for  a 
given  in  Fig.  186.     Tlie  horse-[>ower  of  other 
obtaine<J  from  these.     The  nmxiniuni  power  is  traiisinitted, 
led  conditions,  at  a  speed  of  about  80  feet  per  second, 
ie  rope  is  both  internal  and  external;  the  Inierual  Is  caused 
Dt  of  the  fibres  on  each  other,  under  pressure  in  bending 
I,  and  the  external  is  caused  by  the  slipping  and  the  wedg- 
es of  tlie  pulley.    Btith  of  these  causes  of  wear  aTe.ii\v\\w\ 
Jinary  practice,  asfninied  to  be  directly  propoTt\oTi8L\  U>  »-\va 
t/  neaasiiine  the  t'oe/Hc/ent  of  the  wear  vo  b«  k,\.^»*  we^.T 
^icJt  the  ireAT  iiicreaees  directly  as   Iho   veXocitj,  V>VL\.  V\\« 
can  tte  transmitted,  as  equation  (2)  shows,  «VU  ivoV  vavs  ax. 

wSl/f^^^'i^^  «'"'*•"  ^  constant  at  al^  »\>ee4«  o*^ 
mrei.c  proportion  ro  tie  area  ot  the  cross-BecUotv,  txom^ 


rOJG 
For 


B0PB-OBITIXa« 


For  Uuve  ftmounta  of  power  it  it  eoaunaa  i«  nieaui 
«idf  by  Bide  la  groove*,  each  spliced  Mfatatcly. 


eoKin^er*  use  one  rope  wrapped  as  laajiT 
necessary  to  ^et  ibe  borae-power  mfulndi.  witk  ■  I 
tlie  slack  as  (be  rope  wean  wbea  fir<*  pot  ia  Bar.  no  i 
tetitiou  pulley  should  be  carefully  adjussed.  as  tke  i 
from  this  cause  is  ooe  of  the  most  cotuiuoo  tiirms 
therefore  give  a  loNe  slinw  ing  the  projxrr  strain  an  Xim  r 
sizes,  from  which   ihe  teusioii  weight    to  ii-aiutnii  tbm  I 
tables  is  easily  deduced.    Thi5  strain  can   te  still  f ardisr  i 
iKinje-power  transmitted  is  usually  lees  tlian  itie  i 
rope  waa  proportioned  to  do,  or  U  the  angle  of  j 
acute. 

DiJimrKa  of  Ptixbts  Am  "Wtaaaa  or  BM& 


I 


Diameter  of 

Rope, 
in  locheg. 


Smallest  DlametenLenpli  nf  Bape  (a 

of  F^illc^s.  in        allow  for  SpMooc. 

inches.  In  fcM. 


90 
M 
90 

as 

4S 

M 
W 
78 

Si 


• 
7 

8 

9 
10 
IS 
13 

14 


With  a  given  velocity  of  the  drivinft-rope.  the  weiKbl  of 
traiistniiMn?  a  ^Iven  horse-power  is  the  same,  no  matter  slat 
adopted.    Tlif  smsller  rope  will  require  more  parlo,  but  l*» 
the  >(ame. 

niaceilaueoua  Notcaou  Ropr-  '  ^ 

Mloateslo  thf.iiiici.  MinhiuM  thefollf-  n 

cotlod  roptsfl.    The  caloiilati-cl  flKiires  a 
uu  a  ]4j-iiicb  rope  of  WO  tbe.,  and  an  lultiAl  ttuotou  v(  1, itf  th* 
stress,  which  corresponds  fairly  with  prsclice, 

Diiimeti'r  of  rope IW" 

WelK ht  pf r  foot,  lbs o 

Centrifugal  leiislon  =  T' divided  by    W 
fur  V=  80  ft.  persec.,  lbs.  100 

Total  tension  allowable 300 

Initial  tension 80 

Net  workliJK  tension  at  80  ft. velocity  170 
Horse-power  per  rope      "         "  S4 


'Y 

'^" 

% 

S3 

41 

• 

1<1 

14% 

1» 

sm 

430 

BOO 

9M 

4» 

S6 

«« 

9« 

*W 

■sm 

»( 

41 

%: 


•il  iin  I 


.,..-!>  ""*. 


U    pi 

lowliiit  flpireu:  Tlflneli  cotton  r(i|- 

per  rope.     The  mofit  common  Bijt»- 

laiaxliiiiini  horse-power  for  a  K'*'  I 

per  second.    Atxive  U>at  speed  the  power  U  h-.Iiki'«1  ii)  n  t.i-'"*"''^ 

At  a  spei-d  of  8500  ft.  per  minute  four  ropes  will  do  aboni  ••"  «»"'" 

three  at  8W»  ft.  per  iiiln.  .,i 


Cotton  ropes  do  not  require  iii'-' 
quired  by  ropes  made  of  tlie  roiiK 
surface  dressing;  i<  all  that  Is  rt-ign 
nuiKi  inaohlm-ry.  fri'in  t^  to  Ht  i"i"i 
donlM);  of  tlif  ro[he«  un  the  Kiiirai 
black-l**ad  and  iiii»liLHsfH.  — inil  <ink\ 
put  iipmi  on-  ..f  ih>-  piillrvs  in  h  - 

Reiiieaiix'~<  l''iii>4tr\nviiv  i\\v*  tv 
al  inMii '^in'    i^    ^\"*  ^^"' 


■n  tor's 
..layt*** 


icitr 

mVfcvAA,  < —    „ 


piAHEOCS  KOTES  OX  K0FE-DRIVIN6.       9^1^^ 

k  fomiiilm  for  calculating  sources  of  low  In  )iemp-rop»^^| 
I  to  (It  journal  friction,  (2)  stiffness  of  ropes,  and  (8)  creep  ^^ 
ton-staute;  in  tiiese  forniiiIa»  art*,  however,  unefrlAiti   fi^ni 
Jntal  data.    He  cnlciilates  an  averajre  case  i;ivini;  lo»8  of 
irual  frieiiou  =  i%,  to  titiflnes*  7.8s.  and  to  ore^p  5*.  or  1B.8* 
faisi  JK  not.  to  bp  considered  higher  than  Che  actual  loss. 
(in  Eny'o  Nmii,  Dec  0,  ]8{K))   eays:  In  Kiipland  litriip  and 
ire  lM»ii  larijel}'  superseded  l>y  rope*  of  cotton;  and  I  am 
I  reason  for  thin  i?  liiat  drv  manlla  rofteH  wear  out  too  fa.st;, 
ropes  Rive  too  low  a  coefticient  of  friction.    The  angle  of 
le  has  been  in  use  for  33  jears.  having  hern  flrsi  lntrodiU!«dj 
I  Belfast,  lieland;  hut  if  we  are  to  use  tallow-laid  oroth^rr 
4,  we  should   certainly  use  a  sharper  angle  iu  the  jiroave/ 
'American  sygiem,  which  einplojra  a  continuous  rope  with  ' 

■mula,  Tension  of  driving  side  of  rope  ■+■  tension  of  slack 
1,  implies  a  coefflclent  of  friction  of  only  ,10.  But  I  have 
dent  of  friction  of  .2fi,  and  have  found  one  authority  Kivliij;; 
Ulvises  for  single-line  tranHuiisaion  30°  atigie  of  j^rocjve. 
<  Engti^h  eueineer.  and  Yale  <S  Towne  use  a  ;W°  Rroove  in 
eels  of  travelling-cranes,  and  I  hope  to  gee  tlie  best  Auieri- 
80°  or  Sh'  as  a  .^itandard  jtroove  anKle.  The  work  done  in 
■sy  niaoila  rope  from  a  3(1"  groove  is  not  worth  considera- 
e  hear  a  great  deal  about  die  loss  of  power  on  this  account. 
I  favor  of  using  the  continuous-rope  system,  and  also  of 
pes  than  are  recomuiendeil  in  Mr.  Hunt's  paper. 
«ct  small  transmission  I  have  ever  seen  (anout  SO  K.P.i  ein- 
inila  rope  on  wheels  ao  in.  sn  diameter,  u.sinjt  a  tension  cor  ■ 
lan  use  large  ropes  1  think  it  wiser  to  replace  small  ones 
>  doing  a  great  gain  may  be  made  In  efnciency,  thus  satItik 

Ity  of  failures  in  the  continuouB-rope  plan  have  occurred 
%  and  driven  Bheaves  were  of  widely  different  diameters,  as 
ring  dynamos,  or  driviiig  a  line-shaft  from  an  engine  fly- 
anly  iiuitalled  the  ropes  wlU  not  pull  alike,  and  by  calcula- 
Iraent  we  ma,y  find  one  rope  pulling  twice  or  three  times  as 
tTB  on  the  sbe&ve. 

designed  by  the  writer  employs  an  engine-driving  sheave 
s  the  diameter  of  the  driv<»n  abeave.  To  equaliite  the  puU 
fODes  the  grooves  of  the  large  driving-sheaves  were  made 
SO*  and  tnore  of  the  stiiall  sheaves  with  an  angle  of  I.S°. 
roove  angle  has  entirely  remedied  the  unequal  ptilling  com- 

erved  that  in  sheaves  of  the  same  diameter,  by  the  use  of  a 
'eight,  the  ropes  may  all  pull  alike;  while,  where  the  sheaves 
iaineler.  the  pull  in  "unequal.  The  only  difference  of  condi- 
sases  lies  in  the  ijifterent  arc  of  cont-act  of  the  rope  on  the 
ch  leads  to  a  greater  frictional  hold  of  the  rope  on  the  large 
llixe  the  frictional  hold  on  the  two  sheaves  we  may  sharpen 
small  sheave  or  Increase  the  angle  of  the  large  sheave, 
t.  Co.  adopts  a  curvnl  foriu  of  groove  instead  of  one  with 
lined  to  each  other  at  1.5".  The  curves  are  concave  to  the 
tests  <m  the  sides  of  the  groove  in  driving  and  driven  pui- 
llleys  the  rope  resta  on  the  bottom  of  the  grouve,  whicti  is 
t  Walker  .Mfg  Co.  also  \istt»  a  "  differential  drum  for  heavy 
fhich  tho  grooves  are  contained  each  In  a  separate  ring 
slide  oo  the  turned  surface  of  the  drum  in  case  one  rope 
mother. 

Irivc  on  the  separate,  or  English,  rope  pystero  l8  described 
1  ftotecr,  April.  IHO'J.    It  is  In  ii^e  nt  the  India  Mill  at  Darweu, 
111  was  originally  driven  by  g>'ar>i,  hui  did  not  prove  success- 
Iving  was  resorted  to     The  M.fKKI  Hjjiudles  and  preparataon 
!(0(io  horse  power  UJiidem  cotniioimd  tmg\nti,  vs\\\i  fvVi\n\<-T«, 
,1a  diameter  anii  Tiincb  slroke.  ruuuuig;  at,  M  v«y<,>\vA'vi>v». 
I  Sir-wheel  ia  SO  feet  in  diatiieter,  welRba  OJi  \ouft.».TxA  ^& 
froorea  for  J^-tnch  ropes.     These  rov>e«  \>!»A  oR  \.« T^wfeVTi 
^mS"^  ''''*"'®'  ^'  "'*'■  ''^*^^  l'""'"  re«*We8  U»  v^'w^t  &\tj-^ 
V.ZS^/iP**^  "',  '*"'  ropes  is  ."iOsa  feet  per  romvite:.  »xA1 
f«»eo,  rue  number  of  ropes  upon  eacb  Y>e\iig  v^ovo^^** 


iris 


FlUCTlUK    AVI>    l,rBKIfATtOK 


to  the  amounl  of  pou-ur  required  npou  the  Mvciral  Boor*.  L*nMkl| 
ropes arp  imed.  (Fnr  muoli  other  lororiiiatiOD  on  ihU  •ubJtMiM  1 
Driving."'  by  ,1.  J.  Klather,  John  Wilny  &  Sons,  KM.) 

FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATIOH.l 


Frlctlou  U  deflHH)]  b7  Ranklne  an  that  force  -which  nctii  I 
hdiiies  nt  their  surface  of  contact  so  as  lo  rfKi;=l  IIm  ir  slldlhf  ■ ' 
nnil  which  rieiifnd«  on  tlie  ffiice  wilh  which  il 
^'oeOlelent  of  Friction.— The  rntio 
hodv  af^itiK  n.  tji.iri^>i)ial  pjone  snrfacft  to  llit^  ^ 
coeftieii-nt  nf  friction.    It  is  Mf^uivgient  tn  i  In 
which  is  clif  aiii;li'  iif  inclinatioti  t<.'>  tin-  h  "  ,     :i: 
whicli  I  he  hody  will  just  overcome  its  tt-i.iM  -v  i.  >  , 
rienotetl  hv  fi,  and  tiie  ccefflcient  l>v  /.    ;  —  ion  d. 

Frlctron  or  RCBt  and  of'lllotlou.— llip  forcr  ■ 
•lodv  Klidiiii^  is  califd  tlie  friction  of  rest,  niid  th-  fon-i-  tniuirw 
it"  sliding  uftHr  linviiiB  titarted  is  called  the  f  i 

Kollin^  Frifllon  Is  ihe  force  reqtiin  i 
enl  li'KJy  iin  II  jiliuK' or  on  a  curved  Mirfaiv. 
.sllrfllC<^s  and  on    the  force  with  whhii 
eKwniiBllv  illfTprent  froui  ordinary,  or 

Friclluu  of  Solld«.— RcnDie'sex! 
usually  uidubricated  and  dr.y,  led  to  tJie  f<ill..M  oij;  •■i>nr|iis|uni 

I.  The  lau'8  of  xliding  friction  differ  wiiii  the  uluuaicMr  of  ll*l 
rubt)in(;  toirether.  ,* 

'■i.  The  friction  of  fibrous  material  is  increasisd  by  inerMMd  M 
tjurfnctf  and  hy  time  of  contact,  and  is  diiniuiabed  \ij  presMircMlM 

,S.  With  wood,  metal,  and  stones,  within  tlie  liiiitt  of  abrMM^W 
varies  ouly  with  ilje  prexture,  and  is  iiidependtiat  of  the  wt*Bli4i4 
lime  of  contact  and  velocity.  ! 

•I-  The  limit  of  ithraslon  Is  det«nii(nefl  by  the  bardtiesB  of  tbe  iuA*l 
tuo  rubhiiiy;  parts. 

b.  f'riclloii  is  neatest  with  soft  and  leant  uith  hanl  maleriala 

6.  The  friction  of  lubricated  surfaces  is  det«rnu'i>ed  by  tbt  tatmi 
lubricant  rather  than  by  that,  of  the  solids  ifaemselTea. 

Friction  of  Beat.    (Renoie.) 


Values  of/. 

-^^ 

per  square 
Inch. 

Wrought  Iron  on 

Wroue|it  on 
Cast  iroo. 

St«el  on 

•* 

Wrought  Iron, 

Cast  Iron. 

IV 

187 

.S5 

.as 

.10 

i 

SK4 

.47 

,49 

.8* 

•1 

aat 

..11 

.83 

.88 

i 

446 

,88 

.87 

.» 

i 

Gao 

■Il 

.8T 

.89 

J 

tn 

Abraded 

.8S 

.40 

J 

TN4 

•' 

.ibrMled 

J 

Lau'  i>r  T'  r  1 
April  7.  : 

the  titw 

Tl 
Is 

mil 

M  lOi   iii^-n.  i-  ^ . 
Un*  »i(ifcli  oil 

PrfrtlAii   1.1 
'  '  •nlli'iii.; 


.  iry  IKL'    ('•  O.I.  ful)  iw  I 
■II. 


I.  lullen  per  hour 
'  rli.  i.iit  of  frlt'llott 


W 


,  pel 


\<i> 


0,\\0     .OR 


\«     VA 


FRICTION. 


020 


letlon  la  a  (ranscqueoce  of  tlie  irregularities  of  form  and 
Df  surface  of  bodiei*  rollini^  one  ijver  the  other.  It«  law» 
nitely  e8tHbli»he<l  in  conwquence  of  the  uncertuinty  which 
neiit  as  to  how  iimch  of  tl»>  r<^lstanee  is  due  lo  roiiKhtieat,  of 
tuh  lo  origlDal  and  |>ennariHni  irretttilarlty  uf  form,  uud  how 
Bon  iiiiijer  th"  load      iTIiinmrtii.) 

of  Rolline  Frirtion.— If  It  =  resislant^e  applied  at 
bee  of  the  whet-lT  IV—  total  wcicht.  r  =  radius  of  the  whe<>l, 
"Bideiit,  iJ  =  /H'-!- >•.  /  is  very  variable.  Coulomb  Kive.s  .06 
ior  metal,  where  M'  iu  in  poundij  and  r  in  feet.  Tredjiotd 
fof  /  for  Iron  on  i  roti  .  00*. 

soft  soil  Murin  found  /  =  .065,  atiil  on  hard  gmootli  roods 

r  of  the  S'Tciety  of  Arts  (Clark.  R.  T.  D.)  rep<jrted  a  loaded 
dbil  a  resistance  on  varioux  loadx  a.<<  below; 

it  Speed  per  hour.  Coefnetent.  Restslaace. 

a.STmiles.  .W!  17.41  per  tOD. 

85tJ     •'  .OlSt  S7.U       " 

....        3.34     ■■  .01M5  41.60       " 

Jled ».45      "  .OI9l>  44.48        " 

lie,  new..        3.51      "  .0451  lOl.Off       ** 

I  the  value  of /for  ordinary  ratlroadx,  .003,  weit-laid  railroad 
possible  railroad  track,  .001. 

•fments  that  have  been  made  tipon  the  cottfllcienlH  of  roUihK 
from  axle  friotio",  are  too  incomplete  t^i  serve  as  a  basis  for 
iTrnutwInet. 

Inid  Friction.  —For  all  fluids.  wh>-t)i>-r  liiiiiid  or  gaseous, 
{Is  III  iiidepi'iiiliMii.  of  the  pre,s.sure  hetw«?Kii  the  masROfl  in 
|Bctl.v  propoHlonal  to  the  area  of  ruldiinn  surface;  (3)  pro- 
fc^uaie  of  the  relative  velocity  at  moderate  and  hiKh  .'Speeds, 
jcity  nearly  nt  low  speeds:  (I)  indepenilent  cif  the  nature  of 
[tiie  solid  apainst  which  the  stream  may  liow,  btit  (iepenrtent. 
[upon  theirdcKree  of  roiichuesK;  |5)  proportliiual  to  thii  den- 
,,an(1  related  in  some  way  t"  its  viscosity.  (Thurston.) 
i  of  Liibritiitnl  Surftices  approximates  to  that  of  solid  frie- 

pal  is  run  dry,  and  to  that  of  fluid  friction  as  it  is  flooded 


Bepone  and   Toefflclenta   or  Friction  of  Balld- 
italcrlals.    <Kroiii  tCankiue's  Applied  .Mechanics.) 


nd  brickwork . . 
brie  Ic work  with 


bt^y! 


sand,  clay, 

i  damp  clay 

^wet  claj 

sblogle  and 


31"  to  85" 

as* 

86*  to  16W* 

aeU"  toiiM;» 

SI*  tolJ^" 

14">  to  gU« 

87° 

ll"  to  45* 

21°  to  37° 
45° 
17° 


SO'  to  48° 


/=  Ian  9, 


.6  m  .7 

.74 

about.  .4 
.7  to  .8 
.fi  to  .3 
.A  to  .« 

.25  to  .16 

■r.i 
.;« 

.25  to  1.0 

.88  to  .76 
1.0 


.SV 


1 
Ian  0' 


1.67  to  1.4 

1.35 

8.5 
1.4a  toS.3 

Sto6 
1.67  to  5 
4  to  0.67 

l.M 
8. 

4  tol 

8.S3  to  1.83 
1 

3,83 


\  aivoft.li 


TMotton.—Tbe  toflnwing  is  a  table  of  l\»e  an^Xe  < 
-  tnction/^  tail  »,  and  its  reciprocaV,  \  -<-  f,W 
L  i^Tf^n  k"*?!.''  ''',°"'  '•'»"  tables  of  OeDQt&\  ^o 


[ 

I 


930 


FRICTION   AND   liUBBICATION. 


Surfaces. 


Wood  on  wood,  dry  .... 
"      "       "     soaped.. 

Metala  on  oak,  dry 

"     "     wet 

"       "     ••     soapy..  . 

"       "   elm,  dry 

Hemp  on  oak,  dry 

' wet 

Leather  on  oak 

"        "  metals, dry.. 

"        "       "       wet.. 

"        ••       "    gntuiy 

"       "     oily... 

Metala  on  metals,  dry. .. 

'        wet... 

Smooth    mirfaces,  occa- 
sionally Kmawd 

Sinnotli     puiface.'i,    con- 

ttu  uously  greased 

Smooth    surfaces,    best 

results 

Bronze  on  lignum  vlts, 
coitBtantly  wet 


H'  lo  SOK* 
MU'loa° 
aaU"  to3i» 

18^1°  to  M" 

im°  to  w 

88= 

I8U" 

15*  to  IBfi" 

26U' 

M)' 
1.V 

eH'  loll* 

16tt' 

4°  to  4>i» 

8» 

»•» 


.&i  to  .5 

.'i    la  .04 

.Slo   A 

.-i4to    St 

.2 

.S  to  .» 

M 

.» 

M 

,36 
.a  . 

.18 

ISCu  .3 

.8 

.(K'tO.OB 

.09 

.03  U>  .OW 

.05? 


Coeffldenta  of  Friction  of  JoummlM.  (XorttJ 


Material. 


Cast  iron  on  cast  Iron . ... 

Cant  Iron  on  bronze 

Cast  iron  on  lifmuroTltae 
Wroujsbt  iron  on  cast  Iron 
"  "     "  bronze. .  \ 

Iron  on  lignum  rhes ] 

Bronze  onbronae -i 


Unguent. 


on,  lard  tallow. 
Uiioiuous  and  wet. 
Oil.  lard,  lallow. 
Uiioiuous  nod  wet. 
Oil,  lard. 

on.  lard,  tallow. 

Oil.  lard. 
Unctuous. 
Olive -oil. 
Lard. 


LubrlcilioB- 


Ixit«niUU«Dt,  I  Cii 


.07  to  .08 
.14 

or  to  .oi 

.ID 

.07  tA  .Oft 

.11 
.IS 
.10 

.no 


I 


.ax 


I 


Prof.  Thurston  says  concern  inK  the  above  fl^iireii  i ' 
are  probably  obtained  Id  gooii  practice  with  ord<i 
heiv  given  are  «o  greatly  inodifled  by  variolioTi      " 
perrtliin',  tliRf  lli^v  i^iin-it  lie  tnUrn  hs  ri-»rrt>.*i  -*^ 

Averace  CoeiBlcleitta  Of  Friction.    .  ■ 

beunUK;  velocity  VJO  tvi  wr  iiilnute:    u-niptraiuro    ."-    t      ml* 
feed  through  an  oil-bole.    (Thurston  on  Friction  and  Lost  (VorkJ 


ury  foi 


FRICTIOK. 


[res,  as  in  spindles,  the  coeflflcieatg  are  muvh  higher ' 
iind,  at  a  lempvralure  of  100°  and  a  velocity  of  000 


L  lbs.  per  aq.  in I 


It 


.87 


.23 


4 

.18 


S 
.17 


iirJi^H 


(HclentK,  howerer,  and  the  Rreat  decrease  in  the  coefRcii 
siirea  are  limited  um  n  pmotiotil  iiwitter  only  to  the  sinalli 
Mcist  especially  in  splnnlne  iiiiu'hliiery,  where  the  presHiii 
I  fllm  of  oil  so  thick  that  llie  viscusity  nt  the  oil  Is  iin  itnpo 
ntal  i'rieliunal  vesistaiiee. 

t»  on  friction  or  a  .Tonrnal  Lubricated  by  an 
irled    by    the   Comuiiltee   on    I'l-iflloii,    I'roc.   lust.  Jl.  K., 
that  the  nbeolute  friction,  that  is,  Ihenbsohite  tnoRenl 
inch  of  bearing,  required  to  reHJiit  the  teiideiiey  of  the  hn 

the  juurnal,  is  nearly  a  constant  umier  nil  loads,  within 
itnit«.     Most  CPitaiiily  it  doe»  not  iut'iease  in  direct  prnprif 

as  it  should  do  accordinK  to  the  ordinary  ilu-on-  of  swlid 
(ults  of  llieKe  experiments  seein  to  sli'iw  that  the  ftietloii  uf 
:ate<l  jniiriial  followH  the  lawis  of  liquid  friction  iniii;li  moi 
se  of  solid  friction.    They  show  that  nuder  ihese  ciicn 
loll  is  De.arly  independent  of  the  pressure  iwr  Kuuare  incl 
iseg  with  the  velocity,  though  at  a  rate  not  nearly  ko  rupl 
tlie  velocity. 

litB  on  friction  at  different  temperatiirea  Indicate  a  Kreat, 
te  friction  as  the  (etnperaiuro  rises.    Tims  In  the  case  oTi 

speed  nf  45*)  revt^lijiions  i>er  mintite,  the  ci3ertlcietic  of  friC' ' 
ftture  of  1*20°  is  only  one  tliird  of  what  it  wua  ut  a  teiiipera' 

w  of  steel.  4  inches  diameter  and  6  inches  lonir.  and  a  eitn- 
braciniir  somewhat  less  than  lialf  the  circumference  of  the 
•n  its  upeer  side,  on  which  the  load  was  applied.  When  the 
[>urnal  was  immemed  in  oU,  and  the  oil  therefore  carried 

by  rotation  of  the  joumal.  theicreatest  li'ad  carried  with 
lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  with  mineral  nil  r>'2.^  Ui,<. 
t  with  Ortlinary  liilirii-aiion,  the  oil  heiriK  fed  in  at  the  cen- 

Ihe  hrass,  and  a  distributing  ^fouve  beln^  cut  In  the  brasai 
lis  of  the  journal,  the  beariiiK  woul>f  not  run  cool  with  oiilj 
re  inch,  the  oil  bein^  pres.s«l  out  fnnn  the  hearinfc-surfao 
bll-hole.  instead  of  l)einK  came<i  in  by  it.    On  introduciii| 
,es  through  two  parallel  t^riHives,  the  lubrication  appea 
f,  but  the  bearing  seized  with  3W  lbs.  per  square  Inch, 
ras  introduced  tliroujih  two  oil-holes,  one  neureach  end  of* 
a»'b  Connected  willi  a  curved  jn'oove.  the  brass  refused  to 
in  cool,  and  seixed  with  a  load  of  only  200  lbs.  per  square 

J  under  the  journal  feeding  rape-oil.  the  bearini;  fairly  csr- 
•.  Tower's  conclusion  from  these  eii>eriment«  is  that  the 
on  the  quantit.r  and  urdforniity  of  distribution  of  the  oU^ 
ihinu  between  the  oil-baih  results  and  seizing,  accordlDi:  ( 
r  imperfection  of  the  lubrication.    The  lubrication  may  I 
Iff  a  coefficient  of  T/'IOO;  but  it  appeared  as  though  it  couk 
d  and  the  friction  incr>*tt.'!eil  inncfi  Ijeyond  this  point  wKM 
ik  of  heAiing  uiid  neizing.    The  oil  liath  probably  r"preseirQf 
i  lubrication  possible,  and  the  limit  beyond  which  fricilofl 
Hi  by  lubrication :  and  the  ex|ierimenl»  show  that  witlt  speed' 
0  feet  per  minute,    by  prriiierl.v  proportlonlnp  the  l>earlM( 
Id,  it  is  possible  to  retfuci-  the  coefflcient  of  friction  to  ai  lot 
>fflclent  of  1/1500  Is  ea.«ilr  attainable,  and  probably  Is  fr 
,  In  onlinarj'  enpine-bearin^s  in  which  the  alret'iiou  of  ll 
ilternalin^  tind  the  oil  ^veii  an  opportunity  to  (jct  l)etweeifl 
lie  the  diirarlon  of  the  force  in  one  direction  te  ttot.  fcwtRcVe.'cA. 
r  the  oil  film  to  bf  s<jnee3ie<|  out. 

n  rhf  tifbnriiir  of  the  appar.ituR  gave  re&a(«\  to\5e\S«!i''e'i>:«^ 
fcHCieio  ilii'  .«;;«v.|  nf  riiiiiiiiiuni  friction  v>xs  tTotn  \Qft  *«ij^ 
fiiJ  that  this  sj,,v-,|  ,,f  injuiinvini  friction  tenA'sVo^a**  ~ 
oTIfw,/,  atii)  aluo  with  le^   perfwt  XuXirVi-aWotN- 
S'!Sf'u      '*  '"™"'  that  sn.».-<l  it,  auproacto\T\K  «W 
tuUaJiea,  and  abore  irhtcU  the  (rictkm  VikCt«»    ~ 


932 


PEIOTIOK   A.m>  LUBRICATION 


rtoelBcteiitB  of  Fri<-Uon   of  JournnI    %•  Mli  OL 

Kirael  of  ri'Mills  of  Timer'B  exjieriiuenlH  uti  ' 
lc^S>.    Journal,  4  in.  diam,  6  ill.  Iciiie;  leiiii' 


LubricAul  in  Batb. 


Lanl-nil : 

16T  ft.  per  nitn, 

471      " 
Mineral  ffretae : 

ir>7  ft.  per  min. 

471     •• 
Sperm-oil ; 

157  ft.  per  n)in. 

471      ••  * 

Rapi»oii: 

157  ft.  per  mln, 

L_|^rj    •• 

I  «iQnei-al-oil : 

157  ft.  per  inlu, 
471      " 
Baneoil  fetl  by  syphon  lubricator: 

1 57  ft.  per  mIn 

314     " 
Rajip-nll.  iwd  under  Jounul: 

157  ft.  per  mia 

814     " 


I 


Coraparatlve  friction  of  dtCferent  lubricants  under  ganir  i 
tempentttire  90°,  oil-bath: 
BpfTra-oil  lOOperceut.   I    Lard. 

Kap,.  oil     106        "  ()llve-oll. 

Mineral  oil 129        "  |    Jllneml  grcu»p. 

CoefHol^nta   of  Friction   of  Mollou   and    of ' 

JTournal.— .'V  ca.Kl-iron  joiimttl  in  steel  liox>^.  1p«I«'jJ  l>y  |'i 
u  HiH-ed  of  rubbiiip  of  ISO  feet  jier  niiniit*^,  nilb  liu>l  anil 
gave  the  following: 

Fres.siires  per  8q.  Id.,  VM 50 

Coeff.,  wlcJi  sperm .••  .018 

"  "    lard (tt 


100 

.ooei 

.0187 


.OOA 

.ones 


.14 


.IS 

.10 


The  coelDoients  at  startiog  were: 

With  spemi 07  .185 

With  lard 07  .11 

TliP  coefficient  at  a  opeed  of  150  fe«t  p<«r  iiiloiit<>  dPcrr««M  ' 
of  pressure  until  SHO  lbs.  per  !W).  in.  iS  re«ch»*d;  above  thl»  II  f^ 
Doenii'ieiit  at  re»t  or  at  Htarlliii;  increiUBef  wltb  the  prrt«iir*  <" 
raiiire  of  thw  lt«t». 

V»Iu«  of  Antt-lVlctlon    '*re»»i».     .ri..r,t,,M  — Tii* 
luelals  iivailalile   for  litiiiii;   hr.^ 
lower  ihAii  can   kio  ohiaiiied  « 

"  tivrrUealiUK,"  becau&e  of  the  ki., rMl 

ability  to  permit  of  abrsgion  or  viUBliiiiK,  niUiuut  cXCtmII 
friction. 

TIlUrMon   (Fri<"i-'    ""l    '  '•^■'    W.,rlrl  cnra    (liil 

Other  »ofl  whli' 
tt}-  frii'lii>n  in  '' 


atwt  M*j\vic»i^  ^»  4tv^*\\v>Nfxr.  ^.11 


In  for  B 


UOltlN'S  LAWS  OF   FlUCTION".  933 


I  for  Bparlnea.  ( Jopbua  Rose.)  -Cast  iron  appears  to  Itp  nn 
lu  iliH  iiciiciiil  luif,  lllttt  I  lit-  liiinlfi'  iliu  iiietul  the  creiilHi-  IliP 
lo  wear,  bec;iiis»'  cast  ifun  is  shifter  in  its  t**xture  anii  etisiBi"  to 
^el  ti»lt«  tlmn  sleel  or  wruiik:tit  ii'itii.  Imi(.  in  Noiue  NJluaUonM  ft  in 
ui'ablf  tJiaii  liur<lfntMl  sti-t^l;  iliu«  w)»i>h  suiT(>urii1efl  by  i-tcam  It 
etl^*^  thrill  will  liny  oUjpi'  iiieial,  TtiU'*,  rnj*  iitsiniire.  i*x (utI+'Hi'i? 
itfiK^I  il'ar.  I'isliin-iiiiKs  of  <asi  iron  will  wfai'  siiiodlln-r.  Itctier, 
y  as  l>iii^  H!i  ttmse  of  Kieel,  ami  longer  than  tlmsii  xl  «ltlier 
Oh  or  l>rBas.  wlietlier  the  cylinfler  in  which  it  wiirirs  be  coinpoBecl 
eel,  wriMitfht  iron,  or  east  iron;  lliy  lult<?r  IwiiiK  llti-  imii*-  imte- 
ire  two  siirfnpes  of  the  same  metal  ilo  not,  as  a  rule,  wear  or 
ogi'tlier.  So  also  slide-valves  of  lirasn  are  not  found  tow  ear  su 
iinoollily  as  ihotw  of  cast  irou,  let  the  metal  of  which  the  «eatlnK 
(I  he  whatever  It  may ;  while,  on  the  other  haiiil,  a.  cast  iron  slltje- 
»ear  ioiiper  of  itKelf  and  cause  less  wear  to  its  iteat,  if  the  latt«r 
•on.  fhnn  if  of  st(^*»l.  wroiiplit  iron,  nr  liraK.*;. 
n  or  .Tl^talfi  nnder  Steaui-prenoure.-The  frloiion  of 
I  iron  iiinler  steani-pre.ssure  is  Uiinlde  lliul  of  iron  upon  iron. 
.■.ifl<,  Truris,  \.  S.  M,  E.,  i.  151.) 

•  "liaMTB  of  Friction.'*— I.  The  friction  l)etween  two  bodies 
iroportioned  to  the  pressure;  i.e.,  the  c<jelllcleiit  in  constiiiil  for 

•B. 

elHeient  and  amount  of  frlctioo,  precBure  tteiDcr  the  same,  is  iii- 
■jf  the  areas  In  coutatrt. 

lefHeient  of  friction  is  independent  of  Telocity,  allboiii^b  static 
L'lion  of  rest)  i.s  (rreatei-  than  the  fritliou  of  mfilloii. 
iri.  April  7.  188.^.  comments  on  llir.>-i>  '"laws"  as  followg  :  From 
Ml  1871)  there  wo-k  uo  atleiiint  wurlh  siieaklna  of  to  enlarjce  our 
of  the  laws  of  friction,  wbicu  duriii^  all  that  ^leriod  was  a^SUlIl^ 
ete.  although  it  was  really  worse  than  iiuhini!;,  Hince  it  was  for 
irt  wholly  falHO.  In  the  year  first  mciitinneil  Moriu  iH-gan  a  ae- 
•riments  which  exU'iideil  over  tv^o  or  lttrt*e  years,  anrl  which 
the  eiiuijciation  of  tliesc  three  "  fuudaiiiental  law.s  of  friction," 
hleh  is  even  approsiniat^ly  true. 

rears  these  laws  were  acceiited  as  axirinnti.",  ami  were  quoted  as 
It  question  in  every  Bciemijflc  work  puhlished  dnrinK  thot  whole 
iw  that  they  nre  so  ihoroiiglily  i1iNcre<tite<1  it  has  lieen  aitjinipted 
way  their  defects  on  the  Kronud  that  thtv  cover  only  a  verr  lim- 
)f  prcsvSiires.  aruas,  veioi_:ities.  etc,  I'lid  t^uit  .Moriii  himself  only 
them  UK  true  within  the  ranee  of  his  condiiions.  It  is  now  clertPl.v 
that  tbero  are  no  limits  or  conditions  within  which  any  one  oif 
ipnroximates  to  eiaetttude.  and  that  there  are  many  cooditioDS 
1  tliey  lend  to  the  wililest  kind  of  error,  wliile  riiany  of  the  con- 
OS  inaccurate  as  the  laws  Ffjr  example,  iu  Morin'K  "  Table  of 
of  M-jvliiK  Frlctioi)  of  Smooth  Plii«e  Surfaces,  perfectly  lubri- 
;h  miiy  he  fDUiid  in  hundreds  of  te.xt  honks  now  iu  if<e  the  coedl- 
lunht  iron  on  brass  is  piven  as  117,1  to  .103.  which  would  make  the 
ion  fif  railway  trains  15  to  '.'0  lbs  per  ton  ftisteud  of  the  H  to  (i  lbs. 
ually  is. 

[fUTD,  in  a  letter  to  the  Secrelarj'  of  the  Instltntian  of  Mechanical 
iated  Jlarch  15. 1H79,  wrilesas  follows  ctiucerniuK  his  exiieriments 
nade  inure  thnn  forty  years  hefore:  "  The  results  turni.sfi'd  hy  my 
a  as  to  the  relations  betwet-n  pressure,  surface  and  sffeeil  on  ttie 
imI  slidiiig  friction  on  the  other,  have  always  <)ccu  rcKKi'deil  by 
as  macbeioatical  laws,  hut  as  cUjse  ujjproximatioiis  tit  the  truth, 
Imits  of  the  (i  u,i  of  the  experimenti  themselves  The  same  lioldH. 
i>n.  for  many  other  law."  of  prdclieul  mechanics,  such  us  those  of 
taD<.-e,  lluid  resistance,  etc.' 

1.  Denton   i.sVfi-fii.t  /m/irii/nr,  July,  IWtOlsaysr  It  has  Ijeen  geu- 
oed  that  friction  lictween  lubricated  surfaces  follows  the  simple 
t  amoimt  of  the  friction  Is  some  flxi-d  fraction  of  the  presMire  tK>- 
urfac«!,  such  frdction  t>cinK  independent  of  the  iutensitv  of  ll>e 
r  Sfiunre  inch  iind  the  velocity  of  rubbinu.  betweeti  cerVaVu  Viv\Vv\A 
ana  cbat  tlif  fixirl  friictlnn  referreii  to  is  repr<«ieutA."4 Vjy  \.\\e  eft- 
frivriou  girea  by  th    e.Tj>»riiiients  of  Morin  or  otiUvneA  tirovft  «•"«■- 
»/»  wliJali  rt'pivuful  coniiitioas  ot  practicaV  lu\)rtCiVV\t>w,*vvcV\  t" 
I  K'ehbers  ilaaiml  of  Vawer. 
tinmeaia   of  •i'lmr^toii,   WoodbtiiT.    ToweT     etc    Yxo^e-'e* 
le  rrJeliot,  b.-twei.'u  lubricated  luetalik  surtuic^,  *v^c\^  '>*• 


I 


D34 


FKIOTION    AM)   LUBRICATiON. 


chine  bcsai-tnES,  iii  not  directly  propi)rtii)nal  to  lIlB  pressurip.  Is  i 
liwil  of  the  speed,  and  that  the  coefflcieots  of  Moifii  and  Webb 
i<?utokl  too  gnjut  for  mojerii  j^ninialfi. 

Prof,  Denton  off'-rs  an  fxplanmi"U  uf  tlii~  iii'd  ii'  iri  .  .•ot|! 
thoritj.w  bv  showiti>t.  with  lahorator}'   i 
lasva  bold  for  boiuiu»;»  luhriujitoiJ  by  a  i  lid 

is  aflfoixieri  by  tbe  t>:I  cups  common  to  ii , 

periiueutK  havi'  lipt-u  made  with  a  surplus  Ici-U  or  »up'  iiilmit* 
cant,  such  tui  ia  provided  ouly  iu  ruih-oHil-car  jouriutlii.  anU  i| 
txiscs  of  practice, 

Thut  tin?  Ii>»  coeftieieuN  of  friclioa  ..)- 
art-  reiiUzed  in  tlic  uiMe  of  car  journals  'M 

ptratureof  cai'boxfsrcniaiiisiil  liXPat  lii;- 
lliat  this  temp'^raturf  is  ctmsistt'tit.  oiil>  witlj  a  i.-.>fUlL« 
fracllou  of  one  per  cent.     DeiluotJonB  Iroui  experiinfut*  i 

hIbo  indicati"  tiie  sanic  low  dejirree  «'t  friction.     But  these  I 

iiot  aocoiiiit  for  the  riilenial  Irlctioii  of  sl4iaui'euKiut)D  ox  mVl 
fffl'jients  of  3lori»  aud  WehlK^r. 

Ill  Aiiiericiiii  Miirhiiiist.  ilet.  28.  ISW.  Prof.  Deiit..n  ■ 
iiveut  of  friction  of  luhriett(<*tl   joiirnalK  did   ii' 
They  apply  only  to  the  oonditious  oi  treiieral  ^l 

He  cleui  ly  understood  that  iherb  wus  n  friei  i 
the  viseoslly  uf  tlie  oil,  and  that  therefore,  for  i  I'ly  li^lii  pf 
which  he  eniMioinli'd  did  not  prevail 

Hi!  upplied  hm  dyiiuinoiueier-i  to  ordltiary  (ibaft']ouiti>iL'<  ^H 
prepai ution  of   Ih'e  rubhini;-.-;iu-faces,   nod  without    rt«oi1lii(l 
uicthotlK  of  supplying  the  oil 

Ijiter  e.\f7erimeriter>  hnvt-  with  few  e\cpptioos  devt»I»<J 
Kively  to  the  meai'ureuieut  of  resiBtaiice  iiraiiicallv  due 
Tliey  h:ive  eUruiiiuted  the  r«^>it^tallce  to  which  Morlii  tyi<a' 
ruerit.s.  namely,  the  rrietion  due  t<i  such  eosUicI  of  the 
prevail  with  a  very  thin  Qliii  of  lubricant  beiwt^u  cuuipar 
races. 

I'rof.  Deuton  also  says  iTmns  A.  S.  M.  E  .  x.  MSk     I  !.. 
!k  a  particle  of  proof  iu  any  iuve»iii'uiion  of  ftiction  ■ 
laws  do  not  hold  'or  nrdlniiv  pniciie.d  oil-eups  '.r  i  ■ 

Lawn    of  I'rirlion    uf    \t  ell>liibrlruii'<i      i 
(jo<Klriian  (Trans.   lust.  <_'    h..  l^t''>li.  t^Kj'n  .\eiiM,  Apr.  7  iju*l 
iDK  Ihi'  ri-Hults  ohtniiied  from  the  lestiuK  uiachliirsof  Thiiratii 
Stroudley,  arrives  at  the  following  laws; 

Laws  of  FoiCTtUH:  Wkll-utbricatid  Scktaom,  | 
t(.>U-buth  » 

1 .  The  eoeftlclent  of  friction  with  the  surfacei*  effleii-nlljr  lu'iH 
1  <i  10  ]  10  that  for  dry  or  scunilly  liibrL'.iteit  surfms.* 

a.  The  coefHcleiit  of  friction  for  uhhIi':- n- 
pnisiuialely  inversely  as  the  ui>riiial  i>i 
rlesjis  till-  area  in  contact,  th-  ni-rni,ii  i 

.4    At  very   low  journal   sjm     ' 
bitrli:  hut  ns  the  soeed  of  -li 
the  friction  diminishes,  and 
approxiinatelv  as  the  "upiarv  i 

4    The  Coenl(i:Mit  of  frieliiin  vai 
Miu'e.  within  cerlaln  liinlL'-.  uaiml. 

Tlie  evidence  upon  which  tbes<-  in  ,-   .  ,;  i  u  i 

ern  experiineui.*.    Thiil  rehitiujr  to  hnv  irora  tlie 

ull  FHcljoii  Kx(>erinlents,"  by  Mr.  Ueaui  , 


Method  «(  Lubilcaiion. 


Coofllitlmit  of 
Fnctiim. 


i.b«(h \         w» 

if"  ■■    ^::!:.-";;:::;::::"v:-\     ^ 


LAWS  OF   FRICTIOH. 


935 


\ei  as  much,  with  a  pad.  The  very  low  cwfndeniis  nh- 
[)wer  K'UI  be  acvounKMl  for  by  l^^w  :!,  as  be  fouud  ttint  the 
nee  per  square  inch  uuiler  varjiD?  luadi!  ii^  ut-itrly  coiuOnnl, 

so.  lu 5^      468      41S      863     810      358      -JOS      I.VI    100 

tpersq.in.  .116     .514     .198    .472    .«H    ,4!i8     .«      .4.%8  .« 

reniflBuce  per  square  inch  is  the  prcKluct  of  the  coefticieiit 
lie  load  pi-r  square  inch  on  horiionial  section."  of  (be  hrass. 
oduct  l>f  a  erm^taur,  the  or.e  fnctor  must  vary  Inversely  as 
i;;h  load  will  given  low  coefficient,  and  vie-  Krimi. 
lul»ricutir)n.  iJie  coeftlcienl  is  uiore  conHtaut  under  varying 
lonal  resiotnnee  then  varief)  directly  as  the  InaJ.  as  shown  by 
»ble  Vni  of  his  rep^.rt  ( Proe.  lu-st.  M.  E.  18S3i. 
to  Law  H.  .\.  M-  WelliiiKlon  i  I'lnriH.  A  .S  (.'.  K.  IWJ),  in  ejc- 
nrnals  revolviii);  at  very  Tow  velocities,  fouud  that  thefriolion 
tn-at.iinfl  nearly  conslatil  under  vnryinR  i-on(lili<in!i  of  the 
lid  temperature.  But  as  the  speed  inoreased  tlir  friction 
reK'ilarly,  and  again  returned  to  the  original  amount  when 
I  reduced  to  the  Hame  rate.    This  is  shown  in  the  following 

niiniile: 

3.33     4.96     8.8:.'     31. 4J     35.37     S3.0I      39. -JS      106.03 
rictioii: 
.070      .WJ9       055       .047        .(MO        .0:35        .030         .OM 

ttnil  by  Prof.  Kimliall  that  when  the  joumni  velocitj'  was  in- 
to 110  ft.  per  iidoiite.  the  friction  wag  reduced  TftJ;  in  another 
Waa  redlii'ed  G7X  when  the  velocity  wa.s  increuHed  from  1  to 
lie;  hut  after  that  point  was  reached  the  cnefflcieDt  varied 
yritb  the  square  root  of  the  veloeity. 
;  rea^ulta  were  oiitaiued  by  Mr,  Tower: 


309       S6-i 


.OOlOi  .0012  .OOl.l 
.OOliil  .tlOH  .OOlfi 
.0014'    .0018    .0017 


314 


86ti 


.0014 
.0017 
.0019 


419 


.001  fi 
.OOIH 

.Mm 


471 


.wn 

.00-2 
.00-.'4 


Nominal  Load 
per  sq.  in. 


690  lbs. 
468   '• 
415    •• 


offrictiou  with  tetnperwture  is  approximately  ii»  the  inverse 
iake,  for  example,  Mr.  Tower's  results,  at  30'j  ft.  per  minuto: 


.0044 
.00461 


.0051 
.OfflSlS 


.006 
.00608 


w 


70° 


.oora 
.ooc.'ta 


.0002 

.ooaivi 


.0110 

.oi-.a3 


not  hold  pood  for  pad  or  liiphon  lubrication,  as  then  the  co- 
lon diinhiishes  more  rapiiliy  for  K'veii  incicini'UfK  of  tem- 
I  a  gradually  decreaaiiip  scale,  until  the  iionual  ti-nip<'ratiire 
led;  this  iiofmnt  temperature  increases  dtifcdy  as  the  looil 
k  is  shown  in  i.lie  following  table  taken  from  Mr.  Stroudley's 
lb  a  pad  of  rape  oil: 


105° 


.OSi 


IIO'      116° 


.01*1    .0160 
.flUlO    .0020 


130° 

125° 

130° 

mv 

140° 

.0106 
.0001 

.0140 
OOdO 

.012,^ 

.001,-1 

.0115 
.OOltl 

.01W> 

.<»os 

U5° 


■WeBtinBhoiiRe  evperiments  it  was  found  that  with  velocities 
Icr  min.,  and   with  low  pi-essiires,  the  fricllonnl  reslstauc* 
ILs  the  normal  pre.wiire;  but  when  a  veloctly  ot  \W^  l\.. 
ifd,  the  coefficient  lit  friction  greatly  d\iTvV\\\BV\eii',  f 
tits  rrijf.  Kennvdy  foiiml  that  the  coefl\c\enl  Ot  M 
\s sensibly  lea^  tlian  for  low 

Jommitteti  ou  Fricuoa  eiperliueuteil  wUU  a* 


reslstaucrt 


ifa^ 


inrr^Bprt.  awt  mar  fie  «tjit«!  iipprttTlnittWj*iSs-' 
(JtinlinKliln^  lo  1..'Wt  jii  T'l  Ih^.  [N*r  sq.  [ii. 

Tin-  bii;li  i-i'rt!\i:irrils  of  rrirtimi  are  explain«I  by  thf  AH 
\nf;  nfuWaviivnriiig.  i<  is  Hiiiiitsr  to  the  »li(le-bl<x-k  of  anj 
curry  only  ubotil  one  teiitii  tbe  load  |>«M°  t<q.  in.  that  can 

CIMl'k-l'lUS. 

In  exiK-riiiifiitx  nn  cylindrical  journals  it   lias  iwi-ii  «b 
cy lihdririkl  JoiimHl  was  iiibrifnleo  From  ilie  side  on  wliirhl 
I'W  lbs.  jicr  H4|.  In.  wan  thf  lindl  of  pressuiv  Hint  It  would  n 
c<ini«  In  111-  InVirifnlwl  on  the  lower  aide  and  wns  nIloweJ| 
Willi  it,  1)00  U)».  jM-i  sq   In.  was  runchml  «itli  iiiipuinly; 
M|.  In.,  nljlcli  was  rL-t'koned  iipini  the  full  diainulerxf  th«L 
be  reokoneil  on  llio  blxtli  pnit  of  tli>>  circle  that  was  tdkliigl 
portion  of  ilie  load,  It  followtil  that  lUe  preaaure  uponibm  )• 
ainuiinteil  tonboiii  li-liO  llig.  i»t'r  sq.  in. 

In  connitction  with  tlieHC  exiwi'imenlg  Mr.  Wickstet'd  8Ul 
in)|r-lnai-hlneH  the  pie»KUI-e  on  llie  collars  ia  frequently  n»  hlsl 
W).  III.,  but  Hie  sptH-d  I  if  nibliiiip  In  Ibis  L-tt,s«  is  lower  thuii  I" 
ilie  «x|ien'nieiil4  of  llie  Rewarcli  Coniiniltee.  lu  niacb' 
sloAvly  and  Iniei-iiiitlently.  as  in  testiiiK-iusobines,  very  i 
sures  are  adnu'ssible. 

Ml'.  Adauison  mentions  tbeoaji«  of  a  heavy  npri^ht  : 
small  ftxitslep  lifiirinu,  where  o  weijfht  iif  at  least  a)  toa 
Hliiifl  of  5  in.  di.imeler,  or,  say,  Jl)  si),  iu.  niea.  Kivine  a  P" 
■wi.  ill.  The  »i><*d  was  llh)  to  'iOO  revs,  per  iniu.  li  wiis  i 
oil  nnderihe  beaiiiid:  by  means  of  a  pump.  For  heavy 
such  as  a  lly  wbeel  sliaft.  carrj'inK  100  ions  on  two  jonri* 
f(i'llinir  oil  into  llie  lieariOKS  wtis  lo  tialten  tl)e  jniirn 
tlirniiKboiit  its  whole  Ii'iiriIi  to  the  extent  of  about  Hii  «S( 
width  for  each  inch  in  dlninoter  up  lo  S  hi.  dhmieter:  alio 
less  Hal  in  proportion  to  the  diameter.  At  llrst  sight  it  npi' 
lo  Ket  nconilntKm.s  flat  place  coraiiiK  rouinl  in  every  revolul 
loaded  shaft;  yet  it  carried  the  oil  effeclnally  iniotlieliei 
much  better  in  consequence  than  a  triilj'  cj'lindrlcal  joiit"^ 
side. 

In  tlirust-bearini;R  on  torpedotKiats  Mr.  ThoruytToft  alij 
n«ver  more  than  .W  lbs.  per  imj.  in. 

Prof.  TliurBton  i  Friction  ami  Lost  Work.  p.    -'lOi  Ray 
prpHsuiv  per  sqimre  inch  is  rencbed  on  tbe  slow-worliingrj 
pivots  of  switiK  bridges. 

Mr.  Tower  KaTf  (Proc.  Inst.  H.  B..  Jan,  1884);  In  (?cc«itl 


TION   OF   CAU-JOURNAL   BRASSES.  931 


'roc  iDflt   O.  E.  18«ii  found  that  the  total  friclioDal  re- 
ply PMiiicMl  by  riirriirii»hln«  the  width  of  the  hrns^t. 
ft  mosr  ('rtlcicnt.  in  rwiiioiuR  ibc  fristifni  whpu  the  broM 

of  rrum  !JU=  to  00°.  Thf  film  Isi  pmlMiWy  at  its  best  be- 
>°and  1I0«. 

trass  of  a  railn-ny  oxlebc^arine  where  an  oil-groove  1«  cut 
d  an  oil-bolp  (n  ilrillirij  tbroiiKb  lli»  top  of  ilii>  brui-s  into  it,J 
bly  on  the  off  side,  wliieh  is  probiihly  duo  to  the  oil  (wcap- 
nches  tlie  cr-jivu  of  ilie  tiriiss.  nml  so  leftvlUK  the  off  aide' 
the  n-car  consoquentlj-  cdsiim. 
the  broifii  weai-s  always  ou  the  forward  sliie.    The  same  oh- 

nuule  in  inariiie  eiiijine  jounials,  which  always  wear  In 
B  way  to  what  thr-y  iiiiKht  t«'  i-x]»Tfi'd.  Mr.  Stroiidley 
fity  ii  due  to  n  film  of  liibrieant  l»fiii(r  ilra«  n  io  froui  the  nn- 
rnal  to  tlieaft  part  of  tiif  l»rii.ss.  whieU  effeftiially  luljri- 
iwear  on  that  side;  und  ibni  when  the  lubricuut  reaches 
'  the  brags  it  1h  so  atlenuate-.l  down  to  h  wedtie  shafie  that 
I  Inbrication.  and  ijreater  wear  conseqiiently  follows. 
anC.fl/ii.  3/iiWi..  Oct.  ati.  IHUO)  .'ays:  R<'KardiD>;  the  pres- 
smbjeetcfl  in  raiirfwid  eai"-service,  it  is  ])roliabIy  moi-e Bevepo 
lass  of  pnu;ti<;e.  Car  bnuises.  whni  UBfd  bare,  aresoim- 
Ije  Journal,  ibut  duritiK  the  eiiriy  siik^^s  of  llieir  iwe  the 
ly  be  but  about  one  square  inch  'In  this  eose  the  pressnra 
ipwards  of  COOO  lb«  But  n(  the  s!ow4~,t  siweda  of  frei^^bl 
f  a  brass  is  so  rapiil  that,  within  ab^Hit  thirty  injnute}*  tiie 
aaed  to  about  three  inches,  and  is  tlieieliy  able  to  relieve 
alter  can  siiecc-isfnlly  prei-ent  "vprheatlui  of  the  joiiroal, 
f  takes  plact'  wilii  anif  i»il,  and  ineti«)ures  of  ivlief  uiURt  be 
uate  the  question  of  differeiiCMs  nf  liibrliuitini;  power 
t  lubi'ieauls  available.    A  brass  wliioh  lm-<  lieeii  run  about 

00  lbs  load  raay  have  extended  th°  nreii  of  benrins-surfaee 
ire  ioohHS,  The  prwiure  i.s  then  iibout  17n)  llis.  iper  square 
KS'imed  tlmt  tbiK  is  an  avernni'  ininimuiii  area  fnr  car-aer. 
ntand  unniaiintteable  ovorhentiiiK  ha.«  ocenrred  during  th« 

1  short  thue.    This  area  will  very  slowly  lucita»e  with  any 

T,  Feb  ISflSi  says:  One  of  the  most  vital  points  of  an  en- 
lervice  Is  tliat  of  main  lienrings.  They  should  have  a  sur. 
>t  exfeedintr  li'fl  feet  per  niiniite,  with  a  mean  beArin^- 
B  Inch  of  pi'ojei'ted  area  of  Jnurual  of  not  inure  than  »0 
erably  within  the  :<ai(.'  limit  'if  con]  ijerfonuaiice  anj  e»»y 
beariufn  aiv  desiunetl  ju  ibis  wiy,  it  wi<ulit  admit  the  ins 
e  main  nearin^-surfnce,  which  in  a  larRO  type  of  enginei 
irlc  we  thinli  a.lviHttble. 

lu  «  BcartuK.-Mr.  Beaueliauip  Tower  (Proc,  lost, 
ade  experiment.s  Hifh  a  bras-i  liearfiiB-t  lncli-«  diameter 
>  determine  the  pressure  of  the  oil  between  the  brass  and 
jearinK  was  half  iininerseil  in  oil,  and  had  a  touU  load  of 
The  Journal  rotated  I.IO  rev.ilulioii.s  p<'r  nimiile.  Tlie 
was  determined  b.v  drillin;;  small  boles  ni  tlie  liearin);  at 
1  connecting  them  tjy  tul>es  t<i  a  Bfiiirdon  i^ant^.  It  waH 
Bure  varied  from  310  to  >X>  lljs  per  squiire  inrb,  the  great- 
a  little  to  the  "  off "'  aide  of  the  centre  line  of  the  tap  of 
direction  of  motion  of  the  jmimal  The  sum  of  the  up- 
i  by  these  pressures  for  ihe  whole  liiliricated  area  was 
B  total  pressure  on  the  bi-nrinj;.  The  Koeinl  was  rei1u(?e4 
lution.s,  but  the  oil  pressure  remained  llie  Kauie,  ghowlijg 
s  on  comnli-tely  oil-bome  at  the  li>wer  s))e«l  as  at  tbft 
ring  was  the  otwierved  trictif>n  at  the  lowi-r  sjieed: 
,  IbM.  per  square  inch ...  \li  X&  31 1  89 
t  friction Wias      (WtOS     MfiVt    .0M4 

1  per  square  inch  Is  the  total  loaxl  dWided  \<5  Vfe»  vf"*'*** 

metb  of  the  Journal.    At  the  same  lovr  specA  e*  '2W  T«r 

»  was  Jacreaaed  to  676  lbs.  per  sauare  iiwiUllVlXtwSt  ' 

eixing. 

r-Journul  BraBses.     (3.  E.  ^^^-^ 

row  dressed  with  an  emery  wheeV.Ujt 

^arlag-aurCAoe  oq  the  journal,  oar 


I 
I 


^938  FRICTIOX   AND    LDBKICATIOIT.  ^M 

at  a  portion  of  the  surface,  of  only  1  ssquare  incb.     With  this  prodiM 
-  s.  per  square  inoh.  the  coefllcient  of  frittlon  may  tie  fit,  nod  the  l«W 

s  ovt-rbeaifd,  si^aired  and  cut  but,  ou  ibf  contrao'.  it  ii.uy  « i!«i'ilgt 

J  n  smooth  bearinc.  givinK  a  biRhlj  pnlishtsi  atva  of  <-oB  * 

[inches,  or  more,  inside  of  two  boui-s  of  niiiulDe.  e^railtin  " 
pressure  per  square  Inch  of  contact,  atul  A  coeflicient  tif  f 
5.W,    A  reciprooating   imitlon  in  the  direction  cf  'i'-    i^ 
in  redUL-lug  liip  friction.    With  such  polishe<l  sii 
tod  the  otiefflcieut  of  friction  then  deiieiids  on  tl 

1  lux^ssure  of  UXMlbs  per  square  inch,  if  volntiou  , 

ind  temperatures  of  TB"  to  113°  t\  with  liolh  sperm  and  ; 

ilTiclent  of  as  low  as  U.tls  has  been  olilflioeii.  tbe  oil  bi'it^ifl 
Kby  a  pad. 

1    Experiments  on  OverheMtfue  or  Bvarlnifa, -If4 
[CI>entoD.  I— Tents  w  itb  car  Ijnissei  lnaded  from    I  H*i  l<>  ifm 

DC'h  (rave  7  cases  of  oi'erhe4itinR  out  of  a-i  trials.    The  ifst*  4 

i  matter  of  chance  ift  tlie  overheattni;,  as  a  t>ra«.^  nljicb 
llnad  on  one  da.v  would  run  cool  on  a  later  linlr  at  the  >uin 
Imire.    The  explanation  of  this  anpareutly  arbitrary  differ 
j  that  the  accidental  varintions  ot  the  Mnootlmess  of  the  r 
Lflniteslmal  in  their  insKniliide,  cau.«e  vurintious  of  friction  1 
[lending  to  produce  overheatinir,  and  It  Is  sol.  Iv  n  n 
Hbcse    tendencies   i)repondernte.  over  tbe  lubi  !■ 
[There  is  uo  appreciiihle  advunlaKe  «howu  l>y  sj" 
[deucy  to  overjinat — that  is,  paiadhip  (■an  liitu;. 
Lsures  wliich  occur,  as  well  as  •  :.  ure  w<tS 

[tlons  afTunJini;  the  niitiin.uui  < 

Sfterni  aiiJ  other  oils  of  hit.'!'  -.Iikcve 

I  petroleuai  cylinder  stockH.  only  diflir   liiuii  !!»•  nt,.<rv  voIaiIU 
I  Uke  paralllne,  in  their  ahihty  to  reduce  Ibe  tliances  of  the  ' 
[  dental  infinite^iinal  nbratjon  producinir  overheat inj;. 
I     The  effect  of  emery  or  other  gritty  subi-taoce  Id  r«liioliig  o»« 
Ibetirine  is  thu«e.xplaine<l: 

!     The  effect  of  the  emery  upon  the  surfaces  of  tlic  lu'jirinirB  J 
flatter  with  a  series  of  |>anill<'l  jrroovfs.  atul  ni  ■ 
I  are  made  the  presence  of  the  eiiieiv  does  not  pri. 

over  the  amount  of  tbe  latter  when  pure  ml  .  i 
I  Tbe  infinite  iiumlier  of  (groove*  constllut' 

B  uniforai  oil  sii|iply  at  every  noint  of  tli' 
I  the  journal  match  with  those  In  the  hru.'^- 
ttonnlyatout  U»S  to  us  nf  thepresKurc.     Kui  d  u  .-.jui..jiuj 
I  between  a  set  of  hra*s«'S  which  are  jjrooved.  and  pn^ 
l^ournal  cruHheB  the  grooves  and  tieounit-s  t'rjizn!  ..r  r« 
1  then  tlie  coefficient  of    friction  becomes  ' 

applied,  the  Iriction  is  made  very  niiicli  ' 
[Hioovehare  made  to  match  each  other,  bii  1 
)e»erv  point  of  tbe  brorincH,  whereaa  liefoix-  the  .ipphcutioM' 
I  luaiiy  titioki  uf  tbe  latter  receive  no  oil  between  ibeiu. 

niouaent  of  Friction  and  Work    of   PHrflon   »r 
•urfBrea,  etc. 

Motumi  of  Krio 
lion,  inch  lbs. 

latsnrfacM. fitK, 

Ifihaf in  and  Journals ..      H^**'*'  .ar~" 

^Ittt  pivots KfWr  .n 

ollar-bearlne I'i/"''^*.  I  ''*,  -'? 

SonlcHl  pivot jA/l<Vco«0ea  .tTt^t 

fwi/fnJ  Journal ..,».»«>••     Hf^'''*«'«  .I'^WM 

c*t*(l-oone pivot... ««...•  H/w  ^^^  ,  ^■■^'< 

irot ..-       ^"^^ 


I^Abo 


TOT-BEARINOS. 


re    y  =  eoeeScienc  ot  fricHon; 

lr  =  wefpht  on  journal  or  piTot  in  pounds; 
r  =  rmdiiM,  d  =  diameter,  in  inobf.';: 
S  =■  spikce  Id  feet  through  vrbicli  Blidiiii;  takes  place; 
T»  =  ouUfr  radius,    r,  =  tnDt>r  radius; 
n  =  number  of  revolutioDs  per  minute; 
a  =  the  half-angle  oC  the  cone,  i.e.,  the  angle  of  tl 
with  the  axiii. 


.1 


D  obtain  the  borse-power,  divide  the  quantities  In  the  last  column  hy 
BO.     Horse-power  absorbed  by  fricUnn  of  a  slmft  =  \.V(Mii\- 

li.-  f.-,rinuia  I  .r  enerEy  lost  by  shafts  and  journals  is  approximately  ( 

•raring.    Prof.  Tliur!<tou  ahowi)  that  the  correct  (ormuhk 
"  xhv  character  of  fit  of  the  benrint;;   tliua  for  loosely 

^,_  r  =  tjie  energy  lost,  ^^ 

r         ir=  -^^Wn  inchpounds  =  -^^^^^  foot-lbs.  fl 

perfectly  fitted  journals  XJ  =  SM/wrWn  inoh-M.s.  =  .:«ao/irrfit,  ft. -lbs. 
>r  A  teariug  in  which  the  journal  la  so  grasped  as  to  elve  n  uniform 
(Stin?  ihroniyioiit.  U  =  fv*r\Vn  inch-lbs.  =  .■ilVi/W'dn,  ft.-lbs. 

•■istaDC«  of  railway  trains  auu  wagons  due  to  friction  of  trains: 

/  X  i£MO  ^^ 

Pull  on  draw-bar  =  - — g —  pounds  per  gross  ton,  ^H 

R  !s  the  ratio  of  the  radius  of  the  wheel  to  the  rnditut  of  journw^^ 
idrical  jounmi,  perffclly  fitted  into  a  bearing,  and  eiirryiii^  a  total 
tributes  i.lie  pressure  <lue  to  this  load  uiiequully  on  lli«  bearinR,  the 
■ni  pressure  r»eiaK  at  iIih  extrt-mily  of  the  vertical  radius,  while  at 
Se'iiiities   of  tile  horizontal  diameter  the  preiwiire  i*  zt-ro.    At  any 
the  bearing-surface  at  the  extremity  of  a,  radium  which  makes  an 
.^with  the  vertical  radium  the  normal  pressure  is  proiiortioiiiil  to  cos  ff. 
normal  pro'^HUre  on  a  uuit  of  surface,  w  =  total  load  ou  a  unit  of 
til  of  the  journal,  and  r  =  radius  of  journal, 

^^k  .       .  p.-  lO  COS  4  ^^1 

^H  u)  cos  f  s  1.57rp,    p  =         . — .  ^H 

^P  PITOT-BBARINGS.  ^| 

^B^  S«l»lele  Curve. -\V.  H.  Harrison,  in  a  letter  to  the  .^m.  MocS^P 
JMSil .  says  the  Scliiele  curve  is  not  a.s  (jood  a  form  for  a  bearinfr  as  the 
iieut  '.pr  tt  sphere  He  says:  A  millstone  weighing  a  Ion  frequently 
•ji  it»  %vln)le  weight  upon  the  flat  end  of  a  hard-steel  pivut  11^"  diameter, 
,!,.>  square  inch  urea  of  htaritur;  hut  to  carry  a  weieht  of  SOIH)  ll)s.  he 
«e8<ui  end  iieariuK  about  4  jticlies  diameter,  made  in  tiie  form  of  a  see- 
jf  a  sphere  about  \^  inch  in  tifleht.  The  di»  or  fixed  liearing  should 
B(l  to  fit  the  pivot.  Tiii-*  form  ffivi's  a  cliance  for  tile  tR-arinif  to 
.istdf,  which  it  does  not  have  when  made  Hat,  or  when  made  with  the 
___r  curve.  If  a  siile  bearing  is  necessary  it  can  be  arranired  farther  up 
^haft.  The  pivot  and  die  sliould  be  of  steel,  hardened;  cross-gutters 
lid  he  in  (he  die  to  allow  oil  to  flow,  and  a  centi-al  oil-hole  should  be 
(•  ill  the  shaft. 

le  advantage  claimed  for  the  Schlele  bearing  is  Chat  the  pressure  is  uni- 
iily  distributed  over  Its  surface,  and  that  it  therefore  wears  imifornily. 
"red  Lewis  (.4i)i.  Mitch  ,  April  19,  ISlIti  suvs  that  its  merits  iis  a  thrust- 
"ing  have  been  vastly  overestimated:  that  the  term  "anii-friinion" 
lied  to  It  is  a  inisnoiner,  since  its  friction  is  greater  than  that  of  a  Hat 
,  or  collar  of  the  same  diometer.  He  advises  that  Hat  llirust-bearliigs 
ilii  al«a.vs  t>e  annular  in  ronri.  having  an  inside  diameter  On*  UnVt  ot 
external  djnmfter 

rietlon  of  m  Fl»t  J*iFof-bearliis.  -The  ReBeBre\\  CQTavcvWW 
•ric''""  •l''"'^-  lii>t  it  !■'■■  ihU!)  ei:i<Hi-iiii,,|iii.,\  on  a  Blev-^*'^'^^"*^  ^^^ 
f.  .?  rn.  cllani,,  tlie  oil  tx-iiii:  forced  intu  liie  liearvng  t\\ro\\«\\  a.  YwAa 
st/ie  and  dlatiibin fil  through  two  roilial  gntoves,  insurtxiR  Oa.o^Wj 
ttloa.     The  step  was  of  steel  and  the  bearing  of  aiatt6&xvea»->ar— ^ 


mo 


FRICTION   ANI'    LUBRHATIOS. 


HI  I) 


1.,^. . 

Tli«  coelHcieiitof  Iriclion  varieil  t  .OISI 
between  )anil.(t£.'l 
Wiih  B  whitt^nu'lal  benring  at  Vi*  rtfvoii.i -- 

vmaa  liltle  Ihirit  Mian  ttith  the  iiiHimii 

the  ci'efflcieiit  of  fiicliim  was  less,  nvrlnt: 

tRliowii  by  tlii9   lui'iv  mpiil   cire'iilaumi  <•:    
bronKe  benrinic  lieutPtl  Hnd  seizfi  i>ii  <m*  tn-*c«f*iwt 
and  on  aiiQllier  oocasiou  with  *!>>  |K>utiilR  iit-r  sqii.iiv  Uil'U. 
bt-'ArliiR  iiDiltM'  siiiiilnr  coiiilllioiis   lieutra  ari'l    ~'  " 
pounds  Iter  sciiiiirv  iiitli.    The  sl«-el  fonlKlep  on 
wards  trieJ.  IdlirifHtiiiB  witU  three  ami  wiili   i 
fi  icliim  nils  from  vi\e  and  n  Imlf  lin.eg  to  t«  ic' ..    ^ 
(;ro()Vi  s.     fS>-H  nlw  Alli.wjilile  Pri'ssiires,  poKf  U^Wj  i 

JWcrcnry-balh  Pfvot.  — A  ni-arly  fru'lionl<-sa  step  lira 
obiiiiiieil  bv  tloiiunu'  tlio  bearing  uilb  U»  supcrlnciiiiibt'jii  Wf-14. 
(TUry.  Sueh  hd  apparatus  is  tiseU  lu  the  ligbiliousvti  ot  iji  Hcv 
is  (htisdescribeil  iu  Kii(/g,Juiy  H,  It*!*},  p.  41: 

The  npti.^nl  apparatus,  weiebiiig  about  1  ton,  restB  on  a  c»r_ 
table,  which  in  supporleU  by  a,  vertical  ehaft  of  wi\iU|(bt 
diameter. 

Tliis  is  kept  in  position  at  the  top  by  a  In-., 
and  ai  t)ie  Iwttoin  in  tlie  same  way.  win 
pivot  reMint;  in  a  Kteel  tiockel,  uliiub  is  li 
tile  vertical  shaft  tliere  is  riBl'llv  Hxed  o  : 
iMcranil  11.8  in.  In  depth,  wliicli  Is  pliiii. 
bHtti  eonttiineil  in  a  tixeil  outer  drum  1 
vertical  SHrfac(»R  of  the  dnmi  and  rbiR  btjju 
niucli  OS  possible  tlir  vciluine  of  inerctiry'  inbuui  'JJO  iltn.),  wbtml 
tal  clearanee  at  llie  bottom  !.••  0. 1  in. 

BAIiI.*BEABI?JGS,  FBIC'TION  BOI.I.Ens| 

A.  H.  Tvler  iKiit;'o.  Oct,  -'iX  tsis    |.    ivi  .  afi..   .•\|-il. 
paiiSMD  Willi  experiments  of  . 

That  each  luill  must  hiive  • 

The  liiills  and  race  must  b<- 

Tbe  l>nlls  sb-.iild  be  of  tlie  hr;;.  ji   jms.-iLie  ■Jiuiiiri-'i    'i  IjiLh  1 
divrHiiial  will  ailinit  of. 

Any  one  liull  xlioiiM  be  capnlilrof  cnnying  the  total  load  up 

Two  rows  (it  balls  me  always  sullli-ieiil. 

A  ball-bearing  requireti  00  uil,  and  Ikas  00  IvBdmcy  to  lia 
loaded. 

Until  the  cruHliInt;  t^lieiiKlb  of  th<^  ball*  Is  belnj;  noaruHl,  tlu>^ 
ihii^tance  Is  pro|iortii*iial  to  llie  load. 

The  fiieiioniil  resi.-»taiic'e  is  Inversel.v  proimrlloiial  to  Ihfdll 
hallM.  but  In  what  exnet  projK'rtlon  Mr.  Tylifr  Is  iinablv  10  aarJ 
varies  with  tlie  f»tpiiire.  j 

The  resistance  in  liidep<*ndent  tif  titf*  ninnber  nf  tnlls  rtri.t  .  f  t| 

No  riibblnB  Hi'lion  will  tak- 
ftlfuiusl  It  are  unncesiiaiy,  :i< 

The  alinvi«  will  sllxn-  (liilt  1  < 
and  IlKbt  Inada      On  Ibe  spli 
ninch  &s.1ll.(llld  revnlulinns  |>' 
hiu'"'  liny  oil  iipiin  iliein.     !•■ 
two  lldidi  lll^■  ddiMieler  of  lli'  I4 

Bitll-bearlnar*  l<»ve  m 
the  reiiscin  ii)r|in<vi!Mv  ilinl  I 
lit**'ti  (•Itlainfil  f I 
Ud.sirll.e.l  III  / 

Frirlloii-rol  ■■ 


.w*-« 


»mamimf^m'immm'm«irwm> 


trmr%ngm  for  Very  Hlg-h  Rotatlvr  Sp<>(>dK.    CProc.  Iiistl 

ls>iH^  |,.  4Hi  »— Iti  lliH  Parwiiis  Nlfiiiii-tiirbinL'.  which  ha»  a  Hp«eJ 

I  .-\s  IH.mx)  lev.  |H?r  niiii..  as  li  is  irnpos.-)il)lf  lo  Rfciiie  absoliilc  nc| 

aUinct".  ilie  lieariUKSuieot  s^|>fclul(;oU!ilriiciiun  so  as  tu  allow  of  a  ( 

*  i>4iiall  AiTiount  itf  latei-fil  frepiinni.     For  this  purpose  the  bMnrliipl 

I<1«?  1  by  two  »«-ts  of  stpH  wualii-is  l/IO  Inch  thick  ami  of  different  1 

h.  ttie  larger  titlinf;  clotu?  in  the  <^'asin(;  and  iihoiit  l/3'i  inch  clear 

»ing,  and    th«  sinall<T  tlttin^  close  on  the  heArini;  and  al>ont  l/'3'J 

r   of   the  casing.     The^ie  are  arraugfd  alt<*riiali.>l.v,  nntl  are    pr 

^Lber    by  a  spiral  Hpriiip.     C*i>nseqiien(ly  any  Iat4*ral  movement 

ling  causes  incm  to  sliile  mutunllv  BRainstone  another,  and  by  ' 

:ir-ii  t->  olieclc  ur  damp  any  vibrations  that  may  liesel  up  in  the  spil 

•  ■  V  of  the  spindle  Is  then  lo  riHate  about  Its  axis  of  inasis.  or  | 

-  it  is  lailed;  nnd  tht-  hearintrs  ai*  liit^ipby  relieved  from  exl 

■,  find  tbo  machine  from  undue  vitiraliou.     Tlie  Hudiu^  of| 

.11.  or  ntthor  allowing  the  turhini' Itself  to  (ind   i.'s  i 

I.  Is  a  uell-known  de>  loo  In  otla'r  hrnnehes  of  meL-lmnl 

■t'  of  the  oeiitrifii^^al  hydro-extrac(or,  wliere  a  iiirs-h  vl 

rice  is  allowed  to  linil  its  own  centre  of  (fy  rat  ion;  the  fait 

ijuiily  dill  it  revolve  and  the  less  \vn«  the  vibi-ation. 

11  is  to  be  found  in  (he  splndlPH  of  spinning  nmchinel 

.ilioiit  10.000  or  11,000  revolutions  per  Miiiiiite:  lliey  are  iiiul 

i  and  temi'ered  steel,  and  although  of  very  stnall  diineiisioiiK,  tf 

'.r'tt  r  of  the  largest  portion  or  driving  wliorl  heiii^  perhaps  n| 

..  it  is  found  iiiipraolicahle  to  rim  tbem  at  that  .-speed 

lied  a  hnrdnnil-fast  hearinif.   They  are  therefore  run  will 

-:ancesurroiindinKthe  l>eaiiuK,8itcliassteel  spriuKs,  heuin 

•ork.     Auy  eliuslic  suhstance  Is  sufTtcient  to  absorb  the  vibration,  au^ 

M^t  of  absolutely  steady  running. 

FRICTION  OF  STE.\1TI-ENC;I7<)B8. 

Slstrlbatloii  of  the  Frirtioii  of  Kiig;lneH.—rrof.  Thurston  ii>| 

■•  Fiiction  and  Lost  Woi  k,"  gives  the  (oliowiiig: 

1.  J-  3 

Main  bearings 47.0  35.4  JB.'o 

Piatnn  and  rod 82.9  25.0  81.0 

Crank-pin 6.8  5.11  „  „ 

CroM-beod  and  wrist-pin 6.4  4.1  f  "" 

Valve  and  rod S.B  3»,4  [^  »,  n 

Eccentric  strap S.3  4,0)  " 

Unk  and  eccentric 9.1 

Total .      

lOO.O  100.0  100.0 

|o.  1,  Straight-line,  6"  X 12",  lialanced  valve;  No.  3,  Slrainht-lhie,  6"  X  U", 
1  valve;  No.  3,  7"  X  10",  Lansing  traction  locomotive  valve-^ar. 
■  rston's  tests  on  a  number  of  ditTcrent  styles  nf  eitirines  indicatu 
iiiclion   of  anv  eoKlne  is  practically  cuiislaiit   under  all   loads. 
^.  .M.  E.,  vili.  to;  ix.  T4.) 
gbt-line  engine,  S"  x  14",  l.H.P.  fruni  T.-l]  to  5T.M,  the  friction  H. 
Birularly  between  1.9"  aud  iM,  the  vnrlatiuii  lieiiig  iiidepond^Qt 
With  50  H.H.  on  the  brake  Hit;  I.H.R  was  only  ;i.',<i,th«  friclion 
loiily  i.O  H.P.,  or  about  t%. 

Itompoiind  condeuslng-eDgine,  tested  fntin  0  to  lOi.C  brake  H.P,,  pavB 
'.front  U.9-i  to  117.8  H.P.,  the  friction  H.P.  varyin/  only  from  14.1W  to 

At  the  mnxiiiiuiuload  the  friclion  was  15.i'  H.P.,  or  \i.V%. 
Jfrietlnn  iiierea.'ies  with  increase  of  the  Imilerpressure  fioiii  30  to  70 

'    i  omes  constant.    The  friction  generally  increases  witb  in- 

ut  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

^(ecrjin  ludiratiir,  July.  IHJXJi,  i:oiii|iarlng  llie  calculated 
■I  li  niimlier  of  engines  with  the  friclion  tin  delerniiueil  by  nieasure- 
ftuils  ihai  ill  one  case,  a  TSton  aininonin  k'e-uiacliitie,  (lie  friclion  of 
Jipressor.  17>-4  H.P.,  i8B<X'ounted  for  by  a  coetlleieiil  of  friclion  of  T^> 
il  liearings,  allowing  (K  of  the  entire  friclion  of  the  machine 
I    pistins,  siiitlliig-boxe'i.  and   valves.     In  the  case  of  the 
.iigengino.  esiiiimiing the  friction  ot  theexterinil  bearings 
>-iii  '"f  friction  of  li^  and  that  of  liie  platong,  valve*,  ami  stuff- 
as  in  the  case  of  the   icctiiacliioe,  we  have  the  lolaV  ItVcUsmij 
'  at  fulU/irv : 


* 


^ 

943  fRICTlON    AND   LUBRICATION.  ■ 

Hon«-  MH 

Cr&uk-pinsand  effectofpiston-tbrust  on  main  abaft..  0.71  lli 

Weight  of  ny-K'lieel  and  main  shaft..... I.n  *{, 

Steani-valvea O.lB  M 

Eccentric ..v....^. HOT  11 

PiRtons t)  «»  J 

Btiiffinfr  boxes,  six  altoRether  O.Tl  HI 

Air-pump  «W  W 

Total  friction  of  englue  with  load (.111  ^H 

Total  friction  per  cent  of  indicated  power  ...    4.?r  ^^f 

The  friction  nf  ibis  onRine,  tlionpb  vftrj'  '""■  '"  PT'I  !>•■ 

power,  is  satisfactoril.v  OCcOuntt^il  for  b3'  Morin'j*  lux^  .  coH 

of  friction  of  ;>?.    In  iMrtli  ouscs  tin-  main  Items  of  It  •» 

the  weight  of   tlie  fly  wlieel  and   iiiuin  xhafc  and  <■ 
craiik-pina  and  main-shaft  hearings.    In  the  ice-ai:i 
are  tlie  larger  owing  to  tlie  extra  ci-anlc  pin  to   v 
in  the  I'awlucltui.  encine  the  fiiniier  pieponderates,  aa  ili. 
partly  alisorbed  by  uie  puiniJ-piBton>^,  and  only  the  8tir|:'l 
the  iranlv-shafl. 

Prof.  Demon  desi-rihes  In  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  i 
which  he  niejisiireii  liie  friction  of  a  piston  packinfr 
of  tlie  piston  were  ilinmnjjhiy  ilevoid  of  lutiricani,  il 
was  found  to  l>e  atraul  Tl^S  ;  with  an  oil-feed  of  one  <1 
coefflcient  wa«  al>oul  !>%;  wiili  one  dmp  per  minute  i 
rates  of  feed  (ta»e  uimaiisfnclory  hibrlostioii,  the  ; 
endK  of  the  stroice  when  run  slowly,  and  tlietiow  of  i' 
wa*  found  l>y  anulysi!.  to  (■(•ntain  about  Ms  of  iron.  * 
tniniite  reduced  tlie  coeffleieiit  of  friction  to  about  ;  j..: 

perfect  lubrication,  the  oil  relainitiK  us  natural  color  un.l  j^iuilj 

liVBBICATIOIV. 

neasnrcin«nt  of  tbe  Dnrabilltr  of  Iinbrlr«Mt 

ton.  Trims.  AS.  .M  .E  ,  xl.  lUI-'i.  i— l'in.tti«rilllTt-ieinL-e!i  .>r  .i.iroii 

cants  depetnl  not  oh  any  dilT'';:        ' ^  ....  . 

out"  by  rubl>ing,  but  upon  il  Hj 

from  tlie  benrihK-i<urfnces. 

delicate  In  their  intluruee  tli 

blllly  of  hibrlcjiiit."  imiv  t>e  si 

caline  value  Imvitig  anj*  prsi' 

limit  to  tbecon8umptioii  nf  uil .,. ,..  ..i. ... 

refuse  becomes  mixed  Willi  it.  as  in  ruin 

of  ajtrictdturnl  machinery.    The  ecntioni 

the  mialiiy  used  i8  concerned— thni  '     - 

simply  prtiportioiial  to  the  raleai  > 

out  of  minute  orifioes  or  cra<-l(s.    i 

fli-sl,  in  jiroportiou  to  llieir  vi(M'o.sii  i ,;.  .-, , 

pillary  properiieK  which  ttiev  may  pn.s.si..vs  h_v  v 
dieriis  uiiwl  In  their  coniposiiion.     XVlii'rf  the  ti 

binjr-surfaces   must   l>e  so  preat  lliut   l-r 

h'-Rrinsrs  In  nRiren  time,  and  llje  surioni 
lie  fednt  high  lemperaiures  i.r  applii-d  I. 

fluidity,  il  Is  probable  that  111"  '■■'■-'  " 

coMllj-  is  a-i  Kreat  us  In  tlie  f 
oil   nui.'t   flow   freely   at   or., 

resirletrd.  IIS  in  the  CB^'- '  f  : . •, 

Biioli   huavv  odn  ill  n  nmfiiri.    Oils  of   I* 

flul'lliv  nr>iir.,xiii,nflt,.  n^l  lli.n  be  iumwI. 

Iteiniive  Valnr  <>i  ;...  nt««,      i   t  ii...t^.. 

■  line**  rleiiM'lits  v 
'  ''nnslUUptioii  of 


UV»it  ^^^»■  V*'- 


lUBHICATlOX. 


943 


m^^^Btbe  weai'inK  away  of  the  met&Uic  parts  ent«ra  tii  ad- 
fiirth*»rmArff.  the  lulttfi-  is  the  ?r<»ntest  oleint-nt  of  C(i»t  In  the  case. 
ualtBcattons  of  a  Good  Labrlcant,  as  liiUi  down  by 
i-y,  hi  Hroi;  lusl  C.  E.,  vul.  xlv..  p.  ;(;y,  ure;  I.  Siifflcieui  body 
;  sill  faces  frt*  from  contact  undw  niaxiinuin  prtxsury.  a.  The 
iis.slljlc^  tluiillty  L-oii!>i!«teiit  nilli  the  fore^oiii|i^  couilitiuD.  3.  The 
libit;  coeffivicnl  of  friellon.  w)iioh  In  bach  luhricntioD  would  be  for 
pa  apprusimaiely.  4.  Ihu  vreattisl  capacity  for  HiorhiB:  aud 
»y  heat.  5.  A  Jilgh  temperature  of  deconiposKion.  u.  Power 
Jatloii  or  the  action  of  the  atniiwplwi-e.  7.  FreeUom  from  oor- 
on  the  nieiuls  »im>ii  winch  iiseil. 

inbrtcantit  for  Olflerent  Pnrpoaea.    (Thurstoa.) 


1 


tures,  a»  In  rocktlrllls 
joiiipiessed  air: 

^resisurea,  glow  speed . . 

iree,  with  alow  speed. .  - 

iras  and  high  speed  — 

res  and  high  spued 

chluery 


I  Light  rdlueral  lubricatlD^-oUs. 

)  Graphitts  soapstone.  and  other  solid 
'(     luiirlcauis. 

)  The  above,  and  lard,  taliow,  and  other 
(     greases. 

)  Sperm-oil,  castor-oil,  and  heavy  mln- 
I     era!  oilii. 

Ji  Sperm,  refliifJ  petroleum, olive,  rape, 
'(     cotton-SfHii. 

t  Lard  (ill,  talloiv-oii,  heavy  mineral  oils, 
t     aud  (he  heavier  veet^tubluutls. 
Hfavy  iiiineritl  oils,  IbkI.  mllMW. 


other  delicate  me«ha 


\  Clnrilted  sperm,  ni-al'M-tooi.  porpoise, 
'-;     olive,  and  light  mineml  lubriuallog 


/       OilH. 


lard  Is  much  used;  olive aod 


e  with  mineral  oils,  sperm  is  best: 

IV  KOfid. 

or  Oil  needed  to  Kan  on  Knglne.- -The  Vacuum  Oil 

In  i-eKpiiii.ie  to  an  iii()idi'y  a»  [•>  cobi  of  oil  to  run  a  lOOOH.P. 
rtne,  wrote:  The  cost  of  i  iimiing  two  engines  of  eq\ml  »l7.«  of  the 
te  i»  not  always  the  Kaiiie.  Therefore  while  ite  could  fuiuisb 
ing  what  it  is  costinK  some  of  our  customers  haviug  Corliss 
00(1  H.P.,  we  could  only  give  n  Keneral  idea,  which  in  itnelt 
islderably  out  of  the  way  iis  lo  the  prohable  cost  of  cylinder- 
ills  l>er  year  for  a  particular  engine.  Such  an  eneine  ought  to 
III  less  thnji  8  drops  of  fflO  W  oil  inr  minute.  It  HOW  drops  are 
;la«  QMiirt.  and  8  drop.i  used  per  uiiuute,  it  would  take  about 
half  barrels  (SV  S  ptillniis)  if  WO  W  cylinder-oil,  at  1)5  cent.s  per 
about  |iS5  for  cylinder  oil  per  year,  running;  fl  days  a  weel;  and  10 
ly.  Engine-oil  would  be  even  innre  dlrtlcnlt  Co  guess  at  what  the 
1  be,  l)eeaii«"  it  would  depend  upon  the  number  of  cups  re(iulred 
rine,  which  varies  .xoinewhnt  according  to  the  style  of  the  engine. 
loiibtleSH  be  safe,  iiowever,  lo  calculate  at  the  outside  tliat  not 
wice  as  much  engine-oil  would  Ije  reuuireiJ  as  of  cvUniJer-oil. 

Oil  Ou.  in  ISUa  ptiblished  the  following  results  of  practice 
*' cylinder-oil: 

)  20  and  32  x  4R;  88  revs,  per  min. ;  1  drop  of  oil 
per  inin.  to  1  drop  in  two  minutes. 
'X),  33.  and  411  X  48;  1  drop  every  2  minutes. 
I  30  and  W  X  3S:  14.1  revs.  |>er  min.:  2  drops  of  oil 
(  per  min.,  reduced  afterwards  to  1  drop  per  min. 
j  15  X  '-iS  X  IC ;  "J40  revs,  per  min. ;  1  drop  every  4 
]     minutes. 

__-j  on  ocean-steamers  cnmniunica ted  to  the  author  by  Prof. 

I  gave:  for  ISOO-H  P.  marine  eii^clne.  .'i  to  8  Knulish  g&llobs  (S  U> 
als.)  of  englne-oli  per  'il  hours  for  external  lubrication;  and  for  a 
lunrine  entrine.  triple  eK|i(itis'.oii,  runninij;  TS  re.v»,  \>eT  \i\\i\.,«iVs  1 
iJs.  per  »'•/  hours,    't'lif  cytinder-oll  cousun\v>tV*n  \*  eTusiiwVwvAl 
from  I  til  4  trttla.  pir  tiny  oti  differeut  eim'mes,  mcXxiiin*  c-s\vQ&«c 
u\'al>  tlif  pi»iiiii-'iiiln 

*''<*''  "*«'<'  «"  »  fcocomott^e  r.T»»V-»V 

'•  io      1  •  ''■  '"-*^'  -''*>■'':  --^  very  t-omoiviVciiV  oaa»" 

tta  Ktien  a  Jocoiijotive  main  ciauk-yin  tiouaur" 


Dund  engine,  -! ' 


I 


I 


FWCTIOS   AND   Ll'BRlCATION. 

ut>le  InohM  of  oil  in  a  thousand  mlleo  of  service.   Tbis  is  equMnlUk] 
nii4i>iiililli>D  of  one  iiiilliirrani  lo  scveniy  n]iiar«  inoliew  of  surfiiw  toW 

Tlie  F.x'uniliiHltoii  of  Lubricatinicolla.    (l^-of. Thos.  B.  t 
1910.)— Tlif  Keurmlly  ai'cvpted  oonditiottj 

lit  llit>  Hiirfaofic.  to  wlilcb  it  la  ApptM,! 
tlier.     iVlsi^tisitr.) 

"id,  eitlit-r  of  m'ineral  or  animal  origin. 
lit  with  "  body." 

Is. 

lie  to  produce  rjiIclnHnh  or  "piBMllUE; 

i- iii;i.l'- II.  verify  tiie  a*..  '  li  rlii'niJC»i«» 

Lilly  nnanKed  in  llie  foi 

!;'- oil,  wlietlier  a  Kiiiijile  n:  .     ftciuiiaUll^''' 

.    ■-'    lifiixiiy.    S.  Viscosity.    4.  FlasJi  i"-liii,     fi,    Buniirgpa* 

r.  t'orfflolent  of  friction.    8.  Cold  test.  ^ 

dirt-ctions  for  makinf;  all  of  file  above  testa  are givea ion*' 

■  ttll  i<-le, 

Welfflita  of  Oil  per  Gallon.— The  following  are  approiiuulHrl'' 
'  «i't<i|!li(K  (lei-  cftllMii  of  dilTfrent  kinds  of  oil  (Peun,  R.  R.  SpeoifiMlions):  ^^ 

I,(iri1-oil,  tallow  oil,  m-at'D-foot  oil.  bone-oil,  colzaoil.  mimtaul-*™"! 
rn|ie-seed  oil,  jiarafllne-oll,  500°  lire-test  oil,  engine-oil,  and  cylinder lotii 
'  TH  (>oiiuils  per  gallon. 

i      >\  ell-oil  and  pa8iieue#r-(.'ar  oil.  T.4  pound.s  p«r  gallon:  navy  qwnK 
]K>iiniifi  per  ^llon;  siirnnl  oil.  T.l  pounds  p<-r  gallon;  800°  bnnjf  " 
''pouiidH  per  frallon;  and  ]M>°  hiiniing  oil.  6.6  pounds  f»i>r  khIIod. 

Penna,  R.  B.  $l]>oftlIrBtlona   for  Petroleum  Pi 
1889«     Five  ilifferi'iil  gindt-H  ipf  peiroleuiii  pioduots  will  beusri! 

The  Mittleriiil*  de.HinKj  iinLl(>r  ihis  spi^cifieation  are  the  prodtirrirf  ilw** 
tillatii<n  and  renniiig- of  petroleum  unmixed  with  any  I 

ISO"  FtrV'test  «<7.— This  Kradu  of  oil  will  iiol  b«>  at'.  ■ 
not  "  water-wbil«  "  in  color;  iH  flasliea  below  JtJO-  : 
below  1 M "  Fab renheit ;  (4)  is  clinuly  or  shipuienl  him  ilmi  u  r«i""' 
lYiociviMl,  from  Uie  presence  of  phie  or  suspended  matter;  (*' ''*'*'?I', 
opaque  or  kIiowk  cloud  wben  the  saniple  has  l>een  10  minutet  «t » ^'"f^i 
atnre  of  <y  Fabrenboit. 

The  tbisbiii^  and  liurninR  points  are  determined  by  heatinj!  tin  o"  * 
open  vessel,  not  less  Ibau  12°  per  minute,  and  applyinf;  tlieti^Cs™* 
7",  teKinninp  at  123°  FahrenhNt.    The  cold  test  may  be  com 
by  having  an  ounee  of  the  oil,  in  a  fonr-onnce  sample  Ikh 
mnnieler  suspended  in   the  oil,  and  exposing;  this  to  a  fic-. 
ioe  and  salt.    It  Is  advisable  to  stir  with  the  iberinometer  " 
Coolinj;.    The  oil  must  remain  transparent  lii  the  freeiinc     >  ■' 
minutes  after  it  has  cooled  lo  zero. 

300»  >Vre-fc«f  Oi7,— This  gra«le  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  if  "^"l':'  , 
not  "water  wliile  "  in  color;  CJ)  flaslies  below  HW  Ffthrfiiiii-ii:  ■'  T. 
below  SDS"  Fahrenheit;  (J)  Is  cloudy  or  shipiuenc  bns  cloiidi  ''""T'^l- 
received,  from  the  presence  of  glue  or  siiapended  mailer:  '■'^'iZ^ 
opaque  or  shows  cloud  when  the  sample  has  been  10  niinulf*"*'*^^^ 
atnreofS'.;"  Faiirenbeil. 

The  flasbin^-  and  burning;  points  are  determined  lb>- 
test  oil,  exi-ppt  that  the  oil  is  heated  16»  per  minute,  u 
first  atS4','°  Fiilirenhell.    The  cold  test  is  made  the  s.i 
that  ice  and  water  are  used. 

ParaffltiF-oil. — This  pradeofoil  will  not  be  act-epted  If  i' 
other  than  pale  lettinn  color:   (2)  flashes  below  S40*  FaliP'i 
viscosilv  less  than  40  Becoiids  or  moi-u  than  65  seconds  »!■■      , 
described  under  "  Well  Oil  "  at  100°  Fabrenhelt  throughout  'I")'*',  h^i 
gravity  at  60°  Fahrenheit,  below  24*  KnuinfS.  or  above  -^^  Htmh  m"^\ 
October  1st  to  Jlay  1st  has  n  cold  test  above  10°  Fahri    '  ,   ^ 

The  lla.shlnK-|K>int  is  (tetermined  same  as  for  .S00°  i"  '  ^, 

test  is  dcterniiiieil  us  fnllnws:  A  couplf  of  ouncosof  oil  '   "7^ 

sample  liottlp.  and  a  lliermometer  jilaced  In  it.     Tiic  •    ■ 
freczin/f  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  iM-imr  used  if  necessary,    v,'. 
become  hard,  the  boUte  I*  vfevnuveA  tt(>ta  the   frccziiiK  in 
frossn  oil  allowed  to  sodetk,  beVwR  sV\vTif4  »\4*\CUoto\\«Mi.'^  -kwi^i  -  ■ 
f/»ie  hy  intians  Of  the  tfefrtnoKvewv.uT^vWWw  \u»i*w\\\xMtt\\>w^'*-" 


,  -L"  Sl»  1 


Rt)i«  other 


SOLID    LUBRICANTS.  945 


.it)i«  other.  The  renilineof  the  (Kernioiueter  when  Ihift  is  lh« 
hl-ded  as  the  cold  test  of  tiie  oil. 
.—This  grade  of  oil  will  not  \<f  ncepl**!!  If  the  «aiii|<l>-  1 1)  flaahes, 
lat  to  October  1st.  li«-Iow  iW  Fiihh'iihelt,  or  friiin  <  k-|..l.iT  Ist  10 
ilow  200°  Falirfiihelt;  CSf  liuH  a  irravily,  t»l  00°  Faliivii)i»-it.  iMdow 
,  or  atK>v<»  30*;  iS)  from  Oetolier  1st  to  May  Ist  liiis  a  cold  t«it 
Fahrenheit;  (4)  sliows  any  pr«*eipitutioii  in  to  iiiihiitfH  wheii  5 
iMiettes  are  mised  with  115  cubic  criitimeln'j*  of  ss"  (tasclint';  I.M 
it'osliy  li's.s  than  .V*.  sfvontis.  or  niorf  than  IlKt  s.ecomls.  when  tefllv<i 
•fl  beluw.  From  October  tsi.  to  >Iny  1st  the  (est  must  be  made 
ircniii'it,  ami  from  May  1st  to  Oetolier  Isi  at  110°  Frtlirenhelt. 
mer  oil  thi'  Ba«IiiD>r  pu'iui  i*  deiemiimM  tlie  same  as  fur  parafllne- 
r  winti^riiil  the  saiiif.  I'xoepl  that  the  test  llaiue  Ik  iij|i|>>le<l  tlrsl 
irenhelt.  TIim  cohl  tetit  i><  iniitle  ilie  Kainv  a.s  for  piirairineoil. 
'.'ipiuiijon  t<'9t  is  to  excliiite  tarry  and  sus[)eiuled  matter.  It  i» 
ide  by  piittini,'  5  cubic  c'litlinetre^  nf  the  i-il  in  a  HXl-ciibiccen- 
tidiiaie,  then  fltiin;;   to  tliti  mark  with  gn.^uliue.  and  ihurouRhly 

Kity  test  Isninde  as  follows:  A  l(Ki  cut  iccemiinetre  pipette  of  the 

Emisr,-!Kraoii:>ti;-d  tohnld  ji'.wi  liiietib,ect'-nt(nn>ti'esto  thebottotii 
The  size  of  the  aiM-rtiirc  at  Ihi  hotiorii  in  tlien  made  such  that 
limerrMS  of  water  ut  MV  Kuhreuueit  will  run  out  the  pipette 
p  bottom  of  the  bulb  m  'it  sf«.n(lK  Pipettes  witti  liulhB  vanrlnfC 
cht^  to  liu  inches  iu  dmiifeter  out.side,  and  aLout  4^1  iuehea  lonfir 
te,':.ictly  the  mime  rcfliilts,  provided  the  uiiertiije  m  the  bottom 
^rsiJ!^  "  The  pipette  belu«  ohtjiined,  the  oil  sample  Is  heated  ti> 
d  t^mpcratiire  eaie  lieinL'  ti'l<eu  to  have  it  iinlfoitidy  heated,  and 
«nn  lip  into  ti.e  pipette  lip  Ihi'  pruper  niaric.  The  time  occupied 
"     rnnoiug  oi:t,  d-.>nrn  t  >  llie  bottom  of  the  bulb,  elves  the  teat 


pfc 


_.«•»*  0/7 — This  KTade  nf  oil  will  not  bf  nccepled  if  sample  (1) 
o«v  .tl.'i'  Fuhrenhi-it;  r-il  shows  pi'e(?ipitation  with  K'OHohne  »heu 
■nerilied  for  well  oil. 

to;:  point  is  dutenniiied  the  wiiiie  as  for  well  oil,  except  that  the 
'  ipplied  Ural  nt  4**°  Fntirenheil. 


|ai 


SOLID    LUIIUirAINTS. 


Ite  ill  Bcoiidillui]  uf  puu<i<'r  aiiJ  iiHed  as  a  solid  liihn'cnni,  ho 
Uiiiigiiidh  it  from  ti  ts<|iiiil  liiliniant,  lias  lieen  found  to  do  well 
utter  has  fuili^d. 

II  lH-".>,  says;  "Grapliile  lesseneil  frfctlon  In  all  ensea  Hherft  It 
CJeueral  .Mnrln.  ni.  a  later  iltile.  cotiiduiir-d  fiiuii  e>i|>eriiiieiitB 
ltd  be  oKed  with  ailvaiita^e  iinder  lienvy  pi^eHKiires;  itrnj  Prof, 
.jund  It  well  adapted  for  use  iiNiler  liotli  lljflitainl  hfaty  pifssmres 
d  Willi  certain  oils  It  is  eMpecliilly  valuahle  to  prevent  abrasvlon 
f  miller  l«eavy  loads  ami  at  hnv  vHlipelilf-s. 

>11C«  also  called  lale  and  Klealite,  In  rhe  form  of  powder  Htid 
.  oil  or  fat.  is  xnmetimeK  ii«eil  as  a  liiUnVHiit..  niti|ihil^  or  HOup- 
;d  with  aoflp.  is  used  on  snrfacesof  wood  woikiiiu  aKahi»<t  either 
»d. 

Plipllfte. — A  new  self'liihrlcalliiR  lienrliiK  knowii  aK  fibre- 
eitcriUeil  hy  John  H.  Cooper  in  Trans.  A.  H.  SI.  K..  .\llr.  S74,  as 
I  of  P.  H.  Holmes,  of  tJaiJioer.  Me.  This  heiirint;  material  is 
selected  imiiinU  Kfaphile,  which  liu.s  U-en  tlni-ly  Mlviiled  ati<l 
foreijjn  and  gritty  mailer,  to  which  Ik  aiMed  wood  tibrei>r  other 
ced  in  water  in  various  proportions,  nccordinj,'^  to  the  piirpuse  to 
and  then  aolididetl  by  preiwiire  in  specially  pi-epjireii  moiilds  ; 
ral  from  wliich  the  bearinirrs  are  flrsl  thoroii^lily  dried,  then  wilii- 
a  drj'hiK  oil.  and  (Inally  subjected  to  a  eiirient  <it  hot.  (try  air  for 
ie  of  oxiilizine  ilie  oil,  and  h:irdeniiiK  'he  mns.s.  Wlieu  (lnl^he<^. 
le  "  machined  to  sb^:  or  shape  wit  h  the  same  fuclllty  and  ineaiiA 
tn  Dieljils. 
\  is  a  soHii  eonipotifvi,  usually  cotita\n\nB  ^r9iy\A\«.\i\ttAv\u^\ve 

I  cylinders  which  are  fliled"i)eriiiinien\\y  \ivU)  V\<j\«>«  C\v\\V''\  >8 

ftJie  bearing.    The  bearing  tliuK  tittetl  rutrn  n«\v\\ow\  v%1  <a».\j 


hour     I     ni.o!  Ill  from MiiKdicateUliHaMBlhaiHHeMr.i 

(.'■  /I'l'ii  — The  MCCfinn)anylnK  tablf  will  be  c 

nilim  -iti  iif  cuiKila  neeUeil  for  till- iiroJuction  < 

of  ir^Mi  tn  ii  -.('.  i-itli-rt  lime. 

KIrsi,  atii-crialii  t\w  Binuuiit  of  Iron  which  is  likely  to  1 
c»st,  mid  lliH  leii);tli  of  lime  which  can  he  devoted  pmfltal 
ni»1  <ii]>|»>8lMK  Hint  two  hnuTH  i*  nil  that  cati  he  spared  for 
itiiit  ii-ii  liMi!)  IS  I  111-  nmouut  wliich  must  tx*  melteu.  find  in 
lim-  roi'iirily  jier  hour  tn  Pounds,  the  nearest  flirnre  to  t 
u  liit'h  IK  found  In  \m;  lO.TliO  ijoiiiids  per  hour.  oppoMte  to  wl 
[liniiiHler  (if  ["iipolas.  Inside  IJniiip,  will  Ij*  found  4S  iiiehfl 
h\zp  of  i-iipnln  required  to  furnish  ten  tons  of  molten  iron  I 

Or  siip|Ki!-c  Ihiit  the  hi-atM  were  likely  to  average  6  tona.i 
Int'rease  up  to  ten,  then  it  niiuht  not  he  thniiKht  wise  to  ll 
)iense  cofiKeqiK^iit  on  worklnp  a  48-lni'h  cupola,  in  which  ( 
tile  dii-i'Oiiiinx  piven,  it  will  Iw  found  that  a  40- inch  cupola 
purpose  for  fi  tons,  hut  would  require  an  additional  kour'a 
wlierever  the  !0  ton  heat  came  aluucr. 

The  quotations  in  the  iHl>!e  are  not  itiipposed  to  be  all  t 
In  thd  hour  liv  HODie  of  llin  very  iMwt  cupolas,  but  are  ail 
whlcli  n  Oiitniiion  ciifKila  under  ordinary  circumstances  n 
melt,  in  the  time  R))e«'iflert, 

Hright  i./  if'i/;>i.(ii.— IJy  beieht  of  cupola  is  meanl  the 
base  to  the  bottom  »ide  nf  the  chari;iD^  hole. 

Dfjilh  of  Hi'tlimi  nf  Ciijiofo.— Depth  of  bottom  is  the  . 
saod-lMM).  after  It  iuus  )i««u  foi-ined  at  the  bottom  of  thft- 
under  «lde  of  the  tm'erei*. 

All  the  amountH  for  fuel  are  baaed  upon  a  bottom  of  1 
any  departure  frmn  tliiia  depth  niuat  be  met  by  a  correi 
the  quantity  of  fuel  u&i>d  on  the  bed:  more  io  proporti 
iucreatied.  and  lexs  ivlieo  it  is  made  shallower. 

.4»ioiiiif  of  furl  A.'e</ii('i  erf  -ui  the  /{«■</,— The  column      

quired  on  Bed,  in  Pounds"  i»  based  on  llio  supposition  til 
straight  one  all  Ihraugrh,  and  thnt  the  liottotn  ii»  Irt  inche.t 
turn  be  more,  as  in  tbosu  of  the  Colliaii  type,  then  addtl 
needed. 

Tlie  ainountK  being  given  In  {xiunds,  answer  for  both  c( 
Khoiild  coal  be  used,  it  wimUI  rench  about  !,'>  inches  aliove  tl 
same  weljfht  of  coke  would  brine  it  up  to  about  ta  iDch«!  abt 
which  ia  a  reliable  niiiDiint  to  slock  with.  j 

Firtt  Chnyge  of  7roii.— The  ainoiiiits  given  tn  this  eollu8B 


rtfi 


CUPOLA   PRACTICE. 


94; 


•HOIS 


"WIS 


•>•-••:«  St  moeeanaioio 


'S£;s^St3S»^»^!SSS$iS$ 


g|olot<onn'^^'«>04U9tpep<e^t-c*acoDaDaDaoQOaBe>aioesoo 


■  Ml 

>i<»»a 

MbOta 

••"18 

i   jiMH<-> •-^-<eieici0e'999ew^^ictaieia«ic«9tP!P9««L-i.-t'> 

•miw 

^|ww*ot-t-i-.DcaDacooow9jc»^-v^^^^'*'*^»^o»«fflao 

Z    91 9t  w  w  •>»  o>  w  *i  ?>  -N  ^  ?»  CI  T*  -w  T>  51  Ti  <??  K  TO  K  «  ra  cc  5?  m  er  «  CO  X 


I 


4 


7iotn63^v^o«Ci^«sccce9DaoaDxooaC;:X}xaceiOC3i?r^?>v4& 


ta     t047So7t'«         codSooQO     t-- 1- ei7' 1*1- V'nr  ^         Cs  C^ 

-^  TJ  c«  ?r  n  00  n  tc  «  jc  u:  to  s  X  o  o  94  7'  p;  cc  tc  •»  I  -  c^  a  ^  R  o  e  » 


S22SSSnS22SS222g^li?JKS?l3335t53a;3S!B 


Vkl  [II  'S2SS||iIS§^iliig.si|||5|p_H_.^|| 


009900  9  00  oessooso^cooOQeoo-soooo 


I 


tnr»>r««  1C  iiiPties  hy  1^  iitchen."  I 

if  it  is  found  tliiiithp  given  i.nnibernf  flat  tuyeres exo 
that  of  the  <JitniDi.sli>'d  part  of  the  cupola,  thev  can  l)« 
the  ileui-fasei,!  leiigtli  to  lie  Bdded  to  the  depth,  or  th< 
end;  by  so  doings  we  arrive  at  a  modified  form  of  tlie  B 

Anollier  iiiiportant  poi?it  in  this  counection  is  lo  ni 
micli  II  ninuncr  bh  will  concentrate  the  Art?  at  the  ni 
Piiiallpst  possiiile  connmss,  so  t.lint  the  iiiHaI  in  fuKloti 
10  truvfi-iie  w  Idle  en«i-sed  to  llip  nxidizirie  iufliii'iK'e  of  ( 

To  ncconiplish  this,  recourse  bus  lieen  had  to  tbr  | 
rows  of  tuyeres  in  some  inslaniRs— the  ■Stewart  ra| 
three  rows,  and  the  ■'L'ollluu  cupola  furnace  '  liin  iit'  t' 

Bliisl  pii-xxwe. — Experiments  show  that  al' 
couKUUjed  ill  nieliinf;  h  ton  of  iron,  which  v 
or  more  than  both  iron  and  fii.l.     When  tl, 
plie<1.  the  coiiibiistiun  of  the  fuel   :i  j,erfeci,  mil  ■•ml 
result.    When  the  supply  of  «ir  is  fnsumcient.  th^  ctmil 
and  carbonic-oxide  >ra,s  l«  the  result.    The  amount  of  I 
Iwocaxes  is  as  15  to  4^  showing  .  loss  of  over  two  ihirt 
[wrfecl  coinhustiou. 

It  is  not  nlwavK  true  tlint  ne  obtain  tli"  mo?t  mpll  H 
forcing  into  the  cupola  llie  1   ruesl  qu  i 
toeleiat«  the  temiieratnre  of  the  air  ? 
into  otnliiiKtlon.    If  iiion*  air  thati  tin- 
reduces  the  toniperature.  and  retards  omusIui.'^iI'iii.  mul ' 
niB.v  he  extinguished  with  too  nui   h  Llast. 

4S/nf/  i;i  CuJi(i(m«. — A  certain  ainoiuil   nf  bI.tp  Is  tier.' 
molten  iron  which  ha.s  fallen  to  tue  bi. 1 1 
it  was  not  there,  the  iron  would  suIT>?r  i 

Wlien  sIbk  from  any  cause  form-i  in  I 
away  by  lu.sertinK  a  hole  a  little  lielnw   lli./   mjen  >    tl 
find  il.s  way  as  the  iron  rises  in  the  bottom. 

Ill  the  event  of  clean  Iron  aud  fuel,  slur  si-M.im  forini 
extent  in  small  heals  ;  this  renders  ain 
necessary,  iiut  when  the  cupola  is  to  ' 
»hea  inctiiubenl  on  the  nielter  to  flux  He- .   lu  .:i>  ju  .  n 
ne  it  Awa:r  in  the  manner  directed. 


CUPOLA   PRACTICE. 


Din 


I  8  to  10  pounds  of  metal;  auy  TrellconBtructed  cupola  if  ill 

^Am.  Sfacli.,  Mar.  5, 1891)  gives  the  ri.lluwinx  as  the  prnclice 
on-worlcs,  Carlei-el,  N.  J.:  "  Wb  tiif It  iIiuIv  from  twelitj  to 
J,  with  nn  areniep  of  112  i>fiim(l8  (if  Iron  K>  one  of  fiiel.  In 
even  to  nine  |n>uii<id  iy  itoorl  incliiotr.  >>ui  in  u  (miHiln  Hint 
f  inches,  any lliinK  l^^^^i^  iliun  nine  pmuikIk  slion's  a  ilffeol  iu 
Ituyei-es  or  strenulli  of  blii->t,  or  in  cliart^inK  "(>  " 
t's  Teil-lioolt,"  by  Thus  U.  Weat,  Riven  fony-six  reports  in 
t  cupola  practice  in  thirty  .St«tes,  rcadiiiig  fruiu  Maine  to 

llireeala  StoTe-rotmdrlea.  (Iron  Age,  At>ril  14,  1803.) 
(are  <"hnr^'fi1  exactly  I  he  isanie.  The  amonuc  of  fuel  on  the 
)the  charges  JilTers,  ullile  varying  atnoinils  of  iron  are  ut>ed 
I  Below  will  lie  foiinj  charg^lng-ligts  from  aoine  of  the  proMi- 
'rie»  in  the  country ; 


[  lbs. 

(coke 1,500 

-)  of  iron  ...  5,000 

ees  of  i  •'."..  1,000 

ond  cli  i;4i-« 

aoo 


llM. 

Four  next  chare«8  of  cok«, 

each  150 

Six  next  charges  of  colte.  each     I'JU 
Nineteen  next  charges  of  coke, 
each.  .  100 

^t  of  18  i<  -  r.  there  would  be  51S0  llw.  of  coke  used,  giving  a 
acreage  i  if  lunount  of  iron  melted  to  34  tons,  and  a  ratio  of 
I  to  1  of  c.  ;il  is  obtained. 


MI1S«6  of  iron. 


lbs. 
1,800 
1,800 
150 

1,000 


IbK. 
Second  and   third  charges  of 

fuel lao 

All  other  charges  of  fuel,  each     100 


'melt  5060  lbs.  of  coke  would  be  necessary,  giving  a  ratio  of 

O  1  pound  of  coke. 

lbs. - 

All  other  charges  of  iron 8,000 

A 11  other  charges  of  coke 150 


llw. 

coke  1,(500 

I  of  iron 4,000 

iecoiid  charges 

.   800 

I  tons  4100  Iba.  of  coke  would  be  used,  or  a  ratio  of  8.5  to  I. 
lbs.    I  lbs. 

^coke 1,800       All  clmrgen  of  coke,  each SOO 

lot  iron 6,<I00   |   All  olber  charges  of  iron a,»00 

18  tons,  !lt)00  lbs.  of  fuel  would  be  used,  giving  a  ratio  of  9.4 
1  of  coke.    Very  lilgli,  itiJeed.  for  stovc-plaie. 


Ills. 

All  other  charges  of  iron,  each  3,000 
All  other  charges  of  coal,  each     1T5 


Ihs. 

[coal  1,800 

I  of  iron 6,000 

I  of  coal SOO 

18  loiiH  4700  lbs.  t>r  coal  wotild  be  used,  giving  a  ratio  of  *,7 
Jb.  of  i-'onl. 

Bcient  to  demoiifitrate  the  varying  practices  existing  among 
loundrles.  In  all  ibe.se  places  the  iron  was  proper  for  stove- 
nand  apparenily  ihenj  was  little  or  no  difference  in  the  kind 
■IDd  at  the  diiTerent  foundries. 

F  Increaard   Driving.    (Erie  Oly  Iron. works,  1891.)— 
5  (50-ln.  cupola,  100  tuns  clean  ca.stings  a  week,  melting  8  tons 
Br  potind  nf  fuel.  7W  lbs. ;  per  i^ent  weight  of  go<wi  ett.si.luKs  to 
'i-  Jnn.  May,  ISOl:  incren.sed  rale  of  inelUugVd \\Vs^'>^^*  V^' 
.  furl,  Bla :  fifr  vfiit  weight  of  good  caBtVuK*i,"?>",  wnfc  «t«Jt, 
r.  JP.VUxi.  iron  per  ib,   fuel:  per  cttnt  weiRXxt  "t  ^««>A  c^"«- 
brva,«e  ira.<i  ni;irle  by  jjultiiig  in  au  a<ia«ionft\  toMH  «il  V 
T?/**''  '^  ounces.    Coke  was  used  as  tuer\.  C*I  •  *i-» 
.  1045.) 


I 


THK  FOCNDRY. 

•nre-blowem.    Si 
mm  applied  to  Oupol 


950 


BnOnalo  tUeel  Pressnre-blovver*.    Speeda  and  rapafM 

Diaa. 


i 

n 

i 

i 
1 

o 
d 

fci. 

1° 

■1 

o 

a 

£ 

s 

III 

c;  a 

Ih: 

m 

It 

c  cr 
B 

8 

a 
• 

y. 

x 

.vnr. 

-      ^-^ 

4 

4 

so 

H 

4Tm 

IftJo 

412 

1.0 

« 

a 

5 

35 

ft 

.3911 

!»ai 

OH) 

l.S 

10 

4ACIt< 

H 

6 

30 

B 

345G 

wias 

Sil 

3.0£  1     10 

il9T4 

11 

7 

35 

8 

309J 

4.;is 

nv!5 

3.1 

10 

M^i 

14 

8 

40 

tt 

!.Tl« 

5425 

MU,     3.S 

10 

WM 

IS 

» 

45 

10 

gfllT 

T«18 

SOW)!    7.1 

IJ 

«l« 

!« 

10 

55 

10 

■jise 

11295 

«oi-a 

10.2 

1? 

J — 

-10 

11 

73 

la 

I«S9 

21078 

5861 

23  9 

u 

m 

12 

8H 

13 

163)9 

34395 

f)6i)6 

35.8 

14 

III  the  table  are  given  two  different  speetln  and  presKurm  fur  ••(!• 
Iilower,  and  the  quantity  of  Iron  (hat  may  be  inplfrd,  \«t  hmtr.  "til 
In  lUK'USes  it  is  i^comniended  toufse  tile  luwe-i  .  ,..■-. 

the  work.    Rim  uji  to  the  speetl  giyeii  for  thni  i 
lily  of  air  h3' the  l>laKt-),'nle.    Tlie  tuyere  a i-eii - 
of  the  area  of  Cupola  in  square  inches,  with  not    it—  • 
equal  ilistaiicrs  aroiuul  cupola,  so  a»  to  equalize  the  ' 
nations  in  teaiperatiire  affect  the  wnrliiiif:  of   cm 
weather  requli'lnjc  incrfa.M^  in  volume  <>f  nir- 

(  Kor  IHhIes  of  tile  SlurtevBiu  blowt  r  we  paire*  3151  uud  S-fl.) 

liona  lu   neltlug   Irou   In  Copoiaa,  -  (I.  O.  Valr, 
March  6,  1H8I,  ^ves  a  revoiM  of  a  45-iu.  Colliau  cupola  as  rnlliiKK 

B«Uo  of  (iwl  to  tiVB,  1  to  7AI 

riood  ca.stluga i ...  l!l,SHlt«».j 

New  scrap !!,«*  '' 

Millings fl»  ' 

Lo8sofm«tal »...,.,..    ],4itl  ' 

Amount  in6lt«d ao.OOOIln 

I.0S8  of  metal,  ;>.99%.    RaUo  of  loan,  1  to  IT.U. 


-3 


r«ie  or  NofteMem  in  Fouodry  Practlcp. 

.luiie  27,  ISS*fl.)— In  the  foundry  the  inohlHiii  t»  t 
of  coii!l)lne<l  and  graphitic  cai'bou  In  the  re.ini 
tfi-liine  the  proper  proportion  of  silicon,    Tli- 
of  Miticttn  altord  a  reliable  and  incxpensi^  - 
*»f  any  re<pilred  rneclmnicnl  clmnicter  w  ■ 
employed.     In  llii.'<  ivriy ,  liy  nivini;  Niiit,, 
n  reipiired  iirinl.- 
Iii  unieh  the  ne,'. 
If  n  >tr..T.v;  in  •. 
Ilie  pi 
Turn 

■  |UUt 

phi  1 1 
A  ii   l)e  made  ff  Ihvrp  «°a*  mu 

at"'  -ii .  .-r  mroiKuoi'^'-.    IiOi.a,.ri 


ivr  r,itkh>m 


ri.t. 


VZ^'t^^^^^^^^^' 


BHBINKAOK  OF  CASTINGS. 


951 


r 

■fee  soft.    Higb-nillcon  iroDs  uafd  in  tbU  way  are  caUrd  "  Kifi- 
ing  are  typical  analyaes  of  softeners: 


Ferro-Bilicou. 

Softeners,  Amerioac. 

8cot<-h 
Iroiix,  No.  ]. 

Foreign. 

American. 

Zt.  «'"«- 

Belle- 
foiiie. 

linloa 

Colt- 
Desa. 

10.55 

11. so 

12.08 

10.34 

S.67 

5.89 

3  to6 

2.15 

9.56 

.      1.84 

(1  ti» 

0.06 

0.07 

0.30 

0.25 

ii.«I 

Ohi 

MS! 

l.M 

1.9« 

a.B7 

SHo 

S. 

STB 

.      S.P6 

1.85 

0.7« 

0.5S 

1.00 

0..V1 

S.tM) 

1.70 

.      0.04 

0  31 

0.48 

o.« 

0.50 

1.10 

O.SS 

063 

0,«i 

.    o.oa 

0.04|  Trace 

TlTM-l! 

Traoe 

002 

0.03 

0  03 

0.01 

(For  other  utialyiK^,  iwe  pages  371  to  .STS.) 

!OnH  eontftin  a  low  perceiitaK*"  nf  total  carhoii  snil  a  high  pt'r- 
oiiiliineil  curljiiu.  Carhun  Is  thf  moM  in)|>ortaiil  cnusUllienl  "f 
id  iliei<?  shiiuldlif  hIxjiiI  3.4?  lolal  irarbon  |irf»wiit.     By  arlilliiK 

wbich  ouutaUis  only  '.if  of  carbon  the  Amount  of  carbon  in  tlir 
xlnrt^  is  I<?ss(.'»(h1. 

Found  llial  nioie  <<iii<;oii  is  lofit  dnrini;  the  renieltinK  "f  pig  ot 
ion  iliftii  in  r<'nu'itiri(»  pig  iron  of  lower  |)«roi'jilat!es  of  iiiUoou. 
Its  out  ibe  possible  ilisudvanta^e  of  usint;  ferro-sJl irons  c'L»ntain> 
a  iieieentage  of  ci  rnbined  carbon  an  0.70^  to  overiofiie  ibe  bad 
inbineil  carbon  in  otlit^r  in>n». 

Ii  iroiiM  ^^enerally  contain  inueli  more  phOHplioru.s  than  isdestreil 
e  eoiployett  ill  niaiiiiiK  ibe  Ktruufcext  custiuKO.  It  i>>  a  mistake  to 
irouK  low-plio.>iphoniB  ironH  an  iron  tbai  woiiUl  increase  tlie 
ihospliorus  for  the  nake  of  adding  sufteniiiu  qimliiips,  wlieu  (uft- 

prodi4ce<l  bv  ndxiutf  irons  of  the  8»nit<  low  iilio^plioru.*. 
ler  diHciis.*iioji  <kf  llie  iiitltieiiL*«*  of  siliciut  we  jja^e  lifi.'i. ) 
kee    of  C!a«tln£H.  -TIic  allutvanee  iieces.sttry  for  sbi'liikaKa 
liferent,  kinds  of  luelul,  and  tbe  difTerciil  oondition.v  under  wbicb 
•t,     For  caatin|;s  ivliere  tbe  tblcknesB  runs  about  one  iucli,  cast 
ary  conditions,  tbe  folloning  allovvanue  can  be  made: 


Iron,  \6  inch  per 

5,       8/10  ••      •• 

H  "     " 

Iron,  ii  "      •' 


foot. 


For  zinc, 

•■    tin,  .,., 

"    aliiminnfii,  H/IG 
'■    Brltaiiuia,   l/SJ 


5/10  Inch  per  foot. 
1/li 


tastinfni.  under  ttan  same  coiidiUuu^i,  will  Kbrink  les-s.  and  Iblnner 
than  thi.4  slnndard.  Tbi>  r|onlity  nf  the  ninlerial  and  tbe  uianuer 
j^  and  cooling  will  also  make  a  d'ilTereiioe. 

(  enperinients  by  W.  .1.  Keep  (see  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vol,  xvi.) 
t  the  shrinkage  of  oaii  irou  of  a  Ri^'en  Kection  decreases  as  the 
of  Bilieon  increases,  while  for  a  Riven  peiveuLage  of  silicon  the 
lecreascs  as  the  section  |g  iiicreose<l.  Mr,  Keep  pive«  the  follow- 
ilionlng  the  approxiinale  reluiluo  ufsbrlukaKe  (o  size  and  per- 
gilicou: 


Sectional  Area  of  Casting. 


W"o 


1"  X  «" 


Bhrinbaeo  ■»  Decimals  of  nn  tnuli  per  foot  of  Lentil). 


,WJ»  \    .tAt 

.t®»  \ 


054 


THE   MACUIKE-8H0P. 


Iron  Is  -X)  ft  per  iiilnulo.  wlietlier  for  the  lafbe,  planlDfc,  Hofi 
iiiAuhiue.    (Proc  liiKt.  M.  K  .  April.  IHKl.  p.  J-IS.) 

Table  or  rultlneo«P««d*> 


DiaiiielFr, 
Inohm. 


4 

S« 

7 

8 

1» 
10 
II 

u 
n 
u 

15 
IS 

IS 

tw 

St 
86 
iS 
80 
80 
4!i 
48 

00 


78.4 

afl-j 

30.6 
:i5.6 

at.s 

19  1 

17.0 

15.3 

18  9 

18.7 

]0  S> 

0.6 

8  .1 

7.U 

6.9 

e.4 

S3 
4.8 
4.1 
8.8 
.1.8 
8.2 
2.7 
S.4 
3,1 
10 
1.7 
1.8 
1.5 
1.4 
l.S 
l.-J 
II 
I.O 
.9 
.B 
.7 
,T 

.a 
.a 

.4 
.4 
.3 


Feet  per  luinute. 


30 


25 


80 


85 


40 


Eevoluiiuiis  per  miuute. 


153.8 

2«l.i 

101  » 

i.vv.s 

76.4 

114  U 

61.1 

«I  7 

.W.O 

78.4 

4S  7 

S3.S 

.■w.a 

57.8 

81  0 

M  n 

W.6 

4.5  H 

'.'7.H 

41  7 

S.i  5 

S8.a 

21  .H 

8'.>7 

111.) 

88.7 

17.0 

25.5 

15  8 

a-J  9 

IS.t 

•JO  8 

IS.T 

19.1 

10. S 

J«.4 

fl.fl 

14.8 

H.S 

IS. 7 

T.fl 

11.5 

B.fl 

10.4 

6.4 

9.5 

55 

8. a 

4.8 

7.  a 

4.% 

6  4 

8.S 

5.7 

S.S 

5.2 

8.8 

4.8 

8.0 

4  4 

2,7 

4  1 

2.5 

8  8 

a.4 

a.fi 

i.l 

8.8 

1.0 

2.9 

1.7 

8.6 

l.fi 

8  4 

16 

8  8 

M 

8.0 

l.S 

19 

1.1 

J  G 

.» 

1.4 

.8 

1.8 

.7 

11 

.6 

1.1) 

Speed. 

cliluu  Co. 
latlie: 


_.                 (  Tool  Meel  and  taper  on  tublngf. 
TlireadlDB  .^  Mau-hinery 

I  VkI-J'  »i>ft  Btf«-1 


,„,,,.l,l    'f..J  Cul  wliK-\vrvH\\iw».\\w«.oc\8.tciJ 

Bieei        I  (j;i,iwhicliYw\\loesV\\«r»U>c\i\MYoi\^ij\.\Vi->v<\*sl 
very  aofl  macliVueiy  *\e«\,\\!^^<.tva  ^vkft.  coo\w»<S 


of  Cutting  irltb  Turret  Lmtheii.— Jmieii  / 
give  ilic  fuliuwiiig  cuitluK-speeds  fur  use  with  tla 


I  Cut  wliicli  reilin.vs  tlie  stock  to  Vt  of  Its  originnl  0 
>%Lof  iiitoii|{iiml  ( 


r 


GEABING   OP  LATHES.  936 


inetal-cnttlne  Toalm^—"  Hulte,"  the  G«nnui  Enid- 

i]k,  gives  Uie  luUuMing  cutiliiK-aiiKlet  for  usIdk  least  power: 

Top  Rake.       Angle  of  Cutting-ed|^ 

8"  61* 

4*  6I» 

4»  «8» 

I  Madiinitt  commrateon  tlies»  fifriires  as  follows:  W»  are 
We  th*  best  uor  even  tlie  Kt-nfrally  tisol  iin);lt-!<  for  lools, 
n,ry  8o  irnic-h  to  suit  iliffprent  circiiiiislaiices,  such  as  deifree 
F  the  riielal  twiuK  cut.  quality  of  Kteel  of  u  bicb  tlie  tool  is 
t  cut,  kind  of  finish  clesireJ,  etc.     Tlic*  arifi^les  that  cut  with 

giture  of  power  are  easily  (leieriuiiieil  hy  a  few  exfieriineiils, 
lea  ninat  be  determiiied  by  gatxi  judfriuent,  eulded  by  expf- 
y  all  cases,  bowerer,  we  tliiuk  tlie  best  pmcclcal  angles  are 
lose  given. 

pons  and  deacriptloDK  of  various  forms  uf  cuttin^-tnnls,  see 
pie  Tools  in  App,  Cyc.  App.  Mech.,  vol.  ii..  and   Iti   Moderu 

IBla.— Angle  of  cutting-faces  (Joehua  Rose):  For  cast  «t>v\, 
|»;  for  pin-metal  or  l>rax.s,  alxiut  ."SO  li^-jfi-ees;  for  copper  and 
lout  80  to  M  df^icps. 
Bearlne  Uatlien  for  Krren-cutlln^.    (narvin  Ma- 

pd  rroui  lilt-  IuiIk-  iiiili-x  Kic  niunlitfj'  i-f  ihrt-uds  ix-r  Inch  cm 
I  and  iDuUiply  it  by  any  number  llial  will  );ive  for  a  ptxHluct 
hdex;  put  this  gear  upon  the  stud,  then  luultiply  the  uuuiber 
Snch  to  be  cut  by  thesHrueDuinber,  luid  put  the  resulting  gear 

ncut  IIU  threads  per  incb.  We  find  on  the  Index  tbat<l8Inla 
US  per  idcli,  thf-n  6X4  =  -'4.  gear  on  stud,  and  IT  X  4  =  40. 
I  Any  uiultiplier  may  be  used  so  long  as  the  products  include 
ng  with  the  lathe.  For  Instance,  iusteud  iif  4  us  u  multiplier 
I    Thus,  6  X  6  =  36,  gear  updu  stud,  and  lllj  X  6  =  tJ9,  gear 

P  Cftl«ulatlite  Sliiipl«  and  Couipouiid  Gearin^r 
K  iB  no  Index,  i.tm  Uitcli.i—lt  ilie  niilip  is  »nnple- 
■  stud  riiits  at  the  saui*-' speed  as  the  Kpindle.  select  soiue  gear 
and  mnltlply  its  number  of  teeth  by  the  nuiubiT  of  threads 
Mead-serew.  and  divide  this  result  by  the  nutnher  of  threads 
l!ut.  This  will  cive  tha  number  of  teeth  iu  llie  gear  for  Ibe 
|«uU  is  a  fractional  n^iniiier.  or  a  nnmlM'r  whicii  is  not  aiiitmg 
llnd.  iheu  (ry  some  other  gear  for  the  »cr,  w.  Or,  select  the 
nd  first,  then  multiply  its  niiuilier  of  teeth  by  the  niuiiber  of 
di  to  be  cut.  and  divitle  by  the  niimiier  of  fhrends  per  inch  on 
L  This  will  give  the  num'ier  of  teeth  fur  the  g^-ar  on  the 
flathe  is  eoinpound,  select  at  random  nil  the  driving-gears, 
ninbers  of  their-  teeth  togeiher.  and  this  prtiduct  by  the  muu- 
W)  be  cut.  Then  select  at  riindi>m  fill  the  ilriven  gears  except 
gthe  numbers  of  their  teeth  together,  and  this  prisluei  by  the 
lads  per  inch  In  the  leail-*crew.  Now  divide  the  flrsl  result  by 
Obtain  the  nulid>erof  t-eetli  in  the  reiitailiing  ilriven  geai*.  Or, 
pin  all  the  driven  eeiirs.  Mullipl.v  the  numliers  of  their  teetli 
'UilB  product  by  the  nuiahor  of  threads  per  inch  In  the  lead- 
lelectat  random  all  the  driving  gears  eieept  one.  Multiply 
ttlielrteelh  together,  and  Ihis  result  hv  ihenumherof  threads 
^acrew  to  be  cut.  Uivido  the  first  resiilt  liy  ihi>  last,  to  obtain 
fleeth  In  the  reinaiuiug  driver.  When  the  sream  on  the  emu- 
l^refast  together,  and  cannot  lieelisiigeil.  then  i  he  driven  one 
Itce  as  many  teeth  as  llie  .ilher,  or  driver,  in  which  ease  In  the 
IMisider  the  leail  screw  foha.-r'  twice  h»  ninny  threads  per  Inch 
ftan.  and  thiui  ignore  the  cunipoundlug  entirely.  Some  lathes 
Bted  that  the  stud  un  which  the  first  driver  Is  placeil  n-viilves 
1st  as  the  spindle.  Thi.s  ciin  \>e  ignored  ii\  flie  eaVv\\\i\V\*yimV's 
funiier  of  threniln  of  tha  lead-screw.  H  \ma\\  v\w\*at  c<«\<Bk- 
tt  lenorv  them  in  tlw  cfllciilati.ins  by  tn«M\\i\5\nK  V\ve.  tvmw'Jwc 
TicA  III  the  /e«i/-.«crew  by  four.  It  l\ns  t\iveut\  Vti  VjB  i  '  »— 
"•  If  the  fiiicli  of  file  leail-Kcrew  |s  traeViotmX,  ov  \t\ 
WftKse  the  fraclioeis  to  a  couiniou  de«\OTO^\\ttU.«.  . 
Uieae  fraetioiia  as  if  ibej  e^iial\«Hi  a\e  pUcVi  Ol  V| 


D5G 


THK  MACHINE-SnOP. 


to  l)e  cut,  aud  of  ilm  lead-ticrew,  respect  I  v«l5-.  Then  uae 

Kiven  iibove  nliieli  applin*  to  the  lathe  in  qn-^^ii.".       ► 

it  is  desireJ  to  cut  a  thread  uf  !&."''--'"<••>  I 

thi'eailii  per  itioh     Tbi-u  the  ).iich  of  llie  loji 

equal  to  S/JW  ir.uli.    We  lunv  Imve  t «  o  f  raci  i. 

xervH'H  will  b«  in  the  proportion  of  25  Co  8,  a 

the  abi>ve  rule.  at>»(uniiMg  the  nutulier  of  tin  . 

and  ibosti  on  the  leiiil-surew  ui  be  35  per  in.  ■ 

be  further  iiirHlitled  by  coaditioim  uhiii- 

lliesLud,  or  tlxed  cotiipouuti  f^eara.     In 

had  been  S^  Llireiuls  pt-r  inch,  then  ii 

rrac-tloti!>  4/10  and  •■iSriH,  ^\liich,  riKlii' 

«>/l<Woi>d  I-Vl'i*'. ""<' *'"»  K""'*""!  '"' 

threads  per  inch,  and  tlie  §i,ti-vv  to  Ixj  lu:  . 

Oil  tills  suliji-i-t  uuusult  also  ••  Fortuulan  ii. 
&  Sharpe  JIfir.  t'o..  nnil  Jamicson's  Applied 

Cbanae-eeJtnK  Tor  Scrcw-culllt>u    i 
uiiiroriitit^'  .-itiMin^  lu(lu'-biiil(lei2f  ofi  to  -  - 
eutiih^     \V.  U.  JlHcdonald,  iti  Atu.  3f>>' 
inn  s«riti«.  by  wliiuh  33  whole  Ihreads  lu 


tli«t| 


(if  oitty  nUie  gearK: 

w 

Spindle. 

1 

1       i 

f 

Wl 

o 

tc 

30 

J*, 

40 

CO    1  00 

TO 

110 

ISO 

IW 

L'O 

U 

4  4/5;      1 

3  8/T 

a  s/u 

8 

1  I!  i.-i    ; 

ill) 

18 

u 

Tl/5 

6 

fil/T 

8  8/11 

3 

■It) 

24 

\6 

1;i 

«  S/J 

8 

•  8,7 

4  4/11 

4 

50 

SO 

aj 

15 

10 

8  4/7 

6  B,  11 

6 

(10 

M 

tit 

IH 

It  a/5 

10  8/7 

a  8/11 

6 

TO 

4-i 

•Hi 

31 

Ifi  4/5 

i4 

,  , 

r  T/11 

7 

• 

no 

GO 

4t 

at 

aa  8/5 

±t 

18  6/7 

II 

li' 

liSI 

U 

4H 

iW 

as  4/5 

i.'4 

aj4/7 

18  l/ll 

■  •      . 

11    v:a,   !i 

lau 

T8 

W 

8U 

31  1/5 

UO 

«8/7 

14  K/n 

13 

...  ..1 

"^ 

Ten  Keais  are  snnirient  tn  cut  all  the  iisiinl  ' ' 
perhaps  11)^,  the  .Kliiiidard  pipe-thn^ad ;  in  !•; 

thread  l>-tween  II  and  li  will  be  in-  u  .• 1..1. 

liiivad:  if  not,  the  additiou  of  a  -  ' 

In  IhU  intile  the  piiuh  of  llie  !>-. 
too  Hue  for  (lie  purpose.    ThiK  n..i^ 
•irniu  ■•tiler  di-»irui>le  pitoli.  and  istaOii.'-liiiii;  ilu-  pu-t^'r  1   1 
lathe  si'id.ll..  mid  liie  t'edr-.sliid. 

nitric  Screw-tbread*  mar  be  cut  on  Uulux  wtib  inc 
iug'Srreww.  by  the   U«e  of  cliJiiik.'i*  >i  lie»-l>  ttitii    V)  And    t^T  te 
ceiiiiiiietri-i.  =  .M)  iiicliei  ( IST  X  0.:VJ.17  —  VJ.WW  lu.>. 

Bnit'  lor  S«ltlne  the  T^per  In  n  T.hIIk 
rule  c'uii  be  ):i\en  wliieli  will  )iri> 
Ute  ceiiiivH  enter  the  work  an  iik!- 
<1t)lll^lUl>ce  till*  riilliiwiiit;  nonid  l> 
an  II  in.  '!'••  tliiil  llie  dl.stiinoe  lo  - 
the  ilhllnetern  of  the  Inrjre  iilld  sn 
qiiolieni  l>y  ihn  ralio  uliich  the  i' 
of  llie  titpered  puilion.  Example:  .'^iipi  mm  i. 
m  toiler  turned  un  the  end  one  root  louir,  the  I' 

liH  lies  and  the  mii.ill  enil  one  inch  diameter.     -  - — • 

Elertrlt-   DrIllitiK-mnrlillir*    N|»rcd  «r 

■"     rl    I'liilex.       I  I...'    Iii~i     M     I"      All.-     :k-..     ,.    :< 


';^'^^r\^^'*^^^  "^  ^'^^*  '^' 


h' 

^^ 

for 

riiiMitiir 
or 

^ 

^ 

V 

^. 

Irva. 

BriM. 

Dcflk. 

SbcL 

IroL 

*•* 

btdu 

»40 

IfflO 

1S40 

1  t  1« 

S4. 

S 

•B 

4aa 

IM 

n& 

IH 

at 

■» 

» 

8IC 

4a) 

MO 

I  lie 

• 

« 

«B 

lElO 

»» 

Wt 

im 

m 

« 

• 

1110 

mo 

an 

1  S/l« 

u 

■0 

•B 

ISO 

s-u 

MO 

iH 

e 

a» 

a 

1«) 

i«e 

an 

1  Tn« 

4U 

H 

«• 

115 

leo 

too 

I^ 

» 

M 

«B 

]no 

no 

itn 

1  9/18 

S7 

SI 

a 

g6 

lao 

ton 

IH 

S 

o 

• 

■     8S 

lis 

I4A 

1  II  lie 

M 

ff 

» 

m  n 

105 

130 

iH 

«S 

45 

sc 

■  n 

100 

ISO 

1   18/16 

» 

U 

M 

m  B 

DU 

IIS 

1'^ 

SI 

41 

V 

1  "^ 

Si 

no 

X  UV16 

w 

«> 

^i 

i  « 

«n 

10.1 

-» 

1         13 

» 

1         49 

ttiie  Inch  in  sjift  cast  Iron  will  uKuallv  rwjuir*:  F'T  >4-ln.  drill.  125 
na;  for  fj-ln   .IritI,  130  I'ciroluUoiis;  fof  Sli-in.  drill.  100  r««crtutioii»; 
Irill,  95  revululluiiK. 
F!8  ut  (e«d  tor  twist  drlils  are  Uius  gtren  by  ibe  same  compAJty: 

ofdrlU VIO       M  W        H  «  1  '^ 

Inch  depth  of  hi>W.  IJS      t«       ISO  u>  140       I  iucU  feed  per  nita. 
im  L.  M  NG-r  CTTEB8. 

Addy.  (Proe    Inst    M.  E  .  Or.l.  ISOO.  p.  537 1,  elves  the  f''!>o*'ntj 
rM«    Of  8toeI.-TUe   following  are  analyse  of    I"'"  "Iff """£ 
lade  from  beat  quality  crucible  cast  steel  and  from  si»ir  Imrafniiie 
>"  atflMl : 


m 


sten 

by  dlff^renea Bo-Sv 


Crucible  Cast  Steel, 
per  ceut. 
l.S 

o.iia 

0,018 

0.88 
O.OS 


100.000 


Ivanhou  Steel, 
per  uvDt. 

i.er 
o.«>s 

0.061 
9.&57 
0.01 
4.00 
90.81 


100.000 


arUHiM  «imHi*-!i.-i .-  i ...  .. 
Ideil  to   aa   art/itrury 


,1^  pitch  ut  v^v\»  t";,JS^ 

iiittuiivr.  4K)QQr'Ui«tf  t«  Vw»^ 


958 


THE    MACHIlfE-8H0P. 


I 

I 

I 


for  estimBting  the  piteli  of  teeth  In  a  oiittrr  of  Auf  <tl*iDeUr  ( 
In.,  Mr.  Addy  has  worked  out.  the  following  nil*,  wbick  tut' 
bl«  o(  giving  ko<^  ri.-8ulu  in  practice: 


I 


Pitch  In  iucliea  =  V'(dlaii>.  in  Indies  /<.  8)  X^' 

J.  M.  Gray  gives  a  rule  for  pitcti  as  follnwa:  1  !•■ 
mlllinKCuuer  oukIic  to  bo  100  liiiie-i  the  pifcli  m  iiicn 
were  '■27  teeth,  the  pitch  oiiglil  to  be  O.;!?  in.     Ti4«!  rul» 
same,  for  if  a  =  diuui.,  u  =  No.  of  teeth,  p  =  pitch,  f  =  clir 

«ii;    tJ=^  =  i^  =  31.83p';    p  =  t/TooTiii  =  .]77  fd:  Sa^ 

3.14a  -•-  u. 
TrnniberofTcethiii  laillaiorrutter*. 

of  uuitf  rs  must  obviously  be  spui.'t* d  wid(^  eruiii  _ 
wheel  grinding  one  tootn  witliout  foiicliint;  th. 
of  theleetii  are  always  made  in  Hip  ]>laiie  of  u 
the  cutter.  In  cutters  up  to  3  iu.  in  diam.  i 
tet^ilj  per  in.  of  diaiu.,  while  in  eutters  ul>tit' 
niay  be  coarser,  aa  follows: 

Diameter  of  cutter,  B  in. ;  Dumber  of  teeth  la  ntutr.  • 
7  ■'           •■          •'      •• 
"        8  "  ' 

Speed  orCuttern.— TheciittlnfT  Bpee«J  ri>r  m 
very  low;  but  experience  has  ghowu  tiuit  \\r 
use  it  may  with  advanlaee  tie  couKidiT&lily  in. 
of  large  diameter.    The  followinir  are  reconiOit^  .l 
tera  ol  6  iu.  and  upwards,  provided  tiiere  iti  not  au>  gra^  liettiM 
to  cutaway: 

8te«I.      Wrought  iron.  CaM  ilua 

Feel  per  minute 36  -18  fiO 

Feed,  Inch  permin...     H  1  )H 

Should  it  be  desired  to  remove  any  lartru  qn  ' 
CslttinK-speeilH  ure  still  re<!Qmrai?lided,  but  w  ii  i 
fur  ciniinK-Kpecd  is:  Nuinlii-r  of  revnIutioDx  i- 
npinilUi  sluMilil  iiuike  when  Wiiricinfr  on  east  Iron  ^  J^O.   livlili 
eter  of  the  ciutt-r  in  inches 

Si>eed  ornilllus-culten.    (Proc.  Inst  M  E    \|iill 
The  enttiDK-sjierd  which  OHO  be  employed  in  ii. 
that  nliich  chii  bi-  iisetl  iu  any  i>f  ttie  ordinnrv 
laUie,  or  of  planiUK.  i:ha|iini;.  or  Hluiiiiii;.    A  u; 
supply  of  oil,  or  stxip  and  water,  gan  ite  run  tn 
when  cuttiu);  wroiiKni  li'oii.    The  Mime  inetal  ' 
with  a  tool-liolder  having  a  ^oi>d  cutter,  at  tlie 
about  one  tliir<l  the  speed  of  iniUliiK-    A  inllliMg  ciiiiei  »rill  cn:  < 
the  rate  of  8.'>  to  :J0  fl.  per  iiiin. 

The  following  prtracts  are  taken  from  nn   aiTio!e  ■mi    fp»t«l  i 
iiiillinK-entlers  in  Kng'ii.  Oct. -ii,  lin\:  Mi' 
ployed  on  ca.41  iron  at  a  speetl  of  i-VI  ft.  ;  - 
HO  ft.  to  ino  ft,  |)er  min.     The  latu-r  iiiai. 
lubricant,  sucii  a*  i>il  or  noopy  water, 
priioehed  l>v  other  tool.x.    The  u<tiial  eii;i 
uliiipine.  and  Klottin.;;  machines  rarely  exi. 
uhiivf.iind  fregiieutly  Bveraf^:  a'joiit  a  flftli.  tie'  iiiu. 
belnp  ivckmieiT. 

The  feed  in  thedirecllmi  of  nitfiiifr  Is  sal.l  liv  oni-  n-ntrr  f^  T»"^ 
nary  work,  from  10 1(1  7  ' 
to  an  ejcleiii  de[K*nd  ■■! 

!t(inviln-«    rif   BXiretM"    • 


...  WV.   vvli  .-1.  ^'";"YLm.r^   c«*-  "*»■■ 


XILUXG-MACHISTEa.  D51 


|0  to  160  for  the  Tarious  quslticies  of  iraa-iiMUl  Bnd 
palJer  *>r  lzirp»r   the    ratr*   of   nprohition  »rp  incremaed 
cord  with  ll»  follow init  raMe.  »'nioh  ^ire*  th«iK  nwes  of 
B<1  iLows  Lb«  liDea.1  speed  uf  Ibr  cuCt  ilig-«d^: 


f-- 


D5SH 

Ml    Of  1 


8t«eL    Wrought  Iron.    Cast  Iron.    Gun-meUL 
45  to  90  106  190 

tie  lDt«nded  for  verr  ti^ht  ttntshing  cuts,  and  ihej-  must,  be 
t  one  half  for  beaty  cuitinR. 

^Kjultg  have  been  Foutiij  (c  l)«  ibe  bic^esc  that  could  be 
fy  workshop  routine,  h&vin^  *lue  cou!*ideration  to  t^dtio 
ten  to  chanire  and  prin.l  the  cutters  when  they  t»«;ome  dull 

E(  ft.  to  40  ft.  pt-r  niin.:  d-jpih  of  cut.  l  in.:  feed.  %  in. 
te*"!— About  30  fi.  per  inin.:  depth  of  cut,  Jj  in.;  feed. 
Dfch  gun-metal— SO  ft.  per  iiiin.;  depth  of  cut.  H  in.;  feed. 
H-iron  gear  wheels— 20^  ft.  per  mui.;  de|kth  of  cut,  yi  h 
lUn.    Hard,  close-groiued  ca«t  iron— 10  ft-  t>er  rolo.;  oefi 
feed,  5/16  in.  per  min.    Gun-ineial  joints,  53  ft.  per  niin. . 
|ln. ;  fee<i,  ^  in.  per  niin.   Steel-bars — il  ft.  |>er  mm.;  depth 
teed,  ^i  in.  per  min. 

|ine-cult«r,  4  in.  iu  diam.  and  12  in.  wide,  tested  under  tn'o 
ted  Id  the  same  niacbine,  grave  the  followine  results:  Th<" 
Btanoes  was  worlied  up  to  its  maxiuiuiii  speed  before  it  itave 
beint;  to  ascertain  definitely  the  relative  amount  nf  wnrl; 
ipeefl  and  a  light  feed.  B3  compared  with  a  low  speed  and  a 
I  machine  wag  used  single-geared  and  double-geared,  and  in 
ddth  of  cut  was  10}^  in. 

I  ft.  per  min.;  5/1(3  in.  depth  of  cut;  feed,  13  in.  per  min.  - 
ain.  Double-gear,  IB  ft.  per  niiii.;  9ft  iu-  depth  of  cut;  feed, 
t  3  40  cu  in.  per  ruin. 

Beanltn     «vl(Ii    millne>iiiaohinea.  —  fiorace 
icU.,  Dec.  :i!?,  I?<iM)  eives  th»?  fulluwiiiy  re.-^tilts  til  tiat-Mui'ftt' 
Kl  in  a  Pratt  £  Whitney  milliiig  iiiachiiie  :  The  mills  for  tll«^ 
diam..  la  teeth.  It)  to  50  revs,  and  ili"  feed  per  min.    One 
run  over  this  piece  at  a  feed  of  9"  tier  uiin,,  but  the  mills 
kt  the  end  that  this  rnte  wasKreaier  than  they  i:ouM  endure, 
nese  niill.^  the  li^irea  ore  as  follows,  with  4I(i"  feed:  Siirfi 
»rly ;  feed  per  tiKilli,  0.00812":  cuts  per  inch,  liS.     And  w 
i;  Surface  speed,  64  ft.  per  min.;  ft-ed  per  tooth,  0.015";  cii' 

jj"  per  min.  the  mills  stood  up  well  iu  thin  job  of  cast-iron 
I  with  a  9"  feed  iliej-  rwpilred  grindinK  after  surfacing  onw 
H'orda.  it  did  not  dumago  the  mill-teetii  to  ilo  thlB  job  with 
of  surface  flni.shed,  hut  they  would  not  epidure  (JtiSjicuts  per 
1st -iron  miliinj;  tile  .surface  speed  of  the  InilU  due?i  n-it  Heein 

of  mill  de.'itruction:  it  is  the  iiicreiiBe  of  fieed  per  tooth  that 
■ed  production  of  finished  surfiicf .  This  is  precisi'ly  ihe  re- 
fcn  of  slnKle-poinled  lathe  anrl  pinner  tools  in  Renernl:  ivilh 
I  is  a  surface-speed  limit  which  caniiDt-  he  ecouoiiiicnlly  ex- 
nita,  and  so  long  as  tills  surface-speed  limit  is  not  reacheil, 
h  or  feed  cai3  lie  made  auytliin^  up  to  the  limit  of  lite  driv- 
*  latliH  or  planer,  or  to  the  safe  strain  on  the  woik  itself, 
Imy  cases  lie  easily  brolten  by  a  tou  great  feed. 
Btal  extreme  llgures  were  obtained  in  one  experiment  made 
(lys  .VJ*"  wide  by  %"  deep  in  n  liank  of  8  sliiifls  U4"  diain. 
latt  &  Whitney  No.  3  column  milling-machine.  The  S  mil" 
Uy  operated  with  45  ft.  surface  speed  and  ISlg  in.  per  mil 
18  were  5"  diam.,  with  28  teeth,  giving  the  following  llgtii'i 
i  speed,  45  ft.  per  min.;  fee<l  per  tooth.  O.yyovM";  cuts  i 
,    Fed  with  the  revolution  of  mill.     Klooiie<l  with  oil,  lluit  ii  . 

of  oil  running  conbtantl3'  over  each  mill.    Knee  of  tootfi 
mlting  kpyway  was  described  as  linving  a  heavy  wave  of 
be  boitoni,  and  it  was  said  tu  hiive  shown  uo  isXi^w*  >,A  Vwtvft?, 
he  cutters  or  on  the  luacliine.  As  a  resuVtot  t.\\o  e:i.i»gtVBMBH^ 
recoDomicul  ntcntly  work  to  ruu  at  \7  rev».,'w\\.Vv  1 
led  cut,  work  fed  with  mill  revclution,  k\vVu?;V\i» 
p^orf,  Si^  ft.  per  min.;  feed   per  looV^h,  0.«»Vfi 


IIA^H 

ne         1 

lis         ' 

J  re.        ij 

ritS^I 


the  twt IwrT I'lie' mtUTldffitP^  tTip  top  stfrf^w"*!*- 
work  III  )>nioH«sof  lifinK  nilllwl,  o'ld  "amiiosl  llie  fi 

ti->-ii.  ' !'■  'oi'iit  ill  Die  clean,  iiewlj"  cut  mp  f  >■ 

»;i  '  ilii"  scalf— "huued  a  dpclilei! 

Ih-  mist  lilt"  re«Ml.    The  rrf lilt  is  ill 

II.  alt  &  Wliiliiey  inacliine,  by  v>.,    ■'. 

I  nitii  (1i^  Br(>%vii   ^    Sli^i-pe   iiiii<*iii' 

li"  lla  I'll! 'l ''"'lip*  illnnu'tfr  n>-p«'Ctl'  

4;  :■  U-.  tier  miiililf  in  rBOli  CiiSf,  or  iienrly  Btfil 

H|ienl  fur  (lie  4Hi-iiich  and  Xi  feet  per  minute  for  thu 
lullon  murks  were  e  to  tlie  iiieli,  ki>  ing  a  feed  of  7  liiuli 
cut  per  tiHjih  of  .011".  When  the  iiiHcliiiio  was  fortj 
drlvliiK  tlie  <le|itl)  of  rut  n-a.s  tl/S'.Miich  when  the  oiitl 
•my.  or  UKaiUHt  tiie  feed,  iiiid  only  ^4  'ol'Ii  when  it  rail 
or  ivilh  tlip  feeil.  The  eniliiiaiice  of  the  luilliug-ciitie 
when  I  hey  were  run  in  the  "old  "  wny. 

Mplral  miltna^-rnttera. -There  Is  no  rule  for 
the  ^|lirnl:  fniiii  lii"  to  l.)"  Is  iisiinliy  considered  sufTlcfi 
the  en.)  thni-it  on  the  nptndle  will  Iw  iucreOH:^  to  an  exi 
Rome  iimcliliie,«.  

!IIIllin|(>ru  ttera  -nith  Inserted  Te«(Ii.— 9 
use  uiilliiig-cutteiB  of  a  greater  diameter  than  about  ft 
Insert  th«  teeth  in  a  disk  or  head,  so  an  to  avoid  tl 
solid  cultei-n  and  the  ilifllciiliy  of  liiu'deiiiii^''  them,  noti 
the  risk  of  hreokntre  in  haideuInK  theiii.  but  nlso  on  tux 
ill  •'hIAiiiini;  II  iiiiirni'iii  depree  i.if  t])inl(ie<£s  or  temper. 

nilllne- niac-lilnc  versuH  Planer.  —  For 
Work  done  liy  eacii  see  pu|>er  (M  J  J  tii-iiu,  Trana.  A 
HiyH  :  Tlie  nai'uiitinjeii  of  Ihe  iiiillhiK  inachiiie  over  ift 
nniiMiK  whieh  are  the  following;  :  Exact  duplication  of 
diiotioii  —  the  ciiltinK  hping  crintiimoiis;  cwt  of  ji 
nineiitues  ciiii  be  operitted  by  one  woikliiiiii,  aiul  lie  n 
and  cost  of  tools  (or  proiUicIng  a  given  Hniount  oC  woril 

POWER  REQCiaKD  FOR  SIACHIl 

ReslntAiice  Overrome  In  C'uttine  nelal 

vlil.  aw. )— Soiiie  fxperliminis  iiindeai  llie  works  of 
Khowed  ibot  the  reuiHtance  in  eutlinu  steel  id  a  l»li 

INII  miO    l*k    Ton  [MM    nnimrla    nstv  leniinruln/ilt    e\t     euolf,   ^^ 


POWER   REQUIRED   FOR   MACIIIKE  TOOLS. 


9(51 


f9  to  remove  H.  The  weight  of  niPl&l  remnved  per  hour  woiilfl  b« 
!>:  .375  X  .26  X  60  =  1083.8  lbs.  Our  earlier  form  of  36"  plniK-j-  hsH 
M  with  oae  tool  on  ?i"  cut  on  work  SOO  Ihg.  at  uielnl  )ht  hmir,  nmi 
I"  ina<!hln«<  hon  mure  than  five  limes  its  caiiftclly.  T!«J  total  (lulling 
Inf  The  pinner  is  ih.mVI  llis. 

k'ae-power  Required  to  Rnn  I.BtlieN^  (J.  J.  Flather,  Atn. 
»  A)nil  ii,  INBI.i— The  power  i-erjiiireit  to  do  iiHOfnl  work  vnrle.s  with 
Itth  and  breadth  of  elilp,  witii  the  Khnp<»  oT  tool,  jind  witli  the  nfitui'e 
tttHity  i.f  iiipial  ojiei  iited  upiui;  unil  the  power  reijnired  to  run  a  itiii- 
«nipty  is  urieii  a  variable  tjuutitit)-. 

Ilnstiiuc*;,  wlien  tlio  niRirlniiw  is  new,  and  thp  worklnE  parts  have  not 
lite  worn  or  fitted  to  eiich  other  ati  lliej  will  Ix^  after  ruTitiyuK  li  Few 
lis.  thi^  power  required  will  he  f^n-aUiT  than  will  be  the  cate  after  tlio 
lie  pons  have  become  lielter  fitted. 

piLw  cau.fe  of  varintioii  of  the  power  abaorlied  is  the  drivinp-helt;  a 
[bell  Hill  increase  tlie  frieiion,  betive  to  obtain  the  Rreategt  efflclency 
Bmlnne  we  Hlioold  use  wide  hells,  and  run  them  Just  tigiit  enough  to 
pfitsltp,  The  iielts  should  also  l>e  Hoft  and  pliable,  otberwiae  power  isf 
IliieJ  ID  heiidiiie  tlietn  to  the  curvature  of  the  pulleys 
klni  csuM  ia  toe  vailiitlou  of  jouriiul-frlulkm,  cltic  to  vlaekiug  up  or 
ittluu  Ihe  capscrewK,  and  also  the  eudtlirust  heariufj  Bcreiv. 
ltl|;Si  iuvestigalionN  tiiiow  lliat  it  rei|uh'ei)  le^<«  t4ital  power  to  tnrn  off  a 
weiKtat  of  melal  in  a  given  lime  than  it  doeR  to  pliino  off  ihe  iuimo 
lilt;  ud  also  that  the  power  is  lei»n  for  large  than  for  sinull  diutiieterx. 
jjcitowlng  table  KlreK  the  aiMtisl  hni-«e-powei'  required  to  drive  a  lathe 
■■■»-)  iug  numbers  of  revolulioiis  of  iitaiu  spindle. 

^^B  EORaG-FOWKB  FOR  SNAU>  LaTBBB> 


r 

tack  Oeare.  |      With  Back  Gears. 

tot 

i^^tUretl     Eevs.ot 

H.P. 

reqiili'ed 
to  drive 
empty. 

Benarks. 

1.00 

.144 

.197 
.810 

14.6 
34  33 
88.43 

.126 
.141 

.274 

SO"  Fitchburg  l&tlte. 

.I5U                 4.84 
.«»               1«.8 
.389               10  2 

.133 
,187 
.230 

Smallla  llie<13H").  Clwin- 
nits,    Germany.      New 
Diaehlne. 

i« 

.aoe 

.339 

0.61 
14.8 
23.1 

.157 

•soe 

ITW"   IftlltB   do.      New 

mocliine. 

a 

.068 
,«10 

.MO 

8.81 
6.74 
10.6 

.067 

W  lathe  do. 

r.i.  —  horsfvpower  neceRsary  to  drive  lathe  empty,  and  .V=  nuralier 
jiiiioos  per  iiiliuiie,  then  the  e^qoation  for  avera^  eniull  lathes  is 
=  0  09o  +  0  OOfiA'. 

h<f  power  iieees.«ai-j"  10  drive  the  lathes  emjity  when  the  back  greara 
ad  averoKu  equation  for  lathes  uudtir  'M"  aniug  la 

H.P.«,  =  0.10  +  0.006JV. 

/UithM  »ary  w  much  in  construction  and  detail  that  no  ^neral 

'obtained  which  will  eive,  even  npproiittiately,  the  power  re- 

frt  run  flieiii,  aiul  ntrhouKh  the  averiige  foruiiila  showa  that  at  least 
^power  1!)  needed  to  jitarf  jh<*.<niHn  jHtiies  there  are  nmny  Knvet- 
-(  under  SO"  an-ttig  working  uu  a  conauniptiou  ot  ieiis  t\iavk  ,t!Ri 


I 


96S 


THE  MACHIKB-BHOP. 


The  amount  of  power  required  to  remove  metjt)  in  •  mad 

able  wirhln  more  act'Ufftie  limit*. 

Referring  to  Dr.  Hailig's  rp«earclies.  II. V.,  =  CW,  wbct* 
and  Tt'tbe  weiglil  of  chips  romovrd  per  hour. 

Average  values  of  C  are  .030  for  tast-iroo,  ,03?  for  wi 
steel. 

Tlie  size  of  Ifttlie,  and,  therefore,  the  rliameier  of  mirlt   !■ 
effect  on  the  iruttintc  power.    If  the  latlte  !»♦•  heAv\- 
and  foiis>M|inntl}'  the  weight  of  i:hlpR  inrreusM.  I.  l.i 
to  Ije  about  the  sauie  for  a  giveu  iiietul   tbroiigli  >■ 
lathes. 

Horse-power  aiqinRED  to  reuovx  Cist  Ibov  m  a  30-: 
(J.  J.  Hobitrl.) 


c 

1 

^l 

e 

11 

i^. 

2; 

H 

6 

&i 

^l 

5. 

g 

Tool  ueed. 

Ill 

>  ■  a 

111 

Q 

iS! 
15 

■< 

O 

■< 

< 
ns 

1 

Side  tool 

ST.flU 
30.50 

l!£i 

.las 

.015 
.013 

r> 

Diamond 

3 

17 

Round  nose 

4^.61 

.iJi 

.0I& 

.IH 

'1 

S 

Ix^ft  ■  hand    rouml 

nose 

88.99 

.125 

.01% 

,«r 

5 

4 

t^quare  -  faced  tool 
H'broad 

S&.8S 

,015 

.la 

.»  . 

6 

I 

•* 

a.ST 

.048 

.048 

M 

7 

t 

•• 

8i).«l 

.123 

010 

jm 

The  p.boTP  table  «hnvps  that  an  averaee  of  .38  horoe-powcT 
turn  off  lO  iJOiindH  of  I'ngt-iron  per  hour,  froiu  wbich  we  '  ~  ' 
valne  of  the  constant.  C  =  .OM. 

Most  of  ilie  ciii.9  wei-e  lni;en  so  that  the  nvr  i'  '■ 

diainefr;  with  a  broad  Kiirfnce  out  and  a  ci>.\ 
re4.]it[red  ^>ei'  poiuul  of  t.'hi|»5  rpiMi>ved  in  a  n^ix 
leaot  power  per  unit  of  weight  removed  beiu^ 
square,  Us  ill  No.  6. 

HoilSG-POWBn  BKQl'JBKD  TO  RSKOTZ   MkTAL  tV  A  SlNca  j 

(R.  H.  Smiih.i 


lf4\IHV\I    W  III'-H 


Cuft  Iron 

Cajit  ii-oii 

Cam  iron 

AVroiielK  io.n 

Wrouuiit  ivuii 

'SVroiiebt  \ron 

WriuiiiVil  vion 

Rt«\ 


IB  BEqUIBED  FOB  MACHXSE  TOOLB. 

of  C.  .017  and  .019.  obUiiwa  for  ead  Ina  am  . 
I«  :  the  iron  was  soft  and  of  floe  ^amStf,  kmumn  ■•  i 
,#S8  power  in  cut;  And.  M  Pruf  Smiiii  inii«iti.  a 
[>  (ake.'4  less  lujoe-jK-wrr. 

letalB  and  funiis  ot  looi«  vary.  oiterBiae  tto  i 
per  hour  piT  horsepower  woiikl  be  i 
eeds  decn-asing  but  idighilT  tbe  ritMm  i 
toiiQt  iheM  variations,  the  aciglit  of 
by  a  certain  (.■uDElant,  is  equal  to  tke  ] 


iccordlog  to  the  abore  teata,  fa  am  toOow* : 

Caailroo.    Wrotielit  Iraa.  SteeL 

oao  .OK  .Off 

iKS  .0»  jOtS 

.084 

OM  jOn  .OM 


eesary  to  run  the  lathe  empty  wOl  rary  from  about  .SB  (n  .3 
lid  be  ayoertaiiit-d  and  added  to  tbe  lueful  bor(^[<o«rer.  to 

Bower  exppiulHtl. 
I  by  RIaehlne-tools.    (B.  E.  Ihncmon:,  from  Ibe  £Z«c- 


I S  S/'16''  y  180  ft.  at  1(10  revs  .  carrying 36  poneya 

to  iHi",  and  runuiiJK  SO  Idle  luacbine  Mita 1.8t  HJfa| 

ipriKbt  back'Krarwl  drill-presB  with  table,  SS" 
!  M"  hole  In  cast  iron,  with  a  feed  of  1  in.  per 

r..    0.78H.P. 

IrUlKriuder  No.  'J,  cairyiug  V"  .^0"  whtselg at  SSOO 

o.»H.r. 

90"  X3(l",  tablt*  8  ft.,  planing  cast  iron,  cut  $4" 

I sq.  in.  per  minule,  al  9  reversals l.OBH.P, 

Une  'li"  stroke,  fultliiK  «i«el  die,  fi"  stroke,  %" 

at  rate  of  1.7  squnre  iiH'h  p>.'r  minute 0.3T  H.P. 

17"  K^vin^,  tiiniiiig  Nit-t'l  shaft  ^"  dlam.,  cut  3/16 

r.9a  inch  per  iniiiule 0,43  H.P. 

81"  swine,  borinif  cast-iron  hole  5"  diam.,  cat8/16 

!0.S"  per  minute 0.23  U.P. 

).  2,  moDOKram  blower  at  1800  reva.  per  minute, 
0.8H.P, 

28"  X  88"  X  14  ft.  be<l,  stroke  8",  cutting  steel, 
minute 3.»  H.P. 


the  next  \ias^  compiled  from  various  sources,  principally 

searclii-s.  by  I'rnf.  J.  J.  Flather  (Am.  Unch.,  AprtI  18,  1894), 

,  a  ifuide  in  eHtimatluK  (he  puwer  required  to  run  a  givenl 

must  be  understood  that  these  values,  allhouKb  deterjniued' 

Ic   nieasurenifUts  for  llie  imlividual  nniolilues  designated, 

ly  repreaciitfttive.  as  the  power  required  to  drive  a  nmoliine 

int  largely  on  its  paiticular  defiign  and  consi ruction.    Tlie 

woric  to  be  done  may  also  allect  the  power  requli-ed  lo 

machine  to  be  used   exclusively  for   brass  work   may  be 

1  to  15j(  higher  than  if  it  were  lo  be  used  for  iron  work  of 

the  power  required  will  be  proportionately  greater. 

to  ue  transmuted  to  the  machines  by  means  of  shafting 

;,  an  additionul  aiiiount.  vurylngfrom  30](toB0!(  of  the  total 

by  the  machines,  will  be  necessary  to  overcome  the  friction 

F«r  reqalred  to  drive  ShafMna.- Samuel  Webber, 
Of  Power"  gives  among  nurneroiiH  tables  uf  power  rcoulred 
nachinery,  a  table  of  results  of  tests  of  slmftiuK.     A.  Une  v^ 
J!ft.  lonjf.  weteliiti^'(09ff  lbs  ,  with  imUeysiNWVLWvtiK^'-*^^* 
f/ltft.,  sufipnrieiJ  vn  17  bearings.  'ilG  leviAxi^Vrittft  \wt  n\Vx 
P^  todriTf  it.     riii.s  gives  a  co»^fTleitM>l  ot  iTu'.Vi'jtv  «><  1 
tbe  coe/Bcleut  raugtnX  from  'i.'iXf,  Xo  \V.*T;,ftN« 


I 


064  THE   MACHINE-SHOP. 

Horaeapower  Required  to  Arlve 

Name  of  Hncbiiie. 


Small  Mjrew-eiitiliiK  Ullie  ISV«"  swluR,  B.G 

Si-iew-ciililng  latli«' IT^".  «.  U 

Sei-eiv  eutliiiK  lathe  •^"  iFilchbiiru),  B.  Q 

Screiv-ciiiliiit' lallie  "5".  B.  U 

Lutlie,  SO"  fiiw  iiUit(»,  «ill  swiuK  lOti",  T.  O 

Lntgft  faetii*!  Idltii".  «-IH  swiiiRUS",  T.  O 

Whi't>l  latlielW  swlD«r 

SniJiII  slinin^i-  (sir.ike  4  '.  trftvecse  Jl") ,,,,. 

Small  Hlinrer,  KiclinnlR  (flW  X  aS") 

8)m|j«T(l5"  litri.lo- Uiiuld  Jt  Eborluinit) 

I.jyree  slianrr.  Hiclianis  CJy"  X  Bl") ,... 

riuiik  piftiur  leapocily  i4"  x  «"'  X  «J4"  Btrolw), 

J'liiinTU-iipaellj'  ati  '  X  38"  X  11  feet) 

l.arK<"  planer  (capacity  7(1"  X  Tfi"  X  W  feet 

fiiunll  ill  ill  pi-e.ss  ..    

llprij;lit  Rl(M  drilling  niBiOi.  (will  ilrill  *H"  diam.)... . 

Medium  ilriU  press  . ,. 

I.ui^e  drill  pre.«s 

Kiiiiial  (liill  fifet't  sninc ........... 

Itndial  cliill  S<it  fetrt  KWing ................... 

XailinUlrill  (trtjtw ........  .  .... 

HloltM-  iH"slrpkel 

Slottei-iaW'  stroke) 

Sk.tlrr  (i;/'  slriikf). 


Utiiversiil  iiillliiig  imicb   (Brown  &  Sliarjie  Ni>.  1). 

Milling  nmolilne  (13"  ciitier  lirad,  12  Liitlt-re) 

^iiiatl  lieail  Iravfrvini;  iiHIIiiig  uukchiiie  (cutter-bead 

U"  iliaiiieler,  Ilj  ciilttra)  

Gear  cutler  will  cut  20"  ijlameier .» 

lloriEniitiil  Uiiriiig  ma  hiiie  for  ii'on,  8£^"  awlof;... 

Hytlraiilio  Bh«arih(r  machine 

Large  pliile  »tii-arft-kiiivpB  '."8"  lonu,  3"  stroke 

Large  piincli  press,  over  reach  28",*"  »ti^ke,  IJi" 
Htoi'U  can  l>e  punched 

Small  piiiK-li  (iiidKlienrcomb'd,  7!.^"knl»f«.  lijj"  air 

Circular  -Miw  for  hot  iii>u  (3liU"  (liaineler  of  saw)  . 

Plate-heniliiiK  rolls,  diaiM.  of  roll*  IM",  lenKth  DVt  fl 

Woixl  planer  WI9"  (roiarv  knives,  2  iior'l  it  vort.     . . 

Wood  planer  :i4"  ^rutar)  Knives)   .. 

Wnod  pluiter  IT!>i"  (rotary  knives), 

Wood  pUuier  28"  I  rotary  kuivei) 

WfHid  pliiner  '^8"  iDiinlel'a  jmtteni) ,. 

Wixid  planer  and  niiitclier  (ca|uicllj  14^  X  4)4 "1-  • 

<'iivular  «utw  for  wood  l'£l"  dliimetfrot  M») 

C'iicii'ttr  WHO  for  wckkI  (:15"  diiiinelerof  Miw) 

Iliunl  snw  for  wood  (M4'    band  wheel) 

Woo«L-iiiiii  liHin^  ami  boring  mat;liin«. ......  ....  ... 

llor'l  wooil-horiuK  and  ninrrislnir  machine,  drill  4" 
diuiii.,  iiH.rii!-"  (•'•a  dei-p  >.  IJJHi"  loni 

T«*noti  and  uiortisliii;  nuK.'hine. 

'iv-noii  niid  mortixiiiK  iiuu'liiuH 

*lViioT)  and  nii.trt.iNinfc  muoliiim 

BiiKc-iiiiilder  «iu1  tiliaiier.    iVerllcal  •pindlai 
I  VVoiKr-moldlnu  uiaoU.  tcav>.  1V4>;  4Wl.    '' 
I  fjr/ndotiine  for  tool*.  a\''  i^Wu.,  V  tu- 


tai.tf 


818.31 


E.,  engine;  W.W..  woodworklnR  machinery;  M.  M.,  mlo* 
U.  E.,  manaetrnKiiiMi;  L.,  tocomutiTer;  H.  M.,  hoary  ma- 
nacliine  tools;  C.  &  L.,  cntnes  and  locks;  f.  &  V.,  presses 
I  piilli>3-H  and  ahnftiiif;:  H.  F.,  heavy  rorgttigs;  8.  M., sen-in^'j 
iiiacliiiie-iwrewB:  F.,  flies.  ' 

states  (Trann.  A.  S.  M.  E..  vj.  4tZ)  that  in  prlut-millit  which 
I  friction  of  the  Hhaftini;  und  engine  wax  in  T  cases  l)oIow 
fs  belwt-en  dOjS  and  SO%.  In  II  cflM^i  from  90%  to  .%S  and  In  S 
the  average  iieini^aS.W.    Mr.  Barrtig  In  ei)?lit  colioii  niillB 
t"  be  tiecweeii  l.**  and  2S  '*.  the  arerftBP  helii^;  Je*.     Mr,  I 
that  fur  HhijpB  using  heavy  inarbiiiery  tlie  (Mjroi'iitft>;i'  oM 
o drive  theshaftliiK  will  average  trom40i  tow)*  of  llie  lolivl| 
>    This  pretiuppowa  that  under  the  bSMl  of  ahatlUtg  am] 
19,  fanB,  aud  hInwerA. 


ABBA8IVJB  PROCESSES. 

ir  It  /wr/oni/erf  l,y  nieuim  of  Mlnn.-H.  HftnA, 
Undttm,  t-mcfM,  roUKe.  chilk-d  Klii\ml.r»  nl  \- 
Im. ^J",i""if •     '"""  ''"I"-""  ''V  .l"h-v  \{.W'M 

iiy  as  attti  a ug.  is,  indi .  ^ 


-coS^WWWmfiemTnnWvasrstrax'mnirtfi-t 

in  which  the  pi«c«  to  be  cut  is  made  to  i^'volva 
tluia  the  saw.  By  thl»  m«9iiiis  onl)-  a  onmll  s\irt» 
presented  at  a  time  to  tht'  chcuniference  of  the  a 
satiie  size  as  the  cold  saw  above  desciilnjt] ,  «ih1 
itbout  26,000  feel  per  minute.  The  heat  Renerated 
agains»  the  sniaU  surface  of  the  bar  rotated  oga 
particlea  uf  iron  or  BteeJ  in  ilie  bar  are  aotunlly 
welds  OS  it  falls  intoasolid  moss.  Thludislc  uiUui 
Iron,  or  st«el.  Ic  will  cut  a  bar  of  st«el  \%  iach  i 
eluding  the  time  of  setting  it  in  the  uiachiue,  Q»^ 
aOO  turna  per  minnto. 

Canine  stone  with  Wire.— A  plan  of  d 
wlrH  cord  nas  been  tried  in  Kurupe.  \N  hile  r«t« 
agent,  M.  Pauliii  Gay,  of  Marneiiies,  has  8ucfe«-de(; 
i^  tneaug,  and  as  continuously  as  formerly  Om 
with  both  o{  which  appliances  bis  Fysleui — tba' 
cord  "—has  cousiiierable  anuloKy.  An  engine  pt 
wire  cord  (varying  from  five  to  seven  tliirty-seeoi 
Bi^cordlng  to  the  worki,  composed  of  lhre»  mild-s 
tain  pitch,  that  is  found  to  giye  the  b(»t  results 
from  15  to  IT  feet  per  second. 

The  Saud-blaat.- In  the  sand-blast,  Inveii 
FhiUdelphiu,  iiuil  tlrst  exhibited  at  ibe  American 
In  1871.  cumnion  sand,  powdered  quartz,  emery.  < 
rial  is  blowu  by  a  jet  of  air  or  steam  on  Rlass,  niel 
bridle  substance,  by  ivliiph  means  the  latter  Is 
To  protect  those  portions  of  the  surfac<<  which 
abraded  it  is  only  necessary  to  cover  them  with 
such  as  lead,  rubber,  leather,  paper,  wax,  or  nibl: 
In  J^pp.  Cyc.  Mei!h.;  also  U.  8.  report  of  Vienna  E 

A  "jet  of  sand  '"  impelled  by  steam  of  moderal 
blast  of  an  ordinary  fan,  depolisbe«  glass  in  a  ffw 
rapidly;  and  nietola  are  given  IJie  so  .■■"■'  ■  '■- 
rapidity.    Wiih  a  jet  issuinii:  from  ui- 
cut  through  a  piece  of  coruiidrum.  1^  . 
^AMHMIIlMMilllfeMllilirfMtaMkHil 


EMEHY-WHEEL8   AND  GBINDSTONES. 


967 


J  The  same  weif^ht  of  Hmalt  forging!*  and  stampings  can  be  acaled 

Kto  30  minutes.— /i-oii  Agi-.  March  8.  1891. 


of  na^ 


EinEnT-WHEEL,8  AND  GRINDSTONES. 

slertlou  or  Emery-ivheela.  -A  pamphlet  entitled  "  Ein«n'- 
Jlhi'lr  St-lei"tit)U  and  Lsc,"  published  by  the  Brown  A  Shart*  Mfg. 
^- calling;  attention  to  the  facMhat  too  much  should  not  be  exp 
pheel,  and  commenting  upon  the  importaDce  of  selecting  the  | 
*  the  work  to  be  done,  says  : 
are  numbered  from  coarse  to  fine:  Ihnt  K  a  wheel  madei 
'  la  coarser  tluiii  one  made  of  No.  100.    Within  certain  limit*,  and 
IIK8  being  cqnal,  a  coarse  wheel  Is  less  litlble  to  changp  the  tem- 
)  of  the  work  and  less  liable  to  glaze  than  a  fine  wlieel.     As  a  rule, 
ier  the  stock  the  coarser   the  wheel   required   to   proiluce  a  giTeJl 
I  For  example,  coarser  wheels  are  required  to  produce  a  given  sur- 
pon  hardened  steel  than  upon  soft  steel,  while  finer  wheels  are  ne- 
to  produce  this  surface    upon   brass  or  copper  than  upon  either 
Mned  or  soft  steel. 

keels  are  graded  from  sort  to  hard ,  and  the  grade  is  denoted  by  the 
rm  ot  the  Rlphnl)et.  A  denoting  the  softest  grade.  A  wheel  is  soft  or 
ohiefl.v  ou  uccouut  i)t  the  amount  and  character  of  the  material  com- 
1  in  its  manufacture  with  emery  or  corundum.  But  other  character- 
I  being  equal,  a  wheel  ihat  is  composed  of  "Bne  emery  is  more  compact 
txArder  than  one  made  of  coarser  emery.  For  instance,  a  wheel  of  No. 
TTirTv    irrade  B,  will  l>e  harder  than  one  of  Xo.  60  emery,  same  grade. 

-^■i  of  a  wheel  is  generally  its  most  important  cnaracteri.^lic.    A 

less  apt  lo  cause  a  change  of  temperature  in  the  work,  or  to 

-.1    ..:        'I,  than  a  harder  one     It  is  best  for  grinding  hardened  steel, 

■iroQ,  bnusw.  copper,  anil  rubber,  while  a  liarder  or  more  compact  wheel 

*t«r  for  grinding  soft  steel  and  wrought  iron.     As  a  rule,  other  things 

Bual,  the  harder  the  stock  the  softer  the  wheel  required  to  produce 

(flniab. 

_  speaking,  a  wheel  should  be  softer  as  the  surface  in  contact 
I  work  bi  increased.     For  example,  a  wheel  l/lfi^lnch  face  should  be 
Ptban  one  Vjiiich  face.     If  a  wheel  is  hard  and  heats  or  chatters,  it 
bn  be  made  somewhat  more  effective  liy  turning  off  a  part  of  its 
'  aurface;   but  it  should   Ih;  clearly  nnberstood  that  while  this  will 
iTme*  prevent  a  hard  wheel  from  heating  or  chattering  the  work,  such 
fhwl  will  not  prove  as  economical  as  one  of  the  full  width   and  proper 
~^%for  it  should  be  borne  In  nilml  that  the  grade  should  alwaj-s  bear  ihe 
rrelation  to  the  width.     (See  the  pamphlet  referred  to  for  other  In- 
on.    See  also  lecture  by  T.  DiinkUi  I'aret,  i'res't  of  The  Tanite  Oo., 
rrj'-wheelx.  Jour.  Frank   Inst  ,  March,  1890.) 

of  Kuiery •vrbeela.-  The  following  speeds  are  recommended 
irenl  nuiker^  : 


RevolutloDS  per  minute. 


a 

^A 

o 

«  so 

Cts 

£  « 

a  =  i, 

H- 

Jz^a 

c 

^ 

d& 

s.teo 

2.300 

1,800 

1.800 

1.5T0 

l.fitK) 

1,3S0 

1.400 

l,iJ22 

1,'iW 

1.080 

1,100 

1.000 

1,000 

»n 

\      «S 

733 
f,\\ 


4on 


2,300 
1.850 

I.IW) 
1,4W 

i.aso 

1,100 
1,000 


^M/ri(»e  Uie  regrular  speed  ot  S5O0  feet  per  minute."     vOetvoVt"! 
paiencB  baa  demouatrated  that  there  is  no   aAv«LH\««« 


THE  MACH1VE-8HOP. 


lUd  emerr-wheeU  at  a  higher  rate  than  BBOO  feet  per  mlinlgl 

fSnrt   ..-  '"         "\    ~     . 
Allhoiieh  there  is  no  exactly  defitieil  Uniil  at  which  a  i 


rftiEnelil 


a  hig) 

E.  W. 


Mfg.  Co.) 


Bet  per  mlni^M 
which  a  vwfl 


16 

20 

M 

30 

M 

40 

46 

60 

70 

SO 

00 

100 

(render  it  BfTeclive,  experience h»s  t^••^lu"'ll^( nil 

gafety,  flurabiliiy.  and  liabiliiy  toheiii 

ffivtMj  tlie  best  results.     All  first -dash 

necessary  to  give  tlii*  rate  mariied  m, 

In  the  vrieellst  gives  ft  corresponding  iiiif      Ab'jve   itii:- 

are  unsafe.    If  run  miicli  hflow  il  tlicy  wear  away  rapMl;  la  pra| 

what  they  accfitii|ili«li."    (NorMiauihtou  E.  W.  C»  ) 

Gradea  of  Emery.— The  numbers  representlnir  the  i 
run  from  »  tu  iJu,  und  the  deRree  cf  sniooilinesBof  Mirface  ( 

rbe  compared  to  timt  left  by  flies  as  follows: 
8  BUd  JO  represent  the  eut  of  a.  wood  map.  _ 
^.^ 
Wf 
Ba 
S 
Hi. 
UJ?| 
sri 
fot 
Stt 
! 


a  coarse  rniigh 


liOFandFF      "         "      *'    "  a  dead-smooth  BK 
Sp«ed  orPoUaItlDc>t«rbeels. 

Wood  covered  with  leather,  about 

"     B  hair  bnisb,  about 

m"  to 8"  diam.,  hair  1"  to  1)4"  lon«,  ab.  i'  • 

Walrus-hide  wheels,  about H>'   '■  i 

Bag-wheels,  4  to  !i  In.  dianteter.  about _  "• 

Safe   Speedo   for  Grlndatone*  aitl    ■'--'  r^       ' 

Hiscox  (/ii;ii  Atjr,  Apiil  T.  l.SO.'i,  by  an  ajuil 
Ujjal  force  in  flv-wiieeU  (see  IHy-wheeLs),  >i 
grindstones  ana  emery-irtieela  which  are 


forniuho  are: 

Stress  per  $q.  in.  o(  section  o(  a  grindstone 
an  eiuery-w! 
D  =  diameter  in  feel,  N  =  revolutions  pe^ 

~ .m\ 


;;tvt'M    It)    I  lie    lalij 

.'nr^p  X.I 

-    710- 


He  lalceg  the  weieht  of  sandstone  at  . 
eniery-wheel  atO.l  lb.  per  cubic  inch;  Ohi' 
Huron  .Htuue  about  .0$9  lb.  percnbic  inch, 
at  tlie  periphery  of  !iWO  to  3000  ft.  per  r 
exceedeil.    The  Huron  stone  can  b' 
clamped  between  flaoeea  and  not  • 
from  the  «pe«d  of  griniTstoneis  as  a  cu 
of  accidents  have  really  been  caused  by  \v,  .i 
we<lginK  to  true  them.    Tlie  holes  iM-ing  - 
wedges  to  true  the  slonen  Hturts  craclss  in 
out  until  the  centrifugal  flniiii  bi-^'iimes  n' 
remaining  solid  stone.     Hence  the  neoessii^ 
wedges,  tm  well  hh  the  holding  of  large  QUtr. 
Ilanfces  aad  leather  washers. 

Strains  In  Orlndatoa«a, 
Limit  or  Vtixicrrr  and  Apphoximatk  Actiai.  SraAiy 
Sbctional  Area   roa  aR]!«i>aTOicE3  or  Maoreii  T>- 


EMERY-WHEELS  .UJD  GKIXOSTOXES. 


fif^ures  »t  tlie  )>'.iti>ra  of  coiumiM  d««i«i>Ate  ibe  limit  cf  vtlocttf 
lions  per  i  i  be  b«ad  of  the  colnnma  for  sUMaes  of  llw  diam- 

tlii?  nr>l  'Site  ibf  desitrnxinx  Brure 

aeral  ml'  .    '  r  any  site  KrliicUtoDr  tliAt  baa  k  eooHMkcC  ftcd 

(rain  is  u>  Uii>i;  \L^-  fvnpherzi  vekxitr  to  IT  feet  per  BevoDd. 
h  la  a  large  variation  in  ibe  lisled speedii of  emefT-wbeelx hy  different 
E — MOO  ax  a  miiiiinuui  and  SflOO  maximum  fr«t  per  minute,  wUIb 
claim  a  maximum  speed  of  lO.OWfeet  per  mlmMe  as  Ibe  amte  ipced 
r  best  el neO' wheels.  Rim  wbeeb and  iron oeoue  wheeta are  apmtl* 
il  require  the  malcer's  ^laraotee  and  aafriKBDumt  ot  tprfti 

Strains  iB  Emerf-wbeel*. 

I.  SniAlit  put   S^l-ABE    LSCO    OP   SecTIOX    IX    EaKBT-WRKELB   AT  TWB 

VKLOcmta  AT  Head  or  CourMSs  ron  Sizbs  is  First  Coiat».  i 


li 


Rei 

roluiioDs  per 

minute. 

' 

H» 

MD 

1000 

1«M 

1«U 

1400  [  laoo 

auco   2a» 

woo  1  3000 

22.67    ST.W    ^M    38. 8L 
51.13    61. «e    :?.  BJ    Sfi  li 

18.40 

'aaira 

22.67 

h  6.-. 

H.ls'  58.05'  73.47 

II4.M 

90.71 
141 .80 

109.76  13U.0-.'  l.^.S 

'"•^•::-::i:::3 

aa.57 

41  .-11 

ft. 

;-,.65 

177. so 





Dlaca 

KevB.  per' 
mm. 

SO.flS 
61.81 

73.«ra 

100.41 
130.  »< 
152.85 

1T..S3 





In. 

3900     JOOOl 

' 



4 
6 

44.43   SI.H 

tl6.0( 

100.21  iis.a 

m.M 



.   ... 



8 

1J?.80  ...  1 

hda  Bom  (Modem  Mochioe-sbop  Practice)  Bars:  The  average  speed  i 
Stones  111  workshops  maf  lie  given  as  follows: 

Circumferential  Speed  of  Stone. 

Tbr  grinding  macbiDists' tools,  about  900  fe^t  per  mioute. 

"  •■       carpenten''     "        "     000 

^ipeeds  of  Ktones  for  flte-«rindliiK,  and  other  similar  rapid  grinding  is 
(iren  in  the  "Grinders'  L»«." 

■.ft A7H7eij6»i5       4U        4S^S 

^permtn.  139  144  154  166  180  1%  218  240  270  303  900 
b  follow ini7  table,  from  tbe  iteciianical  World,  Is  for  the  diameter  of 
Is  and  tile  niiiiilier  of  revulutions  they  should  run  per  minute  (not  to  be 
■ded),  with  tlie  diameter  of  chaDge  of  shift-pulleys  required,  varyinK 
shirt  or  change  ■t\^  inches.  2}^  inches,  or  2  inches  in  diameter  for  each 
etfon  of  0  iiichi^  in  th"  diameter  of  tbe  stone. 


k^ 

Shift  of  Pulieys,  to  inches.              ] 

■)ter 

RevdutioDS 

1 

■ 

% 

854 

2 

Rn. 

8       0 

135 

4« 

38 

82 

T       « 

144 

arw 

^A 

SO 

7       0 

154 

S5 

29 

«       « 

i«e 

32H 

SSM 

20 

e     0 

180 

ao 

37 

24 

S       6 

190 

2TM 

2^ 

22 

S       0 

216 

25 

20 

4       0 

SUO 

8SM 

2W4         \           %% 

4       0         1 

37V 

20 

18             \           \* 

f       t        / 

SS^ 

im 

ir%       \         \\  A 

'       / 

sao        1 

15 

isvi 

\ ?1 

/ 

i-          / 

J 

4 

\     jl 

I 


970 


THE  MACHINE-SHOP. 


■in. 

1         9i 


Oolumns  3,  4.  and  5  are  ^iven  to  show  that  if  we  star!  an  ^■[ 
Bay,  a  couiitershnft  pulley  diiviiiiir  a  40-inch  pul!- 
and  die  stone  niukcs  ibe  rielit  uumht'r  (135)  of  P»  I 

reductiou  in  the  Jiamelt-r  iif  the  pulley  OH  the  ^-i 
Ihe  gton>*  btts  been  reducwl  fi  inches  in  dianioler.  will  re>|iil) 
ducetl  aU  inches  in  diameter,  or  to  shift  from  40  inches  m  j!| 
on  Bimilarly  for  columns  4  and  5.    Any  other  suitable  ilime 
may  l>e  used  for  the  stone  when  eif;bt  feel  in  diameter.  Iiut  tttj 
inches  in  eocli  slilfi  named,  iu  order  to  be  correct,  will  liare  lol 
tional  to  the  numbers  of  revolutions  the  stone  should  run,  a»  gl« 
a  oC  the  Uble. 

Tarletlea  of  Grlnilntonec. 

(Josliua  Rose.) 

For  QKnrniNG  Machisibts'  Tool*. 


I 


Name  of  Stone. 


Kova  Bcotla,  '• 

r  Cbaleur  (New  ( 
irunswick),  ) 

Liverpool  or  MeiUng. 


KindofOric.     Texture  of  Stone.    Color 


All  Icinds,  from 
finest  to  coarsest 


All  kinda,  from 
hardest  to  aothwl 


Medium  to  flnest:  Soft  and  sharp 

Medium  to  fine     Soft,  wiLh  abarp 
I    grit  


Blue  or  J 

Uiilfoi 


For  Woot>-woEEnio  ToOLa. 


Wickersiey..  ........ 

Liverpool  or  Melliug. 

Bay  Ohaleur  (Now  ( 

Brunswick),  1 

Huron.  MichiEran   .  - 


Medium  to  flne 
Medium  to  flne  j 

Medium  to  flneat 
Fine 


Very  soft 
Soft,  with  sharp 
Krit 

Soft  and  stiarp 

Soft  and  siiarp 


Vntt> 
Untfora 


[Newcastle 

1  Independence.. . 
"     dUon 


For  Orindino  Broad  SnarAcis,  as  Saws  or  Iros  PtAna 


Coarse  to  med'oi 

Coarse 

Coarse 


The  hard  onea     '  Yrllo* 
Hard  to  me<liuiii  (ir«T!«l»"'       . 
Hani  to  medium   Yell»«)a&WlJ 


TAP  DB1LI.S. 

Taps  for  lll*clilne>acrew*.    (The  Pratt  £  ' 


Approx. 
THanieter, 
froctlons 
of  an  inch 


Wire 
Gauge 


No.  of  Tlireada 
to  ln»'h. 


60.  TO 

40, 48.  se 
S3,  as,  40 
ao,  se,  88. 40 
au,  xt,  se,  40 
M.  ao,  »i 

»,  ao.  Si,  80,  40 
M.  88,  ao,  &> 

90.  «l, « 


Approx. 

!>  la  meter, 
fractions 
of  an  Inch. 


\ 


Wire. 
Owww 


Mo.  18 


No.( 


J  Mor««  TwUt  V»tlU  ftwd  Hac\v\TO  Co.  I^;'**^ 


TAP  DRILLS. 


1 


:;*••; 


itiiili; 


Mil 


sa 


?SS3 


8 


•a 

3 

a 


o 


i% 


m 

a 


:?2^J:. 


CT)  QD  Ct;  flO     *•>-*•-••'••      •  S»^~a'^'    •     i     .     •  lA  >ft  lA  W) 
t^  t"  t- 1*  I  - 1- C>  t*  tD  ffi  ep  tD  Ip  <e  A  te  to  lO  lO  to  d  O  M3  to  "W  W 


«««  gj<o^  ^<e^  ^»s  ^£33  ssa  asa 


:S  :i 


.•3; :  :  :  :  ;  : 


;t 


•X-  : 


IHil 


33  :  :^3 


:!SS» 


ia^  i  ixl  i  i :  M  ; 


^333^33    S3SS    SSS    ??  :  :K      :::::: 


go     '     ;QO0O     ;     :'^2      1     :C'>«     ;     ;«*?>     ;     ;     ;; 


iO(fiiaGe'^^-»'*pT)7r9};i09i-<^ooose>c>AAaoQDaoa> 


jf.  /     «-=  S'-s   ;;=£    s-S   asfe   %'£s  V^-^ 


rKIMO  PITS. 


373 


•o  Incbeg  acroM  tbe  IioJ^  or  5.« 
ive  «.%yia  Hjh.,  and  10.e;(  i;lM>jra- 

for  piincheH  tor  ti.s«  in  rii>-tal  of 
)  punch.  Thin  fnrm  is  <.f  im-ai. 
rlced  lit  leHs  than  two  IhiixiM  llie 

wlng-preiw.  OlM-Hin  Srnrlh 
iietliotiK  or  liiulinii  i)i<-  mx>-  of 
d  coiihIhih  sIiii]iIv  in  a  -^n—  r-t 
tropvr  one  is  fmiinl.  TJiii.  i«  f.ir 
the  cuttinK  (lorii-ins  nf  il,.-  >ii^ 
her  worlf  in  rlonf.  Th»  v<''.rri 
id  then,  IcndwinK  tin-  ireifrht  ti( 
the  diameter  <'>f  a  |>iece  liavinK 
iJKht.  T)ie  thiril  nielh-yl  L-  »>>■ 
J-  4d/4  for  HhaqMromermi  "iii. 
of  cup,  A  =  h>-lf;bt  of  r-np.  >'.,r 
1,  gay  I'adiug  of  comer  Ir-^  ri.an 
■I-  4d/i)  —  r,  aVnit:  r  f<»-ir:jr  fji" 
)  aaiumption  ihac  thf  thicKii*--<< 
incopf  ration. 

tftUeDrop-prewi.  Fi.  H. 
copper cylin'l••rI^  «  a.-  [.r«-i-a'v;. 
ejected  to  th«-  a>.-tioii  of  pr«-»-»- 

of  fall.    (>jnipaiii'>ii  .>|.n- i.. 

me  amoiiot.  and  nn*-a-M:>-  ■•  •■— 
n,  and  o'  the  ainoiin'  '<r  v  '-rii,- 
Irop.  Ccmpariiiir  on«- '.iiv'.  -i.- 
le  hamraer  wax"  'jri  of  tl.»r  j.  -.m 
Hclency.  That  i«  to  -hv.  '-'■  -  r 
iqual  to  tiiat  drjt;  t)i<T  ,i>-i;;n'  'f 

ht  of  drrjp  X  fKll  /  »-ffii:i'-..'-,v 

coinpre!«Ki'»ti. 
e  mean  ar<?a  opp-.v  1  to  rrii-)i- 

our.  Frank.  Inst..  MBi<;ii.  :»'-  • 
gh  iron  blfjok.s  !*i  in'rii'-H  tiii'-k. 
I  only  1  1/14  Inch  thick,  and  it-> 
the  hole.  Therefore.  C«>'  of  i  he 
into  the  block  itnelf,  iticrcasin;; 


KI.NO  VITS. 

by  Hydraulic  PrPHfture. 

Iiirjft-r  than  tlie  h')l<!  into  which 
:>re»sure  of  :W  to  35  tons.    (I<«;c- 

e  driving- wheel,  wlien  the  pin- 
lould  be  pressed  In  with  a  preo- 
;he  wheel  fit.  When  the  hole  Ih 
t  of  shiinkiDi;  the  tire  on  the 
lia.s  been  boreti,  or  if  tlie  hole  iH 
'e  to  be  increased  to  9  tons  for 
rn.  Machinist. I  „    ,      .    , 

an  Kailway  Master  Mechanics 
rinkace  allowancps  for  tlrea  of 
ly  heated  by  ga8-<lBra<?B,  sli|>ped 
:il.  Tlie  centres  are  turned  to 
ires  are  bored  smaller  by  the 

I      50      no      «2      «« 

!     .053     .000     .068     .0^0 

f  1/SO  inch  |>er  fool,  or  1/900.    A 

lodulus  of  ela»ticlly  of  wcel  at 


074 


THK    MACHIKE-SJIUP. 


I 

I 


30,000,000,  the'stTRin  caused  bj  slirltika^  wniiM  »w  30.000  Iht  | 
wliicli  is  well  within  Uu*  alaslio  limit  or  iiiuutilneiT'  st»cl 

8CHEWS,  9CRKW>THBEADS,  KTC,' 

Klllviency  of  h  Screw.— Let  a  =  angle  rif  Uif  thrpnl.i 

angle  wlmse  iHn^eni  l.s  llic  fiilcli  of  the  screic  divided  li)  llm  « 
of  a  circle  whose  dianieier  is  the  mean  iif  the  Oiaintilim  u  i 
bottom  of  the  thread.    Tlien  fur  a  s<|iinre  thread 

Effluleticy  = f , 

l-*-/cotau« 

In  which  /  i'r  t'le  ooef!lolent  (if  frlctlnn.  (For  dcmonotroiia 
Slade.  Applied  MecliHnli:s.  p.  140.  i  Siiioo  culnii  =  I  ■*  lan^l 
f  nr  c(il«n  ft   tlit>  leoipi'ocal  of  the  tangent,  or  if  p  =  iillchtf 
ciiiiifeiiiiice  ofthe^crew, 

KIBciency  =   , 

ExAMPiJt,— Efficiency  of  Kqimre-lhreaded  screws  of  H  ll>.  ptiflit 

Dittiiu.'tei' at  bottom  (if  Ibread,  in 18  8 

•■    top IW  a4  Jt< 

Mfan  ciroiiinferencfl "      "        "..,.8.83!'  *      T.OW  10 1 

Coianifeul  II  =  c -4- p .=  7.8M  J4.H  W' 

Tanpflit  n  =  p-*-e =    JWI  .«fl«l 

EITIoiencyif /=  .10 ...  =  55  3J  II  «  St.1 

■•/=.1S =    «*  8I.7S  M.I 

The  eiflcieiK'V  tliim  incrpaseB  willi  tli«  Bte<«nn««(«  of  i  h<>  ptldi^ 
The  iiliove  formulie  anil  eianiples  ore  lorwinarr-Lhrfi 

flfinsldBr  the  friction  of  the  s<,-(*tt-' I" i  ...  i.    i    ... 

oiillar  or  step  by  which  end  tliriif '  rH 

efllolenui'.   The  ellloiency  is  ako  n  k'IUiI 

the  liiiie  of  the  thremi,  as  in  lhe\' .-. . .  .v.     t  ...  .tu 

snliji'i-r,  see  paper  bv  Wilf rt-d  1.4<wi8,  Jour.  i<'runk.  inil.  1911 
A.  S.  M    K.  Tol.  lit.  Tf^. 

ElBclencr  of  8crew-boU».— Mr.  Lewis plre-  ••-  '■■<' 
imniei    foruiula     foi-  or<Iinary    wrew-bolts  vV  thr 
[lilcli  of  strew,  d  =  otit»idf  diBnieler  of  «crew,  F  = 
tel-enee  to  lift  a  unit  of  weight,  E  =  efficiency  of  «.,.,.      . 
caeu,  la  wliicta  thn  coefficient  of  frictioa  may  bn  assumed  at  .1 

«'  _  pJlI  tr  -      V 

"  -    id  '        ^- ]r+d" 

For  liolts  of  the  dinieiiiiious  given  abore,  ^^In.  pitch,  i 
eters  llj.  2U,  .lU,  and  It^  in.,   the  efUciencie*  according  to 
ivould  lie.  ri-.^|ifOllvely,  .'JS,  .107,  .laV  and  .10. 

Jiuiies  Jirlli  Ide  (Triins,  .\.  S.  St.  E.  xii.  7«I    .Ifsir  jl„-.  ,n  n 
:in  ordiniirv  3-lu   screw-bolt,  wftlioVli, 
a  weitrht  of  T.'iOll  liwi .  l1n'  T'lroe  bHi'njf  op 
|iii«er  applied  Sfr.Sjf  wh*  al)Mjrl>e<l  by  fri. 
washer  and  of  the  thread.t  of  iliu  boll  in  tiic  uuu    'Ii.i!  i,ui 
and  liiid  the  (l«t  side  to  the  washer. 

I'rof  null  in  hi.-i  "  Extierini.-iitJiI  M^-i'ldiiil.^  "  ^,-«v«-      •r.IIi 
1)1  I  V. '  invllvely  nl)'..  '.     ,  ' 

Ti  -:  •'  Iii'prii' 

hr-a*  iriies  veiy  ■,:■■  ,|j 

litll.'   vahi..  " 
WWsliftcli  (wrs:  "  The  elflmency  l«  from  IIK  to  IPI 
ElBrlpiicy  of  a   DlfTcrf ntlaf  Hrrcw.-.v 


Haner  fcrew 


975 


■ner  fCrew  S/7  in..  Ihc  duik-Ii   wuUl    nd- 
!.T  =  I  -ii  in-     Exper  :-• 

punch  aa  II   !S-in.  I' 

of  a  l*v«Tftnnof  4T-*4  1 

•i  mean  force  apphnl  a;  tt><'  fiiii  uC  iLv  it-vrr 
htt  puiacb,  if  tiiiere  w&s  no  friction.  wdiiKI  b^ 
'orce  r^uired  to  punch  the  tri>n,  a^Muniiiifr  a 

Ibtt.  per  »q.  in.,  would  be  50.(XW  >  !1  Hi  •  »  ;< 
incs  of  Ihe  puucti  would  be  iT.iXW  -*-  5DM.500  = 
rew  only  used  ai$  a  puuch  the  mean  forc«  at 
ly  ^  Ib8.  The  leverage  in  this  case  was  4^  x 
'fiferred  to  lh«  punch,  including  rriction.  MO  x 
y  87,000  -f-  73,800  =  36,7<.  The  Bcrews  were  of 
rieat«d  wttta  lard-oil  and  plumbago. 
•threads— A.  M.  Powell  (,Am,  Uncli.,  Jan,  3(, 
tr-Uiread  to  replace  the  square  form  of  thread, 
iereoaelo  tnaklne^ IIik.  ami  provision  for"  take 
dimensions  are  trie  same  a«  those  nt  s<|uare- 
}tlon  that  the  sides  of  the  thri-a/l,  inttt-nil  of 
is  of  the  screw,  are  inclinetl  I4y^*  U*  such  t>er 
Ides  of  a  thread  are  inclined  i!9"  to  each  other. 
(  of  the  thread  are  the  followlnfr:  l>epili  of 
t  top  of  thread  =  width  of  iipacu  at  bottom  — 
ot  of  threjid  =  width  of  space  at  top  =  .6303  -•■ 
number  of  threads  to  the  Inch. 

kBTSOF  TIACHINEH  IN  A  SKBIES 
OF  SIZKS. 

mlntlifilo);  April.  18!ie.) 

fed  b;  Coleman  Sellers  white  at  William  Sellers 
lliti  of  the  parts  of  mnchliies.  bnHetl  tipon  the 
xe  inacblae  and  a  small  oue  to  any  ssriefi  of 
neil  In  jsettinc  up  the  pioiM)riioti-l)ook  and  ar- 
8  from  which  any  Jiiaoliineean  li«coiistnicted 
the  lar^ejiL  and  tirnullest  nf  the  series. 
>DStractlon  Fonnuliv.— Take  dlfTerence 

the  larij^at  and  the  ^iinnlltRt  inHchineit  that 
conatriietlou.  Take  also  the  difference  be- 
on  the  ll^rgesl  and  sniallesL  tuachines  se- 

je  former,  ami  the  result  otittiiio-d  will  lie  a 
yy  the  tioiiiinal  cajiaeily  of  the  inlernieilinte 
mlnlslietl  by  a  coDstant  *'  increiiient,"  will  Rive 

To  fltul  the  ••  increineut :"  Multiply  the  uchuI- 
itxe  by  the  factor  obtained,  and  subtract  the 
)arC  belonging  to  the  machine  of  nominal  ea 

B  of  a  part  of  a  7S-in.  machine  in  3  in.,  and  the 
In.  machine  is  1^,  or  1.8T5  in.;  then  7-i  -  42  _ 
D.  =  t.)vB.  lias  -1-  30  =  .0;i75  =  the  "  faclol." 
1  1.878  -  1.575  =  .3  =  the  "  Increment  "  to  W\ 
capacity:    then  the  formula  will  read:   x  =■ 

fns.  or  1%.  the  size  of  one  of  the  selected  parts. 
»B  -4-  e  =  X,  In  which  D  =  nominal  canaclly  in 
lualanc  Increment,  a  U  the  factor,  ana  x  =  the 


K.WCSH. 

M(eaHne.    (Trans  A.  8.  H.  E.,  xiil.  S3».)— K. 

{key  =  Vi diatn.  of  ahaf t,  depth  =  1/t  diam. of 

;. 

lilla :  Kay*  of  iquare  section,  aide  =  ^  dUm.  of 

>  In  flTBo  sizteeotba  of  an  Inch. 

Ih  =  H  diam.  of  hole;  depth  of  aide  -*  ' 

I  key  for  1  to  m  In.  shafta,  S/U  > 
^  to  19itn  tfhafta.  and  so  on. 
urge  euii  ot  splice,  4/&  widUt  ot  1 


976 


THE  MACHINE-SHOP. 


UbwUi  (WbHiihU  of  Macliiii'-  I»-<.iifi>i  irit>-s  -.  Width  =  ^d  -4-  MIn. 
tMsmt  -  i^  +  k  - '  afi  in  inches,     \vbt-n  arbeiite 

iur  raj*,  tlieer  In  iluit   c«s«,    if   H.P.  =  hoi 

|iu«««  lrmii«uilU«d  tijr  Ute  altetd  ur  faille  y,  .V  =  iwa.   per  min,  P  =  ti 
•cUbc  at  the  ttraaatenmoe,  ia  lbs.,  aod  A  =  rsdiut  of  puUey  in  incfaei,  I 


•/lOOH-P. 


Prof.  Oolwniti  SMIcre  iStevrtu  ludieator,  April.  ISSS)  gives  tb»  ft 
Tlw  siip  of  kpTit.  h"t)i  for  «>tsftlBe  sn-!  for  machfnp  tooU,  are  On  , 

tit'i  -  "  ■      "■■    '  '    "  ""  r-.«l  todurini 

tii'i  >  >  ami  titliDg 

iitL.  :■  .    top  aiij 

•li!-   Doi:tini  •>!  tJie  kcy.fieai  il 
ibe  gmr-wheirl  timt  U  tttumt 
ikis  manner  deiH-nil  upoD  llw0t 
ir-T-i  III"  ill  iiir  >r:ir  i>r-jijk.-  ii  i>trciii|c  At,  OF  A  fit  ihnt  is  BO  ug^taatil 
naitc  scrett  -|>iV!tfurc  lo  |>ut  llu-  olienl  in  place  upon  th«  Khafl. 


Slx«  of  Ker*  for  Sbaftlnc. 


,ia 


DianirL^r  of  Shaft,  in.  Size  of  Key 

lU  1  7  IS      1  ll/ie S/16< 

1  I5/14    J  Vl« 7/>6x 

5  7/14 t/ien 

«  II/IS  aiS/18  8  8/IB      «T/1«..... 11/16. 

3  15/14  4  7  1«  4  tft/in 1VI8« 

6  7/19  5  IS  16  e  7  10  .     . 15/18x1" 

6  15 '16  7  7,J«  7  15,10    8  7,/16    8  1V«6..  1  1/I6x  IX 

Leogth  of  ke]r>«Mit  for  coupling  =  1H  X  noniioal  diameter  of  shaft. 


Size  of  Krya  ftor  Idaclilne  Xools. 


Dlam.  of  Shaft,  in 


Size  of  Key, 
ia.  cq. 

lAr'lS    nnd  under U 

1      to  13/18 3/16 

]U  tol  7,1C M 

lU  to  1  11/18 8/10 

I«  ioa  S/l« 7/18 

SU  to«  11/18  9.^6 

294  to3  lS/16 ll.'ie 


Diam,  of  Shaft, 
i 


In. 


to    5  7/16  ... 

lo    6  15/18... 

to   8  15/18..., 

»      to  10  15/16... 

n      to  U  15/16 I  S/W 

IS      toM  15/16  17,11 


■q.  in 
...  1J/1« 
...  IJ/IS 
...  1  1,^16 

I  a/11 


John  Kicluirits,  In  sn  article  in  Caaier't  ilagazine,vrrlten  as  follom: 
are  two  IfiiiiU  or  system  of  keys,  both  proper  and  necerssairy,  but  vri' 
fereni  in  naiuiv.    1.  Tlio  coinniou  fa-tlenini;  kev.  usually  niaileiu  ^ 
fourth  of  the  iibsfl's  dianieler,  and  liie  depth  fl»e  eighths  to  oo« 
width.     TliHse  keys  are  tapered  and  fit  on  all  sides,  or,  as  it  is 
scril)ea.  '•  bear  all  over."    Tb*y  fieiforin  the  ilouble  function  in 
of  driving  or  lran<aulttfDff    and   fastenine  the  keyed-on   member  _ 
itioveiiient  euilwise  on  tiiu  sliaft.    Suub  keys,  wlien  properly  made^ 
as  a  strut,  dia|;onally  from  coiuer  to  corner. 

SL  The  other  kind  orcla.<g  of  keys  are  not  tapered  and  flt  oo  theiri 
only,  a  slight  clear  aitce  beloi:  left  on  the  back  to  insure  aKaingt  wedge 
or  railial  strain.     These  key»  drive  by  shenrinft  strain. 

Forftxed  work  where  llieie  is  no  alidirif;  iiioveiuent  sU'li  krys  ur^ 
monly  made  of  sipmre  section,  tiie  sides  only  l>einp  plan- 
more  than  the  width  by  so  much  as  is  cut  away  in  fini<<li 

For  sliding;  l>earinio>,  as  in  the  case  of  drilling-niacliine  -^^ 
should  lie  inoren-sed,  and  in  cases  w here  there  ia  heavy  slrain  ilicrr  rh" 
be  two  keys  or  feathers  iniitead  of  one. 

The  following  tables  are  token  from  proportions  adupte<1  in  pia. 

Flat  keys,  as   in  the  first  inblf,  are  employed  for  nv  ili 

parti;  are  li>  be  lieUl  not  only  a^aiimi  torvional  strain.  Imi  i 

Oituil  etidnise  ;  anil  \o  case  o^  \\™.'»-s  «,r«3flx  U»  strut  r  . 

[>og»3t  unU  moBl  secure  flRtl\T^sX.\no'«««n»tl«.■»<\M«!lOk,■^JB(e^t;^fc.>tIain, 

'  I  Llie  ease  ot  euginc cra.uV>a  a,wi."&t«.'nKW«%,  ^^-vucnj^Vi.  "^wk' 


©F   KEYS   AKD  SET-SCREWS.      07? 


^kre.  (UaiaiDg  the  work  out  of  tnitb.  ibe  can> 
ii»(f,  and  Jpstroyiajf  the  «r»i<l*-iice  of  ^oCkI  or  b«<i 
When  n  wli(»>-l  or  othrr  pur!  is  fastened  with  » 
lere  is  no  uieans  of  kiiuHiUk'  »liet!i-r  iln'  wrk  i* 
■  reast-in  siioli  keys  arc  i.ui  empUv  ■  uu- 

M9  of  aviMirate  work  of  hmv  Kinij  iK»t 

'Strain,  oud  also  the  difBciilty  of  i.-.  _  ■    'iii- 

loNS  OF  FuT  Ekts.  t)f  bccBas. 


»/lS 
3/l« 


7/l« 
9/82 


5/tfl 


7/10 


lljt. 


B 
IS/ It 


7  8 


'^ 


lOKfl  ar  SqvAtiz  Kkvo.  m  Ikcbbl 


m 

7/88 


9/aa  11/82 

5/18  ?6 


13/3S 
7/16 


IS/ffi 


17/«i 

t/16 


S/IO 


11/10 


( Of  Suoiyo  Featbeb-kets,  (m  Inches. 


l\  7/10 


5/14 
7/16 


»7l« 


(ollowing  table  of  dimensions  to  tlie  Am.  Machin- 
heavy  work  and  very  short  hubs  we  put  in  two 
t.  With  »[H>ciai  long  hubs,  where  \re  cannot  use 
should  t>e  thicker  than  the  standard. 


1th,  Thick 
MM.  neKS,  in. 


3/ia 
5/lC 

9/10 


Diameter  of  ShatU,    Width, 
inches.  inches. 


3  7/16  lo  3  n/ia 

3  15/16  to  4  3/lB 

4  7/18  to  4  11/18 
4%         to  5% 
T.U         to  B|2 


Thlck- 
ne8a,ln. 


11/16 


U. 


■16 


SB.  say  14  to  16",  1/lfi"  thicker;  keys  louder  than 
'  tntcker;  and  so  on.    Special  short  hubs  to  have 

Woodi'iilT  system  of  keyine,  see  circular  of  tlie 
Modern  MechanlRin,  page  4M, 

t  OV  KEYS  AND  8ET>SCRBWS. 

lliiK>power  of  8et-aerewa  In  Pullcjra. 

1.  ET,  X.  i'3U.)— Theae  tests  were  made  l>y  u»ii«K  a 
pifc  by  two  8«t-svrews  with  tlie  shaft  key»i  to  ilie 
iquired  at  the  rim  of  the  pulley  to  CAUMt*  it  In  Hllp 
belDK  niiiltiplied  liy  Ihi;  number  (1.037  (ObtAIUHil  l>y 
be  pulley  onelialf  the  diameter  of  the  wire  rope, 
kice  the  radiUH  of  the  shaft,  sinee  tbere  were  two 
(time)  Kives  llie  holdin)f.|)Ower  of  llie  8el-»LTews. 
jof  wrouKht'irrin,  ^  of  an  incli  in  dinmrter,  and  ten 
shaft  used  was  of  steel  and  ratlivr  liard    ••>"  "ei- 

I  Impres.sion  upon  it.    They  were  net 

II  of  a  ten-inoli  monkey-wrench.    T' 
asrlied  respectively  A,  U,  C,  and  D' 


978 


DTNAMOMKTEES. 


A,  potln  p«rfi!Clly  flat.  9/16-in.  diameter.     MIS  to  3894  Itw.;  aTen««aaM. 

B.  railius  of  roundml  pnd.s  alioiit  U  inch,  37-17  '*  307S    "  "      Wl 

O.        ^    •'        19()S  •'  8070    "  "       BJJ. 

D  ends  cup-shaped  And  oai^'bardeued,      liKS  "  2968    "  "      Mn, 

KniAiiK8  —A.  Thpsel-MTHwd  wfrp  iiolonllrWy  nornml  to  the  shafl ;  Umi«( 
tliny  bor«  lesis  in  die  earlier  tiiiilR.  berore  th-ytaad  become  tiatteaetl bjp 
M-ear. 

B.  Thf  piiils  of  iliese  Ket-HcrewK,  aftvr  ths  Omt  two  trials,  wer«  foundt 
b«  fiatleii«<l.  tilt*  tintterird  area  liiivine  a  diameter  of  about  tjj  inch. 

C    Tlif  edilR  wfiT  found,  after  the  tli'st  two  Irlnts.  1^  be  flattened,  an  lot 

|l,  'I'he  lirHl  lent  lield  well  hetauue  the  eilees  were  sharp,  then  (he  holding 
power  fell  ciff  till  ihey  hud  Itec-niiie  tlHllciied  Iti  u  maniivr  giuiUar  to  B,  wimi 
the  ln>l<ltn^-|M>\ver  InereuNed  a^^nln. 

Testa   of  the   Holdlng>power  of  Keys.    (I^i>za.>— llie  1 
wif  applioti  a-*  lu  ih«  t«>»i«  of  Hei-screMs,  ihe  sliafi  iieiiig  flrmb'  keyed  toi3 
hiildei-H.    I'lie  load  required  alllie  rim  of  the  pulley  to  shear  tbe'lceyd 
determined,  and  tblii,  multiplied  liya  suitable  I'ongtaht.iipternilDed  in  as 
liar  n*ay  to  that  used  in  the  case  of  Het-Hcrews,  gives  tia  tbeslieuriugHtrenj^ 
t-er  M|tiare  inch  of  the  ke.vH. 

'I'lie  kovo  tcBteil  were  of  eijfht  kinds,  denote<JI,  respectively,  by  Ihe  le 
A,  B,  C.  1),  K,  F,  U  and  H,  and  the  itttiiiltM  were  as  follows  :  A,  B,  D  uAi 
each  I  leatii;  E,  3  tealii ;  0,  (i,  and  H,  each  S  teats. 


A.  Norway  iron,  »"  x  U"  X  15/32", 

B.  rellue.f  Iron,  a"  X  ^'  X  IB/Si"', 

C.  tool  Kleel,  1"  X  M"  X  15/82", 

D.  rimohlnery  steel.  '.►"  X  W"  X  15/84". 

E.  Norway  Iron,  lU"  x  W'  X  7/16", 

F.  oast-Iron.  «"  x  fii"  X  16/»i", 

G.  caat-iron,  1^"  x  H"  X  VW, 
H,  cast-iron,  1"  x  W''^X  7/16", 


-10.184  to    47.700  lbs.; 

86,-iftj"   so.as4: 

ill. 31-1  &  100,056. 
«l,t)auto  7t).186; 
8«,Ki(»  "  37.aS8: 
!)0,«8'-  86,944; 
.tT,i-.'-2Jt  S8,70O. 
S9,8UJ!t    88,878. 


aTernfre.! 


liiK  only  7/10  In.  iJeep,  ttp|)«d  sllghlly  in  the  ke.v-way, 
there  wag  a  ilefect  iu  the  key -way  uf  the  pulley. 


ne.   Ill 

ruii, 


in  (he  arsl  l«<tj 


DYNAMOMETERS. 

Dynamometen  are  InBtriiniente  used  for  measuring  power.  They  are  of 
neveral  ulaaaea,  as  :  1.  Traction  dynnnioinelers.  iiiietl  for  detei  iiiIuIdk  llnkl 
power  requii-etl  to  pull  a  car  or  other  vehicle,  or  a  ploujfh  or  barTofl.r 
a  Brake  or  ahi'orptloii  dvnainometers.  In  which  th>?  power  of  a  MtallniSj 
shafl  or  wheel  is  absorbed  or  converted  into  heat  by  the  friction  of  a  brU^ 
ami.  .1.  TrnnsniiHslon  ilynaiiunneteryi.  In  which  the  power  in  a  rotating  sihaltj 
Is  inenxured  dnriiie  itH  trntisiniisMirin  through  0,  belt  or  other  coanectloal 
awther  ><liAft,  withniit  lieiiii;  ahsorlied. 

Tractloa  ttyuaruometera  generally  contain   two  prit; 
1 1)  .A  spiiiiif  or  series  of  sjiriiiKs,  llirouijh  which  the  pull  Is  eiert- 
mIoii  oE  I  he  HpriiiK  niea.-^iirln^^lhe  ainoititt  of  the  poliinp^-  force;  an*. 
coveied  ilniin.  roiuted  either  at  n  uuiform  speetl  by  olocltwork,  or  it  aj 
prtiportlonal  lo  the  speed  of  the  traction.  throu(;h'i^earinK,  on  whic 
teniiinii  of  Ihe  fl)irii)|;  Im  registered  by  a  pencil.     From  the  averape  1.^ 
ihe  <lla);ruiiL  drnwn   by  the  pencil  alKivc  the  zero-line    the  averaKe<j 
forci- in  pitHtiils  liiohtahied,    and  this  iitliltiplied  by  the  ili.stance  iriil 
in   feet,  (fives  the  woi-k  done,  in  foot  pounds.     The  product  divtdtidi 
lime  hi  lolniitcs  and  by  S'l.OiH)  gives  the  horae- power. 

I'he  Pronjr  brake  is  the  typical  form  of  abisorption  dynainuin'Will 
(See   KliK    IB7,  from    Mather  ou   Dynaioometers  and    the  Measuremwil ' 
Powef.t 

f»i-lnitti-Ily  this  con,«ist.s  of  a  lever  connected  to  a  revolving  shaft  or  pull«f| 
In  Kticii  a  manner  that  the  fricUuu  fiidiiceil  between  the  Rui-faoe»  in  i 
will  lend  lo  riitttle  the  arm  In  tliedireciinii  hi  which  the  shaft  revolv* 
rotntlim  Is  coimterlmlance.1  by  weights  Z^,  hung  in  the  scale  pan  »l  I 
uf  l/ie  lever,  lu  order  U>  m«a»ur*  V\w  \w)<««r  for  u  ^iven  number  of  I 
tloDS  ot  pulley,  we  adil  wciRtiV* Vo  U\«  wh^V-vjlu  VttS»,  f«a<£«  vio  mi 
uulil  the  friciiou  iQdacedbaUuoefcVXvttvosKsfinJ^awad.  V\\ih>iB«wSa.\ 


rTlOK-DYNAMOMETER.  979 


wvolutiong  of  shaft  per  minute  reniaiu 

l»rally  omilt*^— the  friction  Ix-iriR  niea- 
thrown  over  the  pulley.  Ropes  or  cords 
i^ 

lie-pan,  aa  in  Tig.  167,  the  friction  m^y  be 


Fia.  167. 

>e  acHon  of  graTlly;  a  wa8lepi|i<'  with  Itii 
rfnigh  tlint  it  nets  as  a  scoop,  and  iTiiiovea 
slsts of  a  flficible  »Lrap  to  uliicli  are  (itl«l 
PB'Kiirra«-<>;  tlie  ends  of  the  ctriip  are  eon- 
ip,  by  menus  of  wliicb  any  desired  tenRlun 

^aft  is  detei-uiined  from  tlie  following: 

Ower  absorbed,  per  nitnule; 

t  weiglit  in  pounds,  acting  on  lever-arm 

feet  from  centre  of  shaft ; 
It  per  MilDtite  at  dlRtauce  L,  if  ann  were 
le  speed  of  the  shaft; 
ruiiuute; 


r.V.  =  SwLNP  +  83,000. 

-Sir  1h  practically  5  ft.  3  in.,  a  value 

^lli  of  arm. 

iialt,  the  resiilUni;  friciion  will  show  Rreal 
t  of  inmifflcienl  lubricatlnu— tlie  ]an»  be- 
thus  producing  shocks  aod  sudden  vibra- 

tree,  bw^'Ji,  poplar,  or  maple  are  all  to  be 
■  biaku-block(t.  Tbertibblug-surfacesliouid 
r«'a«*. 

■dynamomeler.  (G.  I.  Alden,  TranA. 
:i>OBiid  jtiii.  .j-JO.)— This  dynamometer  Is  a 
ri  qiiitf  moderate  olzes  of  absorbine  large 
nil  ooiiiplp(e  reKuIalion.  A  smoolii  cast- 
ing shttit.    Tliis  Ih  enclnse<l  in  a  casl-irou 

ririK  at  their  eircimiference.  whioli  is  free 
nlerior  of  each  of  the  sides  of  the  shell  is 
)elireen  itself  and  the  side  a  water-tight 
im  the  city  pipe?)  is  admitted  into  each  of 
>er  plate  SKHlDst  the  cenimi  disk.  The 
•d  with  oil.     To  llie  outer  shell  Ik  flxed  a 

tendency  of  the  shell  to  roliite  with  the 
the  pleteR  aKaii>At  the  central  disk.  Four 
.,  were  used  In  testing  the  experimental 
y  (Trans.  A.  8.  M.E.,  xlii.  4^'B).  Ea<->>  -«- 
t  of  10,500  foot-pounds  with  a  «ate 

Ith  the  copper  plates  on  either ' 
ai'jnK-  it»  outer  radius  eouaJ  W 
clwa.    The  apparent  coefncleul 


1)80 


OTNAMOMETEBS. 


IS  (1«iliio«l  a  furmiiUVijrrorl 
"  cuiii|iac<;il,  juilfoiii:  TrMD  I 


w  ■"  -  -         ■  "-      •    '  •■  ^  ' 

of  " 

If  t%   .    Hiiiih  <'i  TUK u  MiMiii.<:i  Ku  •itnii<!-tt'h«el  in  iiK<ltra;  T-m. 

point  on  elrciim.  of  wbtwl  in  tv^\  i>«i  minute:  K  =.  ooeffiaieni;  theu 

K  ^  wr  *  HP. 

CMpaHtjr  of  FrictlOM«brakeii.— Frof.  Flolher  obtains  the  valt 
of  K  given  In  llie  last  coliiiiiii  uf  ilip  siil>joine<]  tnhle  : 


Daailin  of  Brake 


» 


Rofal  At!' Soc.  eoinpenaating W 

MclJtren,  (miiipeiiBatini; *^ 

waler-uoolad  and  comp. 
UaiTvlt,  ■■  ■•         "    . 


Koliopiilifiyder,  water-cooled 

Bulk 

Oaldv  i  Klirtach,  watir  coo!e<! 

Wt'hbt-r,  water-cooled    


f 


Wtygtlngboiue,  «rat«r-ooole<t . 


Tlie  abov(<  calL>ulations  for  eleven  tir»kp«  cive  values  of  K  Taryinir  fn 
81  7  to  ISSTi  for  actual  Iiarse-poweni  testrd,  tli«  aTerage  b«iD^  K  =  OK. 

Iii8l«nil  of  Binumiuj;  an  nverage  cot'flleivnt,  Prof.  Flather  proptMO  I 
following  : 

Wat«r-oaolud  hrake,  noD-eoinpeiiMliUi;.  K  =  400;  IV  =  400  H.P.  +  V. 

Watei-coolwl  bralce,  compensatine.  K  =  *80;  W  =  T.'iO  H,P.  +  I'. 

ICou  oonline   brake,    with   or   without    conipensatiux    device,    K  =  I 

w-  iKxiii  i"  +  r, 

Trttiiamlsslon    DjrnamonietAra  are   of  rariou*   forma,  u 
Batoln'MtT  (lyijiiini)iiift«-,   in  which  the  power  Ih  transmitted  tbron|ikJ 
■'  train  arm  "  of  b«vcl  KcariiiK,  willi  il»  modifloiitions,  as  the  one  dea   " 
by   till?  author  in  TraiiH.  A.  I.  M.  G.,  riii.  177,  Hml    the  one  deacrfl) 
Kaiiiu>'l  Webber  in  Trans.  A.  8.  M.  Tj..  x  511;    liflt    dyuaiiiomptena,  i 
Taihnni:  the  Vjio  WinklH  ilynanioniflHr.  in  which  ibe  powfr  ia  irans 
frtini  n  revolving  shaft  toaiiotbur  in  line  niih  it,  the  two  almost  t'Uiphii 
throiigti  the  inivUiiiii  of  ooili-il  Kprinx*  fii»ie(icd  to  amis  or  ilixk*  ki>jn)  I 
lli<»  shafts;    the  l<racl<i-lt   And  the  Wi-bb  cradle  dynaniomelors,  yi^ri 
ineaKurlne  thi"  (Mttt'ur  reqiilivd  to  run  <lyii»ino-«lt*otric  niAchineii.    l>r«rrif 
tioiiN  iif  thd  four  la.<t  iiiiiiiixl  oiojjiven  in  Kluther  on  Dynauioinetirg. 

Mitcli  inforiiiutioii   on  variniiii  foriiiH  of  dynaniomBt«rs  u-ill  l>«  fnuml  I 
TraiiB.  A.  S.  U.  £,,  vol.  vii.  to  xv.,  inoluaive,  iudejced  under  Uynamo<» 


M 


RfPAIOEBATINO-IUCBINE.     981 


KilPRIGEBATIKG  MACJHTNBS. 
9  dlBCiiHiiioii  of  the  lhernimi>  nuiiiit-  lln?i>ry  of 
wdiii  tlie[iroiluc'tii>i)  of  cold  Haritiiiiilititu'd  by 
I'nff.  and  traiisliileil  In  Van  StutttaitfTn  iUnyii- 
trised  aii<1  aalcJilioiiK  iiiaile  in  llie  Itglit  of  ii-ci-nl  rx- 
titon,  Juc'uhuK,  and  Rieveiilxirjcc'r,  Has  ri'ijiiiilril  in 
lit>nce  Series.  No.  iG.>    The  work  in  InrBfly  mailie- 
iiHiiiticli  iiifuririRiinn  or  iiiimediale  prat'liciil  value, 
Jhalter  given  b«Uiw  is  taken.     Ulber  referencfsare 
W,  Cliap.  v..  and  numeroim  paiiers  liy  I'mrHHtmni 
d  and  Liiide  in  Traiu.  A.  S.  M.  K..  vUk.  x.  luxir.; 
Ulic'le  on  Rerng:eratln};-marhiiif(«;  aliui  h'ltj/it,  .June 
iril  I.  IHNT;  Junu  13,  1M8S:  July  31.  Auv.  'JS.  ]mi;  Hept. 
(  And  July  8, 189S,    For  prop<>rtie«  or  Ammonia  and 
pars  bjr  Professors  Wood  and  Jacobus,  Trann.  A.  8. 

tflescrlbinR  refrl^rating-niacliinpg,  spp  Am  Mar.h,, 
C.and  Ufm.  Rettirii.  Oct.  7.  ISl'v;;  uiwi  ontBlngiK^  of 
iWayjiesboro,  I'a. ;  De  La  Vergne  RefrigfirutliFK-rna- 

1(1  OtlUT!". 

ten-lBeratlug-iiiarhlne,— Apparatus  d(>i<iKntHl 
1  upon  I  lie  following  scries  of  operations: 

by  nie 
dish  Its  vo 
I  produce  mt-chanlcal  work,  and  thua  lower  Its  tern- 


por  by  niean.s  of  sonir  cxtsrnal  force,  then  relieve  It 
voImuip:  next,  eauKc  tlilR  compressed  Kaa  or 
»  mt-chanlcal  work,  and  thua  lower  its  tern- 
an  of  heat  at  IhlHxlitRe  by  tlie  }•&*,  in  resuming  Its 
Itutes  (he  rerriKeiniinK  tSetii  of  tLe  apparatus. 
•Bin  a  lii'at4?iiKiiie  revfrtvd. 

etween  hent-niolorsi  andfii-ezinK-mat'liineB  It  rt^sulta 
i<1nce<l  from  the  nieihaiiical  theory  of  beat  to  deter- 
r  the  nrat,  awly  equally  to  tin*  Bccond. 
I  upon  tbe  difccrenoe  betwecu  the  extreme*  of  t«ni- 

a  refrlKeratinK-maoliine  depends  upon   the  ratio 
'  ninoted  and  tbe  work  expended  in  corapressinK 

nt  of  the  nature  of  (lie  body  employwl. 
the  freeninp-mncjilne  possesses  the  greatest  efB- 
r  temperature  k  Hmall,  and  when  the  flnal  tempers- 

the  i!Am<>.  (here  Ir  no  theoretic-al  advantage  in  em- 
a  vapor  In  order  to  produce  cold, 
ledlate  body  would  be  tUjierriiined  by  prsc-tlcal 
le  phyaical  characleristicB  of  tbe  txMly.  such  as  the 
r  mauipulating  it,  the  extreme  preasureu  required 

Ivaounfe  that  It  is  everywhere  obtainable,  and  that 
Ifher  preSRUreK,  indepfndent  of  the  leniixrature  of 
product:  a  fciven  useful  effect  tlie  apparatus  niuitl 
tao  l}jat  required  by  liquellable  raponi. 
IP  in  <leternilued   by  the  temperature  of  tbe  con- 
.llie  volatile  liquid:  thiK  pren^iure  l8  often  very  hJKb. 
WUe  of  a  saturated  vapor  is  mad<>  under  c<>in«taut 
BrciDalDSOonstaut.    The  addilioDoriiubtractioiiof 
ehance  of  volume,  is  represented  by  au  increase  or 
Mty  of  liquid  mixed  witii  tbe  vapor. 
IP  vapors,  even  if  (ialiirat«d,  art-  no  longer  in  con- 
U  receive  an  addititm  of  heat  either  tiirougrh  ' 
foree,  or  from  some  external  souix-e  of  be«' 
piy  in  tbe  same  nay  a*  periuaueut  gases,  r 

tuty,  that  rc/riferalJne.macbioea  \>siaK  I 
>  diSerhig  accoi-d  lug  to  tite  nietiiod  oC  * 


r 


982       ICE-MAEINQ  OR  BEFRIGBBATIK6  HACStS 

and  dependinf!  upon  the  state  of  the  bok.  whether  It  remnlni'  '< 
iirated,  or  is  guperlieated  diirini;  a  fMirt  of  the  cycle  ■  ; 

The  leinperatiire  of  the  condenser  is  deterniine^J  1'^ 
interior  will  eiceod  by  9°  to  18"  rhe  terapprntiire  n(  '  ^ 

the  exterior.    This  latter  will  vary  from  about  W*  K.,  Lhe. 
water  from  consiilerable  tlcpili  l>eIow  tlit?  surfacf.  to  olwii 
perature  of  surface-water  iu  liot  climates.    The  volatile  V 
the  machine  ought  not  at  this  temperature  to  hare  k 
which  can  tie  readily  managed  by  the  apparatus. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  (ension  of  the  goat  at  the  mlnli 
IR  too  low,  it  becomes  necessary  to  ^ve  to  tlir 
diineniiions,  in  ordi-r  thut  the  weipht  of  vapor  < 
of  the  pi.iton  shall  be  sufficient  to  produce  a  »> 

These  two  conditions,  to  which  mar  be  ad'l"  :  ' 
pending  upon  the  greater  or  Icsw  facility  of  o''' n' 
dangers  incurred  in  its  use,  either  fivni  ila  inl!..ii. 
ness,  and  Anally  uimn  its  action  upon  the  metals,  linn 
number  of  substances. 

The  pases  or  vapors  eenerally  available  are:  sulphuric  ether,  a^ 
oxtile,  ammonia,  inelhyiic  ether,  and  carbonic  acid. 

The  following  tal)le,  derived  from  ReKDault,  show*  the  HiuLm 
vapors  of  these  Nubi<lanef>s  at  different  temperatures  between  -V 
TO*". 

PreMtur«a  and  Bolline-polnta  of  Liquid*  «T»lUiil4 
line  In  HrfHieer«Unr*>**aclilu«i«, 


Temp,  of 
KbuUUIon, 


Deg, 
Fahr. 


-40 
-31 

-  iS 

-  ts 

-  4 

5 
It 
33 
88 
41 

eo 

69 
fl8 

n 

88 
OS 
KM 


Tension  of  Vapor,  In  lbs.  per  »(.  In.,  abutc  Zn« 


Sul- 
phuric 

Ether. 


i.ao 

1.70 
SIS 

S.7S 
S.S5 
4.45 

a.M 

6.64 
0.88 
10.18 
U.81 
14. T6 
ir.59 


Sulphur 
Dioxide. 


6.S6 
7.38 
9.87 
If.Tfl 
14.75 
18.31 
S3.5S 
S7.4R 
88  30 
18.98 
4T.Qi 
68.39 
68.37 
77.61 
90.S3 


Ammoula. 


lO.S 
18.18 
16.95 
SI. 51 
)i7.U4 
33.07 
41.B6 
60,01 
61.85 
74.65 

a9.xi 

109  99 
1».08 

i4e.«4 

170.83 
IBT  83 
«7.7« 


Metliytlc 

Ether. 


]t.13 
18.86 
17,06 
SO. 81 
».87 
M.4I 
S6.84 
48.18 
fiO.St 
6»«« 
<S.86 

eo.t8 

M.41 


C«HmmJ 


The  table  shows  that  the  use  of  ether  dnes  not  rcMlJIy  U«<1  li>  Ui 

lion  of  loH  temperatures,  beoauw  iln  premurti  becomua  Uwtu  rrrf 

AniiiKinia,  on  the  contrary,  Ig  well  adanled  to  tb«  pnMlu«(kNi  «t 

peratureH  "^  — 

>!■    '  !■  yields  low  IcmiKMatur.- 

»»<•  jierature  of  the  condi-ii  • 

leiiu  :- 14  to -6.  while  its  t  s| 

at  iii^  i.i.iiiiiiiy  temperature  of  thecoorlMiMM      I  ii>-ii>  lati 
lenil  thenuetVet  ooovenieotly  for  Uie  pruditcllun    «rf  r«il4 
nn»ch«nlcal  force. 

'"'I     ■■  "Iftet  fluid"  is  a  mixture  of  VH  fiilphor  Uttnfti*  (_, 
almospheric  preaaure  it  affoid*  a  (elDpWHiBN  If 


'4iA 


frt'tdsaauo  ute  but  m  »  KmifiKj 


ftSOBPTION-MAOHlNE.  983 


endatloo  (or  Mrrloe  on  Mbipboard,  where 

ited  with  aHiirplus  of  liquid  present  diir- 
iug  it)  preveuteu.   This  practice  is  known 
Mlon. 

rding  tlip  application  of  metUylic  ether  or 
jeiip  ill  practical  refriKerating  aervlcp.  The 
9(f   tlie  cumbrouRuess  of   Die  coiiipresBor 

-It  Ih  agreMl  that  the  term  "  ice-nieltini; 
d  in  nil  in»ii)ated  bntli  of  brine,  on  the  as- 
'  reprfiwnts  one  pound  of  Ice,  this  being  the 
;)it- neat  required  to  melt  a  pound  of  ice  at 
iture. 

',  expresaed  in  pounds  or  tons  of  "  ice-melt- 
lat  the  refriffpratlnK-machine  would  make 
but  that  the  cold  produced  ia  oquivalent  to 
It  32'  to  water  of  the  same  lenifieraliire. 
er  frozen  is  generally  about  T(l°  F.  wlieiiiub- 
of  a  machine;  i*c<ind,  tire  fee  isi'hilled  from 
t;  third,  there  is  a  (iiseipation  of  cold,  from 
itid  ihe  mttuijtulation  of  tins  icccans:  there- 
inde,  multiplied  hy  its  latent  heat  of  fusion, 
lilT  nl)oul  three  fourthB  of  thocold  produced 
r  fluid  per  I. II. P.  of  the  engine  drlvlUB  the 
IT*  l»  con.siderahle  fuel  conBunied  lo  operate 

oondensiii^-WHter  and  feed-ptiiups,  and  to 

Bteam  fnuTi  wliich  the  ice  is  frozen.  TlliiS 
n  leakage  and  drip  water.  aniounlK  lo  about 
he  main  steannjnKine.  Hence  Ihe  jxiunda 
I  diKtilled  water  is  Just  aimut  half  the  equiv- 

produced  in  the  brine  per  indicated  horse- 
am  natural  water  by  means  of  the  "plate 
used  with  distilled  water,  Is  syiv^-d  by  avoid- 
m  expansively  in  a  cninpoutid  engine. 

India,  are  said  to  have  produced  about  6 
jel  cocHunied. 

because  the  deneity  of  the  vapor  of  ether, 
ire,  require.^  that  the  compre«»luK-cylinder 

Efor  sidphur  dioxide,  and  17  times  largw 
t  l.a  times  irreater  capacity  of  compi  ess- 
ff,  more  riinil>ersoniB  tiian  ether  macnine^, 
lai'd.  In  UMliit;  air  Die  expansion  niu»t  take 
iistead  •'!  throuirli  a  niinuie  expunsiou-cocVi 
les.  The  work  done  in  the  expanslon-cylln- 
npreHsiir. 
liiachlnc*,— "CoW  vs.  "Vry"  Spatema 
Bystem  or  "  hviinid"  system  some  of  the 
siou  cylinder  in  lk]uhl.  so  that  the  heat  de- 
ed by  the  liqiiiil  and  the  temjieralure  of  the 
30  boilliij;  point  due  to  the  condenser-pres- 
|uired  at>i>ut  the  cylinder. 
u  all  ammonia  entering  the  compressor  is 
nonies  liy  riPUipreKsion  several  hundred  de- 
int  due  to  the  condeuBer-preftSure.  A  water- 
I  permit  the  cylinder  to  be  properly  liibri- 

of  Amtnontit  Compreaaion-  and 

.■■uiiiintc    no    Water    to    be    Kn- 

nia^ea*  In  the  Condenser.    (Dentun 

Xlil.l-  It  is  B!?.sui))e<l  In  thecaleulaiioii  for 

Imparls  m.lHiO  B.T.U.  to  the  boiler.    Tlur 


ice  is  I'M  thermal  units  {Phil,  i' 
use  I  «!>,     (Prof,  Wood.  Trana.  * 


LUIO    UK 


-max  JO  n^nvsi  j  ,^  »ii|iuii8 


•uou 
•^■>A  TIM  Jspnii^onnwia 
io  J  H  ■'■^  ■'"•'M  •'••<'  1*00 
JO  iiqi  c  ilu|iuii8s«  'two  iO 
m  j^  ^jiawlaj  aii|>[aiu-30l 


'11I»UI931I|<1 

J  ad    X;|oiid«Q     ;aD|i|aiu  -  aax 


•™>n3»Jd  <n!Av 

'JdMOd 


'no|88>i.idiii(>j  ju    O' 


5  li^ 


■iiofioMJ  »nomiai    ^ 


'pedo(aA 
-aa    "linn   T»">J»'H       O" 


'jasuapaoo 


-«I00  8T»D    ;o    ?<i*Hitt 


'uo|8«aJduoq  JO        „ 
png^nsnUjoMjniiiJtHlfiiax    *- 


gi  il  ^i 


■sno3-3ii)i«ja9vj;       7 
•9)1  ni  ajnwaJd  e]n|OBqy     t 


IE8SI0K-MACHINES. 


987 


e>  (•!  MT  ei  fs  ae  t-  '   B  u 


W  -r  r-spig  J« 


—  -t:  p  aj  s  ^  OQ 


—  «  53  ^  ac  <-  O 


-  r'  —  ^'i  «  ^  o 

'  t-  eD  O  -S*  ■*  ■* 


—  O  — ■  r:  o  —  d 

—  OC  I-  <D  <C  «0  •* 


OF   BEFRlGERATIXli-MACUIKES, 


9»'J 


not  available,  tbe  brin»  reiecu  ll«  livat  luto  (lit- 

ttn  rlio  <:<fii>[»re!sw>r  is  reqiiirra  to  hent  tlii-  aiiiuioiilu 
Ml  It  may  tcjt-ct  iH-at  into  Ilie  chioIIiik  water. 

iKeratiDg  plant  referred  to  tbe  aiuouut  of  fuel 


[  Pounds  circulated  per  hour  I 

X  fepecjfic  heat  >:  range 
'     of  teniperalurv  ! 


of  brine  or  other 
circulating  fluU. 


lit. 2  X  ponM(l<t  of  fuel  used  per  hour. 


'  U  expressed  as  follows: 


IM  X  pounds 
X  speoiflc  lieat 
X  raone  of  temp. 


-  of  brine  circulated  per  hour. 


T  148.^  X  MHO 

wta««t-eDgine  and  a  refriK«ratinR  machine  la  as  fol- 
•ecelTes  heat  froiu  tbe  boilir,  oonvertK  a  jwrt  of  It 
a  the  cylinder,  and  throws  away  tlic  difference  into 
nnionhi  in  a  compression  refrlK'cratintr  iiiachine  re- 
Ine-tnnk  or  cold-riKnn,  receives  an  aiMltlonal  amount 
lanical  work  iloiie  in  the  coiitpreKsion  cyiimler.  and 
ttofhep«:kndenser.  Theefflciency  of  I  lie  steam  enffiiie 
CelTe<l  from  Iwiiier.  The  eniclency  of  the  refrigernt- 
wived  from  the  brlue-tank  or  coldixwrn -»- heat  le- 
roric  ill  the  com preasion-cy Under,     la  tbe  ammonia 


.  CtftiprtfaKr  ^^^ 


6i« 


,.■   BrliU' flullfi 


AmmnU 


"~'^y^     — 

Hint  rwc«lT«4 
tttnn  brine 
AMMONrA   COMPNCSSION    MACHINC. 


He«t  rrcrlvtd 
frOB  iVHipnaMriOD. 


J^^JfS 


^[ 


=  5' 


I    '^n- 


TcKcTuaij^ 


•onn-ioN  MACHINC. 


I  ammonia  receives  heat  from  the  hrine-tank  — 
fboller  nr  Keiieralor.  and  rejects  the  antii  !•" 
»n1lnK  water  Hiipplied  1o  ifie  alworlwr.    T 

9m  the  Mae  -t-  nest  rwelred  from  <<>«  *X 


* 


992      ti  K-MAKIKG  OR  bEPBlOEllATIKa    MACttl 


Q' 
=  u,  and  i  = 


re 


\tT 


It  follow*  that  the expendltiira  nf  lieal  Q'  neceaaarjr  for  ehe 
Ihe  nimnllty  of  ooUl  V  in  »  eonnirpusloii  iiiflchlne  will  lie  the'l 
«ni«nrr  the  ilirrprtMioi-  I'f  Iriiipi-raliire  7V  -  T. 

Iflflorliiz  the  Ammonia.— For  a  complete  lest  of  un  t 
frif  ■  •       Mtn"  it  is  advisable  to  rnpasuro  the  quanlJty  of  aiitnil 

cuIa  luiii'  ill  ihe  te«t  of  tlie  75  ton  macniDe  desoribed  b 

Hr,i\.  ; -    A.  S.  M.  E.,  xli    SS6.) 


PBOPKHTIES  OF  »l'I.PHt7H  DIOXIDK 
AnnOMIA  UAS. 


4 


l/edoax's  Table  R>r  Saturated  Snlpbnr-dtoxldci 

Hent-unlts  expi^ssed  in  B.T.U.  per  pound  of  »ulpliur  Llluxida 


£.2 

2  2  si- 

I'" 


-as 

-i» 

-  4 

ft 
H 
SS 
« 

41 
GO 
U> 
06 
77 
8« 
Oft 
1(M 


Lbs. 

8.M 

rss 
».aT 

11. T« 

u.n 

1H3I 
*!,M 
S7.48 
83.85 
80.E» 
47.81 
M.9» 

oa.M 

77.64 
60.81 


B.T.U. 

157.4^ 
tlW.64 
1IW.84 
181  .M 
I6S.S90 
163.W 
16l.»l 

ie,ves 

1«6.78 
187.B0 

iiM.im 

170.09 
1TI.17 

irs.a4 

171.80 


=5e 
til 

B 


B.T.U. 


-19. SR 
-18. SO 

-is.ne 

-  B  79 

-  B.S8 

-  8.W 

0.00 

8.?7 

8.S6 

».K3 

18.11 

16.89 

10.19 

38.98 

36.28 


eg 


B.T.U. 


178.1)9 
174.95 
172.89 
IT0.8J 
168.73 
ieti.03 
184.51 

nass 

lUO.-'S 
158.07 
166.80 
lS3.r() 
1M.49 
14».»> 
147.0-." 


S  K  jj 

III' 


B.T.U. 


18. .'SO 
13. f« 
U.(V. 
14.08 
14.48 
14.06 
t4.frl 
W  01 
15.17 
in.8-j 
15  40 
1I»,M» 
IB. 71 

^f>.m 
in.Bi 


sa 

.2g 

is 

fcoSfS 

p 

a 

B.T.U. 

Cu.  ft. 

1C3.W 
1(11. Ij 
lijH.SI 
1.56.A8 
1.M27 
181.97 
149.68 
147  37 
14.^06 
14-'.75 
140.48 
l*S.ll 
1-15.78 
188.45 
181.11 


Denaltr  of  Mqald   Ammonia. 

[.611.1 


(D'Andreff,  Trana.  A.  3. 


15 
.<1«0' 

iWowt, 
Fahr.d 


At  temperature  C -1«       —  5  0  8  10 

F +14        as       a.!         41  BO 

I>eiHitr 649*2      .0429      .6384       .8398       OSSO 

ThMe  may  be  expressed  rery  nearly  by 

J  =  0.8364  -  O.OOUf*  CeDtlgrrade: 
^  =  0.6502  -  0,0007772*  Fftfir, 

liatent  Heat  of  Eva[  oration  of  Ammonia. 

k.  8.M.  E..  X.  041.) 

he  =  556.8    -  0.01.3T  -  0.0002I«r'  (In  B.T.U., 

T.«loux  found  he  =  58S.33  -  0.54997-  (i.(Wll73r». 

For  experimental  values  at  dilTtirent  temperatures  determined  bj 

Dt-nloii,    SCO    Trans.    A.   S.    M.    E.,   xil.  358.       Kor    calculalml    nlai 

vol.  X.  «46.  1 

Denntty   of   Ammonia    Ga*.— Theoretical.  0.58!M;  Fj|ieriM 

0..sy6.     Keifiiftull  (TiuiiH,  A.  S.  M.  K..  x.  6,13) 

Speclllc  Heat  of  Liquid  Ammonia.    (Wood.  Trans.  A  S.  I 
X  BI5  )-Tlie  upeoiflc  lieat  In  Hourly  ooiistant  at  lillTerent  temp 
•bout  equal  to  that  of  water,  or  unit  jr.    Frotn  0°  to  100°  F..  It  it 
c  =  \.««ft  -  .QOiar.  nearly. 
Ina  later  paper  by  Prot.VJo<iA*Tv»j».S-%.T)V.^,-«\V\3i«^\>a^ 
vflJue.  viz..  t  =  l.Vim  +  0.»M«S»T. 


Krv 


Rte  RANGE.  991 


•chines)  It  wDI  be  possible  to  nbtaio  for  the 
Mice  ezliihitine  small  <liHori>|iancies  only. 
»  lDteni)»il  to  be  used  fur  coinpsiiwm  with 
linM  will  therefore  have  toeinbrace  at  least 


er  hour 

'efrieerator 

refnger&tor f 

•Fahr.)    

yr ";;;;:. ;;;;. ;;;;;;  "";;"";.v";.;o; 

Iferator 


hour  

user 

lenser I 


enser 

K  the  coodenier. 


I 


CoiCFKXSStoN-tUCatMX. 
CompyettOT : 

Indicated  work Lt 

Tomperature  of  gasea  at  inlet, . 
Tprnperature  of  gases  at  exit.. 
Steam  engine : 

Feed- water  per  hour 

T""mperature  of  feed-water 

Absolut*-  steam-pressure  before 

steam-engine 

Indicated  work  of  steam-eDicine 
L, 

Ctmdenirfng  water  per  hour 

Temperature  of  da 

Total  aum  of  losses  bj  radiation 

anri  conveclion ±  Qi 

Bfnt  Balance  ; 


oy  and  for  comparison  of  Tarlous  teat*,  the 
•red  with  the  tneoretical  niazitnum  of  efll- 

QorrespoDdlng  to  the  temperature  range. 

■  A»  temperatures  {T  and  To  at  which  the 
•tor  and  imparl eit  to  the  condenser, it  iscor- 
l  tlie  l>r(ite  leavtiif^  the  refrigerator  and  that 
condenser,  tit-canse  it  is  in  principle  impns- 
eiaure  higher  than  would  correspond  lo  (he 
reduce  tne  condeiiRer  pressure  below  that 
perature  of  the  ci>o1ing  wat*r. 
naximum  theoretical  efflciency  of  a  com- 
ned  by  the  formula 

-      r 

r  ~  To  -  T ' 

teitracted  (cold  produced); 

t  of  the  inutdmidcal  work  expended; 

irk,  nnd  .4  =  i  -t-  TTS: 

ure  of  heal  (ihstrnction  (refrigerator); 

"      "     rejection  (condenser). 
equivalent  of  the  mechanical  work  AI 
lUst  be  fiiijwrted  lo  tUe  motor  Vo  y/t 


I 


Q'i      IC'K-MAKINO   on   BEKUlGEnATIJSO 


«ncl    «'  = 


uT     ' 


I 


It  follows  that  the  expend  ttiire  of  heat  C  ne(.<«aury  for  I 
the  miantity  of  cold  <?  in  a  conipressinn  iiinuliine  will  Im   tim( 
smiiller  iIih  ilifff iviil'h  iif  ti-nipfratiire  7',-  -  T. 

Jlleterlng  lite  Ammonia.— For  a  cniitplete  text  vt  an  u, 
f^lt^>^al1tlg-Ilmchillf  it  is  advi-uihle  to  muisure  the  qunntltjr  at  aii 
L-utsK^J,  OS  was  (lone  in  tlii?  test  of  the  '5  luu  moclilue  dmerniat  I 
DeiitoD.     (Tnins,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xli    326.) 

PROPERTIES  OF  .SILPHC'R  DIOXIOB  A,<VI 
Amno-VIA  UAH, 

Ledoux's  Table  for  Saturated  8aI|>hnr>dlorl4 

Ueat-units  expressed  in  B.T.U.  per  pound  uf  sul|i>iiir  tiini 


9S 
1<M 


t 
■ 


Densltf  of  Liquid 

At  tetnpprature  C —  1i) 

F +14 

Density M98 

Tb«fle  tnay  be  expressed  very  nearly  by 

a  =  0.6904  -  o.onut*  CentliirMte: 

8  =  0.8508  -  0.000:T7r«  FaTir. 

Latent  Heat  of  Evaf  oration  or  Ammonia.    I 

A.  8  M.  E.,  X.  Oll.i 

Af  =  . "555.6    -O.rtlSr   -  0  f^" ~    '     B.T.I' .  Fi 

Ledoux  found  hr  =  VB.33  -  0  SlWr  -  o 

For  eiperimeulal  valuoA  at  dilTirent  i>"i  -  (1>'i<'rfnli 

DentoD.   BM   Trans.  A.  S.   M.  E.,  xll.  SM.      F'.'r   c«li.i>l*i(«l 
vol.  X.  040. 

DennUy    or    Ammonia    Gas.  — ThrarcLlual.  a&atti 
"  null  <Ti  line.  .V.  S.  M    K. ,  X.  1331 

.  Heat  of  (.Iquld  Ammonia.    >\VvHt. 

"  fiwcillc  heat  l>i  iifurly  i-uiiHtuiit  at  ili(Trr<>nt  tvniL 
ul  muttl  to  tl»at  of  water,  or  imlty.    Fmii>  0"  to  WO"  V..  H  It 
c  =  1 .006  -    W»T.  n^-arlr 
frotj,/  fTnuu.  A.8.  M.  S..  xll.  UD 


"Jl 


PERFORMANCES  OF  ICE-MAKING  MACHINES.       995 


Founds  of  Ice-melting  Effect  -with 
Enninca— 


NoTi-con- 
densiug. 


II 

SI 

2.K 

u 

I.W 

M.j 

4  It) 

2J 

i.  li-i 

Non-com-  [  Compound 
pound  Coo-         Con- 


deii&iu^. 


£_• 


30 
)T.5 


a. fit 

3  11 

B.18 

a.3i 


d^iiainj;. 


-W 


37.6 

ai.6 

54 
S4.5 


» 


4.51 

C..W 
4.  IB 


B.T.0.  per  lb.  of  St«am 
with  EDgines— 


340 

r>9i 

376 


513 

47(1 


5^ 
65 


SIO 

36fi 
<fcl3 
591 


^^|m  uon-cuiideiisine  engine  is  assumed  to  require  S5  {Us.  of  st<<aiii  ptiir' 

^HVv-power  per  hour,  Che  iion-com|ic>uml  coiidvDsiiiK  V>  lbs,,  and  tlie  ctini--. 

B^^^ng  16  11)S.,  and  the  boiler  efllcieiicy  is  assumed  at  B.8  lbs.  of  water  per 

^l-n,  oal  under  wiiiklK^  couditions.     Thw  rolioivjuKConcluBlons  were  derived 

*'  the  illveKli^ati'tn  : 

fjie  capacity  of  tin?  machine  is  proportional,  almost  entiiely,  to  tht» 

It   of  ainnioiii.1  circulntod.      This    weight  depends   on    tlie    suclion- 

»re  and  the  dlspliu'emeiit.  of  the  conipressor-punips.    Th<^  practical 

lu-pi ensures  ran(te  fioni  "  lbs.  above  the  almusphere,  wiili  which  a, 

trature  of  0*  V.  cau  Iw  prodticed,  [oM(J  lbs.  above  tlie  BtmoHt'l'^'i'e,  xith 

I  the  letiiperatuicH of  refriKeialioii  s.r» utjnfliied  to  ubout  a^"  K     At  tha 

^prebSUiH  only  ubout  oue  bulf  na  niiich  viei^ht  of  ammonia  can  be  cir- 

V\  us  at.  the  upper  pressure,  the  proportion  being  about  In  accotdatice 

lie  ratiosof  iheabstdute  presKUi«s. 'iiand4i.' lljs.  re."ipeclively.   For  each 

foot  of  pislnii-dbipliicemeiit  per  minute  a  capacity  cjf  about  one  Bixth 

»n  of  "  ref  liKeratliiK  effect  "  per  24  hours  can  be  pnxliiced  at  the  lower 

ire,  and  of  about  one  third  of  a  ton  m  the  upper  pivsKiire.    No  other 

fits  praclically  sCTect  the  capacity  of  a  umchiue,  provided  the  cuoliuii'- 

•e   in  the  brfne-tauk  or  other  epace  to  l»  cooled  ia  equal  to  about. 

ft  per  ton  of  capacity  at  ^8  lbs.  back  pressure.     Kor  example,  a  differ- 

(f  KHW  iti  the  rat*)  of  circnlalinn  of   brine,  while  producing  a  propor- 

difference  iti  the  range  of  temper&ture  of  tlie  latter,  made  no  practlt^l 

fnce  ill  capacity. 

brine-tank  was  10)<^  X  13  X  V^  ft.,  and  txintained  800O  lineal  feet  of 

ipe  as  coollng-.itu'fucB.    The  coDdetisini^-tank  whs  12  X  Id  X  10  ft.,  and 

nvA  .WOO  btieiil  feet  of  l-ln.  iiipt  cm  couliiiB--snrrace, 

he  economy  lu  coaI-c,i>»nii>ptioia  depends  mainly  upnn  t>oth  the  suc- 

ressures  and  condeusir.tf  preasure^,    Mii.xininm  economy,  with  a  given 

ot  t-iigine,  where  water  :nilgt  be  bouttliC  at  averaicu  city  priceti,  is 

led  at  i'8  li>s.  aiiction-pr'.'tssmre  and  aiiout  LV)  lbs.  condeuslng-pi-essiire, 

r  thesoconditl.iuB.  for  a  non-condensing  Bteam-enRlne,  consuming  coal 

r»tf  of  3  lb».  per  lio'.r  per  I.H.P.  of  aleaincylinders,  84  llw.  of  ice- 

eratin^  effect  are  obtained  per  lb.  of  coni  coiisuiije<i.     For  the  same 

ii8inK-pre>sure.  and  wilh  7  lbs.  jiuclinn-pressure,  which  afforils  tein- 

hres  of  0°  li".  the  possible  ecouoniy  I'bIIj  to  about  14  Ibn.  of  "  refrieerat- 

teot "  per  lb.  of  coal  C'  ■iifluineri .    Thr  cnndeuslng-pressure  Is  (ietengined 

6  amount  of  condensing-water  stupplieii  to  liquefy  the  amnicuia  In  tliB 

nser.     If  llielntter  is  about  1  calliiu  per  minute  per  tou  of  refriKeraliug 

per'J4  lK)i)r».ncondeu«.insr-pressureof  550  Ihn.  results,  it  the  initial  tem- 

(ire  of  the  ivaUir  i*  about  SB"  F     Tweniy  five  percent  lea.H  watercftusea 

indensing-pressure  (o  increnae  to  lUO  lbs.     The  work  of  compreSKloii  ia 

'>y  IncreUM-d  alxmt  20.V.  and  the  reBulliug   "economy"  is  re<iuc«Hl  to 

I8ll>s.  of  "  Ice  eiTect"  per  hi.  ot  coal  at  US  lijs.  suction-pressure  and 

THw.    If,  on  the  oilier  hand,  the  supply  of  water  Is  made  3  Kallnna 

iniite,  the  cofKlenxinjj-i'ressiire  iimy  be  cuuUued  to  about  105  lbs.    The 

rf  cnmpresKion  istbeieby  r^luceil  about '—jS. and  BprojKiriionaliucreasw 

tlflhiy  reiiults.     Minor  altiralions  of  economy  (fepend  oil  tlie  initial 

fstiire  of  the  condeiisiiiK-wuleTand  variations  of  latent  heat,  iiut  llieH6 

nllnetl  vrilbin  about  5S  of  tlie  (rrosB  result,  the  main  element  of  control 

Ibe  work  of  coiiipre.ssiou,  a.«  iiffecied  by  the  back  v>'>'»**i'V»  imi.  vtuty 

K-pressure,  or  both.    It  the  steam  en);ine  Hupp^yiiig  l\«s  vv\oV«e  ^po** 

'e a  condenser  to  Kcur6  a  rucuum,  an  increase  ot   etowomv  ul.  "C^ 

■*»  over  tbe  above  Ogures,  making  the  lbs.  ot  "  Ice  ettetl."   \ex  V 


010 

see 

591 

_  De  is  assumed  to  require  !U  Iba.  of  stvaiii  per 
Sion-c!onipouad  coiideDsInK  30  lbs.,  and  the  com- 
pter efDcleiicy  is  assurni-d  at  B.3  llw.  of  water  per 
itdlcloug.     Tbe  foUowint;  coqcIusIodb  were  derived 

fnacbiiie  U  proportional,  almost  enlirrly.  in  t]i« 
Pat«d.  This  wei)cht  de|H?nds  ou  the  suctloti- 
Bieai  of  the  conipresgor-pumps.  The  practical 
rom  T  lbs.  altove  the  atm<j8phere,  wlih  uhich  a 
fe  produced,  to  'M  lbs.  above  the  atniDhphert^,  » lih 
llvfrigei'alioii  arn  coofiiitKl  to  about  ^"8°  B*.  At  the 
one  half  as  much  welithi  of  aniinoiiia  can  be  clr- 
Isnire,  the  proportion  h^'ioe  about  in  aooordaiice 
Ite  pressures,  2;.' and  4'.' ItiH.  res|>eclively.  Fur  each 
ement  per  minute  acap&eiry  of  abf>ut  one  sixth 
(feet "  per  iJ4  hours  can  be  prodiioed  »t  the  lower 
I  third  of  a  ton  at  the  upi«r  prtt-sure.  No  other 
the  capacity  of  a  machine,  pmvideil  the  cixiliiig'- 
or  oiner  space  to  be  cooled  i»  equal  to  about 
r  at  S8  IImi-  back  pressuro.  For  example,  a  differ- 
fdmilatioii  of  britie.  while  producing  a  propor- 
pof  lempentoreof  the  latter,  made  no  practical 

X  IS  X  V^  ft.,  and  contali.ed  8000  lineal  feet  of 
i.  The  '^^>D<leDiiiD^-taol(  wh^  12  X  10  X  10  ft.,  aod 
I  Mn.  i>ipe  aa  cotiiinir  surface. 
)M>3umplioii  depends  lauiiiiy  upon  both  the  suc- 
^.ff-preasures,  Muxlniuai  e*^^ni»iiiy,  with  a  given 
ter  mugl  l«  br.n^h'  at  nv.-ra?*  city  tirice*.  is 
ircssure  an  ;  •'       •  ■'•■  I'  '<-«iire. 

'  a  noii-coi.  nif  cual 

«•  per  III  of  Ice^ 

lain>-d  per  ^  same 

lith  7  nn.  t   trnt- 

h, •  .     -A 


to*-  iijiii^u  i^tir 


y  Ave  per  cmt  lew  water 

n.    The  work  of  oompreadna  t* 

<T.-ijiiif»iK  "eooDonj'"  is  rtdncad  lo 

■t  eo«l  at  98  Ri«.  watOo^prtman  and 

.'.9  iwippir  at  waur  la  oMda  *  Rattooa 

— '^---•^netltoahoirtlOBIha.    The 

■^  ■  A  Abtoprintoaal  Utctrtam 

'i>y  drprAd  tm  th«  taliUI 

'■-     ■  '  » 'd   - 


91I.S      ICE'MAKING   OB   KEFRIOBHATINS  MACHLtTES 
Prrrorin«ncc  of*  76>ton  Bcftiseratlias-inachii 


Eic: 


;bS£ 


P>.Z. 


\\mi 


Av.  liU'^i  1  iTMia.  above  aliiiox. 

Av    l)iv<  I trenK.  ahov«  uttiigK, 

Av.ttfiuj  riM*r  iulf>t 

Av.  Iciuip  .iniuli-  bride  iiiillet 

Av.  r»uife  of  U'in|n!r«iiire     

I.b».  of  hriin- i-irciilati'tl  per  miiiute  ... 
Av.  lenii  ^ug-wat<>r  at  Inlet..   . 

AT.  tepi  ii;;\vn(er  at  outlet.. 

Av.  run-  I   Mature 

LbH.  wnicf  citrijlated  p.  nilii  llin.i^  t*ond*S^r 

l.lw.  water  j>i?r  iiilii.  tliroi])cli  jackets 

Range  of  ttinpt-ratiiif  lu  Jaeltetn.  

I.bs.  ariimoDia  oin-iilated  per  iniu 

Probable  leinperatiire  of  liquid  ammonia, 

eiitranoe  to  brine-tauk - 

Temp,  of  anini.  enrrewp.  to  av.  tmrk  (iress. 
Xv.  teiuperattireor  gan  leaviiiK^  britie-iaiiks 
Teniperatiire  of  bus  eiiteriiii;  oonipresHor 
.\v.  Teinperaliire  of  xti>*  leaviriif  cotiipi-essor 
Av  temp,  of  fcax  entering  condeuser..,  . 
T«?iiiperatiii-e  due  lo  coiuleusing  preaaiire.. 
llejkt  Klven  aiiimoiiia: 

By  brine,  B.T.U.  per  riiiniut« 

By  i:onipr>w8i>r,  B.T.U.  pt^r  minute 

By  atiui>Bpl)ere,  B  T.U.  per  minute,  ... 
Total  lieat  rec.  by  amin..  U.T.U.  p«rniln. 
Heal  taken  from  ainiiionia: 

By  conden.ser.  B.T.U.  per  iiiia 

By  JaekeLs.  B.T.U.  permiu 

By  Btinospliere,  B.T.U.  per  mln 

Total  hnat  n-j.  by  anini..  B.T  U.  per  min... 
IHt.  of  heat  rec' J  auil  rej.,  B.T.U.  per  iiUii. 
i  work  of  oompregaion  removed  by  jackel-s, 

Av.  revolutions  per  tiiiii   

Mejin  eir.  preaa.  steaia.cyl.,  lbs.  per  isq.  Ih 
Jleaii  eff,  preKS.  anim.  cyl.,  lbs.  peraq,  in 

Av.  H.P.  sieain-cvlinder 

W.  HP.  uiiimonia-cylinder 

Krioiion  ill  pereent  ol  sieani  H.P 

Total  eoolinj;  water,  (gallons  per  min.  per 

ton  per  24  bourH 

Tons  Ice-meltiiig  i-apacltv  per  24  hours 

L,\m.  ioe  retrifferathn;  eff.  per  lb.  eoal  at  3 

lbs.  pnr  H.P.  per  hour 

(JOMt  ciMil  per  ton  of  ice-refrigeratlnc  effect 

at  $4  per  ton  ..   " 

Cost  water  per  ton  of  ice-refrigeratiDK«4r«ct 

at  $1  per  1000  eu.  ft ...   . 

Total  cost  of  1  ton  ot  ice-refrlKeratinK  eff.. 
I 


una 

9786 

MO 

177IH 


7188 


9SI8 

m 

11400 


•0.7S 
T4,8    I 


9o.ias 

S(l.S«4 


1  185 
86.43 


fO,«W 
90.481 


i7.«r 


FiguroB  marked  thus  (*)  at*  «A>lB.\ue4  >a>i  cinV\Aa.tv«».-.  »2\i*!bkS«wibii 


,IOB-MAKIKa   KAOHiyf 


■t!  ioa>in«ltinii  oapAoUy  rannaHi  rpom  40  99 

f  coal,  iki'i'urillru;  o-s  IJie  suction  (U'essure 
iVi"  till'  BliM(is|>lieif',  iliiii  prensiire  heliie  Hie 
a  llie  w  iiu.iiiy  uf-  (Miiipieiwidii-fiini'liiites. 
eAlixini;  from  7'if  lo  i'7^  of  tlieor#*licalU'  per- 
l>er  cvuts  appear  to  occur  witli  iln-  liiKlitr 
irfeater  ku«  iiwn  cyliiulerlii?nllii(»  (a  pilf- 
er Condensation  in  Hli^ani-rrifjiiiesi,  iig  thu 
the   I01S   in    the   coiiiiireKBion-cyliiiiler   1a 

n-niflfliiiK',  onprftling  on  the  •'  dry  Hy»tfiin," 
fffct  rt-all/fil  rauKi's  from  60. .is  to  tii.Os. 
the  Anierii'aii  tnai'litne.  Th<»  Intt^rVlilght^r 
refoip,  to  more  perfect  displnCfiirHnt. 
;lty  "  111  llii<  Amnrii-aii  rnm-hiiip  is  24.  IS  Iba. 
.in'tion-pressiirtw  iiye<l  hi  Ariu  ricmi  prnetife 
red  ill  tHM-rntoruge  c  '  the  direct- 

ns  most  nearly  con  ••  AiiierJeau 

esla  ttrc  those  in  iiii'-  -ivh  An '*  ice* 

iai  ic«,  the  condiiionx  of  pi^aalloe  are  those 
26.  In  the  former  the  condeneint;  pressure 
EAolhif^  wul^'r  Ihiin  is  i-oiiiiiion  In  American 
ity  in  Hiwefore  (fniater  in  tlin  (jiM-nian  ina- 
OKaiiiiit  IT.firi  and  U..'i^  for  thi>  Aiiiericoit 

'iotet  Mavbliie8.— No  rcconU  are  availatiia 
leltin^  capacity  "  of  mocliinrH  u.sIdi;  pur« 
t  use  in  Ainprican  ■nai:hint>s.  hut  In  Rnropo 
fluid,"  u  iiiixtiirt-  of  alHiut  V'.^.  of  Hulijhur 
Tile  pn-Kt-nce  of  tlii"  carlioiiic  nclil  affords 

El  lower  thAD  ia  ol>taiiird  wiili  pure  mil 
I.  The  latent  ht^ai.  of  ihiti  niixinri^  liaii 
ed  to  be  equal  to  that  of  fiiiru  sulphur 

dditlong,  ltn»  17,  we  liavn  Sa.Si  Ibl.  "  ie«- 
aiakiiij<  cundlti<in8.  lliu^  li),  th(<  "io«-melt- 
Me  flgiii'i'.s  lire  pi'iictlcally  as  ecoiinniioal 

imt  of  llieorelical  flTerl  ivaliaicd  rantfinc 

ow  teiMiwruturi'.M,  —  I.')"  ImiIii*..  lin«'K  M  and 

aa4«B. 

>mpreMioQ-uiachineK    employing    volatile 

dlflrerence  betwtwn  thu  tlieorMical  and  iha 
the  aniinoiila.  hy  tlie  uariri  ifylinder  wallK, 
ipriL>(>aor,  llioreby  rzpaiulinir  it,  ao  that  to 
•  grieiiler  niiiiibi^r  of  revoliitiauB  must  be 
I  tlinn  rori'HKpoiKiii  to  the  ilenKlty  of  tlie 
»  briiie-lnnli. 
rptiofi'iuat'lilne  iiwil  in  Ktorago-warw- 

New  York  iiiul  Kronklyn  Kridge.     (tSiig'if, 
id  coDuiatiKl  <if  a  tutltidtin  of  chloride  of  cal- 
heal  wuii  fniiiid  lo  Iih  Mi',', 
J8  for  34  lionia  Man  found  Viy  Inkiofr  the 

clr<!nlatiiig  throiilfh  Ihit  pipeH  by  tlit*  aver- 
n  lh>-  Intfoinir  and   oiii|i;oiiit;  eurrenti,  an 

ihe  miMclde  lieat  of  the  brine  (  8S7)  and  Uti 

0  final  prt-'diici ,  applying  all  allou  anveH  for 
.  aiiioiiiilfil  111  O.'.'IM.KIIi  heat  iiullH  aa  the 
qiiul  to  tliH  iiieltInK'  "'  -IM.Sd'i  llw.  nf  Ice  in 

at  Ihe  eiMil  iiwvd  In  -Jl  hoiifg  wa«  37.000, iXk) 

1  the  aiipnrnlini  waii'J.1:(.  TIiIk  is  in)iil(ralBnt 
I.  per  lb.  of  eiml  having  a  liealinir  valiio  of 

'iiiiWirne   In   New    Haven,  Cuun. 
,  Rave  an  lee-tneliing  elTeet  of  ' 
commiy  eijnivuli-nt  lo  .'!  Ib».  O' 
'fvitii-eiifiue.     The  auiinon\% 
I'e  the  ulluoapliHi'b,  t 


I 


iCE-MAXUKACTLKE. 


fiCF 
mpresHlon-iuapblne, 

re  ilBTAIS-KI)  AT  THE  Ml>:(|CH  TBJsTa. 

le,  Traus.  A.  S.  II.  £..  xir.  1419.) 


-^ 1 


009 


1 

i          3 

4 

5 

« 

'  F 

•IS. 134 

ss.iu  1  xaMS 

-0.S7H 

as.ai 

lUeg.F... 

37.054 

1K.8B5  1     8.771 

-5.87(1 

as  072 

\, 

U.86I 

0.061      0.843 

o.8«; 

o.aei 

r  Ji.,  cii,  ft. 

],cm.a» 

9i»M    6H.1.H9  |4I4.1IK 

800.MI 

Hiour.... 

34-J.tKW 

•JtCJ.ft.'id    17'J,T76l  li'l,474fSaO,)»4 

ler  h..  e.  ft. 

838. ■;« 

SfiU.Sa      1»7  .MW  ia»  91)  1  OT.76 

nnderiA^i. 

IS.SO 

IB. 47        I.T.28 

U  V.'4     21,81 

«oiiip.-cvl. 

•M.m^ 

18,471      11.',77U 

10,140      IMSl 

«taaui>c}-l. 

ai.ro3 

16,Oa3      11.307 

H,KIO      10,1»4 

•Ill 

1,10(1. H  1786.6        ail  !► 

ix,M  Ims.h 

( 

IBS'  the  Cold.  (M.  V.  Bnnuistpr,  Liverpool 
BKiRt  iisfful  melius  fur  applying'  ilif  culil  tu  vanuiii) 
Itioii  of  brine  or  clilnriile  of  niiiKiieNiiiiii,  which 
It.  The  brine  is  fiint  tooled  l>y  lielnir  ilroiilated  In 
rBtor-iubes,  and  then  distribuierl  itircuiirli  coiU  of 
the  subKtanceti  requiring  a  rediielion  of  leiiiporu- 
k  or  roonnH  |>i-epared  for  Ihem:  the  nir  eoiiiiug  in 
Bfi  in  imniwlmtel.v  chilled,  and  ihe  moisture  iu  the 
i-  U  then  falls,  nuiking  room  for  wariuer  air,  and 
role  room  is  at  llie  teniperatnie  of  the  brine  id  the 

It  for  refri(^>rntini»  made  hv  ilieLltide  Ki'ltinh  Re- 
>)rlrie  \s  clifiilateil  (hniiiEli  a  hIibIIow  trougli.  In 
if  sliariit.  each  (;(«ariMl  tojjetlier,  and  driven  by  me- 
ithaftfi  are  fljtwl  a  miniber  of  tt  roaiKht-lron  dlt^ka, 
fine,  whii'l)  fiKil  tliein  drjwii  to  tlie  brine  tempera- 
r  llieRe  <\l»\s»  a  rupld  (.-iretilallou  of  air  Is  pil.«r«ed  by 
tilact  with  llie  platPB;  tlieii  it  is  led  into  t  lie  oh  am 
ion,  from  which  it  iti  nuahi  drawn  Ii.v  the  wime  fan; 
piiHtleH  are  removed  from  the  ehainbert;,  and  de- 
iicln^  Ihe  most  perfect  nntiseptic  titjnosphere  yet 
[While  Uie  ma.Yimimi  efllcii'iiuy  of  the  brine  teni- 
table,  the  lirlne  bein^  iieriodieallj*  concentrated  by 

M  the  cii'culiitiue  medium.  The  aiiiinonia-pipe» 
Dliiie-<:hanil>er.  imd  lar^e  wooden  conduits  are  used 
I  it  from  the  roonm  to  be  cooled.  An  advaniaite  of 
I  room  may  Ix-  refiiKeraled  more  quickly  ihan  by 
f  air  dppositR  its  moigiiire  in  the  form  of  gnow  on 
i  la  remov«^  by  mechanical  brushes. 

HAL.  ire-nANWACTCRE:. 

bit,  with  condensing  water  at  70°,  artifleial  Icn-inn- 
ybouc  190  IbR.  above  the  atmonpliere  coiideiiKer- 
on-presgure. 

of  machine  the  iiKeful  circulation  of  ammonio. 
cylinder-hpating.  is  about  Ti  llis.  jwr  hour  per  in- 
lie  strain  cylinder.     This  weight  of  ainmoiiin  pitj- 

at  1S»  froiii  wiiter  at  TiH".  If  the  ice  Is  miide  from 
"can  xysli'in."  the  aiiuHiui  of  tile  latter  ii<upplled 
BS  Kreaier  than  tiie  weiRht  of  ice  obtained.  This 
tscapim;  10  the  atinoKphere,  from  llje  re  boiler  and 
\y  the  distilled  water,  it  free  it.  from  air;  also,  the 
tpa,  and  loss  by  melting  of  llie  ice  in  ext'" 
i  Btttaiii  consi'iined  per  horse-power  is.  * 

About  TO  Itta.  of  i^hl*  coverts  the  »WN 
l.diiring  (he  brine  cJrciilating-pumpVt 


I 


1008  MAEINK   EKOINEERIKG. 

jr,  II,  ■  -•'-';>;•  ••-'-  V  vvRlprlhedlTiaor  is  35.9a  TIib  D,  8.  rtp 
liit«:  '  >i-eni(>iit  when  the  entire  internal  culiid 

i^i|,„  .  ..  the  ratio  of  100  to  as. 

lut  rollows:  L*.'l  L  'lemitc  liie  length  in  fe^t  of  tiit-  boat,  if  its  tJUtrue 
iHvnilih  in  foxt,  nil. I  D  I  he  im-an  ilraught  in  feet:  the  product  of  these  tim-e 
tiliii.      '  i"    -•      'hn  voliimi-  of  a  parallelopipe^loo  iu  cubic  fiJeL    I'ul; 

liUf  *'*•  bil»i'  ^'  =  i  X  Z*  X  D. 

•Ij.  M'einept  may  then  be  mprPRfied  a«  a  perrenlngt  i4 

Die  MiiiiiiM-  .  ,  i.i.ji-  n  iUi  the  "  block  c»''fficiiri>t."    Thl.<i  p«^reentnge  vBriwfi* 
dl(T»<reiil  olusses  of  8hi[ia.    lo  raiiii^  yuihts  with  very  deep  kei-ls  It variel 
riofii  W  t"i  :«;  in  mcKlerii  merchiintitien  from  M  to  75;  for  oriilnary  smiM 
iMialK  t'l'tiLiitl'ly  '13  will  (fire  a  fair  estimate.    Tlie  vdlume  of  di.splaceiiienl  IT^ 
ciil'ir  ii."et  ili»  I'lnd  In'  A'>  pives  the  ilisplacenieni  in  tons, 

CoeSicicuI  of  Fin«nei»a.-A  lerai  used  to  express  the  relation  b« 
tM<-<-ii  the  dlspluceuieiil  ut  a  ship  ajid  the  volume  of  a  rectangular  ph.-iai( 
|j<ix  wiioae  liueal  dliueiiBious  are  the  leuKtb,  bivadtli.  aud  draught  of  Ct 
(Itip. 

D  X  35 

Coerndent  of  flneness  =  ,  „  m  „  ii7  '■  P  being  the  ilisplacetneDt  in  la 

1^  X  xs  X    IV 

of » I'll  tile  feel  nf  soa-water  to  the  ton.  Llhe  leuptli  between  perpendiL-iilM 
B  the  exinmie  breadtli  of  beam,  and  tr  ilie  tiieuu  draught  uf  water,  all  il 
fee:. 

CoelBclent  of  IVater-ltnea.— .\ii  expresxinn  nf  ibe  relallon  of  III! 
dlnpliiee uieut  (o  the  volume  of  tlie  prisin  whose  seocion  equals  the  iiililiiU( 
sectluo  of  tlie  ablp,  aiitl  lengtb  eqiiiil  to  the  length  of  the  lihip. 

CoefficicDtof  wat«r-llne8  —  -— n r— ScaM 

^,vi«i«..<.ii>.  ui  w».<=i  .1    .      area  of  iiiimoratMl  water  sectluu  y  L'   """"^^ 

glTM  Uw  followitig  valtiesr 

Coefflcient     Coefflclentof 
of  FiDeDesti,      Water-lines. 

FInel.v-«h«ped  ships.  . ..  .  0.55  0.<B 

Kairly-nhupcd  ships O.SI  0.«7 

Ordluarv  iiierclmnt  steamers  for  speeds  of  10  to 

11  knots O.OS  O.W 

Cargo  steaniera,  9  to  10  knots  . .     0.70  O.TS 

Mooerti  cargo steameni of  large  BiiB u.TS  O.SI 

Benlatance  of  Ships.  -  The  reHl.stance  <>f  a  ship  paSKing  thmi 
winer  may  vary  fmin  a  luiiriber  of  tsauses.  ns  speed,  form  of  body,  dlspli 
inenl,  inlil»liii>  dimensions,  character  of  wetted  surface,  flneneVn  of  liiu^ 
etc.  Tlte  iesi-<t!ince  of  the  wat^i-r  Ih  twofoKI  ;  1st.  That  <iuo  to  llie  (llst>lM< 
Mient  of  the  water  at  the  bow  an<l  lis  replaoeineut  at  rlie  stem,  rlth 
cmweqiient  forniuilon  of  waves,  ai  The  friction  Ix-tween  the  welted 
face  nf  the  ship  and  the  water,  knoun  as  iikiD  resiatatii^.  A  Cutntnoiiil 
pi'KXlnmtL-  funiiula  (or  resistance  of  vessels  is 

Redstiince  =  speed'  X  j^displaoemeut»  x  a  codatant,  or    A  =  S»dJ  X  ( 

If  D  =  displacetni^tit  In  pomids,  8  =  speed  in  feet  per  niinute,  S  = 
anca  in  foot-potinris  per  tniniite,  R  =  C'.'s'/l',  The  work  tlooe  io  o»i 
ing  tlie  resistance  tbrouKb  a  dlslauee  equal  to  ^  is  R  x  -9  =  C{flEi 
if  £  is  the  efflcieocy  of  the  propeller  and  machinery  combined,  Che  iiilil 

hoi«-po,ver  LH.P.  =  ^^. 

If  S  =  speed  In  knots,  D  =  displacement  in  tons,  and  Ca  consiani  whit 
It>eJude«  all  the  constants  for  form  of  vessel,  efficiency  of  aiechaui-ui.ftA 

I.H.I..=   ^^. 

The  wetted  surface  varies  as  the  ciilw  root  of  the  square  of  i  ne  iiis|iim« 
nieut;  thus,  lei  L  i>e  VUe  Aei\gt,h  of  edge  of  acubejust  inmiersed.  whortJ 
placement  is  D  and  'weUed  BMttace  W .    "XXistn  t>  ^  L?   or  I,  =  ^D 
If^  ^  5  j^  £,s  _  6 X^  ^0)4.    -ttAtVi, W  vwV»tA  VK. 


IKGIKKERIXO. 


inn ., lUflA 

Dtiers  (•>  riisilllrd  Mater Htol 

f^ra  |)«r  |iouiid  iif  coaJ 4.tfl 

Hpra<M(r-i!nguies 444 

Ijtrom  c«i»s f.8 

n  FEB  CXSTB  OW  TOTAL  AHOI'NT. 

iM).I 

Biisera 19.7 

ratur  engines  » ., T.fl 

r.  s 

CbtKtboiien a.t 

Sim 05 

kb<f  purity  of  thi»  ice  are  Ihiix  dttcrllieilT 
Be  cnndeno^r  la  tlip  aocMnnuliirtdii  nt  thp 
And  eiiKineo.  t«ieeth«T  with  nii  Anioiinl  of 
I  froTii  the  hollers.  TIiIb  Ibm  qnniitliy  l« 
pinount  (if  filter  iiccefiSHry  lo  Htipply  the 
fhe  condeoKerh  is  violeutly  relidilr.l.  anU 
(UKh  Ik  L'oil  siirfntv  c'M.l'-r.  It  ili<'ii  |.n.'.*e.H 
ilcll  it  rnnK  tlirmrKli  tlir.-e  cliaroonl-llllfrK 
tad  cont«iniii|f  ^Hfeei  (if  c'iiarooal  Ii  next 
ich  there  Ik  an  electrlral  attafhtneht  f<ir 
jiwts  are  alf^y  made  for  roJi  dully  From 
hvhicli  are  carefullr  covTed  jm  ihM  the 
Bn|iaritjeH, 


bra 


INEERING. 


JBteualoita  and  Obtclnlne  Ton> 

Be  dlltlt:ll^ioll^  to  Irf  iiieasiiii-'i  as  fLJIown: 
Be  of  «leni  to  Ijie  after  siile  of  slei  n-iKist 
per  deck  o(  all  vewu-l.s,  except  those  fiav- 
{tending  Hsht  fore  ami  afl..  In  which  Die 
pge  of  deck  itnuieiliatel)'  below  the  huiTi- 

llliifr  forward,  or  receding  stenm.  or  rak- 
l*  distance  of  the  foie  side  of  stem  from 
•  load  mater  line  measured  nl  middle  lioe. 
Mken  im  stern-iKwi  (n  scre«-Ht earners. 
over  the  wldetit  fruine  at  it«  wiile«l  part; 
th. 

•I  (he  dead  Hat  frame  and  at  niidille  Hue 
I  from  the  top  of  lloor-plate  to  the  upper 
fKeU  ext'ept  tlioKe  having  a  c^mtitiuoun 
fore  anil  aft.  and  not  iiitende<l  for  the 
,  tlie  depth  i.s  lo  l<e  the  distance  fl'oin  toj) 
tor  of  hiirricanij  deck-lioani  and  the  top 
llely  l#|nw  hurricane  deck. 
ill»  hurrlciine  deck,  eitemllng  ri^iht  fore 
erlcan  coasting  trade,  tlie  depth  Ik  to  l>e 
t«  In  top  of  deck-beaiu  of  deck  iiiiniedi- 

Uiaee.— Multiply  tngelher    the    leiixth, 
liict  hy  ,75:  divide"  the  lost  product  liy  100; 
f.   .    6  y  II  V    7S       . 
^ =  loDoage. 

Tonnaire  Ijawr,  May  6,  1861,   provtdpfi 
vessi'l  Khali  lie  her  entire   inlernal   eiililo 
»ch."    TliiK  iiientiureniont  include."  all  the 
'•ver  many  tliere  may  be.    Explicit  dlrec- 
l«  j»re  Klven  in  ^he  law. 
renacl  luiennurfd  in  tous  of  tHO  lb"  "  *" 
V  Klilcl)  it  displaces.    For  fte*-ni»*' 
/  IwueacJi  cbu  water-lti>«>.  in  ea° 
iio.tiiher  of  cubic  feet  ot  au.) 


MAklMR   KKGIKBEKIKO. 


i|iiAiillly  lit  I' »..»..>! -    «i,,..u  ii;  iri,,..ni  no  11...  ••  ,..w,m..iu..i  „f  mijiuen. 

iBttiin.'''     I  ,rtlin 

ri'MMUinc  '  >;'li« 

r»riiiula,  U.'    ....» ^-i—- .-    ....„.,c  ...  ....liiiimiu 

ubiiuiiily  of  the  wiuei-liijat  Ui  tu  be  Ukkou  U>i   »iu-  e,  aud  Ihn  rule  will  tlieu 

rHaiiiliiis: 

T"  <il)lnlii  "■"  H.>.i..,„„.^u..^  „  ..1,;..  .,f  ,^,i,„!  r..r„.  i„  ..,.,,,,.1..  mulllpl)  tli« 
Irnglli  111  '  •  .if  iiufjiiifii 

Inlioii.  ni  IIS  R&hliiiM 

l4utiu!il  11. .., ..'    -  ...  :-..-. V  -■-  t.^-per  t.'ouslaiil 

|nlBcl(-'nl  Hc-ltx-kml  t'runi  Hit;  (ulluwiug: 

For  cIPAn  pointed  v)!«8(fls.  iron  liulU A  =  .01 

Fur  vliiAn  i-iipp«r(rd  vdsselii A  =  .1)0910.008 

For  iuuil«?rniely  rough  iron  Teasels A  =  .Utl  + 

Tlie  n«l,  or  efTuciive,  horse  power  demanded  will  be  quit«  clowly  oblaiiK 
by  imiUlpl>  ini;  the  renislinice  calculated,  us  aliove,  by  ihe  »ipt-ed  in  kiMiii<iuiit 
dlvl.l"!  •  i.»   1 '!■     The  Kiosa,  or  indicated,  jKiwer  is  obtained  liy  inuliiplyint 
lh«-  v  tiy  tlie  rwiprot'ttl  of  the  efflcieiiej'  of  th«  mof.-liiner>  aiiJ 

pr.'i  iisUHlly  should  bo  about  0.6.    liankine  usea  as  a  divisor  in 

lliLsi.-       -      ;     .'tUI. 

Tli<-  loi  111  of  tlie  vessel,  even  when  designed  by  skilful  and  eijwriencfd 
iiikvul  ari-hiteotK,  vrill  i.flen  rury  to  such  an  extent  as  to  l'aum;  ilie.  aliovecon.- 
mant  eopfIluient«  tu  vary  .sotiitf what;  and  the  rango  of  voriatioa  wiMi  goinll 
forniR  is  found  tu  hi<  from  O.V  to  1.5  llie  flgures  given. 

Tor  well.ftbniMid  Iron  ressiel.t,  au  approzimace  fortuula  for  the  borce-pmret 
SV 
rrqtilrecl  isH.P.  =  „ -^  in  which  S  la  the  "anKtnentetl  surface."   The  ex 

SV 


pi-e«fiion 


H.P. 


ha«  b«en  called  by  Rankine  Uie  coefficient  of  luuiiuliioH.   ta 

the  Hudson  Hirer  steamer  "Mary  Potrell,"  accordine  to  Thurstim,  Uiii 
cuefflclent  wax  as  bipli  a»  'J3,5O0. 

The  expi-essioii  ■  „  _    has  been  called  the  lucomuttve  (jtrformanee,    (8« 

Rnnkiii(''»  Treatise  on  Shiptiullcling,  18M;  Tliurston's  MnnuiU  of  theStauiH 
enniin!.  paix  ii,  p.  18;  also  pajwr  by  K.  T.  Bowhjs,  U.S.N. ,  Proc.  D.  S.  >'aTal 
InHdiute,  188^1) 

Rniifciiie'i'  inethfid  for  calciilnting  the  resistance  is  snid  by  Seaton  to  gr 
more  iictMiralc  aixl  reiial)le  ivsiill.s  lliaii  Ihiwii  obtained  liy  Ihe  rilder  raits. 
Inn  II  is  eritlcifed  as  lu'lnt'  iliflliMilt  and  incoiivenieni  of  njiplji'nijon 
Dr.  Kirk's  JIe<liod.— Tlils  iiunliod  is^-.-  .-  ."■   ■■    ■  '  ■  ■   .<...■■>-! 
The  ^fiieial  idea  pri'|»»sed  by  I.lr.  Kirk  is  t" 
and  simple  a  form  that  they  tn«y  be  easily  con 
certain  features  u(  this  (urm  Khdil  deieriiiine  il.v  ^...i.j. ......>  <>   ii;t- »ini' ...f 

speed,  etc. 
Tlie  fnrni  consists  of  a  middle  1)i>dy,  which  is  a  rectangular  paraltcloplpnli 
IB(1  furu  body  and  after  body,  uritsnia  havlu?  i!sosc«teS  trianeles  forbtMa 
l*«tiown  in  Fig.  168.  •.  ->, 


I  is  nailed  ft  block  inode\,  wA  teeocYk  \.\>Bh\\ft>!«i.tet.U  is  equal  to  imi  < 
I  the  ship,  the  depth  is  equal  to  l\>e  mean  4tw»<Cnv,«*  «a.vai*\>s  «aij»i««  O 
MBplawment    volume,  and  U*  avea  <.l  ae<t^\«tl  «*aA  Vo  ■»*  ««*»,  *> 


MAKIKii  ENOIKBERIKO. 


lOOS 


=  B. 


ineraed  mldshlt)  section.  Tlie  dIniebBlonsof  Ihc  block  moilel  may  be  obtalneit 
U  rollo«r«: 

\jBi  AH  3  UB  =!  \mi\iih  Of  roi-e-  Of  arter-body  s  F: 
OK  s  Iriieili  nr  tnlildio  body  c  IT; 

£/>  =  iiK^iin  liraiiMLl  x  ^j 

K_      nrpa  of  iniiiipi's«d  mldnlilp  ggctloii 
**"  XL 


Volume  of  block  =  (f+  il)x  By  H; 

Midship  RiK-iton  =  B  ,x  H; 

I}lBplace(ueDt,  iu  lotis  =  volume  In  cubic  ft.  -•-  S5. 

AM  =iAG-{-GH=  J'+  U  =  displacement  X  36  +  (B  X  ff ). 


wetted  surface  "f  tlie  block  Ik  nearly  t^qiial  to  tbnt  of  (he  ship  o(  th»l 

uJne  l»ni;1ll.  I>eani  ami  drnUfthI ;  iimifilly  *<;)(  to  nj  gi-eater.    Itiexc«r>diiigly| 
fiW)  hullo\r-line  f,h\y«  It  nmj'  ha.  *%  giealt^i'. 

Area  of  bollom  of  hlwck  =  {F-\-  M)  X  B; 
Afea  of  »ldi?»  -  SM  X  H. 


Area 


ofaW««ofoudB=  4i/ii'»+ (*)    X  »; 

'Tangent  of  half  angle  of  eotraoce  =  =^r  «=  ^rs,. 

i^tbis,  by  a  taUe  of  natural  taogents,  the  angle  of  entrance  may  by 

AnKle  of  EUilruooe     Foi-e-botly  in 
of  the  Block  Model,  part*  qf  lijngth. 
I-Koltafc  strainers,  14  knots  and  upward.      18°  to  1. 5°  .3   to  .SS 

12loHknol« 31    tolR  .aato.S 

L-arRo  Rleainer!!,  lO  to  la  knots..      30    to  S2  .3\!  to  .M 

K.  B.  3(tumrord'«  in«tliod  «rC'AlcnlaUii((  Welted  Surracea 

lj«  ^iveii  in  11  pa(>ei-  t>y  AivUibaUl  Denny,  WiyV-  S«1>1.  "I.  ISW.    Tliu following 
^^l6  r«rniula,  nliii-li  givea  cloiwly  accurate  results  for  medium  draugbta^. 
kina,  and  fiiieuesjieB: 


a  =  <i,  X  O  X  17)  +  \1,XBXC), 

i  S  =  wetted  surface  in  sqimrp  Ipt-t; 
L  =  lenarth  betwei-n  perpeiidieulai-s  In  feet; 
D  =  middle  drauRht  In  feet; 
B  =  l*«in  in  fe«-l ; 
C  =  bltx.'k  eoefflcieut. 


4 


"he  fominln  may  also  be  expressed  is  tlie  (.jrm  .^  =  tAJ.IO  +  BC). 

I  the  case  of  l«  in-screw  ships  liaving^  priijei:lin>f  Khaf  t^cnsings,  or  in  tb«. 

iof  a  ship  biivlns  a  ilei-n  k<'el  or  bilge  keels,  an  addition  must  bp  mode 

htich  projt:Ctii-ais.    The  furniufa  gives  retiultti  which  are  in  cMieral  uiuoh. 

a.-ciiniti-  than  Hios.'  ..btaincd  by  Kirk's  inolhod     It  und<'reatimat<>)i 

■11  tbf  Wani.  dranghl.or  bK>ck  <'ti**n\i.'l»*nlK  aiv  i-x*-'essiv^;  hut 

1  fxoi'i'l  1(1  thp  ciise  of  atturmnal  forms,  such  a8.<iorii-wlwH»l 

■  vprv  cxc'CHsive  beams  (nearly  one  fnurth  ilie  Icnglh).  and 

*>  vci>  lull  uliiok  coefflciontB.    The  formula  gives  a  surface  about  6%  too 

lall  tnr  -^uch  forrns 

I'D  Find  the  Indicated  Horse-power  flrom  (lie  Wetted 
irftire.  iSeuion.i— In  urilhniry  i-asesi  tlip  horaepnwt-r  per  100  fact  ~ 
tti-il  surface  may  he  found  by  asfiuininii'  that  the  rate  for  a  speed  of  IV 
t»  in  5,  and  tlini  ili"  qiiii'Hiiy  varici^  as  Uiecubi*  of  the  speed.  For  exam- 
[To  Ittid  the  nuMiiji-r  of  1  H  P.  necessary  to  drive  a  ship  at  a  apeed  of  II 
'  ,  harlng  a  vretted  skin  of  block  model  of  16,-JOU  square  feet: 


The  rate  per  TOO  feet  =  (l.'i'lffi'  y  !> 
Then  LU.P.  ie<|iiired  ^  18.875 


AiVi  =  OTW. 


^^M-i 


=  tr4-M)xJh 


f  V'^+Cf/x  »« 


tkatof  lkeaMr«rtka 


■Ceatnace  = 


HB 


tlie  aacle  of  entrance  nwyte 


I 


Aoffle  of  Bniraaoe     ForMxaiy  In 
of  ibe  Block  XiMtei.  paria  of  IrnftK 
_^ward.     ie»u>i5'  .3  to  ai 

L 3t    to  IS  .-Jtto.S 

ntnoU..      30    to*;  .3-Jlo.M 


MTalcnlatluz  Wetled  SarfiiVM 

ttiy,  £iii/V.i»^pt^  °^l.  l^l>^'    rtit'tullutvlna 
ilCC)ira(8  results  for  medium  droUKblii, 


LV)  +  (ii  X  fl  X  O), 

ll*  ttjet ; 
mluulani  la  feet; 


a  In  flip  f..itii  S  a  r,(1.7P  +  SO. 

vid;;  iH-.j'-'liiii;  ■■ll:ifl-.risilii:>\.  lir  111   lIlM 

M,        .     ,   .  ,.,.,.1,. 


le  f'.'iDiiiiu  giM.'    ,1 


iceBS/»ry  l<j  ilrlvu  ip 
;  miHtMlof  IC,  Jl*ll  W| 


1006 


MARIMB   ENOIKEEKIKG. 


Wli«n  t4ic  aliip  ia  exceptianaily  irelI-propurtlODe<1.  thr  bottom  qiiit«cleui. 
anil  llie  i-nu-lrticy  ot  the  ninclirnfry  IiikIi.  hb  low  a  rate  as  4  I.H.F.  per  109 
frrl  iif  wiMird  likiii  of  block  iiicxJf!  may  h>-  allo»»Kl 

The  KHiM*.  Ihilli-ali'd  liMi->,e.pow?r  incliiJrH  the  power  necessary  lo  oter- 
CHtie  Oi«  frk-lli-n  and  olhiT  irslotancp  of  Ihe  eripliie  itsflf  and  the  Kliaftlog, 
anil  »I»o  ibf  powiT  lost  in  the  nri»prllor.  In  ollirr  words,  l.H.K  i«  no  lutii*: 
iirr  iif  Ilie  reMKtunce  <•{  tlie  Ktilp,  and  eaii  only  be  relied  on  as  a  nifsiis  at 
deoMinK  Hi*-  sitt-  "t  i>n)flneB  for  speed,  ko  loii(f  as  the  efnoieucy  nf  tiieeti|nM 
and  pnifielUir  in  knnwiideflnitely.or  f>o  lone  QiiMmilareM^iiies  and  prop«lli<l 
are  enipli»yed  in  bliips  to  be  eoiupared.  The  fo»Miier  is  difflcult  to  obtain, 
and  it  is  nearly  iniiiotwible  in  prnclice  to  know  how  rnm^hof  the  po«erslu™« 
ID  the  cylimlei'S  is  eniplnyetl  usefully  in  overooiuinjt  tlio  reHisionr'e  of  tbi 
ship.  The  folluM'iDg  example  la  given  to  show  the  variation  in  the  efficlfDC} 
of  propellerii: 

Knots.       t.H.T^ 

H.M.8.  "  Amnson,"  with  a4-blai1ed  screw,  eave. 14.064  with  II 

11. M.S.  "  Aninxou,"  with  a  2hladed  screw,  Increased  pitch, 

and  lead  revolutions  p*r  minute 1S.896     "     16 

H.M.8.  "Irln."  with  a -l-blttded  screw 16.577     ' 

U.M.S.  "  Iris"  with  a-bladed  screw,  locreasod  pitch,  less  ^_ 

reviiliil Ions  per  knot 1R.W7     "     "TS 

R«litllve  Homc-power  Required  Tor  DJa'ereut  S;''  <  <t-  "tT 
Veaa«lB.  dloisi-power  for  li>  knots  =  }.)— rheliorse-p"weri- 
li>  Nury  a»  the  cube  of  Ilie  speed,  but  iu  differeui   vessels  am! 
BPeedK  it  may  vary  from  Ihe  "J. 8  power  to  the  3.5  power,  dejwndiii;;  ui-iji'  tli . 
ui](»  of  the  vessel  and  upon  the  etHcieacy  of  the  ent^ineK,  tbe  propeller,  etc 


II 

4 
.0789 

6 

.530 

S 
..MS 

10 

IS 
1.6«« 

14 
•i.ftflS 

IB 
S.TiSl 

18 
fi.lSS 

6.064 

SZ 

9.0B6 

S4 
11. «1 

S8 

JH 

i 

Hl'« 

M.SS 

17.87 

»j 

.S'-' 

.(TTOI 

ar 

M4 

i.enr 

•i.&'yS 

».908|5.49g 

7.4M 

9  841 

13  07 

15.97 

I9.8DM.fl 

s» 

.11610 

.216 

MS! 

1.7JSli.:41 

4.09618.832 

8. 

10  65 

13.^ 

17.58 

ilM 

■it.  ■ 

N»l 

.06H4 

a).'. 

..Vll 

1  TIM-'  K.ih,  J  ■'(i:i  i;  i?<.-i  .s  .'.^jlii   ^-1 

in   (Vi 

'0.34 

uxum 

H»» 

IXUi.') 

lU.^ 

.4WJ 

•  -a 

««■ 

ff" 

,(HW 

.IM 

.4:« 

41 

£9.^^ 

«>■> 

.0444 

I7C 

.4ffl' 

J    :  -.-1    ..  .  y.     i    .. ,  .^-   ......  ^v- 

....Ttssi.'mnH 

S*t 

om 

1«T 

.4MI 

1 

l.bHaia.24Ti&. 18117  !Vi4lU.3llla.7a 

ai.4a 

£H.34ia6.ni«V 

ICXAMPi.s  TN  Ubk  of  rvK  Table.— A  certain  vcfsel  make.s  1  (  knot*  up 
wllh  WTl.ll.P  and  10  knots  willi  9«»  I.U.P.  What  l.H.P.  will  be  r«)Uiredl 
IB  knots,  tlie  rale  of  iiierea,se  of  horsepower  with  increase  of  speed  rvmikii 
InK  constant  ?  The  first  step  is  lo  find  the  rate  of  increase,  thus;  14"  :  16*! 
587  ;  900. 

J- 10(?  18  -  J-  log  14  =  log  900  -  log-  587; 

XIO.-.WISO  -  0.]4tilS8)  =  a.aM243  -  2.768838. 

whence  x  (the  eipooent  nf  S  In  formula  H.P.  aS"^  =  3  a. 

From  the  table,  for  S*  '  and  Ifi  linols.  the  I  H.P.  is  4.5  times  the  I  H  P  i 
10  knots,  .-.  HP.  at  10  knots  =  900  -«-  4.5  =  200. 

From  the  table,  for.ss  »  and  IS  knots,  ll»e  l.H.P  Is  6  JMS  limes  the  1  HJ"  i 
10  kiiors:  .-.  H.P  at  18  kn.ilK  =  -J'lO  :<  6.S.V.I  =  ISTJ  H  P. 

BcBlatauce  per  Horne-powcr  for  Dlfl'ereat  Speed*.    (Om 

hoi-se-pi'wer  -  S-J.iW  lbs.  rt-fii-lHUuC  overcome  ibioutli  1  ft.  in  I  

reslaiancesiwr  horsepower  for  vmiouR  si.»eed«  are  a."  follows:  I  .  f  1 

1  ktiot,  or  6080  feet  per  hcmr  =  101)^  ft.  per  niin.,  33,000  ■*■  lOlU 

per  horsepower;  and  for  any  other  speed  ilS5.658  lbs.  divideif  U  , .. 

in  knots;  or  for 


1  knot  ^25.66  lbs. 
I   S knots  l«a  H3    •' 
I  8     ••      108.55    '* 
■<      ••       81.41     " 
\§     "       65.13    " 


6  knots  54  28  lbs. 
T      "      46.58    •' 
8     "      40  .•i\    " 

10      "       34  .'o~     •' 


11  knots  99.61  lbs.    16  kaota  liO  85 1 

12  "      27.14     •'       17      •*       19  18 
Va     ~      "K.  W,    "       1«      "       l.«  to 


r 


tlNE   ENGINEERING. 


1007 


or  8t«ain<^eBscIa  orVfttioait  SIbmi. 


J— 

1 

6 

J 

4 

J 

4 

t 

ef 

1 

«^ 

d 

s 

5 

t 

la'.!'.' 
t 

00'  0" 
10'  C" 

a'  0" 

29.73 
24? 
903 

171'  9" 
18'  3" 

%^" 

99 

3793 

lacc  0" 

21'  0" 

8'  10" 

370 

148 
8764 

l!98'  0" 

34'  8" 

fl'  0  " 

MO 

aoo 

8&S 

230'  0" 

29'  0" 
l.V  C" 
I.SQO 
310 
10,07S 

«.7'  0" 
35'  0" 
18'  0" 
>900 
a.'JIl 
15,783 

45-0" 

72' 00" 

42'  6" 

143'  0" 

',»'  6" 

li9'  0" 

12°  40' 

11»30' 

43°  M' 

13"  a  r 

17°  0" 

11°  ao' 

0.481 

0.570 

0.606 

0.4S9 

0.67) 

0.605 

i'.'.'.. 

saoi 

460 
4.78 

Ifi.3 

-•JS 
21.01 

4.87 

10.74 
S7l 
9.88 

7.97 

17. ai 

1490 
18.52 

s.fie 

10.01 

503 
J.OO 

4.90 

17.8 
4751 
80.00 

6.32 



223 

193 

17«.8 

893.7 

SM 

ISS 

656! 

44S 

493 

683 

&10 

399 

MAKIXB   EKOINBEBIKG. 


I  1008 

I     Ueiiiilta  of  Progres»lve  Speed  Tiialu  Ui  TypUal  1 

L     ■^ 

length  (In  feet) 
Breadth  "     " 
DraiiKbt  (meaiii  oa  trial.. 
Displacement  (tons) 
I.H.P.-IO  knots 

14 

18 

flO 

SfMied 

10 
H 

18 
£0 


Admiralty  coeff. 
^      I.H.P. 


The  Bkui^s  for  I.H.P.  are  "  ix>und."  The  "  ' 
we  froui  trial  oa  Stokes  Bay.  and  show  the  rut 
The  flgiiruH  for  the  other  sthipn  for  ao  ktiota  arc  r,,., 
More  accuruti'  melhiitls  than  llione  above  gt: 
horse-power  required  for  any  proposed  xhlp  are:  1 
from  the  results  of  trials  or '•similar"  vessels  ilrn 
Bpeetls;  "uliiiilar"  vestieU  beiiiK  those  Ihut  liave  ti.. 
l)reodlh  and  to  draiiKlit,  and  the  same  c<)«fflflfni 

spondiiig"  speeds  ino8«!  wliich  are  jiif  .  • ' 

the  lentclha  of  the  rcBpective  vessels,    1 : 
such  vessels  varied  iiliiiost  exn-'lly  as  « 

i.  The  method  employed  Ijy  it-    " 
shiplHiililers,  viz.,  aiieertainiriR  lip 
SO  ft.  loriK.  in  a  tank,  niid  c«leului 

Sperd  on  CaumU.-A  great  I..:-:, ...  ^,„  • 
passes  from  I'lu-u  water  Into  a  mure  or  less  r.- 
upecd  of  vessels  In  the  Siiex  Canal  iu  1882  was  . 
(hig'tl.  Fel>.  15,  ltW4,  p.  I3fl.) 

BsUmated  DUpUremeut,  HorM'power,  cit«L._Tb< 
the  neii  page,  euJciiluied  by  the  author,  mil  (>.■  fi.und  o..ii»i|,i,Hl 
IDE  approzlmatti  esUiuaten. 

The  nKtires  in  Tth  column  are  calculated  by  the  ronniil*  H  I"  - 
Id  which  c  =  200  for  vftss«Is  umler  MX)  tl.  Iouk  wl)«n  C  •  ■ 
when  O  =  .55;  c  =  WO  for  vefwelb  SWO  to  VM  ft.  lone  when  <•  r=  b 
C  -^  .06,  X«  wUeu  C  =  .56;  e  =  aao  for  Tesaels  over  Vja  ft.  knic  via 
8!«»  when  C  =  -65,  'Jfll)  when  C  =  .M.  • 

Tlie  (iKurek  in  tbtt  8th  columu  ar«  baaed  on  5  H.P.  p»r  100  m|.  n 
surface. 
Thi<  dinmeter*  of   tarev  la  the  9lb   tiotiimn   •««   rr*ym 
'      H.P.,  and  in  the  lOtlioolunm  f) 
the  diameter  of  screw  for  «i 
lit  1(X1  iH"r  miuuti-.  miilui'lv  1 1 


ith  k<".i  i,(  tlie  cut>e  of  thv 


kl'iiit''  iliai* 


Tide  I- 


rglte-Ji  Jjj  I  Jut  : 
'roJtiiro  ttgii. 


1  KseixBCRive. 

HP" 

B*«  Mowtfu'wr,  «««.,  of  Meaai- 

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lOlO  MARINE    ESGINEERIKG. 

THE  SC'BEir'PBOPEl.I.EB. 

Th«  "pitch"  of  B  pru)i<-llpr  Ik  tbt>  distance  which  any  point  in  s  btsdi 
ileaci'iliiuK  •  bvlix,  wlli  travrl  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  ilui-tng  onereTolii 
lion,  lh«  iMiiiil  l>eiiiir  a><8iiiu(>d  to  uiovts  around  the  uxis.  Tliu  piccb  of  i 
propelliT  »l>h  »  tinlform  pitch  is  equal  to  tlie  diutauce  a  (iroiH-llfr  mil 
ajvauiH.'  duriDK  out*  revolmion,  provided  there  is  no  Blip,  lu  a  cfue  o(  ihr' 
Itind.  tlip  term  •■  jKtcli"  isonjiloKons  to  the  ttimi  "piieh  of  llie  thread'' ( 
an  ordinary  fciOKletlii-eaded  screw. 

Let  f  ~  pitch  i>r  ncrew  in  feet,  R  =  number  of  revolutions  per  ii«coii( 
I"  =  velocity  of  Ktieam  from  the  propeller  =  P  \  R,  v  =  vt-lfxriiy  of  the  ihli 
ill  feet  per  second,  F'  -  i-  =  slip,  A  =  area  in  square  feel,  of  section  of  strcai 
from  the  screw,  approximately  the  area  of  a  circle  of  ttie  isaiiie  dmnietM 
A  K  i'  —  volume  or  water  prnjecteil  astern  from  the  ship  in  cubic  feet  p* 
MK*ond.  Taking  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  sea-water  at  (M  lln*.,  and  th 
force  of  gravity  at  33.  we  have  from  the  coriiniob  funuula  for  foive  ut  «:ct4 

eralloii.  vl».:  F=  ii^  -  — ^»  w  **=  — Oi .  when  t  =  1  second,  ti,  bein 

t        g   t  g 

the  acceleration. 

tiAV 
Thrust  of  screw  In  pouuda  =  -«— C^  -  w)  =  StAViV  —  v). 

Kankine  (Rules,  Tablen.  and  Data,  p.  375)  gives  the  followiDg:  To  calcultU 
the  ihniBi  of  a  propelling  iu»Lrunient  ijet,  paddle,  or  screw)  in  puuudl 
iiMilllply  tojtettier  the  tiansverse  sectional  area,  in  Rquai-e  feet,  of  ihettrcAi 
dilveu  u^^tern  by  tlie  jjropeller;  ihuapeed  of  llie  si  ream  lelaiively  to  lUefiil 
in  kiiotK;  the  real  ulip,  or  part  of  that  spee<i  which  is  impressed  oa  tlu 
Mtream  by  the  profH-ller,  also  in  knota;  and  the  cousiant  5. IK)  fur  >.<^a-»'sie>; 
or  R.S  for  fresh  water.  It  S  =  speed  of  the  xcrew  in  knots,  <  =  speed  of  »li( 
in  knots,  A  —  area  of  the  stream  In  square  feet  (of  «ea-waterj, 

ThruHt  In  pounds  =  A  X  S(.S  -  »i  x  S.M. 

ThM  real  Klip  is  the  velocity  (relative  to  water  at  rest)  of  the  water  pro 
Jectfd  gtemward;  f/ic  Hppn)cii<iJ(>  is  the  difference  between  the  speed 
the  ship  and  the  speed  uf  the  screw;  i.e.,  the  product  of  Uie  pitch  of  il 
8«:rew  by  the  nuinlier  of  levidutioiiB. 

Tiiis  apparent  slip  is  sometimes  neKalive.  due  to  the  workiiif;  of  tbeecnr 
In  disturbed  water  wiilch  has  a  forward  velocity,  foilowiofif  tiie  ship.    Si 
live  apparent  Blip  U  an  iudication  that  the  propeller  is  not  suited  to 
ship. 

The  apparent  slip  should  irenerslly  be  abniit  6f  to  10;(  at  full  speed  In 
formed  vessels  with   moderately  fine  Hues;  in  bluff  cargo  boats  it 
exceeds  ."iff.  • 

The  effective  area  of  a  screw  is  the  ppotlnnal  area  of  the  stream  of  wai 
Uid  liold  of  by  the  propeller,  and  i«  penerally,  if  not  alwav.s.  (greater  tb 
the  actual  area,  in  a  ratio  which  in  good  ordinary  examples  is  1. si  or  thr 
nltonts,  and  is  sometimes  an  high  as  1,4;  a  fact  probably  due  to  tlie  stiffi 
of  the  water,  which  ciiinmunlcates  motion  laterally  amount  Its  particM 
iRanltiiie's  Shiphiiildintf.  p.  89.)  ^^ 

Prof.  D.  S.  Jiioobus,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  xi.  1028,  found  the  ratio  of  the 
fectlve  to  the  actual  disk  area  of  the  screws  of  different  vessels  tu  lie 
follows  : 

TtiK-boat,  with  ordinary  true-pitch  screw j 

"    screw  haviUK  blades  pioiectine  bacicward .^ 

Ferryboat"    Ber^n,"    with    or- ^  at  speed  of  12.00  gtat.mllns  per  honr.  t- 

dinnry  true-pitch  screw  I     "  "  13.4       "         "         "        "     1. 

Steamer  "  Homer  Kamsdell,"  with  ordinary  true-pitch  screw 1: 

81z«  of  Screw.-Seuton  sajs:  The  size  of  a  screw  depen.I-    : 
Uiiii^s  that  It  is  very  difficult  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  Kuidan 
must  always  be  left  to  the  experience  of  the  designer,  to  all. 
circumstances  of  each  parliiMilar  case.    The  followinf;  rules  an-  nvet  i 
ordinary  cases.    (Seaton  and  Rniitilhwalte's  Pocket-book): 

P  =  pitch  of  pro[>eUer  in  feel  =  _^ — ■,  in  which  S  =  speed  to  knoH 

S  =  revo\ullon«  pet  cutmif  ^  t^M  %  ■=■  verceutage  of  apparenl  tOI 
rV)r  a  slip  of  lOjt,  vUcta  =  —it-. 


IW  PROPELLER. 


1011 


U 


,  n„  p"m  .  AT  Mtij;  a  coeffluiewl  Klren 

V   100  / 


/  r.H.P. 


Les  ■■ 


^ 


.     /I.H.P.    , 


which  C  U  a  coeffldent 


ken  ia  StMton's  Marine    Enfrin««ring,  is 
73V  tor  ordiD*ry  vetist!!*,  and  860  for  glow- 


V 


-r  X  k,  io  which  rf  =  diameter  of  lall- 
iife 

r  hiailpg.  b  =  hreaiUli  of  blade  in  inohps  where 
'allt^l  i^o  the  fliiaft  axis;  1  =  4  for  oast  iron,  1.& 
1,5  for  highclaiw  bronze. 

«»l  in<n  .(M/)-f-  .4  in.;  oast  stvfl  MV  -\-  .4  lu.: 
ilaas  brnnzo  .O.'D-f'^  hi.,  vthen-  U  =  diameter 

eller  rocfflclentn. 


i4 

c 

V. 

1 

tj 

}  One 

n  -17  B 

IJ    -17.5 

1      " 

18    HO 

17    -15  5 

I      " 

IB  r.-!.^i.& 

15    -1.1 

r  Twin 

;i!0..Vil-5 

14.Vl-.>.5 

t  One 

ai   -i-i 

13.5-11 

t  Twin 

SH  -ai 

10.5-  9 

i      " 

SI    -2-J.5 

11.5-10  a 

J      .. 

S3    -43.. ^ 

8.5-7 

}  One 

as 

7-  t! 

CJaKt 
C.I. 
G.M. 


iriiu 
orS. 
orB 


letal;  B..  hronzi':  S., 


and  P  =  -jr 


steel;  F.  S..  forgwd  strel. 
737    '/I.H.P. 


/I.  HP. 
y    (PX  «)» 
^<O0X  IH.P  =8SI^I.H.P.     ^ 

n  D  =  ^145.8  .<  I.H.P.  =  2.71  VlM.V. 
)  OKUrus  (or  diameter  of  sc-rew  in  the  table  on 
They  may  be  used  aa  roiiKh  apprnxinintioDn 
rew  for  any  given  hone-power,  for  a  speed  of 
;r  minute. 

BTolutlons  per  minute  multiply  the  fli^ures  In 
the  given  nunibcr  of  revolulion-i.  V'^T  »tiy 
:e  the  I.H.P.  varies npproxiniutrly  &A  the  oiit)e 
r  of  tlie  screw  a«  tlie  5th  root  of  the  I.H.P., 
for  10  Iciroia  by  the  Bth  root  of  the  cube  of  one 
multiply  by  tne  following  factors: 


8 


11        12        la        U 


.«s  .oai»  ].(tto  i.iie  t.iToi. 


MAKINE    KN<.lNi-vl;l\a. 


!T       18 


II 


M        21 


■a 


!» 


ao 


I.1J75  1.4a)  I  <;rt  IM6  1  «•.]   1.H05  I.6J8  16!)!   1.738  I  .TTI  1.815  1 

ll^nr  ni<tn>  mviirate  rlitt<>riiiliiattons  of  diameter  RllJ  pitch  of  tcreir, 
prtiiiilir  iirii\  i-iii-fl1i  li'iits  trfvm  by  Statoii,  quotwl  alii:>ve,  Rhoulrt  beusedJ 
KfUolrnt'T  of  the  ProMlIer.— Accordiog  to  Kaiikiiie,  if  tbeslip 
'    ntttvi  bt.< «,  Im  weiglil  II',  III*  Ksiiilaiice  R,  and  the  speed  of  tbi*  sblp 


9   ' 


if«: 


~9 


Tills  lnipt)lHiiK«ctl<m  iiiiinl.  to  ieciire  mBximum  efflclency  of  |iropellera 
etTwlwl  hy  an  Instrument  which  takes  hold  of  the  fluid  without  «hool 
(IIhIiii  liniici-  <'f  the  siirniiuuline  ma»s,  and,  by  a  Bt««dy  auc«lerftliou,  givl 
I  Ik-  i-i-qiilr«Hl  tliiai  vi'locliy  of  diboliarK*.  The  Telocity  of  the  propuuerol 
coiiiitili  tli«  rwl»l«U(,-«  Ji  would  then  be 

•nd  the  ^T>rk  perfon»»d  would  be 

the  flrst  of  the  la.<<l  t«ro  tcrniH  betuR  usfrfiU,  the  serond  the  minlraum 
work;  the  Utter  beinit  Ihe  wanted  enerKr  of  Hie  water  thrown  bac] 
The  elBclency  Us 

/,;=U-H(t-+f); 

and  this  Is  the  llillit  nttainable  with  a  perfect  propellltiK'  insLninient,  wl 
timit  Is  approacliiHl  ihc  more  nearh'  us  the  comlltiotm  above  prescrioed 
lh«  niort*  nearly  fiilfllled.  The  emcieiicy  of  Ihf  propelling  iostruuiiiil 
pn>balily  rarely  iiiucli  alKjVe  0.60,  abd  never  above  0  SO. 

In  deslRiiiMK  tlie  sofcw-propfller,  na  was  shown  by  Dr.  Froude.  thel 
anelt^  for  the  wirface  Is  that  of  ■Ki"  with  the  plane  of  the  disk;  but  ai 
parts  of  the  Ijinde  eunnoc  be  kIvh"  the  snuie  an^le,  it  shuuld,  uher«  pn 
oable,  lie  no  propiirtioiied  that  the  "  plteh-an^le  at  the  centre  of  ellS 
Khoiili)  be  niaile  45°.     The  maximum  possible  eOicieucy  is  then,  aocorl 
to  Fronde,  Ti%. 

in  order  tbat  the  water  should  be  taken  on  witbutit  sliock  and  dlsobM 
with  niaxinium  backward  velocity,  the  screw  must  have  an  azially  incC 
ing  pitch. 

Till-  true  screw  Is  by  far  the  iuoi-b  usual  form  of  propeller,  in  all  ateaa 
both  merchant  and  naval.  (Thurston,  31a.iiual  of  the  Hteiun-engine,  pall 
p.  176.)  . 

The  coriibined  efflcienoy  of  screw,  shaft,  engine,  etc.,  is  ^.'ucreily  la 
at  bOi.  Ill  Miitiie  caSHii  it  may  reach  (K):{  or  ttfijt.  Raiikftie  takes  the  elM 
H.P.  to  pqiial  the  I.li.P. -t- I.eS. 

Pltf  It-ratio  and  fliip  I'br  Scrowa  of  Standard  Foraw 

RealSU|i< 


.ter.C.  HmrOma.  Pmr. 
.  In»MHlffa>fc  at  SUinl  AnUiects.  ^Sn•. 
9t  y«T^  ArcUMctt  UK;  «^  &  W.  Bv- 
TdLOL 


I  til*  fprr- 
iiC(«etr 

pn>pp|tei  :  - 
nf>nnaii(.'es  uf 
*t  are  lik«lr  i 

!..  ■-..-- 


'"  to 
..ip- 
tinu 
<  of 

>i|K>ii  tli<>  ship  iijufif.  »hiL'h 
■iieous  Tiew  pespectinK  th« 


idial  Fluatut  tS^'ntoti'n  MiiHnp  Gn 
Br  of  11  ruillal  nlieel  i»  usunlly  tttk«>ii  Ttdii) 
Dt  it.  is  diOlcull  to  tiay  nliitl  U  Alisolutt-ly 
on  tlip  fitriii  of  floul.  Ibe  aiiioUBt  i>f  illli, 
the  wliepl.  Th(>  slip  of  a  rnilial  wli«)l  U 
on  the  aite  of  float. 

|e  floAt  =  5^^  X  C. 

feet,  Biid  C  Is  •  multJptU'r,  »*fjrlii«  ^"i" 
[  IfRht  stenttiPrK, 

liy   ■         :  •    ■  ^ 


of  IMH  J  (dimi  «  n»'(M 
H.) 

ie«l«,     I8«ai()n.  I  —  Thi^   lilftm* 
Tfje  nnioiini  of  Hill)  tiirM 
<>  *!«  imall  or  tli«  rMMU 


n.l  IIn  MiUTfcilniik 

M'llll    tllx    lUtLlii- 

iiiii'Kton.  M*nii*l 


I 


lOU 


MAKtXE  ENOIXEKRIKQ. 


>ti  as  higli  AS  %  per  cent:  a  vrell-deslgned  wheel  on  «  well-C 
not  exceed  15  per  cent  iiiider  orditiHry  oircumiii«iice«. 

It  K  is  the  speed  of  the  ship  In  knots,  8  the  perccailage  i>f 
revolutioiiii  |>cr  niiiiiite, 

Diameter  of  wlieel  at  oeotres  =  ^<i?l±^, 
8.14  X  « 

The  dtanieler,  hnwevf>r,  must  be  Riicli  bs  will  suit  Die  itir 
sbip,  Ro  that  H.  uiodification  may  be  necessarj'  on  iliis  ux 
revutuCiuiisallereO  to  Kiiil  it. 

The  diameter  wiU  also  dejieiid  on  Ihe  aumunl  nt  "  dip  '■  ur| 
float. 

Wheti  a  ship  is  working  iilwajs  in  fiiniMjtli  wau^r  tlic  imtiir 
Pdge  should  not  exceed  ti  I  lie  bfeiKll'i ')f  tlieHoiH; 
at  sea  an  iiiiniensiou  of  Vj  tlie  hreadtli  of  llin  H<ial  i- 
is  intended  to  carry  cartfo,  Ihe  Inimeision  when  liftlit 
a  ur ,'!  inches,  and  should  not  be  more  than  tlie  biwidili  -A  fl-juV^ 
deepest  drauchi;  iudeed,  llie  efflclency  of  tlie  wbe<?l  fall*  ciffj 
the  immersion  of  the  wbt>(*l. 

.\rea  of  one  float  ^    '    "      X  C. 

Oia  a  multiplier,  varying  from  O.S  to  0.85:  D  in  tlie  .ii«in«*r| 
to  the  float  centres,  in  feet. 

The  number  of  floats        =  %(D  --  2'. 

The  bieudih  of  the  float  =  0.3.'>  \\. 

The  thickness  of  flouts    =i|/l,  :i 

Diameter  of  RutiK'"""*     =  tlnci. i  '''tit, 

Be&toD  and  Houtttbwalle'a  Pooket-buok  t;ivc.i. 


Numb«r  of  Hoats  = 


HO 


where  B  Is  number  at  revolutionti  p«r  minute. 

Area  of  one  float  (in  square  feet)  =  '"■''■  X  8ikW6j 

-N  X  (O  X  K| 
where  A'  =  imuiber  of  fl.iats  In  one  wheel. 

For  vess«-l9  plying  always  in  smooth  wat<>r  K  =  19D0 
steamers  K  -  UlHt.    For  tugs  and  such  craft  as  r«iulre  lu  i 
frequently  lu  a  tide-way  K  —  ItWO. 

It  will   be  quite  nceuvute  enough  if   the  last    four  (Uruti*! 
(I>  ;<  H)'  be  taken  an  cipher*.  ^" 

For  illuBlrated  dewriplinn  of  the  featherlnf;  naddle-w^ 
Marine  EiiKineerinR.  or  Seaton  and  RoiintliMalt»~»  I-o«k(>t-b. 
eter  of  a  feattierliiK-wliewl  is  aliout  one  linlt  lliat  «f  *  i-adlal  \ 
efflcleucv.     (Tliiirst'iii  » 

Bfliciencr  of  Paddlc-wbeela. -Coinpuiation*  by  _ 
ut  the  eOicmnvy  of  propulsion  liy  paddle-wheelH^civn  fur  IlKbtl 
Willi  ratio  of  velocity  of  the  ve^el,  v.  to  vrbwity  uf  tUv  T 
8 


centre  of  pressure,  K,  or  ^, 


,  with  a  dip  =  .S  a)  riulliu  at 


a  Blip  of  S25per  cent,  an  emclency  of  .714  ;  and  for  n<<««n 
the  nme  slip  and  ratio  of  -^ ,  and  a  dip  =  ^radlna,  an  i 

JKT-PBOPrLSIOM. 

Numerous  experlnieotK   have   been  made   In    driving    • 
reaction   of  a    jM  nf   wnfer  pumped   llin'ilth   an    nr(Ho*>   in 

they  hav-    "         ■■    '  '  -r.";'       '^-     '  

the  •'  w 

■  III  y„,   A'lijt'.,  ri.  jMtl,    IT 


mti 


ICE   IN   MAHIUE   ENGINES.        lOlfi 


,nee  both  of  the  theory  and  of  the  result«  of  earlier 

the  opinions  of  nmny  navHl  eiiginpers,  more  than 
S-SH)  in  Shw  York  upon  moexporiiiirnial  l)Oftt«,  the 
Kvolntlon,"  in  whlcli  the  Jet  «  hk  made  of  very  small 
)nl?  M-inoh  diameter.  Aiiit  with  a  pressure  of  SSOO 

had  Ivwn  prfdiciwl,  lh«  vessel  was  a  total  failure. 

in  Mnhiinicn,  Mureh,  Its91.) 

propfller  in  similar  to  that  of  the  screw-propeller. 
,  in  «({liAre  feel.  I'  its  velrtcity  with  reference  to  the 
id.  V  -  the  relfx-ity  of  llie  shli)  in  reffn-nce  to  the 
liie  jet  (see  Screw  ■  propeller,  unlei  i:  ijViV  ~  v). 
c.isel  la  'iAV<  F-  flu.  and  the  work  wasted  on  tba 

the  jet  is  i^x'iAViy  -  v)".     The  efflelency  in 

s  =  -r, .    This  estpressioD  equals  unity  when 

-  V)*      V+v 

I  Telocity  of  the  jet  with  reference  to  the  earth,  or 
>thrusr  iif  tilt-  prii]«-ller  Is  also  0.  The  greater  the 
with  t!.  the  less  Ibc  efRcifiicf.  For  V  =  •.'Of,  ts  was 
iou,'*  the  efllt'ieiicy  of  the  jet  would  he  leKKthan  10 
lj«  further  reduced  by  the  friction  of  the  [ninipini; 
ater  in  pipes. 

iro|.iuIsiou  may  be  summed  up  In  Rnnkine's  words: 
best,  other  things  being  equal,  which  drives  astern 
r  at  tJie  lowest  velocity." 

ihle  to  devise  any  system  of  hydraulic  or  jet  propul- 
I  favorably,  under  these  oondltlona,  with  the  screw 

(.-  If  a  jet  of  water  issues  horizoiitally  from  a  ves- 
lide  of  tliu  vesiiel  opiiosite  the  orifice  is  eoimi  to  the 
water  the  section  of  which  is  the  area  of  Che  oritlcc, 
he  head. 

n  Jei-prnpulslon  is  the  reaction  of  the  stream  Issulntc 

it  is  the  same  whether  the  Jet  is  discharged  under 

.',  or  aKaiust  a  solid  wait    For  proof,  see  account  of 

^  Jr.,  girea  by  Prot.  J.  Burkltt  Webb.  Traoa.  A.  8.  H. 

ACTtC.E   IN   MAKING    ENGINES. 

f  Bleclirndi^n  ou  Marine  Engineering  during  the  paaC 
(Wide,  f  roc.  Inst.  M.  E.,  July,  1691.) 

ree-ezpan«ion  envhie  has  become  the  rule,  and  tliA 
uicrnaiKd  to  lliO  lbs.  and  even  as  high  as  SOO  Ib8,per 
expansion  et>ginesof  various  forms  bave  also  been 


W^' 


i  has  become  the  rule  in  all  vessels  for  naval  service, 

Ittnmon  in  both  |>ai;H«uger  and  cargo  vessels.     Hy  this 

hsldembiy  to  augment  the  power  obtained  from  a 

Ug  as  it  is  kept  within  certain  limits  it  need  result  in 

[but  when  pushed  too  far  tlie  increase  Is  sometitnes 

ible  cost 

imny  of  forced  dninglit,  an  pxaminatlon  of  the  »p- 

I)  will  show  that  while  th--  nieun  consumption  of  coal 

[liig  miller  natural  ilrnughr   Is  I..')?."!  Iljs.  f»-r  indicated 

>tt  Is  only  I.;i8>l  II^h.  In  Ihi me  filled  with  forced  draught. 

i  economy  of  Mi%.    Vnrt  of  this  ei-niinniy,  however, 

titer  heat'Saving  appliunce-^  witli    which  the  latter 

I 

(erjal  for  boilers,  iron  is  now  a  thing  of  the  post, 

le  that  It  will  continue  yet  awhile  to  l>e  the  material 

can  be  procured  at  ISJ  square  feet  Bupei-il-i"'  — ••% 

Tor  purely  boiler  work  a  pinichlng-macll' 

f'engine  work, 

asof  Ktf/im  hare  also  cniise<l  attentioti 

•  led  to  the  uclo;>tion  of  vui'iouu  artiflot 

<tl»l>irnl  flucK,  with   fhei-tiject  •>!  gV 

\  wItlioiH  abnormally  ijicieiiBliig  tl 

^plmtif  la  rtcH-ed  by  aiaiiy  engln* 


MAkiNK   1<:N(HKES. 


loit 


raddf  il  to  each  pouud  of  tlie  feed-water 

ivould  be  10C<>  uoitt.  ogainet  1199  unit* 

.  enditure  of  only  80  <<  of  the  beat 

the  expeucUliirB  of  hcot  in  rtlallod 

[eqiiivali'iit  to  a  heat  economy  of  8.6^ 

I  from  tlie  low-pi'fssure  recwver,  the 

fltted  trltb  Tii'lii  Screira. 


4 

Feet 

6814 

6S 

0 

1^ 
SI 

IB 

10 

48 

CyllnderK,  two  seta 
lu  all. 

£5 

Dlamelers. 

Stro, 

Inckea 

Id. 

IM. 

<5,  71,118 

eo 

T» 

43,  6fl,  110 

W 

1«) 

«).  87.  l(XI 
41,80,  lUl 

6* 
06 

160 

3S.  SI,  Si 

M 

160 

34,  SJ,  KS 

SI 
60 

1(V) 
1T0 

l.H.I>. 

LV,000 

18,<W0 

11.500 
li,50r> 

lo.tes 

10,000 
ii,n£8 


or  Working  of  Dlartne  Engine*. 
,  1881,  andlSSl. 


d  Coal. 


187-2. 


ISBI. 


1691. 


rer,  aq.  ft. 

r,'m".'.'." 


B3.4 
4.410 

ST* 
a. 110 


77.4 

3.817 

BO.  78 

•W7 

1.828 


>SS.5 
S.S7ft 
03.75 
MS 
1  tu 


(•  -  flxpanalon     Bnirlnes   lu    Nln« 
>a  to  Indicated  HorMe-power  and 


r. 


(elatlve  AVei^ht  of  Machinery. 


Indicated  HoraC' 
power. 


I 


Boiler- 


lbs. 
130 
35! 
1B8 
303 
IG-J 
£03 
108 
ll« 


To  tat 


446 
510 
405 

94a 

1S6 
194 
185 


r      ■oi- 


c£  be 


tons. 
1.30 
1.40 
l.Si 
i.W 
1.41 
1.87 

1.21 

1.11 

0.8S 


ton*. 

3.75 
4.10 
8. S3 
S.30 
3.44 

air 


Type  of 
Machinery. 


Mercautlle 


J 


MA  BIKE   ENGINfiEBllfO. 


'niJirimH 


icasK     a  KB     ane 


SnBXBB 


tIUIM)|«l>0 


)a  ~u  ta  jdd  '■=a5S52S!!RSS2K''SiSKSS3!Ss8S8ll8SS 


isi 


•«i«uijo-u  k«8SSaS85SSSSS:3SSSSSf=SSSSM52    sss 


li 

a* 


■pt^wtds-unitil^ 


^llliliilililliill^liliiillll 


ZZ.'^.:ii,  dgsiiSSSSIIStSsSilSSSS'isiSills 


•aanuiui 

JiHi 


•iina» 


l^^sssszsssseisisssse^jscssisss 


!!• 


"A 


JSSSSSSSSSSS3SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS    -^1 


;  SI    .JUS  auiiooo 


«i||llll32isllsll:il.l=l,ISsggiii 

^-;»«»J-J9ies  —  —  «»*i5»M7»  •c^»iwe>«  7'ff=^o»=c  1- -'-^ 


mojis 


SaSSS3ll3SteS£«3ZSSZ«ZX3!«iSSS%£gS 


||SSSgaS,t8!6S8::SSSKS8SKfs^S'fs. 


>=i=,Ti'ftT.'S.'5S.-^t.%SB.%»K»JtV 


)N   OF   BCILMNOS. 


1019 


»d    Kor»e  -  poiwer,    and    Cylinder  - 
■taKe  •expaninloii  UuK-lQCn  In  Nine 


oke 

II 

=■1 

>  u 

i4 

ll 

n 

Is 
£-8 

He&ting-sur- 
face. 

Total. 

Per 
I.H.P. 

M. 

revs. 

Ihs. 

I.H.V. 

Vll.ft. 

sq.ft. 

i..e40 

*?.'S2' 

a 

84.5 

160 

6761 

5*! 

B 

isr.s 

la) 

55a 

436 

15,107 

2  78 

2 

m 

160 

1450 

loa 

8,1I7S 

2  73 

4 

00 

150 

510 

30 

1,403 

8.75 

4 

8H 

ISO 

U625 

im 

20,1»S 

2.10 

r 

IIS 

150 

11&4 

55 

S.iOO 

3.08 

I 

191 

I -15 

H!85 

30.3 

2.227 

1.78 

i 

182.5 

nu 

SlOi 

B0.8 

3,828 

1.87 

» 

145 

ISO 

O'U.iO 

319 

15,888 

1.62 

nON    OP  BUILDINQS.* 

Hnsr  T-aws  of  Hit  Ciiy  "f  NVw  YfrU,  IWffl.) 

en,  Store*,   Factorleo,  and  Stablea.— 

ell  nulls,  Qui  IfbS  lliaii  1^  iu.  lu  hei^lit  ot  •ID  fl.; 
»8  tban  10  in.  Id  40  ft.,  and  13!  in.  tlimice  to  lap; 
'       "     20     "      25        '■       18 
'       **    24      "      aOft.;  aoiri.  to  80  ft..  audlBiii. 

less  th&n  3S  Id.  to  85  ft.;  24  in.  to  50  ft.;  20  iu' 

addltioniil  25  tt.  in  lieiKlit.  or  part  tlienjof,  iii-xt 
«  tDcieaMrd  4  Indies  in  lliickiii'ss,  llii>  iipiJiT  100 
u  as  speeilied  for  n  wnll  iif  tliut  wd^lit. 
part,  t)it>  keai'liip-wnllii  nhatl  tie  4  iitclieH  tbic-ker 
iry  Hyi  fi'ei  oi-  frai'ti>iD  tliereof  that  kuIO  wulU 

rrn,  RooTh,  and  Support*. 
Kioxi'K  L'lUuiilmeil  to  buHr 
safely  per  liq.  ft.,  in  ailditixu 
to  their  own  weiglil. 
ll,  apartment'Loiue  or  liotel,  doL 

TOlbs. 

Ifi'-sthan lOU   " 

lildiiiK.  not  lens  Iban 12U   " 

i.'honse,  etc..  not  letiH  than 150    " 

s^^sUian...   50    " 

ncient  strength  to  bear  Hafely  the  welKlit  to  be 
n  to  the  vvKlght  of  tha  umK^iiala  of  which  the 

—The  Hlreneth  of  ah  c<'lii:>iiis  and  poKts  »hull 
ordon'g  formuiBB,  and  the  cniHlilne  wi-iKht«  lu 
)f  section,  for  tlic  fijlIouliii;-niiiiii-<l  iiiuteriilH, 
•nts  in  said  foriiiiilffi,  iiriinoly:  Cost  Iriin,  (MI.IIIIO; 
[orbid  any  pxl«-inTeil  I  reatim-nT  of  tins  .siibirct. 
ipou  it  will  be  found  in  Tiaiitwiiie'x  C'iril  Kiici- 
^idder's  .\ichit«?t't'ii  and  Biilldrr's  I'ocltPt-boolt. 
tioiui  llif  folliinin)?  will kn  of  refjTPiice:  "  Nol«« 
vols  ,  KiviDittuns,  i)Ulill:flher»,  U  >«t<>n;  "BiiildlnK 

Chirk  i.T.  R.  Osuood  &  Co.,  BoKtou.r.  "Tb!; 
"  by  R.  ti.    Harfleld;   ••  (iraphical  Aiiuiynin  of 

Greene;    •Tlie  Fin-  i'roti-rllon  of  MIILs,''  Ir 
Uraiiiagv  and  Water  Service."    Iiy  Jar- 
le  and  Kstiinator'H  Price  liook."  and  "  I 
by  Fred.  T.  HimIkscu;  "roiiudalkm*  m 
lUdiug,"  liyK.  Dohsoii,  Wenle'«&enek,1 


\ 


1080 


OONSTRUOTION   Of   JJUILU 


I 


wroiixlit  or  l-olletl  iron,  40.«W;  mUm[  «t«»l,  i^.OOCi:  nliilo  i'l>"<  i 

NUO;  pltcliai'neoi'Kinpine.MOU:  Ampi'i>'<<' 

of  vroorteii  hpaiiis  anil  «ciRlfr«  sIlhII  he  i- 

lu  whk'li  tilt'  consiaiHB  for  liansverw  ^i 

follow!!,  naiimly;  Hi-inlooU.-JOu;  while  jiii' 

pine,  SiO;  AiiiL>rk-aii  oiik,  550;  and  for  w.  ■ 

uiiiforiiil.v  (tistribuleJ  luful  Ihu  coii^ltini  ^ 

aafely  saliiill  tx'  as  out?  to  four  for  nil  hfains,  ;;i; 
lo  A  t^all^^ver^e  »iiuiu",  as  oiih  to  fom  for  «i 
vertical  xiipports  When  of  wrought  Iron  ur  r. 

oilier  iiiatrriiil!).  subject  to  a  compressive  siliuin. 
locia,  liebenma,  and  other  pleci-a  nubject   to  a  tn - 
tiBlural  earth  slmll  b(»ile«iiicJ  to  sarr«l.v  Kiii^iiiln  n 
^upHrtloial  fuot,  or  as  otheruiso  Jft^rni'int'il  t>\ 
inf^K^  nml  IliferwiUUi  of  footiii^-L'oiirHes slmll  b*-  . 
rt'qiilreiiifnt.    In  coiupiitinK'  tlie  wiillb  of  Wm 
slmll  h«  (lewniPil    to  ivei>;liII5  lbs.     SttUilsl-.n,.   «i, 
ulhcr  kinds  I'f  buiUtiiif^-iiittjne  shall  ^leuini'tj  to  wei;: 
The  ftiifr-brarlnif  luail  lu  apjily  lo  good  brii'kwoi  U 
pfi'  suuurlk'ial  foot  wlieii  (jooj  lime  moriAr  i-,  u»«il,  i:^: 
fool  wliBU  koihI  llniB  and  (wnieitl  mortar  inixcil  in  i»iw<l,  ;> 
vrficlal  fmil  uIdmi  Koml  •-••nionl  irioi  lar  U  iim'iI 

FIr«'-proof  Biilldin£«i~lrwu  and  Si  < 

iron,  wroiifclirli'fli,  or  rollt'ii-Hti't^l  LNUiinui*  si 
at  botii  etiil>!,  itinl  shall  rpsi  i^n  iroit  or  >^tft-l 
steel  capplniPs,  wlilrh  gliall  also  b«  niixle  no         ■. 
b«aina,  l>pnil>^rs.  mid  lail-bennis  !>liiill  br>  Milt'iibiy  r> 
gellmr,  and  Ihi^  lion  girders,  culuitiii.4.  Ih-iuii!>,  ii  o'^- 
nf  all  tloora  and  roofs  Hhail  be  stiappud,  bolH'  J 
KCtt)<^r,  and  to  ihe  wallx,  in  a  Klronj;  niid  siili^i 
are  frnined  luio  headt-re,  the  angle  iron.-*,  «lii.  i. 
shall  hftvi"  at  !t-a--it  two  bolla  for  all  ii'*uiii^  <i\ . 
boll  a  for  all  bi-auis  liJ  inchc*  and  over  in  di  pil 
legs  than  *i  incli  iu  cliaiiieiei-.    Enoli  tmfit  mji! 

m  girdei-s,  nhall  hnvp  tlie  sanif  i '  r 

The  anRlf  iron  in  no  ease  !»lmll  U- 

nier  lo  which  It  Ik  bullt^d.an(l  the  >i 

one  third  the  depth  of  beam,  ex<'i'|ii  mn  iii.o  i 

^Vi  liu'lieti  wide,  nor  rt-qiiiied  lo  l«>  uioi'm  lliai 

iron  or  rolled-t<l»'el  lieanis H inches  drep and  u   -i 

10  their  depth.  If  rshliiiR  on  n  wall;  U  lo  lii  hu'li  i..-.  • 

of  10  Inches,  and  all  beams  nioie  ihan  1 !  inches  in  ■!• 

of  not  lew*  than  IJlnchen  If  reMin»:  on  m  «  nil.     \\ 

supporta,  and  art>  properly  litd  lo  the  ^.lo 

rred  than  one  third  of  tlwd-jp'h  of  il 
II  be  »o  arraOKed  bh  to  spaeiiiK  and  ■ 
supported  by  them,  toRetliei-  wiih  Iho  " 
construction  of  the  ^aid  lli>or8,  bIibII  not 
of  nioiB  than  1/iiO  of  an  Ineb  p.-r  lioeni- 
tOKellK'r  at  inlervalH  of  noi  o 

Uiider  iheends  of  all  In" 
■tone  or  fast  ti-oii  i«iiiiplatr 
!]«..-,      "i  :■■  ill  r.'  iiifli  . 

ten;  •'  \V  ilU-■llek^ 

in  I.'  '^  than  VVv  li" 

than  1-!  iiM.ii.'s  loiiK. 
No  ca«(  Iron  ix'nt  or  culiiiiili  aliall  lie  uued  lu  Kay  ' 

thli'lni.  ss  of  >Vuft  tliaii  llirt'e  (|iiiirier«  of  all  iiieV 

Hill  I  ' 

dill. 
lo.. 

s.l>. 

J 


Il-Btau,  A  oC  tona.  aor  iMora  tkMi  TOO 
jiiUi*  abcll  to  iMa  Umm  M  iMk  t« 
IWl  not  be  less  tliM  W  »«>>  <«  4iMMMr. 
ihtcliM  apart  id  asy  oaao.  Tbajr  ■kail  ta 
M  duJI  not  cxored  MHO  Ma.  par  aquMa 
bf  lite  tliicknoaa  of  Uie  Plata*  UmMfk 
rirdrrs  sliaU  be  propoitMwd  apoa  IM 
lord  SI  I  aim  are  reaiatod  eattra^  by  Ike 
'iio  alieuriQif  scnUna  are  laaiaied  aoUnity 
eb  iliall  be  eailmauni  aa  Bange  area,  aor 
af  the  arele-iron  whicli  Ura  acainat  tlte 
llresof  itraTlly  of  the  danKS  arvaa  will 
of  (lie  fcirdrf. 

low  York  contain  a  mr^n  ammiDl  of  itr- 
«.  and  penaliit>a  are  profujrd  for  tIdIs- 
rtiurnt  of  Uuildintn,  etc..  Cbapter  ir\ 
jlsbml   by  Bakrr,  Voorbi^a  <JL  Co.,  timw 

bAD  ON  FLOOB8. 

Iiixdnuni  load  ix>r  si|iutnf  fool  ol  rttxir 
anne  cn)wd.  (oiinlderable  Tariatlon  Ix 
'  auihoriUfK,  au  the  follnwluir  lalilf 


laay  »uihoriU» 


»)  

|yln»«.... 

'«y  bridges  aucordlng:  to 


Welubt  of  Crowd, 
|b«.  perm|.  ft. 


Palaee 

1^  at  Melbourne  . 


i 


100 

lao 

1*0 

IM  t 

W.4 


;<m1 


Oil  BtreiM*,"  p.  (JIT)  . . . 

by  crciwdlne  a  niiiulwr  of 

the  nifMi  Iwiii);  hkIiiIv  pock'Mj  »n  n«  to 
'  (•(.■(•till*  lui  llif  ("InlrwKVH  (»nd  |>la(fnriiiK 

[  OP  Fl^OOUM. 


rbeania:  kihI  Id  do  amw 
0«a  aparclfled.  ualaia  a 
I  Of  a ":—.••■> .. 


.ria 


(koii' 

•P^'- ■-■■'-  i Hatr. 

I  fmfttuntimUim  mttuiiiii  tUmtrtiy  Umm  uf 

,  Ooor-aauB*  la  two  iMvta.  wMt>  a  a«aall 
MotHaiMa  aMjr  to  aaeurari.  u^imt  tl  ito 
MarffM. 

MMk  tat  (to  UrMaMt  to  Ma4  la  Nayae* 
m4  loaw  Uf  wMac  talf  ito  tiQum  vttm 
aawniiliWxJwtoaaawiiWilflk 
tS  «aa  aomatmtmtm*  ta  Oia  i  aMUa 


niilcli  wuuld  ainouDl  to  171^  IbB.  pnr  iiqimi'f  foot.  leAvini;  1! 
foot  as  a  safe  load  to  t>e  earned  U(>on  stroh  a  floor.     If    tj 
apriior,  the  result  of  KTljj  lbs.  would  be  miilTi|ilifd  by  0.   '_ 
to  115  lb».    The  welj;lil  of  the  floor,  in  tills  insUiiice  anv 
would  leave  llie  safe  net  load  as  00  lbs.  p'-r  square  foot  f< 

Table  II  applies  to  tbe  desUta  of  tloor?<  tvhose  streiiKtli 
of  that  necessan'  to  mstain  thi>  weight,  in  order  to  nie«^ 
delicate  or  raplal.v  movinic  inachliie.iy,  to  ihi»  end  that  tl 
lortion  of  tbi'  floor  may  lie  reduced  to  the  least  prautii-jt 

In  ibe  table  the  limit  Is  that  of  load  nhieh  would  can 
beams  lo  a  curve  of  wliicb  ttaeaTeruKS  rauiUi^  would  be  li 

This  taole  In  baHed  upon  a  nioilulus  of  elasticity  obtaf 
(ioriK  ii|H>n  the  detlectioti  of  loaded  Hlorehouse  floors,  aini  I, 
IbK.  for  Souibcrn  pirns;  tbe  same  table  can  be  applied 
QiodiihiH  of  elasticity  Is  taken  as  l.;>OU,aoi}  lbs.,  if  sis  tc  ' 
SoKllieru  pine  is  taken  as  the  proper  load  for  spruce; 
desifi^ititiK,  the  load  slKiidd  be  increased  oue  and  two  thi 
diiiienalon  of  timbers  for  this  increased  load  as  found  in  i 
used  for  spruc«. 

It  can  Also  be  applied  tn  beams  and  door-timbers  whio 
each  end  and  iu  ihu  iiiKldle,  reaieinliering  that  tbe  del 
supported  in  that  manner  la  only  four  tfutlis  that  of  a  b 
which  rests  at  cjtch  end;  that  is  to  say.  the  floor-pliinki 
lialf  times  ns  stiff,  cut  two  bays  in  leiitflh.  as  they  wouli 
bay  in  length.     When  a  tloor-plank   two  luiys  in  lengtll 
three  sixteentlis  of  the  load  on  the  plank  is  sustained  by 
end  of  the  plauk,  aud  ten  sixteenths  by  the  beam  luiiler  tl 
plank;  so  that  for  a  completed  lloor  three  eiirhths  of  Ihe  lo< 
iHinrtI  by  llie  beams  uudpr  tlinioinis  of  ilie  plunlt.nndfiveei 
by  the  lieunis.  under  the  middleof  the  plank:  this  is  the  reai 
laiR'c  of  breaking  joinis  In  a  floor-plank  every  three  feet  It 
beam  shall  receive  an  hieiilical  load.    If  it  were  uot  so.  tbr 
wholi>  ioad  upon  the  floor  would  be  sii!<tH|ned  by  every  otllj 
el^lilhs  of  tile  load  by  the  coirespoudinf;  .ilternnte  beniiifl 

Ri^i>ealir]:^  the  ff)riuer  exainiile  for  the  load  on  a  uiillq 
plive  beams  10  X  14  ioches,  and  -JO  feet  span,  laid  K  feet  on  ( 
11  a  1  X  M  Inch  beam  should  receive  til  lbs.  per  fool  of  s|i 
sq.  ft.  of  floor,  for  Sontliern-pine  beams.  Deducting  the  wi 
IVri  1b«.  per  sq.  ft.,  leaves  57  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.  as  the  ndvisaM 

If  the  beams  are  of  spruce,  tho  result  of  iS  lbs.  should  1^ 


t 


H   OF   FLOORS. 


1023 


Kd»  Dpon  Sontliern>wliir  Benma 

Incb  la  Widtb- 

.  J.  H.  Wixiilbiiry. ) 

at  the  centre  nf  the  span,  tbe  beaiiiti  wUt  xiis 

in  the  tal)le.) 


«pth  of  B«aoi  Jn  indies. 


H 


8 


10      II      l!!      IS      14       IS 


16 


in  jioundg  per  foot  of  Bpad. 


170 

6>< 

T7« 

960 

07 

447 

540 

6«7 

.'40 

314 

397 

490 

«4 

340 

S04 

875 

45 

ISO 

840 

896 

If 

151 

lai 

240 

»7 

127 

161 

m 

Si 

:o7 

135 

1B7 

70 

no 

lis 

141 

6G 

7H 

99 

r.'S 

S3 

68 

m 

107 

44 

SO 

7« 

M 

41 

S3 

67 

Wl 

sa 

47 

60 

74 

43 

54 

ea 

iffi 

49 

m 

44 

54 

!. 

■M 

... 

GO 
4.'> 

807 
593 
454 
359 
890 

»to 

SOS 


ITS  a» 


ITfl 
151 
13.51 

107, 
98 

m 

78 
71 
65 
60 
55 


638 
684 

501 

4oe 

835 

888 
£40 

■Jff! 
180 
1.58 
140 
3-i1 

101 

i» 

84 

7" 
70 
(J5 


0«7 
640 
448 
3<& 
8S» 

a7« 

240 

SI  I 
1«7 
167 
150 
135 
122 
IIU 
103 

g>i 


7ftfl 
t!l4 
508 
474 
3fi4 
814 
if73 
•J40 
817 
100 
170 
151 
139 
ia7 
lit! 
107 
08 


npon  Sontliem-plne  Beama  anfll* 
Standard  Limit  of  DeflectloD. 

I.  J.  H.  Wijoilliurv. I 


li  of  Beam  [n  laches. 


sis      10  I  U  I  IS  I  ]3  I  14  I  16  I  lU 


Munds  per  foot  of  Span. 


ite 

1  359 

\x 

18C 

S47 

w 

138 

181 

!MI 

71 

101 

ISO 

185 

34U 

aw 

S« 

sc 

110 

14G 

:w) 

241 

801 

48 

66    m 

1H< 

IM 

195 

344 

30IJ 

38 

M,     73 

B» 

127 

161 

•WJ 

a4ti 

801 

ma 

45     ca 

82 

107 

133 

109 

3UN 

•25:1 

m 

3H|     63 

70 

«I 

11(1 

144 

17H 

31S 

m 

8)1 

45 

Kl 

78 

100 

I'M 

153 

l«(i 

^ 

29 

40 

53 

ee 

87 

108 

r«;   ICJ 

ifl 

» 

35 

4« 

«] 

74 

85 

)17'  147 

in 

a 

31 

41 

53 

OH 

84 

KM    lUO 

ai 

*r 

8? 

47 

00 

76 

m 

11^ 

IM 

25 

83 

43 

54 

US 

tin 

101 

23 

30 

38 

49 

01 

75 

91 

SO 

r, 

85 

44 

55 

68 

88 

» 

38 

40 

50 

63 

75 

IM 

39 
87 
8& 

87 

43 
48 

67 

\  4a 

\3 

" 

"- 

.... 

i 

.0800 
,04.12 

.{ma 

.07BH 
.Ott7i 
.13110 
.  1  *S'.' 
.1728 

.33.53 
•  •-•TOO 
.3073 
..1408 
.S8»« 
.4333 
.4800 
.8f»» 


IMt  «t  fMoa  K  I  drae  s , 


A  dym-  f»  thm  for<»  wlik-h.  Hrting  mi  o  initMi  of  one 
pecoiifi,  will  iflvw  H  A  veloiliy  of  out!  cviilirnetre  fwrsi'Conil 
one  grBiiiinr  III  lAlltade  *>"  to  4V  isalioiii, 'JtlodyMfis  iii  tlif  e< 
nnd  lit  iliv  \>^^\ft.  nearly  MM  d.viie«.    Ttvkine  tiie  value  uf 
clue  tu  itraTltr.  Iii  Britian  meaaure*  at  &!.I85  feel  |ier  secoq 
iiietrp  =  89.37  liicb«s,  we  hare 


t  gr&mine 
Unit  ot  work    =  1  erg 


8S.18&  >   12  +  .SM:  =  Qm.OOd] 


1  (lynpeHiitlinelrf  =  .OOCXXXXK 
Unit  of  power  =  I  watt  =  10  iiiIIIkhi  eiv*  iwr  second, 
=  ,7378  fi>ol  poiliicl  ptrseoijiiij, 
.7:i7S         1      ,,,  - 

of  I  horse-power ; 


sao 


TW 


C.O.S.  tTnit  of  maK'MtJHm  =  the  quantity  which  atti 
equal  (iitaniit^  at  a  cfnlfmetri-'*  distance  with  the  foroe  < 

C.ti.S.  Unit  of  i>lwlrl«il  nirrenl  =  (lie  ciirrtnl  which, 
ItriiKih  of  1  eetiUrriftre  of  win.',  nols  with  u  foror  i"f  J  <\^ 
iiiaKUetisni  illstHnI  1  c«iithiietrtf  I'rom  every  point  i>f  the  v 
Hie  I'.ininifrciiii  tliiit  of  fiirient.  Is  one  tenth  nf  the  P.f?  S   ii 

The  Pradli'ttI  Unlls  uaed  In  Klcrtrlral  Cali 

.^l(lJle^e,  llie  iiiitL  if  curiviil  stl-eilK'tl.  or  iju»i  of  lUiw,  lepr 
I'lilt.  the  unit  of  eleotro-molive  force,  electrical  pressurr, 
pot«<iiti(il,  repre»enttil  liy  E. 
O/iMi.  the  unit  of  reniKtniicc.  ri'pri'Senltsl  by  R. 
Coulomb  (or  ainpere'eoMiiili.  \bv  unit  of  quantity,  Q. 

WatI  (anipeiv-volt.  or  volt  omi>ere).  the  unit  of  power, 

df'iH/eivoll  I'Olil-iiiilK,  the  unit  of  enei'By  or  work,  W. 

Fai-iui,  the  unit  of  cflUHL-lty.  lepiewnted  hy  K. 

Htm  II.  the  unit  of  iiiriiiiMiMn.  reprewenieil  by  L. 

Vsltii^  leiters  to  represent,  the  units.  lli«!  relntioiiR  beti 
expreH^ed  hy  the  fotfowiiii;  foiuiulffi,  la  which  /  ropresei 
7'uHe  lioiir: 

c=|,    Q=C(,    Q' =  CT,    K^^,    h-=qe; 


Oy  MEA&LKKMKNI.  10;i5 

I 

ri  aduiKed  at  llie  loteniatioiial  Khiclrical 
OB  wstablislieil  by  Act  of  CoiigreSi*  uf  tli^ 
rr(>IUi«>: 
U3  in«  lui-  1,000.000,000)  udUk  d.*  rrsislance 
Bttented  bj^  the  reHiHtAiioe  offeie<1  to  liii  tin- 
luiiiii  of  iiiiToiiry  ill  3^'  ]■'.,  14  415^1  gruiniiipii 
Clonal  nrt-A.  ami  u(  itip  leugUi  of  lOU.a  L-«iiti- 

iltof  uurreot  of  (lie  C'.O.S.  systoin,  ami  In  llie 
u*nj'\  iUK  current  which  when  i>as^Ht'<J  tliruugh 
ill  water  in  aeoorilaiio;  with  tuAndard  np«cl- 
rate  or  .0011 IH  Braiiiiii«  |hm-  socoiid. 
ve  forces  that,  nleailily  ap|>lie<l  to  a  coiijtictor 
will  iirodiioi-  a  c-urr«r'ut  of  oi>o  niiipf  ro,  and  in 
'1484  vor  .0074)  of  the  elrctro-mntlvo  force  br- 
I  of  II  I'lurk's  cell  at  a  leniperatiire  of  15°  C, 

|lKM'li)e'l  111  >Iie  standard  opeclflcatiguti. 

He  eloctric-ity  iraiiHferred  by  a  current  of  one 

>f  a  condenser  charged  to  a  poleutial  of  on»< 

city. 

1,000  units  of  work  in  Uie  C'.O.S.  sratem,  and  i« 

!D«r£y  expended  iu  one  second  by  mi  aiiijicre 

00  units  of  power  iu  the  C.U.S^  ayHlenii  and  Is 
»ork  dtiof  at  the  rate  of  one  joule  iwr  gecoiid. 

tnacireiilt  when  the  eie<.^troiiiotivi'  foiv-e  in- 
it,  while  the  inducing  currant  varies  al  the  rate 

6 defined,  are  called  the  "international  "  ohm, 
from  the  "  legal  "  ohm.  B.A.  uidt,  etc. 
'mined  by  a  coninilttee  of  the  Itriliiih  Aivtocia- 
unit,  was  llie  reslMlftnce  of  a  certain  plei-e  of 
idon.  'I'he  so-called  "  legal  "  ohm,  as  adopted 
of  Klecti'ii-lans  in  I'aria  in  1884,  was  a  corrxv- 
laa  defined  uh  tlie  resistance  of  a coliiiim  of 
ill  auction  and  lOti  cenUmelrea  long,  at  a  t«ui- 

>  B. A.  unit*,    t  B.A.  unit  =  0.9680  legal  oliiii ; 
8    •'       "         I    "       '•      =fl.9e«lnt.ohm; 
S  legal  ohm,    I  legal  olim  =  0.9971  "     " 
XystavKD  Ukitb. 

=  I  inilllou  olinia; 
=  1  niillluiuti  of  an  ohm; 
«re  =  l/l(WOof  an  cmpere; 
-ad  r:  1  uiitiluQtli  of  o  farad, 
osa  or  Varioi-s  XTkits. 

=  1  coulomb  per  second; 

=  1  watt  =  1  Tolt-coulonib  per  second; 

!=  .7373  foot-pound  |ier  second, 
=  .0009477  beat-unita  per  second  (Talir), 
s  1/746  of  one  horse-power; 
=  .7378  foot-pound, 

=  worit  done  by  one  watt  In  one  BMMadt 
=  .0001)477  beat -unit; 
-  iOM.3joule«: 

=  737.)t  foot-pound  per  recond, 
=  .1*477  heai-unll.M  per  second, 
=  1000.748  or  l.TKW  liorse-powera; 

-.  1 ,.  power  hours, 

>t-pouiids, 

1  -  nits; 

)  ^  ....-....:.  -  746  volt -ampei'M, 

I  =  Hd.liOU  font-pounds  [jer  minute. 

»r^  deflasd  in  teiTns  of  one  another  as  follow*: 

luctfj  liirpuifli  which  a  curmil  ot  on«  a.;\\vw 

;lire  fcToe  i«  oue  volt.    Ai»pei:«,  vte  «\vm«i.\V 


J: 


AND   ELECTBICTY. 


1037 


ikI)  &  re8liitauu«  of  one  ohm  when  Uie electro- 
Ine  electi-o-niotive  forifirequireid  to  cause  ti 
hroiieli  ft  reiilxtniuv  c^f  one  c^hrii. 
MrcuH.  — (Si.-f  F.leitro-innKMcls.  puge  1058.) 
IS  Elertrlral  neaaurementaf  Test*- 
iiiiU'Sini's  Pocki'iHiiiiV  iif  Elroirk'ul  Kiiles, 
lonV  Uynaino-KliHfiiio  MiU'luiiL'ry;  anil  works 

and  mechanical   Ualta.-H.  Ward 

liictil  Enc/iiifey.  Feb.  U5,  IHUS.  a  Utble  of  nH«*- 
I  ineclmiiical  iiiiilH,  from  wliicb  the  tabl«  on 
todlllcaiiuns. 

:i<r  THE  FLOW  OP  WATER  AND 
ECTRIt'ITT. 

El-BCTRICITY. 

t.         (  Volis:  electro-motive  force:  differ- 
in.,  in  -,      i-nce  of  poleiilial  or  of  pressurH;  K. 
/     or  E.  JLF. 
,       f  Olimx,  r<?Bistuncp.  R.    The  ri-sinlatu-M 
witil        increosesi  ilireolly  as  tlie  Icntctli  of 
■  dp         the  coiiductoror  wire  and  inverKflv 
tional  ]     "«    ""    '"''•tionai    area, 
id  de- 


nplex 

f. 

eond. 
)lnnie 
llnltifr 
d    in 

culttc 
|uiva- 
le,  tu 
many 


ItK    iwctlonai    area,   fi  oc  t  -i-  ii. 

It  varies  with  the  nature  or  quality 

of  tlie  conductor. 
Conductivity  is  the  reciproctil  of  Hpe- 

ciflu  renixtance. 
Amperes:  current;  current  streuKtli; 

Intensity  of  current;  rate  of  flow;  l 

ampere  =  1  coulomb  per  second. 


Amperes  = 


Volt.-i 

ohms  ' 


Coulomb,  unit  of  quantity,  Q,  =  rate 
of  flow  X  time,  a«  amiiere-secoiidK. 
1  ampere-hour  =  ."5(100  coulombs. 


f  Joule,  volt-couliinib,  IV,  the  unit  of 

fOAt-  I     work,  =  proditct  of  quantity  by  the 

fall-        elecfro-iriotlve  force  =vr>lt.ampere- 

II:   In  I     swnnd.    1  joulo=  .7373  foi-it-pound. 

ity   lu  J  If   ('  (ani|jere8)  =  rate  of  flow,  and 

n  Um*.         E  (volis)  —  difference   of  pressure 

h  the        between   two   iioints   in  a  circuit, 

etierpv  exp<'nJed  =  CEt,   =  C'Mt, 

:     since  E  =  VR. 

er.rt.-  1 

B.OOO.     Watt,  unit  of   power,  P,   =  volts  X 
UK  in  I     amperes.  =  current  or  rate  of  flow 
awinK  r     X  difference  of  potential. 
3  feet  I  1  watt  =  .7373  footpound  i)er  second 
ig  the  \      =  1/7J6  of  a  horse-power. 

I  Ampere  and   tbe  Ktlner's  Incb. 

ler's  iiieli  Is  detiueti  as  the  quantity  of  water 
rtuve  an  inch  square  In  a  board   two  indies 

»lie  iuchea.  Here,  an  tn  the  case  of  the  am- 
'  any  atmtrBct  quantity,  sucli  us  ciillons  or 
■  to  time.  It  in  shnply  a  rate  of  flow.  We 
r,  six  Inches,  a«  the  representative  of  eleeld- 
le  aperture  reBtrietint?  the  fl.nv  of  wnler  nmy 
Siutance  of  one  ohm;  the  tluw  throuifh  a  re- 
pressure  of  one  volt  is  one  aiP'  w 
-inch  hole  two  inches  lon(;un»' 

of  the  opeuiuR  is  one  iniuer* 
e  correct  aimloKueof  the  alt 
'  or  water,  O.IIM  gallon;  thi 


lurrrvfly  *»  ki»  sec 


■r  taM<f  ««fippr  «i»»  M  ta.4lnnrttr  Iia»a  i 

•di  W <ke  n^Kuwre  «r  »  nrik  . .f  n  ii »  S  In  dlia,! 

th»  nuin  of  itw  •»»•■  i* 
'■rr«t,  tb»  wbnim  <tf  lUr  >ri.-i>«.i  mitr  if  .maxi 

'-<-  H>«*r»r  «(  11  liiliii:!.  R  =  — .     r  =  -e-  II«I 
•r  tB 

■  <.'«•.  aod  ItMMt  i^i  <te  teniwT*i*v  ranuaeia 
I'lilflh  •■<  — Hhiii.  U««  <--<■,;:  B,  :  R 
nt    (  oudart*r«.— Wrk  trocwNUKtonaf  f     '*" 
I  c,  <■„  anil  Mvii.^tU  an**  *.  •,.  me  tei*  Uw  s»aie  i 

rm        T.t,  , 

p.  bIm  aaD*!  m  t<t«eir   «,  o/  ■  nuMW  ( 
■ro*  Kith  tbri 
CMiwr.  'OandoemKr.  or 


^■^■(4  coadBMor,  «Mh  •■  par*  com 
^— iMi<^inH*GailolrMiiriTSr 


XUkan^AL    BlTntMKRKINO. 


Al.  MRSISTANrB. 


I<— I  p«steUUM>a,-T)ietvmi4u>ce.  B,of 


:lLailJ 


fci»*Wtrtw<.l».wcMi;^Mid^n«iflerniit«irr»«.<'i.' 


•ad 


*t       ai*.*' 


r«»4artlT«tr  af  BUftrwtt  Xatala  fad  < 

•  VmW  twi»i»J  ta  ik»  fcwMA  latioiat  ■■*>»■>«  BkUm 
"'     ~  nW  frUtltaalaaikrtuiuJmtHUjru''' 


rr.  ^aitilwr  On  .      ...  I?* 

I&.  AJI^or  eoM  and  'i^n'' 

ipL  wa^ofaa  iMft. ...  ■ 
SB  PhM  BMtfa  ila  . . . 
B.  iwHianulil  mwR'.. 

«■  m— II  m  T 

n.  OiiiiM  alOi 


M.*    It;.  Iliiiat  I  •••rro\jimJ  liniDi'- 
S        I  as.  AnaAk-ml  <.»prirr  (10<< 
»       'ML  PMalMa  ..     .     ....  .. 

»•   [  m  Bvaaar  wlUi9Mortl«... 

I  «.  Paranielra* 
•       ' m  r^oipbor\nmm,  1« tin ■• 
«»••         s.«  m  HMmhor  naaar.  ft  plua. 
a.S   lac  AtMmtmT  .-.  

I  Mil  II  OUT  bB  railiietil  lo  i 
ia\i— <jt  t&  iliamaU*  al  a  t 


■UB9ISTANCK. 


am  «f  IMlTerent  Jnrtala  at  0°  mnd. 

fC,    (HatUiiessen.) 


71  .M 
JO.  27 
66.90 
SOJiT 
10.77 


Tin  

I^ad  

Arxniic 

A II 1 1  moil  v 

Moroiiry,"pure 
BlitmiitU 


OondnctlTltlw. 


At    0»O. 
*?•  F. 


is.ae 

B.» 
4.7V 

4.6-> 
1.60 
1.SMS 


llat«rs  III  Order  of  (faeir  Talae. 

Infliilati>i-»  ( N'oncoiiiliictors). 
Klionlte 


Di-j'  Air 
Shellac 
Paiamn 

Amher 

Rf«lll8 

Sulphur 

Wax 

Jet 

Glass 

Mica 


Gutta-peix^lM 

Iiidia-rubtor 

Silk 

Dry  Paper 

Parchment 

Dry  Lfaiher 

Porcelain 

OllR 


rMiKtanCf  of  tliKiillml  water  is  67S^  million  tlmos 


tvllli  TempeMitiire.— For  everj'  (ieitree  Can- 

(pp«r  IneivaKes  about  0.4jt.  or  for  every  degree  T. 

»pper  wire  Imviiie  a  roristuice  of  10  obnis  at  Sa* 

11.11  otimRatS-""  f. 

g  the  amount  of  reaixtAnce  of  a  f«w  aiiluitanceit 

puriKMies  by  which  1  ohm  is  increased  by  n  rtie 

0. 

fJUse  of  R.  of  1  Ohm  when  Hi-ated— 
1°  F.  r  C. 

^ .oooia  .Qooai 

00O18  .00031 

.00024  .00044 

.00086  .00005 

,00014  .OOOBO 

.00400 


iNllow) 


me  of  hardnrss  or  8oftni:>i;s  of  a  mptal  or  alloy 
iistance  is  lessened  by  annealing.  Matihiesnen 
>  conductivities  for  copper  and  silver,  the  uom- 
nre  silver  at  100*  C : 

Temp.  C. 

11" 

14.0° 


le  conductlvitleg  of  copper,  silver,  and  brass  with 
i  the  foliowiug  resuUs: 

Hard. 

64307 

.!..»• -.  li8.SW 

11.489 


Ilectrica)  Congress  18(>»,  p.  I7B)  saja  f 
lepeiiiisno  lt<i  conipoRillon.   Motdiieai' 
per.  with  a  temfn.'rature  L-nefflcientr 
nr,  bAn  fouoii  copper-DiL'lcel-£iiic  aV 


KIECTUICAL   JENOlNEEBIIfQ, 


I 


I 


1030 


tnv"  »'■'">■  'i"'i  t  r»>«iislance  of  nearlj'  :^8  Uiues  I  hat  of  copper,.! 
|M<i  ;  alioiit  one  hnlf  that  given  by  Jlattfin^sfD. 

ati'l  Klec.  C'oiiB.,  p   IHJ)  find   that  coiiptr  htiB  a  il 

Uuui-' ■■-      -...!-. -lit  of  O.-IOCJ  per  deKtee  C.  bflweeii  tlieldiiitaoll 

MO"  V. 
Mandard  of  Healatanee  or  Copper  Wire.    (Tr(uii>.A.l 

fl^li.  Blid  Nov.  ItWO.i- MatihiesN>-ii'N  Rinuilurd  Is;  A  haixl-drsvn  copp 
1  m«lr»  Umg,  wel|;liliiK  1  ^raiiiiiio  lia>>  a  rp.sistunee  of  0.14C9  B.L 
O*  C.  U  B.A.  unit  =  U>(89  UfiH\  ohm  =  O.lwefi  internatioiinl  olini,) 
»Dce  of  luird  copixr  =  1.0320  tini««  tliat  of  soft  copper.  RelatlfoooM 
power  (Matthiesseu):  silver,  100;  hard  or  uiiantieaJeil  o.>p[>er,  9B.99; 
annealed  copper,  108.21.    ConduoUviiy  of  copp<-r  at  other  tempeittttf 

oi  =  r,<i  -  .00887f  +  .oooooeooat*^  H 

The  Nutitaiioe  ti  the  r«<;iprociU  of  tli«  cooductivUjr,  &ud  la     ^H 
Rt  =  fl,fl  f  .003871  +  .00000597/«).  m 

A  ooinmlttee  of  thA  Am.  Inst.  Electrical  Eng^lne<tni  recommend  tbi 
Ing  sa  the  moRt  <x>rrect  fonn  of  the  Malthlesspn  standard,  taliiOKS:! 
up.  (jr  of  pure  copper  : 

A  soft  cupper  wire  1  metre  lonfc  and  1  mm.  diam.  has  an  elKlrld 
ance  of  .O'JOfiT  U.A.  unit  at  0°  C.  From  this  the  regixtance  of  anoT 
wire  1  foot  loug  and  ,001  in.  diam.  (mil-foot)  is  found  to  l>e  9.nu  B 
alO*0. 

Standard  BesiataaM  at  0*  C.  B.A.  Units.     Lei^alOliiM.' 

Hetre-milllmetre,  soft  copper OSOST  .OSO&i 

CubloccDtimetre    "        ^'       0OO0OI8I6       .OO0001S98 

MUfoot                    "         ••       9.T90               fl.flia  9 

1  mil-foot,  of  soft  copper  at  10°.Sa  C.  or  50°  4  F. . .  10  9 

''        ••  1S«.6        "    60«.B  F...  lO.aO  10 

'         *'        "  83MI        •'    75*      F...  10.58  10 

J>)r  tablff  of  the  rttitianee  of  eopper  itlre,  see  pa^es  £18  to 
pp.  1034,  I0». 

TakliiK  MalthleKoen's  standard  of  pure  copper  as  100<,  some  rtfl 
hax  rxhibited  an  electrical  conductivity  equivalent  to  103^. 

Hatlhieii«en  founil  that  impurltiea  io  copper  Biifficient  to  do 
denaity  from  8.04  to  8  UO  produced  a  marked  increase  of  ulectricalK 

EbBCTBIC  CURBENTS. 

Ohm'*  tiKvr.— 'riiiii  law  expresses  the  i-elalion  b<4tween  tbet 
daiiieutal  unlta  of  resistance,  electrical  pressure,  and  current.    It  I 

_  electrical  pressure      „       JB         .  „       _ 

Current  = — -^ ;    C  =  si    whence    E  =  CR,   and 

renlRtance  R  ' 

lu  terms  of  the  uuits  of  the  three  quaoticles, 

volts  ,.  ■  .  TO 

Amperes  =  -r ;    volts  =  amperes  ><  ohms;     ohma  =  — — 

ohms  amp 

KxAMPLCS:  Simple  Cirauti.—I.  It  the  source  has  an  eilectisk 
pressure  of  100  volts,  and  the  resistance  is  two  ohms,  what  is^B 

C  =  ^  =  -g-  =  50  amperes.  ^ 

3.  What  pre«.<!nre  will  Rive  a  current  of  60  amperes  through  a  tm 
a  ohms  ?    fe=r«  =  80xS=100  volts.  B       •■• 

3,  What  reslHtance  is  required  to  obtain  a  current  of  ISO  ami 

pressure  is  100  volts  f    i?  =  £  =  ^  =  o  ohms. 

T*>jft>llpwlnji:  examples  are  from  R.  E.  Day's  "Electric  ligu 

1.  The  internn!  rKBlnranceof  n  Certain  Brush  dynamo- inAcbia 

and  the  external  reisititance  is  73  ohms;  the  electro-motivK  fon 

Mine  beSrjg  839  volts.  Find  Mie  »u<;B?.t.\v  o{  the  current  flowing 


C  CT7RRBNTS, 


1031 


I  K  rmiHtance  of  O.K  obms,  while  the  re- 
ohm,  and  that  of  the  dyoamo  Is  3.B  ohmi. 
ve  force  of  the  machine  when  Che  strenf(th 
)ert>8, 

13.26  ohms;    C  =  14.8  amperes; 
8  =  IW.S  volts. 

data  the  average  renlstaiice  of  eaoli  of 
The  eleetro-motlve  force  of  the  maohine 
ohiQA.  while  that  of  the  leadine  wire*  laS 
through  each  lamp  Ih  21  amperes. 
iDCe  ill  ohius  of  each  lamp,  then  the  total 
(-S4-8.7. 
\  ar  +  6.7  =  244/21  =  11.81  ohm«,  whence 

nps  were  placed  in  series.  The  averaire 
waa  39.8  ohms,  and  that  of  the  dynamo 
tt  electro-motJTe  force  was  required  to 
■trough  this  circtiit  f 

h  11,3  =  13S.1  ohms,  and 


1.S  X  ISO.l  =  1M.9  volt«. 

■Brtaln  Brush  lamp  was  8.8  ohms  when  a 
urouKh  it.    What  was  the  electro-motive 

•  10X3.8  =  38  volts. 

&]vanic  Cellf^  each  of  which  had  an  aver- 

M'ere  joined  np  in  series  to  one  incandes- 

nd  produced  a  current  of  O.I  IS  amperes. 

rent  produced  hy  a  series  of  30  such  cells 

resistance? 

he  problem  enable  us  to  deternilae  the 

ch  cell  of  the  battery.    Let  this  be  repre- 


l,(»X  16-f  70)=    118X445; 

C?  =  2  volts,  nearly- 

f  I>art  of  the  problem,  we  hAve,  by  Obm'e 


60 
W  ""  MO ' 


:  0-118  ampere. 


tedt  has  two  paths,  the  total  current  (n 
istonces. 
r  the  two  branches,  and  O  and  C|  the  cur- 

-jj,  whence 

[one  circuit  is  said  to  be  in  ihunt  to  the 

h  arc  or  In  parallel. 

ooiuluctora  are  arransred  o»" 

ind  the  total  resistance  Is  tif 

■K, 

Jliiiiple  circuit  we  have  I 

llntemal  parts  of  the  v 


I 


mtv 


JKKBNTS. 


1033 


uiiiall  an  18  ooiniiiui'uially  priieltuable,  so 

Uir  b«  wasted  in  heating  I  he  wire.     The 

iS  fuel  burned  in  tbe  boil<<i-  to  llie  pl«H:tric 

mechiLolcal  euergy  by  means  of  Ihe  l>oll«r 


n<Hl  into  electrical  energy  in  the  dynamo, 
led  into  heut  in  tlir  electric  Ifclit. 
uctor  I*  itie  «|uivaleut  of  the  uiierity  cauritie 
idlturo  of  energy  in  watts  =  eleclro-molive 
ireH  =  EC,  and  the  energy  in  joules  =  watts 
§=  C"K(  =  ECt. 

■a    iFrom  Kapp's   Electrical  TransmlsBioii 

ter  of  (treat  importance  to  determine  b«rom- 

ic  to  lie  expected  In  each  giren  case,  and  if 

greater  thaji  appears  aafe,  proviKiou  must  be 

liicb  h'aC  is  carried  off.    TDls  eaa  K'^uerally 

frflolul  area  of  the  conductor.    Say  we  have 

lUareiiich  area,  and  find  that  with  lOOOaniperei 

hot.     Now  Ijy  splitting  up  this  conductor  into 

eutli  of  a  square  iucb  cro!is-s«cilOMal  ureu.  we 

louut  of  «neri;y  iransfunned  into  heut.  but  ue 

Ep(M«d  to  tbe  cooling  action  of  the  stirroumling 

therefore  the  ten  thin  wires  can  disislpate  iiiiiiu 

conip;ireil  Willi  the  single  thick  wire. 

NnbaqueouM  and  Aerial  Cable*  (In- 

fiiulta-peri-ba.).    tl'rof.  Foibes.) 

Die  -*■  Dlitineter  irf  conductor  =  4. 

ure  of  ftif  =  -in"  C.  =  «8«  F. 

iinperalure  of  conductor  over  air. 


Current  In  amperes. 

(  =  »»  C. 

f  =  25*  C. 

t  =  49»  C. 

t  =  81"  C. 

=  J6.a«  F. 

=  45*  F. 

=  92  !•  F. 

=  146.8"  P. 

11.0 

17.8 

S4.0 

S9.6 

97.0 

43.8 

S9.0 

7>.S 

44.4 

78.1 

97.8 

119 

OS  A 

lOi 

13T 

188 

SI.O 

ISI 

177 

SIS 

iin 

1<VI 

219 

268 

U9 

W2 

•a9 

819 

1S7 

828 

301 

369 

157 

253 

818 

4i» 

178 

S8S 

881 

478 

m 

fioe 

803 

983 

5S9 

906 

12« 

1508 

7M 

an 

iM 

««1 

MS 

isa4 

aoae 

sses 

1139 

1848 

am 

3058 

1830 

SI  68 

aM6 

S»75 

IfiSS 

a47« 

8385 

4094 

i7ia 

K78S 

8759 

4611 

im 

mm 

4178 

5180 

Insulated  wire  carries  a  greater  current  without 
)  if  the  diameter  be  not  loo  creat.  AsauuiInK 
l>e  t»  ice  tbe  diam.  of  tbe  conductor,  a  greniar 
ulatwl  wires  than  in  bare  wires  up  to  1.9  Inoii 
.  of  cnldei  =.  I  times  diain.  of  coudur 
of  oonductor. 

-The  uihle  on  paees  1034  and  108" 
omn/lttee  on  ITnlts  and  Standard! 
glneeta  (Trans.  Oct  1893). 


I  '  '  -~!!li^^ffn!lill!!l!!llli||i|||ll 


ELKCTRiC  CUBHBKTS.  1035 

lliiiiiiiiliililiiiiiiiiiiiiissisiiiis! 


liiiiiiiliiiiiiiiilliiiiiiiiisiiiPiiis 

^a     ftododafdoaaei'eiettttae'eiod«iddocictdbdoaoooddooed-a 


iliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii§iii§i§iii§g^E§ 


eaaoooo«  ooao^aasaesssesec^eoooc 


•-  «  ot'sidw*  lo  *S «  jp 


a|li|iis§SSi|§Silil^ 


iiiiliiiiiglliligifiliiiiii 

fitiotio^^^ii^^^ii^^^^^'^iioiiooantiti*^^  da  dadoed  do 


» 


|iilii||i|S|B§l|||| 


[iiilissiiiiiiif  ' 


90aeoeee9e9e000oe(3eeaeeo4a4ss9ess3si 


HI 


illsissiiliislisssossssssssfssilss^ 

oti^^^o^^oo^^'s  ^^9^9o^Ot>^  dddddddddddad^dood 


n 


S      ga      it   D    3;   3S   S;      S8    S      Rfl   8      9!      8   « 


/v"^ 


«   s  sa     ss  s  s  s     s  f^T,     s  &&     a  U^  ««,ik%  %« 


1036 


ELEOTaiCAL   RKGINKBRINO. 


The  data  from  which  the  foregoing  table  has  > 
Mnilhiessea's  stBiidnrJ    lesistivuy,  5Iatthiess»  i 
clflc  graWtf  of  copper  =  8.H9.    Keaistaoce  .i 


specin 
ohm. 


Marthh*«foV(  (rtsndnrd  1  nretre-ip-amrae  of  harvti 
B.  A.  U.  a  0°  C.    Ratio  of  i-eslstivliy  harJ  to  soft  '•■■' 

MaltlilesseD's  staiidni^l  1  iiietifgrainnici  of 
B.  A.  V.  ®  0°  C.    OtiK  B.  A.  U.  ^  0.08156  ioCeriiB 

Matlhkiweti'ii  standard  I  metregramma  of  bui.  — 

iternaUofMl  ohm  &Q'C 

TVmperntttTe  cofnich?iits  of  nwtstanc*  for  90*  C,  30*  C ,  anil  I 


1   foot  =  0.3IUB0S&  jDe(r<% 


t1  awil,  anil   MWSl    rcspcL'tivelj-. 
45."!  .VI-JM  grnniini's. 
Ileatlne  of  Colls.— To  calculate  tba  bwn.hig  of  a  ooU,  | 

Iilie  surfai.*  ami  it»  ii';i-iaii.'<).     i  F.>rlit>K^  > 
Let  p  =  tbfi  rw.1-  .  ,t  lt»e  prrmterfhle 

ttlieri~r  •»BSf(1  by  ISof  ifni 

6'  =  the  suii.i.     --.  -  !   ini'njiureit  in  square  i 

(I  square  cm.  -  .  )&.'<  ajuare  inch;  1  sq.  in.  =  6.«s  M)u«rcf 
t  =  the  rise  in  lempfraiure,  coDiigrade  scale; 
O  =  the  current  in  ampere*. 

where  «  is  McTartane's  coogtaatvarviit:  lo    nnm    n*  i 

^valut:  may  \»e  taken.     If  SO*  C.  b*  the  pem,  m  tviupni 


-/ 


0008  V  60  X  a' 


..»^, 


BXAXTLK.— The  reristancfl  of  the  Aeld-ioacDeta  of  »  djraMOA 
colli,  Biii  the  surface  exposed  lo  tbeair  is  1  aqoare  ni«Ua;  tmA 
to  beat  it  not  more  than  W  C.  

Here  S  =  10,000;  p  =  1.8  ohms;  and  C  =  .I&aJ  '°'^  =  ; 


«t9l 


For  the  heatlne  of  coOs  of  Aeld-magnets  Sir.  C.  Hering 
ersT  <li''sip»t«n  for  every  SS3  square   inches  of  c(>j|rnjr^ 


.|rn»r- 
lemperaiure  cd  Uu: 


square 
_iegree  F.  of  dlflertince  between  the  te 
toiindlnf:  air. 

W=CE  -  \/-ii»TS  =  O.nOHTOra,  in  which  »'  = 
degrees  Fahr.,  and  S  =  square  inches. 

C  =  ,^^  ^  is  the  greatest  otirrent  wkich  oaa  be  luie^l  la  tkr  i 

a  shunt  machine  hnirinfr  a  certain  jiregsure  in  onler  that  ilu>y  do  anij 
above  a  certain  temperature.  Thus  fur  a  rise  of  teinperalurw  <s>f  M*  7>  ^ 
the  surrouDilinjr  air, 

MAC*  0 

^~^^~  '^^'    Bubrtitutiocforfltai 


Hering  ril^H 

rn«r-a^^^^H 

WAtU   lO^I^H 


U  80*  7.  ta  the  nasimtim  dKfgrauea  tt 
taa 


o  = 


t&B 


=  .86|=.60^. 


C7»/?  =  l/SSSrS,    weB«tV  = 


Th*  formuia  oan  Im  used  for  series  machtaea  wiusa  C  ta  I 
With  a  pennlsBlMe  rise  of  SO*  F  or  W  T.,  we  bav«  rvatv^ilT 

'  the  eoil  in  eqtiaec  Inehes  max  ^  funad  fniB 

*«/;^'     ioscs     iiac*K 


¥■ 


CUBEBNT8.  103* 

F.  or  S0°  f.,  reapecijvely,  the  surface  will 
SIT;    and  S^—"^^  2  8m 

I.  Pre«ce  g-lvtw  a  foriiitilH  for  (he  eurr»ul'r»> 
nt  metals,  via.:  C  =  »di'  In  irlilch  (I  l»  tlie 
riHuleut  whose  value  for  rtiffpreiit  iiietats  id  as 

HUm  75SS;  platinum  5172;  Oeiiimn  ullver  SSSO; 

^04'^:  leud.  1379:  alloy  of  :.■  lead  auil  1  tin,  U18. 

I  Wires  whlcb  will  be  Fused  by  • 

kS  for  tin  =  1370  tor  lead  =  lOOU  for  copper  = 


/teadWJxe. 

Copper  Wire. 

Iron  Wi™. 

DIain. 

Apnrox- 
8.W.G. 

Piam. 

i'^rS: 

Diam. 

V^.^ 

iMtea, 

inoliiM. 

koelMa. 

.omi 

8.5 

.0081 

47 

.0047 

40 

.(»» 

m 

.0084 

48 

.0074 

36 

.0168 

srr 

.11044 

41 

.WUfl 

33 

.mu 

«& 

.0063 

39 

.0117 

31 

.o^m 

28 

.OOBi 

38 

.0I9S 

80 

.«37e 

SO 

.0008 

9i 

.0810 

84 

.om 

18 

.oisra 

30 

.08»3 

88 

.«M» 

tr 

.«15i> 

M 

.0343 

se.s 

.OflOO 

IS 

.0181 

•x 

.0806 

19 

.vrn 

14 

.oaB 

25 

.0450 

18.5 

i 

.0804 

is.a 

.0-3-i7 

SI 

.0198 

18 

i 

.0844 

13 

.0:248 

S3 

.0545 

17 

.1021 

13 

.03M 

St 

.«m 

10.5 

t 

.1011.5 

II.5 

.tmn* 

ss 

.06$] 

16                   J 

.]'i<)7 

10 

.03-« 

St 

.0714 

15 

.1871 

O.B 

.03«0 

30 

.0791 

" 

» 

.149S 

6.3 

.OSli 

19 

.0804 

18.6                1 

.lOSI 

8 

.0430 

IS.S 

.0985         13 

» 

.I7W 

7 

.OJ.W 

18 

.1003         13 

.1864 

« 

.OfilO 

17.5 

.1138  ,      11 

t 

.•ITD 

S 

.oer-,' 

17 

.18W  1      10 

.8379 

4 

ocas 

10 

.\»n  1        9  5 

.»78 

3 

.owo 

16 

.14SI           9 

1 

.8780 

S 

.ora 

15 

.laiK        8 

i 

.SSM 

0 

.0841 

13.5 

.1648          6.5 

.««17 

00.8 

.09» 

19.fi 

.•J0«0          5 

■  Beqi 

lired  t 

o  Fnae  Wire 

a  According 

thePo 

rmula 

C  =  adi-                                                   1 

1- 

a 

Tlo. 
=  J«9. 

L«ad 
a  =  I87S. 

Copper 

n  =  fo244 

Iroo.                1 
a  =  3148.             1 

W7 

8T.J5 

91.90 

«81.8 

71.81 

HW 

M.M 

».» 

)«S.8 

50.90 

1 

QBie 

IT.S7 

M.BO 

107.7 

88.10 

m 

'!:§* 

S.4I9 

flB.97 

81  .BO 

fl.4«l 

48.00 

14  75 

no 

5.857 

4.409 

83.43 

10  or 

MIS 

s.gos 

8.330 

84.74 

- 

( 

iSftt 

s.nw 

S.483 

19.44 

1 

E 

UBl 

Z.a87 

t  904 

ii.ia 

i 

liin  / 

J  MS 

/        J.C48             11  .to 

J 

[ 

^^ 

■ 


1038 


ELECrniCAt.   ENGINEERtNa 


EliKCTRIC    TKANSlWiSWI©?!. 


f 

■    Croaa-Metlon   of  Wire  Required  for  •  CiTen 

^mCotistaiU    Current    iSeriet)    .Sj»(e»i.— Thei  cro8s-se«-tion»l   fir^  rt  i 
^■iiecessary  in  any  circuit  for  a  Kiven  constant  cur 
^Hence  between    iht^  preKsiire  ut  the  f^en^ratiur 
HFpi«8sure  requiretl  hr  all  the  apparatus  on  the  ci 

of  the  circuit.    The" following  formulae  are  g^^t^u  m      >  "'^ 

Eogioeering:" 


If  F  =  pressure  in  volts  at  generators:  ^ 

V  =  sum  of  all  the  pi«s«ures  On  volts)  required  by  apparttim^ 

ill  the  circuit; 
n  =  toial  U'Dgtb  <aoinK  and  return)  of  circuit  in  miles; 
C=  current  in  amperes;  ^ 

r  =  resistance  of  1  mile  of  copper-conductor  of  1  Mill*™  tii«  *■ 

area  in  oliiiis;  ^ 

a  =  required  cross-sectional  nrea  of  copper  ip  square  ioebc^- 


^V     It  (teneraily  happenx,  however,  that  we  are  not  Itml  <1own  ^ 
^^  value  of  V,  as  the  pressure  at  the  ^uerators  cni   '  ^  >     - 

suit  requirements.    In  thin  case  it  is  iisiml  to  li-  • 

ileienuiue  the  crossj-seciluiial  area  of  copixM  ill  i 

If  1)  =  current  density  in  anipere»  per  square  mt-n  tinemtinccl 


If  we  take  the  temperature  of  the  conductor  when  ibe 
Sowine  for  some  time  through  it,  as  80°  T., 


O.OUSohm,    and     a  = 


O.WaSnC 
V-  V  " 


I 
I 


C 
"  =  ?.• 

The  current  deniiity  Is  frequently  taken  at  1000  anipereit  to  tbeaqnal 
but  should  in  general  be  deterinihetl  by  eccmomknl  conaidentiM 
every  case  in  question. 

Altoimble    Current    Oeiiiity    in    In.tutated    Cnhle*. — 
insulated  cabins  in  castiii;  g^ve  the  results  shown  t>el(t\v    hut  tlu 
nrmnlioii  or  correction  of  the  current  densities  peiim  Mfl 

of  insuiatHd  cables  run  underftronnd.    C  uml  f » ar*- 
aiHl  llie  current  density  in  amperes  per  squart*  inch,  r-    , 
mine  the  temperature  of  the  conductor  by  the  oiudUm:  ot  < 
tDdicaied  by  the  sufBz. 


No.        8.W.Q.»  of 
Strands,    each  Wire, 


19 

87 


SO 
14 

n 

14 


Area  of 
Strand  in 
square  Indies. 
0.0079 
D.035T 
O.0977S 
0.191 


Ifl 

SO 

1M 

SIO 


S.IMO 
MOO 
LSOO 
1,100 


Conntant  Proaanre  (Parallel  SyFtem).— To  deterrobM  dw 

pressure  in  a  feeder  of  given  sise  in  the  case  of  iwo-wire  iiaralle)  4lairl 

Let    a  =  oross-sectionai  area  of  copper  of  otie  ^onductcrt  ot 
square  inches; 
n  =  leuicth  of  feeder  (Koiiig  anil  return)  In  mdea; 
C=  current  In  amperes; 
F  —  ti  =  loss  of  pressure  in  feeder  in  volt»; 

r  =  I'esistance  of  I  mile  of  copper  cotiduotor  ot  I  ( 
tional  area  in  ohnis. 

a 


Isrd  lOrttiBh)  inrv-fMlg*. 


kNSMIBSION'. 


1039 


iductor  with  Ibis  current  flowing  Id  It  !■ 


and     V  -  V  = 


o.oasuP 


thf  c»i>e  of  a  three-wire  feeder,  let  piq,  and 

jnduetorK,  mid  let  p'q'  rvpreseat  the  middle 

pu  feeding-point  and  q,  .  g.  g,  at  Ihef^eiieriit- 

1  eacb  of  the  outer  conductors  in  square  Incbea ; 

!  middle  conductor; 

3  conductor  of  ferder  ; 

jid  p'  111  volts  at  (teiieratlDg  station; 

ud  p,  in  voltii  at  generating  station; 

jid  g'  in  volts  at  feeding-point; 

nd  (2g  in  Tolts  at  feeding-point; 
[lereis; 
1  pores; 
ot  copper  conductor  of  I  square  inch  sections] 


1  =  tr,,  and  if  Pi  is  Rreater  than  C.  ,  Vi  !h  greater 

!  pressure  in  ili«  middle  wire;  tlilx  result  shows 

in  circuit  with  the  two  outer  conductors. 

a;  ihf  n,  if  tlie  greatest  want  of  balance  lielween 

B  of  tli«  Ihret--wirti  system  i«  in*  percent  of  the 

heavily  loaded  section,  and  if  G,  is  the  maximiuu 

er  conductors  of  the  feeder  under  oonslderatloo, 

'■        in  \ 

^C 100  /'  *"''  "^"**^''"'ntly  C,  -  Cj  win  iiot  be 


aoo-fm_ 
aoo    '      '■     "'~    a    '^     aoo 

I  equal  to  F— the  pressure  required  tobeniain- 
■ig-poliit — we  can  calculate  \',  and  F,  foreiveu 
loying  tlie  valueof  m,  which  we  esiiinata  i<noiild 
e. 

>w  that  the  difTcreiice  io  the  pressures  required 
3  )«ctioiiB  of  a  three-wire  feeder  Increoses  wltli 
seder  ;  hence  the  regulators  on  eacb  of  the  outer 
Ivalent  to  a  variable  resistance  having  at  least 


irea  of  the  middle  conductor  one  half  of  thai  of 
%,  but  this  Is  not  Invariably  the  case. 

roiD  the  law  C  =  =■  it  is  seen  that  with  any  pres- 

n 
lecome  very  great  if  i?U  made  very  small.    In 
oe  beeoines^riiall  snd  ibecurrent  therefore  great. 
mlroiiitint'-  n  onrreiii. 

e  Tranamtiialon.    (R.  O.  Blaine,  Bng'g,  June 
rule  for  the  most  economical  section  of  conductor 


I  to  m  may  vary  from  10  to  'JS.  according  to  the 
f  custoruem  to  one  section  or  the  other.  •—  '— "^ 
tnditlons.  At  a  certain  station  8iiupi~ 
ore  system  to  shout  SS.QOU  li  c.p.  wn 
MOMtded  7  or  it. 


« 


1040 


BLBOTRICAL  BtfOINBERIKO. 


in  that  for  \rUoh  Che  "annuEU  Interest  on  capital  uuUay  iti 

aanunl  cost  of  eaergy  wasted,"  and  its  practleaK>ulc-oiiiel*||^ 

tbc  copper  cooductor  sliould  be  such   tliat   luc   rcsiatanae 

(C  helng  tlin  current  in  ftiniMTfsl. 

Tables  have  bfeo  compiled  by  Professur  Forlxra  and  othr-n  I 
with  modUlcations  of  Sir  W.  Tuuiuson'a  rule.  Kor  a  fiveo  d, 
power  tiie  question  is  merely  cue  as  to  what  ciint>iit  den*l(y,« 
iiiuperes  persquaru  inch  of  conductor,  Hliutild  Ix:-  employed.  ' 
«ou  H  rule g^ives about  393  amperes  pernquaiv  im-d,  and  ,"^— 
tables— for  a  inediutn  cost  or  one  eleoirVnl  Imme-powa 
curi-Biit  density  of  alMut  380  smperws  p*-r  »)iiarr  Inrh  at . 

When  iL  giceii  horse-power  Is  to  be  dp|iviT»'d  at  a  plvpiii 
Ik  soini^whur  different,  and  Profestore  Ay rf on  and  Hfrry  iKIt 
IHSOI  httvi"  shown  that  in  that  case  both  tlie  curivnl    aod 
variables,  anj  that  their  most  («(jnoinloal  values  may  Iv  rountll 
formule: 


C=^(J+fiiuW,    und    r  = 


II        «'n» 

HIT  < I  -(-sill ♦;* ' 

r-^il-iuiu-^  la< 


in  which  0=  the  proper  current  in  amperes: 

mile  which  shoulil  bo  given  to  the  conductor;  P  = 

volts;  »  =  nuinbtT  of  miles  of  (>onducfor;  in  =  pen 

■A  =  8Uch  an  angle  that  t»n<^  =  nt  -t- P.  t  being  n  . 

the  price  of  oopi>er,  the  cost  of  oue  electrical  Lomepow  «i . 

may  bo  taken  as  about  17. 

lu  this  case  the  current  density  should  not  reniaiit  constant 
diminish  as  the  lenKth  increases,  being  in  all  case*  less  Utati  I 
by  Sir  W,  Tlionison's  rule. 

BIxauplk.— If  the  current  for  an  electric  railway  Ii>  u-'n  i<i  m 
horHe-power  being  delivered,  find  tlio  wa.>»t«  of  pov. 
diictor,  the  distance  belnc  S  miles  and  there  being  ft  r^ 

Here  n  a  10,  /  =  IT,  P  =  000;  tail  *  =  ITO  -<-  SSJO  =  t^.-i,  -, 
.0477. 

Henw  most  economical  reaiBlance 

»00«  .6477 

*■  "=  10  X  74«M  ^  1.9477i  =  "'*'*  <>*""  P**"  *""* 

or  .l?r9  ohm  In  its  total  length. 
The  moat  economical  current,  C  = 


'<S0O 

800"  ^  '•*"  = 

iPR  _  »ii.aB«  X  liwi 

748  74«  '  J 

Tlie  following  tables  show  the  power  wasted  as  heat  In  tb*  eop**< 


llie  power  wasted  In  heat, 


flU-aeamf 
64.™  horse  ^o*« 


HUREI-FOWER  WaSTKO  IN  TlUNBlllTTIKs  PoWKR  ELi 

UlBTAXCK,    THF.    R.VTEHISO    PoWItR    BEINO    FDCKD. 
AX)   VOLT».      L'iMtRKNT   DENHlrV,   380   AMPSIIKS  PBS 


Horse- p<>wer  Wnsted,  the 

DIsiH  '  ii'h  the 

Power  t  il  l«»lnji 

one  .''  >  i-iaK  a 

Relurii  t  uluiiicuir). 


1  OM 
8  387 

a.6M 
8.318 

is.aoB 

IS.OH 
39.9)3 


Dow  po*»r*j 
DUtaac*  n»r  I 


■poii-fir  al  <fc#  g*n*mtor 


n 
mtr 

H 


TftAKSMISSlOX. 


1041 


TIUMOK,  8000  VoLTI. 


Horge-  Horse- 

power      I       power 

fasted.   Dis-      Wasted. 

taoce  Flvti     Distancti  Ten 
Miles.  Miles. 


8.ai8 

16  em 

33.878 
41.59 
08.M 
83.18 
166.80 


I 


16.630 
38.971! 

e«.M 

8S.18 
IS$.08 
166.86 

usa.TS 


Horse-power 
"Wasted. 
Dis  lance 

Twenty  Miles. 


8»,87 

60. B4 

133.08 

160.36 

166.17 

666.44 


I 


numbers  that  when  the  cuiTeot  deDsIi.v  i!<  fi.KeiI 
loual  lo  theenleringborse-poweraud  Llit?  length 
iversely  proponional  to  the  potential.  For  a 
tay  be  simply  stated  as 

W  =  10.6858  s  X  i, 


id  P  the  pressure  at  enirance,  and  /  the  length  of 


IN    El>ECTniO   TRjkNBHIflStON   TO    A  QlVKM    DiBTlNCK, 
UVERBD  AT  THE   DISTANT  END  BEINO  FIXED.      PKKa- 

110  Volts.    Ccrrknt  a*'D  RiCdliiTANCE  Caloduatko 

it's  BVLKii. 


•power  WaSited, 

tlance  to  which 

Ht>r»e-7>owor 

Hortie-power 

er  is  Transmitted 

Wiutleii, 

Wasted. 

One  Mile  (there 

Distance  Five 

Distance  Tea 

iloga  Return 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Conductor). 

1.876 

6.476 

8.630 

3.363 

l«.9Sa 

I7.i!4 

e.TOl 

i».IW4 

)t4  48 

e.36 

as. 98 

48.10 

is.4oe 

SI  .608 

68.96 

)         16.76 

64.86 

8e.w 

88,58 

iM.aa 

m.4 

PWsftUsE  AT  Gntrance,  SOOO  Voi/n. 

HorM-power 
■ted.     Distance 

Horse- power 
Wasted.   Distance 

Home-power 

Wasted      Distance 

One  Mile. 

Five  Miles. 

Ten  Mites. 

1.716 

8.484 

16.761 

S.4SS 

16.968 

88.586 

6.884 

38.988 

67.063 

B.E8 

4«.4«             i 

83.815 

18.7aH 

67.87             1 

134  104 
167  68 

17.16 

84. B4             { 

34.33 

108.68             1 

835.86 

trsent  in,  is  =  pfjwer  delivered  la  watt*,  ' 
ADce  In  ohni.s   per   mile,  P  =  prMaiirft 
bar  of  miles  of  conductor. 


I 

I 


I 


0*rf  -♦-  746  =  JST;    it-  =  746H  -  OV 


r                                                        ^^ 

^^^^^1 

1042                     ELECTRICAL  BNQINEBBOrO.         ■ 

and  the  formule  for  best  curreot  and  reeistance  becoiM          ^ 

„     7«H-  Cr,,   ,  ^„j,,.    , 

P* 

.^7^ 

C==           p         (l  +  sin*),    r       „^-4Ba_<,. 

*'44lfi  tin  ^  ^^1 
Knergy  wasted  as  heat  In  watts  per  mile  =  C^f  =  ^  ,  ^4  H 

Horse-power  wasted  per  mile  _  H  ,  _  ^^  ^  ^^^^  ^.                   ^m 

{i>  =  ftiiRle  wliose  tariKPiit  =  iif  -t-  P.  and  the  vatiie  of  /  eom^B 
current  density  of  S80  unipei es  per  sq.  in.  is  1«  fl*i.  1                   ^M 

TABLE   OF   ELECTHICAIa    HOBNE'POlA 

Formula ,  ^<""'  '<^^'"P-'^  =  H.P.,    or    1  volt-aoipere  =  M 

Read  amperes  at  top  and  volts  at  side,  nr  viet  attt^* 

u 

I 
i 
s 

i 

TollH  or  Amperes.                          ^J 

1 

on34 
oowt 
mtos 

.0««7II 

10 

w 

90 

40 

SO 

40 

TO 

«e 

"In! 

.0194 
.OtM 
.0403 
.0633 
.IM70 

.09(3 

.oi>:iii 

.OMH 

.Iii7i 
.1541 

.0403     .0(30 

.mm    .1073 

.IMHJ       IMS 

.\wi    .ai4» 

.Wir     .8681 

.0170 
.1341 

.son 

.3(31 
.93U 

.0«04 
.14M 
.341.1 
.3517 
.4032 

.003;     .107?'     .tWj'     IMfcj 

liiirs    '.'.                   '^ 

e 

7 

10 

.MMH 

.OMa 

.oi«ie 

01341 

.0304 

.Ota* 

.lOM 
.I30« 
.1341 

.1«W!     .t413     .3117 
.1377      .J815     .Xita 
.3145     .3217      .43iW 

,S4ia    jei«    .tif* 

.3MI      .4U3S     .6361! 

.tat 

.0032 
.47(13 

.41M 

.Mat 

.(434 

.7330 
.8043 

ji(.i«    .(.<                 ^ 

.(U3|     .;                           ^ 

11 

13 
U 

U 

.01476 

.oiaoa 

.01743 
.01877 
.OMll 

.1476 
.MM 
.1743 

.1377 
.30U 

.»4II     .4484     .mil    .7373 
.3217      .4aUi     .IM.-M      .MM.-! 
.34K     .Ii!»3      .W70     ,II7W 
.3753     .M30l     .7B07      .9SM 
.4023     .1093.     .W43!  LOW. 

.8847 
.»65i 
I.OM 

i.iai 

l.9)M 

1.1'.. 
Mil. 
1,K» 
1..M4 
1.40* 

l.;tM        I..S4*       i  }*i   , 

I.Ml      1  sn      I.TTi 
1.000     1  MO     veu  I 

M 
17 
M 
M 
» 

.OilM 

.0W7I 
.«Ht3 

.<»m; 

.(HMl 

.tub 

.«4I3 

,«M7 
.Mgl 

.4230 
.4»8 
.439S 
.MB4 
.i>3«3 

.4434      Mli 
.(«37      .1)115 
,nS9      .W63 
.7»ll    l.OK 
.8043    1.07S 

l.ft7i 

iiie 

1.308 

1.273 
1.340 

l.»7 

i.:i67 

1.448 

1.338 
1.80* 

IM-I 
l.ftM 
l.BW 

1.7i^ 

i.nr 

B"    i 

y 

.OHIS 

.omo 

,030)13 
,03817 
.03391 

.3t>& 
.S»4» 
.30(3 

.S«7 
.3331 

.«tM 
.<4S< 
.4703 

.S41S 

.km; 

.084? 

i.ooe 

1.IS4 
1.180 
l,!S3 

i.ai7 

1.341 

1.408 
1.475 
1.M8 
I.4W 
l.«7( 

1.(81 
I.7H 

1.860 
I.U30 
8.011 

I.IM  ;  ■i.K-:    ■i.-.-.j    j.oe 
t.iea    1.(74    •.«M    un 

IJM  1  tlMII      .-<  Ml*      IJU 

1 

.»3<1B 

.MM7 
.04l«l 

,34W 

.3(10 
J763 
J3(7 
,40a 

.•071 
.7331 

.7607 
.7776 
.K143 

1.04« 
I.IM 
1.134 
l.M 
1.W4 

I.XM 
1.443 
l.Wl 
I.H6 
LOOO 

1.743 
1.(10 
1.877 
1944 
1.011 

1.001 
3.173 
3.SU 
1.3» 
3.41.1 

3.41'.  '    "  ^-  ■                       .ij  ' 

3.r.-                                 < 

S.'T: 

».; 

SI 

■at 

33 
34 

3» 

.OUM 
.OUN 
,01«M 
.OtSM 
.OtOM 

.41M 
.4*30 
.44M 

1^ 

.3311 

.3S7( 
.3347 
.«I13 
.»3«4 

1.847 
1.887 
I..W 

l.a«7 

1.40( 

1.0«« 
I.TK 
1.743 
1.(33 

1.377 

3.078 

1.313 
1.170 

134( 

0.403 

8.fl;i 
If.- 

s.. 

M 
N 
M 

.043H 
.04M0 
.OMM 
.•UW 

.uutt 

.'"■■'        '"  ■    1  HR 

IKS 

i    .■« 

•:                i     W* 

.Wf.-    1  11;.;      l.MM 

1.030 
1.3(4 
S.033 
£001 
3.1411 

1.413 
1.430 
1.M7 
(111 
1(81 

11'. 

8.1'' 
S.I 

3.-J1 

It 
U 

u 

.0S4K 
.0e4M 

.tern 
.mm 

.M«6{  I.090  1  1340 
.MM)    l-l«      1  fW» 
.«i«4'  1 

Mm  I  ■ 
.mm  1 

3.IN 

1.713 

■f 

Miti  .(.lui 

•  '•" 

P— 

m 

..../^ 

1 

4  L'lT     i.avT    .1..1K     (-gLi?     ai^ 

t  m 

b 

d 

■ 

■ 

^^HoTKICAL   UOKSK-PUWERS.          1043 

HiCAL  HOR8S-l>OWEBS-{Coit(inH<»(.) 

H    Ton*  »r  Am|i«T«ni 

l 

M 

M       ;»   1    n 

*6 

16* 

lie 

UO 

i.«m;  4.tMi  &iir  &.iiw{  1.06 

«.iiHi  t.m  5.6ao    «.U4'   7.ns 

t.9S;,    Sl1»I    O.nw     II.VTU      T.MS 

<.Dn    SuOo  (.sen    ;.s<iT{   *.«& 
».0(7i    *.U3«    ;  wn     (.DM     y.n*" 

TJ7S 
3.043 

«.ris 

S..-W1 
l«.«6 

i.116 

6.647 
«..'iM 
10.33 
11  06 

t.m 

«66« 

10  16 

11  i* 
W,06 

■  i.sei 

6.9M 

6.1*7 

»,S«7 
6.703 

6.Mt 

6K» 
7.BW 
7.»4I 
8,«W 

7.  Mi;      «,67» 
8.gil    10.16 

».3M  i».;i 

IU.a6 
10.  M 
11.46 

lioe 

16.7S 

It.W 

1173 
13,41 

11.60 
11.63 
13.17 
KOI 
It  76 

16.87 
13.67 
14  48 
16.36 
16.00 

i».ag 

W.U 

."n.41 

1«.M 
!4.U 

*tn 

<8.M 

16.7; 
ai.16 

S7.."B 
66,30 

31.46 

!4.13 
36.11 
41LM 

7t.9l 

W.31 
4U.« 
63.*3 

«7.m 

»4!* 
44  34 

68  «K 
73  73 
86.17 

3317 

32.17 

4s.m 

63.68 
64.34 

46. M 
64  M 

W43 
66.63 

ea.M 

in.t 

63.611 
60  SJ 

67. on 

66.90 

a4.3< 
:a.3» 
no.ts 

160.» 

«6.e8 

75.07 
H.ii 
«3.M 
167.7 

74.67 
I16,?» 

«.e» 
IV7.: 

114.6 

64.16 

II6.8S 
1M.6 
1W.6 
«l.3 

63.  R4 
107  S 
H0.6 
1)14.1 
Mil 

103. t 
116  0 

i:i3  7 

147.6 
tN.6 

113.6 

1A7 
144.8 
160.6 
»l.7 

IM.* 

ti4.a 
m.i 

381.7 
376.3 

Mil 
3IU  1 
335  1 

!«l.3 
331.7 

i««.6 

Ml.fi 
376.3 
449.11 
663.1) 
666.8 

sai.7 

4».0 

bM.i 
613.4 

760.7 

Mt.t 
4636 
4(13.3 
713  » 

M4.5 

44*3 

636.3 
670.3 
664,3 

66*  4 
A60.6 

737.3 

864,7 

Km 

(8S.6 
643.4 
601.3 
666.3 
1136 

ii 

6!M.<    '6«3.«     J7M.; 
MB.t    '7SI»     1141.5 
670.9     II01.3     »M.3 

B57.«     M6.2 
M«  :  !1<JM 
1V7S     .ua6 

KB* 
19116 
1341 

urn 

law 

1476 

I38T 
1148 
I6U> 

e  wire  table  on  llie  follow  iii|;  pnire  irnjiii  a  circular  of 
k  Mfe.  Co.)  shows  at  a  f{l<^i>ci^  the  Kize  uf  wlrcr  tirues- 
lOD  01  any  (civen  current  over  a  kiinwii  rli8tnno(.<  with 
rop,  toT  lOOvolt  and  SOO-volt  olri-ulm.  with  vai'j'ltig 
gf  which  this  table  has  been  calculated  la 


DXJOOO 


R, 


Toltg  drop  In  Hectro-mof  ive  force,  fllie  current,  L  the 

iftmo  to  trie  point  of  distribution,  nuil  Ii  (lie  line  nvliit- 

usand  feet. 

red  the  siie  of  wire  necmumry  to  cnrry  a  current  of  ijO 

r  8S0  feet  with  a  lorn  of  5^  at  100  riAln. 

>le,  under  60  amperes,  we  Hnil  the  itiVKn  rli«taiic<-.  (f^ 

rizontal  line  and  under  SX  drup  at  100  voll*.  We  fiiul  So. 

>  rise  required. 

■ize  will  be  required  for  10  ampere*  tlOO  tntt,  wttli  a 

*.  

flnd  1990— the  nearest  fttrure  (o  SOOO-and  In  the  Minr 
VH  at  SOO  Tolta  Sod  So.  11.  the  lUze  reqiilrvd. 
mim    for   ■i6ea6*4»aecn«    Llclitlns.     iW    ti 
d,  Oct.  IS,   lW.'.i-A   formula  for  calculaUiw  wirbiK 


I  s        „  Ly,    or,     A  = 


'/  ■ 


aP 


W  s  •■n  ratine  cit  laa6Ba: 
ttflMHOMIfM.  la  foat:  Jr  s  numtar 


M*-.  fact  (o  cmm  d 


of  I 


1042                       ELEOTKICAL   ENQINEGRING.                        ^H 

aiid  tike  (orniulte  for  beet  curreot  and  resUl&nc«  b«cum<*                      ^^^^ 

C-'*«^;^'^lfrin*)i 

p* 

«'"♦                    ■ 

''  ~  n(T«H  -  P»i 

"  1  +  Kin  «'               ■ 

ItllWgr  wtw«wl  ■»  heal  In  walls  per  mile  =  C*,-  =  ^  r^j^- 

Horse-fiowerwAKted  per  miles  11',  =  -  j.^^- 

(^  ^  ilii|Cl«  wlio<i«  iBiiKciit  -  vt  *■  P,  and  the  value  of  f  corre>pondiii);li)t 

I'lirn-ot  ilennily  of  S80  uuipere.t  |)er  sq  in.  is  IB  «a6.> 

TABLE   OF   ELECTBICAI.   HOBSE-POHrKBil. 

Fuiiiiula  :  ^-"'"'  ^  *"'P*':g'  =  H.P.,    or    t  volt-ampere  =    OOlSMBH.l' 

Read  am|)eres  at  lop  and  volts  at  aide,  or  vice  verta. 

u 

ToIlH  vr  Anipenff,                                                    H 

^ 

B 

1        1 

^1 

Is 

t 

s 
< 

6 

1 

1»        M 

BO 

40 

60      1    30 

7. 

(0 

»o 

100 

no  1  vm 

MIM 

nntii 
.ontoi 
.m» 
.mmti 

.0134     ,4IM 
,«W«     ,06,1» 
,0M(     .WM 
.«694      .1072 
.0«7«     .1141 

.0403     .0434 
.U«»4      ,1073 

.191*    .lem 

.!«««      .S146 
.Wll      .3431 

.M70:     .nM4 
.19411     .HWO 
.Will     ,S413 
.tWIl,    .3317 
.3361,    .40CB 

OBSK     .10711     .1903      .1341 
.1H77      -21*61     .94l>     .9431 
.SdlCi'    .3-.!17l     .3619      .t0«3 
.:i763     .4««      .4886      .M«a 
.4atH     .M«3      .»«3S      .6709 

!eMj^9 

• 
7 
i 
» 
10 

.S«M> 

loiimi 

.01M< 
01341 

.«ao4    .lami:   .mis 

,«*M     AVn     .VfW 
.1071     .9146     .S17 
.ia(H      .1413      .S«l« 

.1341    .<wi    .4«n 

.SlTj 
.3763 
.4330 
.4894 
.6M1 

.1091     .4»S 
.44*1     .«C30 
634St     .4434 
.4032      .7930 

.3703     .8043 

,64.V     .64S*      .7«1» 
JSm      .7607      .H*."* 
.7307     .II679I     .tK<i 
.M46     .«<62,  l.OM 
,  .(383|  1.0T9  \   l.DM 

.8013    .ari^^H 

1.W4      I.St^^B 

1.3U    i.i;»   1  i9 

11 
I* 

u 
u 
u 

,»14J6 
.DIM* 

.017a 
.oucn 

.OMU 

,1I7S 

.laoo 

.1743 

.vtn 

.MM     .4411 
Jiir     .4391 
.3433     .tm 

.40M    .turn 

.£IIM 
.1434 

MtO 

.7807 
.3043 

.7S7S 
.3013 

.33X4 

1.006 

.1347 

l.OM 
1.114 

ijog 

1.033 
l.l* 
1.390 
1.314 
I.40II 

1.130     I.3S7 
1.837  '   l.44« 
l.W*      l./A* 
I. Ml      l.Gn> 
l.OOl  <  1.810 

iIti"                    '■  1 

ILOil      ■  -llM 

11 

» 
1* 

m 

.091 «« 

.IK4I] 
.inM7 

.otan 

.1413 
.1647 
JKI 

.4S»0     .4434      .«57« 
.4CMI     .4*37      .(lis 
.4«a4!     .719a      .MM 
.»M|     .7«U    l.OW 
.3369     .Il>i3   1.0719 

I.m 

1.139 
1.904 
I.S73 
IJMO 

l.«7 
I.S87 
1.443 
1.698 
1.309 

l.BCl 
1.M5 
1W9 
1.783 

L«n 

1.714 
1.323 
1(30 

».a»7 

U46 

1.030 
2.^1 
S.17S 
1.8(1 
1.4M 

9.146 
1.97» 
1.413 

1.6*7 
3.481 

i.^^^H 
i.i^^^H 

IS 
H 

1 J» 

.OtNt 

.nm 
.osai 
.tarn 

.iSIt 
.IMt 

.SDH 
.3317 

.e«SO     .M4S!  I.IM 
.M»»      .M47'  l.lltO 
,«l<«!     .9U9    i.&l 

.Hwi   .Msa  i.an 

.4704|  1.1*16  1  I,3»J 

1.403 

1.4T3 
1.6*3 
1.609 

i.o;» 

i.sn 

1.76» 
1.360 
1.930 
2.011 

1.(71 
9.0(4 
3.163 
1933 
3.340 

se.3W 
aM7 

un 

(.fiss 

t.e»4 

S.776 
1.M6 
S.W4 

1J16 

%M» 

3.083 
3.117 
3.381 

n 

MMXI 

.tuna 

.34lt 
.S»» 

jaia 

.4*71 
.T«M 
.7607 
.777S 

.dots 

L044     1.3«i 
I.M4     1.M3 
l.l«     1.601 
M«8     1.6IU 
l.iM     1.409 

1.743 

i.aio 

1.W7 
1.9M 
3.011 

3.001 
9.178 
3.963 

S.US 

3.440 

3.634 
S.e!!7 
9.7SI 
9.316 

1.788 
1.8W 
3.003 
3.1U 
3uU7 

S.I37 
3.367 
3.373 
S.4M 
S.»l( 

3.1S6 

3.419 
3.753 
3.337 
4.(tt 

3  941     1^ 

31 

as 

31 
S6 

.OilM 

.wm 

:«^ 

.OiOK 

.41M 
.4SM 

.4434 

.4&M 

.tew 

.nu 

.1679 
J347 
.0115 
.93X4 

1.U7      ].t«3 
1.887      1.714 
1.3n     1.7M 
1.347     uxa 
1.408     1.377 

«.07» 
9.146 
3.313 
»J7» 
3.340 

3.4011 
9.(74 
1.454 

1.736 

S.OOS 
.1.0(7 
a.l!» 
!l.83* 

3.3M 
S4» 

3.6il* 
3.443 

3.7SS 

3.740 
3.8(1 
3.(3« 

1.109 
4.3S3 

4.iia 

«.!(» 
*.4S4 

4.  ft.'* 
4.4Ki 

6.I^^^H 

St 

XT 

40 

.OMN 
.OHM 
.OUM 
.MM 

.M33 

.4tW 
JWM 

MM 
JI9K 

.ttw 
.aoso 

1.01 » 
1.044 
1.073 

l.«« 
1.43! 

i.aai 
I.m 

).«0« 

1.(30 
1.IS4 
9.033 
3.0*1 
tl46 

3.413 
3.430 

3.647 
3.4I4 
3681 

I8(r. 

3.978 
3.036 
3.137 
3.317 

1878 
11.479 
HJM 
3.II30 
.^753 

SMI 
3L««S 

4.D7S 

4.S43 
4.4*4 
1.636 

4.n» 

i.SM 

4.(K 

*.9«0 
6.0(4 
6.998 
6.3(3 

6.^^^H 

41 

4a 

43 
44 

4» 

.064M 
.0M30 
.067S4 

.VMS* 

.a4M 

.tta 

.37(4 
.fi«M 
.4033 

LOW 
I.ISC 
1.163 
I.ICO 

i.m 

1.449 
1.43* 
1.790 
1.7«» 
1.310 

3.101 

3.304 
3.960 
9.413 

3.7M 
3.KIS 
S.3W 
3.(49 
3.014 

3.SM 
S.374 
S.4M 
3.1)39 
34111 

3.M7 
.1941 
4.<)3,'> 
4.199 
4.£a 

4JM 

4.311 
4.71> 
1.811 

4.M4 

6.0C7 

sas? 
6.ag* 

«.4» 

S.4M 
6.(30 
6.7*4 
6.3(8 
4.089 

44 

17 
48 
**! 
HO 

.MM 

.M3W) 
MMM 
MOW 

(«70!t/ 

.tlOB 
.4300 
.«4S4 

.47(13 

1.933 

I.MO 
1.237 

i.au 

1.S41 

1.3M  [  3.407 
t.8m     3.S30 

l.»3n  ',  i,bn 
i.«1»  ;  1.6W 
•i.DU  \  a.wv 

3.aB 
3.ia« 

3.700 

3.7«l 

4.;iic 

4.11- 

'.  Km 

\ 

U.VI.M 

: m 

^^^                             ^i^^N 

TRlXSJilSdtoy. 


UH'a 


.'  of  a  motor  lieJOK  given,  U>«  uw  ul  ibv  con- 
I  be  fouixl  from  iU«  (oIIuwmik  fortuula. 

UWO  ■  HP.  y  I 
il£'  :•;  eBlcieufjr 
voll«,  AOO;   drop,  if;   fiwd  to  (lb  rlhuttng 

£l*, 109  circular  mils,  or  »l>ont  No.  6  B.  £  S. 

■E<ong*d1atanre  Trannmlsalon. 

I^ciuse  El.  &  Mfg.  Co.) 

OB  TBB  TlKLmRT  OV  ONE  MlECH^iMCAI.  HtlRtlE- 
nm  1000,  «)Oll,  SOOO,  JUOO,  50aO,  asd  lO.OOO  Volts 
AT  TbRMIKALB  or  LoWBIIIXa  TBANSrolUISBS. 

}rt  (drop),  equals  StK. 
mtj  utiles. 

lUila  of  single  distance,  11,000  feet,  to  allow  for 

sent*  per  pouod. 


aooor. 

MOOT. 

BOOO  IT. 

10,000  V. 

$0.23 

to.is 

SO. 06 

so.oe 

o.sa 

0.68 

0.33 

0.08 

8.06 

1.17 

0.75 

0.1« 

8.70 

2.08 

1.33 

0.88 

S.78 

SO 

s.oe 

O.RS 

8  33 

4.ea 

8.00 

0.75 

It. SO 

«.37 

4. OK 

l.fri 

14.80 

W.-HJ 

5.3:1 

1.8.1 

18  .TO 

10. M 

«.74 

l.W 

311.14 

18.01 

N.33 

tjm 

»<» 

l.-i.TB 

lO.OH 

9.M 

as.80 

18. 7U 

IV.OO 

8.00 

».oo 

tt.OO 

14  ON 

t.W 

4&.30 

aw 

14  .n 

4.«e 

MM 

aa.M 

J8.7a 

4.W 

,w.oo 

84.90 

Zl.Ssi 

«M 

87.00 

«7.ao 

84.00 

•jm 

75.00 

*'l'M 

27.(10 

».7.% 

M.SO 

47.00 

SO.OO 

1M 

W.60 

W.OO 

*i.!W 

8  !» 

>4  of  cnJciibitloK  le«^8  for  nirliiK  fur  rliftrlc 
1  HeriDEln  Trnn«  .AT.  K.  F,,.  1«1»1.  H"  fiirtixbrji 
wla  of  dfaemini  — ^  -' ■  '-     '     •-  •••n- 

ooder  th*  rpi  !« 

by  slraply  lorn'  •  on 

pan  wWi.'  ifif 

r«rlabl«»  -i  'rt 

!r  two.  tli>-  iv» 

KT  aen*  iin*n« . 

iaicalatin"'  — 

plUX  Mfl 

e*  of  dia;.' 

tt  bone-i^- ■  T^- , 


i ri        I\rr 

/  a^aMh)  »IU  Uu-rr- 
1    Ch*  Mliif»«r—    "  If" 


othar  bwtwirtal.  anJ  tba  6i»ty/^t 
>l  <«e  MSM  <<]r  a  nmnttvf  Af  IMNT 
M-'«cn4cM  Uaaa  iiia  <Uacaute| 


Wke 


ELECTRICAL   KKGIKKERING. 


Cost  or  Copper  rbqcuici*  to  DKLtvuB  Okk  Mrcbaxicai.  He 
MoTOR-sRirr  with  V^rtiko  Perckktaq**  or  Loss  im  Coito 

TBS  ASSUUPTION  THAT  THE  POTBKTUL  AT    MOTOR   TnUfmALI 

Case  aooo  Volts. 

DistaDces  (>qual  one  to  ttrenty  mil«8. 
"otor  pfliciency  equals  90jB. 

D|rth  of  conductor  per  mile  of  single  dinUuice,  11,000  fret,  to 


Mnf 


it  of  copiier  equals  16  cents  per  pound. 


liles. 

10< 

m 

80* 

SSK 

1 

'  1 

90.S3 

f0  33 

»0.28 

$0.17 

3 

8.08 

1.81 

o.ia 

on 

3 

4.68 

2.05 

808 

1  u 

1  tl 

4 

».»i 

5.45 

8.70 

2.77 

mi 

5 

18.00 

s.ao 

5.78  . 

4.S8 

— ^— . 

S 

18.T0 

11.75 

8.83 

e.«8 

^^H 

7 

iiS.BO 

Ifl.OO 

11.30 

e.« 

^^H 

8 

S3  30 

Sl.OO 

14.80 

11.00 

^^H 

9 

«  ao 

26.60 

18.76 

14.00 

^^^1 

10 

W.tK 

83  78 

la.u 

17.81 

^^H 

11 

B3.U0 

39.75 

«00 

21  00 

^^^1 

13 

75.00 

47.80 

saw 

S4.M 

^^^1 

13 

S8.O0 

55.30 

at.oo 

2e.» 

^^^H 

U 

102.00 

M.SO 

K.VO 

sa.oo 

^^H 

15 

117.00 

73.75 

52.00 

e.oo 

^^^1 

16 

133.00 

83.80 

50.00 

44  30 

^^H 

17 

lao.oo 

W75 

07.00 

50  00 

^^^1 

18 

169.00 

1U6  00 

75  00 

A«.t« 

^^^1 

I« 

188.00 

118.00 

83.50 

K.ao 

9BBI 

90 

SW.OO 

131.00 

W.W 

w.as 

Mjr 

to  rtT)re!wnt  one  of  the  two  quantHiw  which  is  equal  to  the  qooUMit  i 
ntlMT  two,  mill  DOt  th«  oik*  which  is  nqiial  to  (he  pro«luct  of  Ui»  o" 
becaUM.*  the  curves  would  then  Iw  liyperbnIaM.     In  Uie  fxnrnpie  J 
riineonalR  must  wpr-es.-nt  volts  or  amp'-r—    '  '•*  "  '  'v-----  ■ 
Ktaiils  in  Hiioli  foniiuitt  afTcct  only  iti<' 
thry  iin;rea.Kect>iisidernbly  the  work  of   . 
'  ey  do  not  afTtK:t  in  iht-  least  the  grapU.. ...  vcm  .ii.i>i..iu>  m  i-t 
t  once  drawn. 
The  general  formula  for  wiring  is  : 


tion 


current  for  one  lamp  X  So.  of  Uropa  X  dlshMtf»  X« 
loss  iit  *o1t« 


'  itys  oortslAbi,  I 

■inaeetion  Is  ' 

jininlill*_"s 


eontainine  gi.t  qiiann 
to  t«i<:e  ine  inif-foiji 
ills.     Calciilalions  ii 
>  erafhieally  by  miiiu.->  uf  a  j>iii;{k' jiL-t  c 

Mr.  Herlnir's  methfuJ  the  forinulu  ii  »y' 
h   of  which   ..Viiiliiiiiv    ipi    inc.r.'   Okiii    il 
'inula  can    '  :!■»«« 

bed,  thus  ,  ..!e« 

this,  !'■■  ■  ,  -n. 

_  current  for  one  lamp 
~  loss  in  »oll» 

flvhichx  Is  a  mere  auxiliary  quantity,    list  •  MCOoA 
form  the  neztcalcnlailoo, 

V  =  X  .•  niimlier  of  lanip*; 

doa/  cak'iilMUot), 


JHb 

Mned  v 


IBANSMISSTOK. 


1047 


._.Ded  with  aoy  oue  of  Oi«ee,  It  Is  lmniat«rlal 

ation  mny  at  nist  deem  to  complicate  matters 

dntitlos,  a-  and  y.    These,  however,  arc  easily 

/ice  of  placing  the  three  Jia(;rams  together,  side 

.hat  the  two  x  scales  coiiioKle,  aail  similarlj  the 

is  one  has  merely  to  pass  direcily  from  i>iie  set  of 

«rforin  the  successive  stetis  of  the  calculatlou, 

bout  tbp  tntennediate  auxiliary  quantitiPs.  Theae 

>rrespood,  and  are  equal  to  the  successive  prod  iictg 

lined  in  the  succestiive  arilhtnetical  inuUipllcations 

Ive  quanlitifH   in    lh»  roniitila,    which  cannot,  of 

taking  the  caleulati'iuH  artUiiiii-tli'ully. 

r  redulred  Tor   LonE-dlstaiice  Xr«ii»- 

5son  (Tranii.  Tecli,  Sooy.  of  the  Paclflc  Coast,  vol, 

ng  formula: 


m 


H.P.<J«-_i:W.5, 


'copper  wire  in  pounds;  D,  the  dlnlanoe  in  miles; 
lor  in  hundreds  of  volts;  H.P.,  the  horse-power 
',,  the  i>er  cent  of  line  leas. 

horse-power  ten  miles  with  10  per  eent  Iom,  and 
tor,  we  have 

X  900  X  '"'°~-°-  X  iWa.S  =  63,800  lbs. 

ig-dlatanrc    Tranatnlsalon,    <F.  R.  Hart, 

ueclianjcal  •■fllcifiu-y  of  a  syslnm  is  live  ratio  of  the 
'"narrKt-clrrti'ic  iiinrhiiies  at  fine  eiul  of  ti^c  line  to 
he  electric  inotiirs  at  the  ijistaiit.  end.  The  com- 
namoormotorvniicswiili  its  Imul.  Tli«  niaiiniuni 
Ines  should  not  In?  under  'M)%  and  is  Bpldoui  above 
oralile  coiultlinns,  tli<-n,  we  must  expect  a  loss  of 
I  9i  In  the  motor.  The  loss  in  transmission,  due  to 
or  "  drop  "  in  the  line,  is  poverned  by  Ihc  sixe  of 
itions  retnainiiiK  tlie  same.  For  a  long-distance 
'ill  vary  fioni  .'7:4  upwards.  Wiih  a  loss  of  h%  in  the 
■f  transmlfHiijn  will  bo  siiehlly  under  7W.  With  u 
I  eflBciency  woidd  lie  aliffhtly  under  '."ijf.  We  may 
t  of  the  enicicucy  with  the  apijaratua  of  to-day. 
llRtaace  power  tr/inHnuKsjou  l»y  electricity  may  be 
•«l  clas-sen:  (1 1  Those  usiuic  coiitiuuous  current:  <8l 
lurrent;  and  «3)  reRt^iieiatin^'  or  "  motor  dynamo" 
|usof  each  of  these  general  diLsi^eii  are  tubulated  ae 


J    One  machine. 

I   Machines  in  parallel. 

[   One  machine. 

<    Machines  in  parallel. 

(    .Machines  in  series. 

I   <  machines  in  series. 

'l   Machines  in  multiple  series. 
Hacfaines  in  series. 

I  Without  conversions. 

■(    With  conversions. 

(   AVithout  conversious. 

)   With  conversions. 
\tlner  continuous, 
Mini;  corivei-ter;  line  converter;   aitematliiK  con- 

|0U8. 

luous-coiittnuous. 

'  Kcotiversion  of  any  system. 

.  ot  tbeHe  systems  vary  with  each  pfcrtl 
geueral  way  niay  be  labulatei)  a»b«4' 


Low 
voltage 

voltage 


le-wire 

ktlng  single  phase 

Mng  multiphase 


ELECTKICAL    ENGINBERIK6. 


Bjrstem. 


S-wlrp- 


liov  voltage. 


Hl^h  voltagrt!- 


S-irire. 


MiilUpl»-wire. 


Single  phase. 


AdTSDtages. 


Dbadv 


Safety,  siiupUoity. 


SxpeuM  for  i 


EcoDoniy,  simplicity. 


buildlui;  ma 


Muliiplinse. 


Lou- voIlas«  on  nmchinBD 
and  saviUE  in  copper.    "°'   savlnif    i 
"^         cor"-''   '■■' 

Low  volHi(r«j  Ht  iDaubines     ^^ ' 
aad  aaviDjt  in  copper. 


ICconomy  of  copper. 


iCaanol  i 
Loir  eH 


Econimiy  of  copper,  syu-  Complexity. 
I'hronous  upeed  uiidm.'-     flcieiicy    at 
essrtrr;    applicable   to     appar«tu«. 
very  long  ai.«it(inc«!.      |     "utAOdHrd,' 


Motor-dynamo. 


HiK>i-volta|re    "«'>8'n'*  ».„>„.^_ 
livery  r*"  •H'cieocy. 


tUvre  are  many  factors  which  Kovem  tiie  selection  of  a  system. 

bbli'in  coiiHlderiKl  Iheif  will  be  fouth!  .iMlniij  flxeJ  sn'l  oert* 

ODlulitions.     In   geueral  the  flx«rd   fact. 
|K)«er;  I'iicost  of  power  at  souice;  (3i  • 
of  ilelirery;  (4|  clanger  cuiiHiderntioiiK 

(6|  coMstriieifou  i.'iiinlltioris  (li-ngth  of  liue,  dJiiJuciei  oi  ci.iiiut. 
partly  flxi-d  coiulitious  are:  <T)  power  which  miiKt  be  delivere 
cieiier  of  the  system;  (8)  size  imd  number  of  delivery  uiUta. 
coinlllioiis  are:  (Ul  initial  voluige;  (10)  pounds  of  copper  oo 
iinl  cost  of  111!  apparatus  and  crinsliTictioii;  (12)  expeii<«>s.  ot 
chilrpes,  iiitere>^t.  deprwiation,  laie«,  iu.siirance.  elo.i;  (ISilial 
and  MoppaKeti;  (J-ii  danper  at  Btaljoii  and  on  line:  ll5)coaTe 
atiiigr,  inaliinic  changes,  extensions,  etc.    Assuminff  that  the  ' 
inos.  motors,  etc.,  will   be  approximately   the  itanie   wl»te 
liressiire.  the  preat  variation  Iti  ilie  cost  of  wire  at  dUTeri>nl 
shon-u  by  Mr.  Hart   in  the  fnllowlng  llgures,  KlvinK  Uie  welghi 
""uired  for  transmitting  iCIO  horse-iKHverS  miles  : 

Voltage.  Drop  10  per  cent.  Drop  90  tier  tt^nl 

S.000  I6.80O  lbs.  B,400  lb*. 

S.OOO  7.400    ••  .H.r()0    •• 

10,000  isfli  ••  sin  •• 

Efllcleucy  of  a  Combined  EiiKim'  bixI  lltiiniito.  - 

Sound  double  •  cianlc  WUlans  engine 
ynntnoof  the  Kdison-Hopkinsnn   tyi 
follows:     The  low-pressure  cvlinlei    i 
pressure  ISM  lbs     It  Is  cmipleif  !• 
aiiiiieres  Hi  110  voltB  when  drivei 
tiireisof  the  luir  conMiruction,  <     . 
couitnittator  of  bard-drawn  cop^ter  with  utujii  iiiaiilaiitiii.     x'ouf  I 
uarrie<l  on  each  rocker-arm. 


MIIU 
■jMI 


Realslnnce  of  maeneta  . 
Kesistanc«  of  armature. 
..ILP  .     .,  


lefflclency ..  «4:  p«» --»*» 

■mptlon  of  water  per  I H  P.  hour  « .» | 

Himplioit  of  water  |>er  E  H.P    bimi  0 

renjtioe  tiitd  dviiuimi  were  wot*  ''^t 

itrr/y  ■  lAiKM  hi  uviy.ii'i  c-in*.  ton  umlta.  «fi>l  J».*l 
'  na/ui.  nfiul  h>  ■■.'  <M:*ottun  Urn  •♦•flW**** 


TRANSMISSION. 


1049 


btance  alone  was  Wf.    The  remainder  of 
power,  Is  due  to  friction  of  enf^inn  and 

■  Generator  and  motor.— A  twelrp- 
lodie,  CaJ..  is  desofH>ed  by  '1'.  H.  LostBeti 
b-phase  altemalhiR  current  l»  uiie<l.  The 
K.  W.  coDBCanc-pou-ntlal  IS-pole  inachliie. 
The  motor  is  a  gyaolironoiui  coutant-po- 
sr.  It  is  brouetit  up  to  speed  by  a  10-H.l'. 
\fe  electrical  eitli-ieucy  of  tba  generat^ir  and 


otr  GxKEjLiToa, 

Amperes 

Tolta. 

Watta. 

35.8 
U.S 

CO 

78 

048 

' 

1419  a 

m 

464. 7< 

80U.31 

'. 

30 

3414 

<IB380 

Bcieooy  of  geDerator. 

in  OK  MoToa. 

n.65t!(. 

Anporea 

VoH* 

WstM, 

ss 

68.4 

S844.8 

1- 

000,0 

. 

8804.08 

'..'.'. .... 

so 

8110 

SMID 

ll  efBclency  of  motor,  03.883!(. 

rlcal  Puniplng-plant.  (ESiri.  (t  U. 
>|r-plaiil  at  a  niliiu  at  Nuruianton,  EtiKland, 
lelow: 

if  'JO^i  X  4^in.  eoelDes  runnlni^at  20  rcTH.  jter 
3B  rivln);  600  volts  and  59  arapieres,  .  T)ie  L-ur- 
Sd  iDto  tile  mine  by  an  ianulated  cable  iiIhiuI 
MbdMied  to  two  fiO  h.p.  motors  » liicli  i>|»-r- 
Rimps,  Willi  rams  0  In.  and  4V%  in.  diain.  ami 
Kaiiist  wlik'b  the  pumpa  operatp  is  t*U(>  (tvi 
there  Ih  also  a  a«t  of  gearing  for  dhiiritr  >> 
•ope  Hysteni,  and  a  set  of  tbrt*-tliiow  ram 
-incli  Ktroke  can  also  tie  throvrn  into  uenr. 
at  uktlipr  motor  qan  operate  any  ur  all  tliree 
escribed.    Indicator-diagrams  gave  tbo  fol- 


6.9  H.P. 
4.8   " 
e.7   •• 


imps  emptj 10.9 

{hew feet 81.5 

nd  riaiiv  main 13.9 


9.4« 
9.6% 
9.V 
14  .Of 
43  U 
17. W 


78.0  H.P     lOO.Ojt 


rere  obtained  the  total  efllclency  of  tli«  plant 
0«ie  tn47X 

IHs<rtbaUoa.-Kapp.  Electric  T 
raiiMiiiii*.'<l<in  Handbook;  Martin  an' 
vUosUoob;  Uospit&Uer,  Pol;pltaai 


ucBTnra. 


1061 


i* 
ibat  afaw' 

ttytom 

boBar  k  an  Imiwiw  rtmtmirot 

H  li  no*  eoBiiuKd  uo  loag,  h  wSI 

iwinrinai  raprtty,  aad  without  aay  cAtaC 

Iks  type  of  coeiB*.    WMi 

Mr.  Cfanick.  raaains  BOB-«oadaaiiiK,  •> 

p  actmlly  «»iioiwr»d  y«r  LB-P-per  boar  irlU 

sncies.    Tbe  CDgine  duty  under  ao  average  iwi- 

ihiDgr  troox  the  dutf  nndrr  a  Tariable  load  ivp- 

Under  the  aoiform  load,  a  ptrands  of  vater 

performanoe,  and  tb<?  boiirr  oould  b*  proper- 

flgure.     CnJer  the  riolent  lliictuatioag  of  rail- 

ty  of  (he  en^ne  will  rise  to  about  3S  pound*. 

t  load  ix  taken,  and  tiie  bciler  proportioned  for 

ilfflctefit  m&ntin.     Other  compound  en^nes  not 

li  secunea  uoiformity  of  duty  will  nm;.---  iw  tu  at 

loada.  and  of  Urn  lo  60  pounds,  an  an 

ao  3S  to  40  pounds.    Tne  same  i^  ■  ry 

iugiue.  wtiellier  high  speed  or  low  r  -hot 

'ailing  back  of  fuel  duty  under  variable  load. 

ECTBIC  L,IGHTINO. 

r  required  to  produce   Lleht,— Aocord- 

ily  of  euer^y ,  lueamured  in  uatts,  requirfd  to pn>- 
M^alldle-power.  meaaiired  by  the  lit^it  KJven  out 
h  follows  for  different  lighl-KiviDg  siibstaucva: 

4  watts 


Coal  gaa 68  watta. 

Canuel  gas 48 

iDcandescent  lamp . .  15      " 
Arc  lamp S      " 


irodnctlon  are  about  1  for  the  arc  lamp;  8  for  the 
le  mineral-oil  lamp;  10  for  the  gaa-light;  67  for  the 

%t  Lsmpa.  (Enff'ii.  Sept.  1, 189J,  p.  S82.)— From 
>8r«.  Siemens  and  Ilalske,  Berlin,  It  appears  that 
Boent  lauipH  at  different  expenditure  of  wnltd  per 


l.S 
4S 


S 
900 


2.S 
450 


3 

1000 


3.S 
1000 


r  Teata  of  I>anips.  <P.  Q.  Gossler,  Elec. 
uiipH  buriiicig  nl  a  voltage  almve  tbar  for  which 
1  pri'fttivr  illiimiimtiiiK  power  thnn  \C  riindles,  but 
I  18  very  oouHiderably  shortened.  It  hns  been  ob- 
froiii  the  raolory  do  not  overoKe  the  .miitiH candle- 
iTerent  liirolees;  lliat  Is,  lamps  which  are  leeelved 
juite  uniform  ihrouKboul  that  lot,  but  they  vary 
nade  at  other  tinie«<. 

ow  the  different  llliiriiloatlllir-powers  Of  H  lO.C.p,, 
srious  voltages  from  25  to  80  volts: 

CO  Ba.5  66.6  60.5  03  «8.V  7S,S  80 

1.06S  I.0S7  1.161  1.230  1.29  1.410  1.4M  l.(W 

1B..8  90.9  S8.4  S9.3  80.7  7i.H  109,8  MI 

5i75  67.S7  94.48  78.W  TB.W  WS.TB  I"" 

z.M    e.8i    s.ao    i.M    I..VI    ]«■ 

I  Hoblomon,  SI  l.O.K.,  tHQ'o  tft 
w-lump  la  III*  inuat  eooni 


IC   WELIIIKO. 


losa 


)  •Bipem  aiid  aM  i»4  iteo  IB  volu  Imiwcv* 

TlHf  quaUcy  of  ttaa  earboos  «0I  dctermta* 

'  iu  c-lwInlBie  tbv  moat  U^bt  or  out,  or 

-r.i-  kiiKta  or  aoiitlMr 

ail  arc,  thr  I>>s5  la 
are  atiuut  lloUms, 

ts  tn  a  •rrira.  rach  da'ttiatultng 
Its.    IB  K'^ing' toyond  tills  Um 

I  iahllnjr.— Noll,  How  «o  WTItb 

lik'bi  LVntral  8tation<i.  |<(.(n: 
1  mi. -1  ■.!...  >  .11  Tlicorr  and  Prturtloe,  Srols., 
Electric  LiiEtitiii?,  81..%.';  Alpive  aud  Buiilonl, 
I  rodactlun,  ami  Api.ill..'ation,  $5.00 

fOTBIO    WBLDIXC. 

eraliy   ukmI  iviuiiiU  of  au  olleriiatinir-cutTent 

■livt>ly  liigb-iHitfiiilal  current  to  the  primary  coil 

P'liUKfijriiier,  l)i«  stH.*oiJ<lury  of   which  U  itiiide  so 

nrt  ill  i«*tt(;th  a«  (•>  Mi|*|.*Ly  to  the  w^rk  ounvnt*- 

•II-,  nn.l  nf  very  large  vohmu- or  ral**  of  flow 

Mui.'lieil  ii>  lie  -^(.'"U'iary  l<*riniiiaU.     Otlier  forms 

|rijijuc«  foo.xiruci»»U  to  yield  alt^^rnatiu^  cuitbiiIk 

to  the  upl<liii|;'cUuupt>,  are  iiseil   to  n  liiniml 

;  of  the  iii«lal  to  be  weldtxl  has  a  rievidM)  InAii- 
Flii  MeldiiiK  i'oii  ii»  coui)>arativfIr  low  li«ac  eoudiiu- 
lalerinlly.  (S«'«"  piiin'i-s  by  Sir  F.  Bruinwell.  Proi'. 
.-11.  p.  1;  aikI  Eliliii  Tlionison,  Trans.  A.  I.  M,K..xix. 

Uf,  N"v,  'is,  i«tt,  give*  tbe  following  flj^iirea  «bow- 

Euirud  to  Held  ajiles  and  UrM: 
AXu:-ireu>tKo. 
8«cou(Ui. 
»S5H.P.  for 45 

qtilivKSOH  P  for M 

rwjiiin-^  3.")  H.I'.  for OQ 

rMiiiPi-s  10  11. P.  for 70 

HuiiTs  r.^  H,P.  for W 

•quires  90  HP.  for lOO 

1  time  flUil  jjowvr  reciiilrej  for  wpldlng  the  ftiliaro 
he  extra  metal  in  It,  but  in  part  to  the  care  wlilrli  It 
I  perfect  alignment. 
TinE-wEi.Dixa. 

Beoondu, 

quires  tl  HP.  for 16 

lulre«2^H.P.  for « 

quire.)  20  HP.  for W 

julres  43  H.P.  for ,    ¥> 

ilras  29  H  P.  for M 

ilre»«H.P.  for « 

for  vreldinK  i*  of  coiira«  that  reqninvl  for  tlic  ni-iiinl 
eul  only,  and  du>*i)  not  Inohidc  thai  e(Mi.%iiin<tl  liy 
res  Iu  tl'io  machlius  the  remoral  of  ih»  iipwt  and 
I.  From  thxdata  thiisiiubMiltti^,  theciMtor  wvldlnit 
^or  any  locullty  where  the  price  of  fuel  and  eont  of 

I  cost  of  the  fuel  used  under  llie  boiler*  for  prnjni' 

veldinf;  la  ^iraoticully  the  xiinie  an  tiiu  emtt  nf   fuel 

Line  amount  of  work,  talting  into  cno»iderAti(in  the 

el  iiseil  in  either  case. 

ly  found  that  Stv Inch  iron  lulled  t^  la 

•  net  /jor«e;<ower  required  at  tUltf^ 

<OWtf  fwr  aqiuro  IncJt  Of  »ectl<>ii,    ' 


1052 


KLECTHICAL  ENOINBERIIfG. 


'  mn  Aiiflfl 


Bize  of  Bic-lanm  ttt  present  mAuu  facta  red  remilr**  «  <•""«'''' 
ainper*?*:  but  for  rteadines*  and  emcicncy  it  Is  f1«Mrai.l-«<'  "»•»"■ 

6  umpfies.    The  «uidlt?po«er  of  «rc-lamp»  vr.  ' "  "^ 

(o  theaniflf  ntwtilcli  it  i«niea«nieil.    Tlip  ifrfr.  " 

cun-fiit  l»iii|iB  la  foiiiiii  at,  i»n  iinple  fit  «l>iin  '"* 

The  fiiUowinirl«blf(dves  thBapprnjiiiiin-  •" 

Tlie  helplir  of  tli«  Uinips  slioul'l  W  an.. 
■     1  lliaii  i"  «o  Uie  uiosi  dlsiaul  poini  it   - 

■ilcbtlBK^o^ver  of  Arc-laitipa. 

-Caudle- iM>wur. 

At  Attele    At  Angle 

of  !• .  of  I0». 

175  S07 

The  follnwtnK  data  enable  iha  coefflciont  of  mlnimuin  U| 
Btreete  to  lif>  d<"ti!r mined; 
Let  f  =  cniidl'>-powpr  of  lamtw; 

L  =  niiisimum  ilistance  from  lamp  la  fe«l ; 
fj  =  hriijlil  of  lamp  In  feet; 
X  =  a  coefficient;. 
Tliellehl  falliiierou  ilieuult  areaof  pav 
of  tlie  dixlance  from  thx  lamp,  and  (s  •'■• 
whicli  It-  falls.    This  angle  is  iiearli'  pn, 
divided  by  the  dlstatiL-e.    Therefvire 


Current 
1  Amperes. 

HoilzonlBl 

« 
8 
10 

9S 
156 

..Pa 


or   jr  = 


The  hhubI  standard  of  fras-lt|!;btlriir  Is  repiTO9enK>il  by  Uie  i 
fiillifig  oil  tl>e  unit  area  of  pArement  50  feet  a^rajr  from  a  tt 
feel  high,  which  gives  a  cceWolent  as  follows: 


X  = 


18  X  » 
fiO> 


=  0.000861. 


The  nilniinnm  standard  reprefient<;  th(>  nmniint  nf  1tf;hi« 
f«?t  ««•«>•  fiiMii  a!Jt-c.p.  lamp.  9  r;  i  • 

Adopilnu  thf-  first  of  the  nbov*'  •.!>  i 

tlie  liefori'-ittontioned  xiuw  of  nu 

Ifelit  ftt  the  heiehtH  and  distances  stawii  iii    itiuie  a      Tab      _ 
corresiKindinK  distaucea,  ossuiulng  the  roininium  stAltdnrd  to  b«  i 


Table  A. 

Tablk  B, 

Hgt.  of  Lninps. 

« ft,  a  ft.  loo  ft. 

3Sft. 

Hei^t . . . 

Mft.  |»rt  1 

Current  In 
Ampwes. 

Max.  distances  Rei-rtx] 
from  lamp,  iu  ft. 

Aftlp^fM, 

Uax.  lUatana 
CrooiLa. 

« 

10 

160 

m 

90S 

1T.S 

ItlO 

sso 

MS 

joa 

S«0 

6 

B 
10 

IMl    '     lU     . 

The  dlfitAlines  tlie  lamps  are  npnrt 
taiiLVR  mentioned  In  Tubles  A  and  U. 

frniii  ;i  u,  i\  ;»as  larnifs,  ji'i'OiJjiifcr  i'»  tin- 


105^ 


1.  i.  "'^T.jcis; 


!<■■ 


.^COl-TS"* 


'"""nine  41^^  ■     *5"0 


45 

...  ff^ 

*    to 

100 


»«»''".  Til^m*"^  second*. 

r         TIRE-''^"'^'  » 

9  .  ,* on 

tei.'^.v. ^- ■::::: ■;;;;.•, ;  S 

niilrc*™,  11  P.fo'^-"        gj 

quif'^SHP.'"'" " . 

^"^''''Stt  H  V  fo«" f„r  ll«e  act«<v» 


1 


T0B8  on  STORAOK-BATTEKIKS.  1055 


tbe  radiatorper  pound  of  coal  bumod  in  the 

g>t-  8^  =  072  H.tJ.     An  ordinary  nteaiii-healinK 

?er  !b,  of  I'oal  for  benliiiK;  lieiice  the  elHciency 
he  ("nicienov  of  tlie  sieain-healinK  Kysteiii  as  S72 
Shig'y  News,  AiiR.  9,  '80;  Mor.  30,  'Itt;  May  35,  '9S.) 

ACOrifirLATOBS  OB  STOBAGE- 
BATTKRIBB. 

i  diviiled  iiiio  two  claaat^:  viz.,  chose  in  wlilch  the 
from  the  Hiilistance  of  the  element  itRelf.  eitlier 
ectro-eli^niicAl  actioti,  and  those  in  wliich  thn 
ileraled  by  liie  applicalJoji  of  Koine  eimlly  rertuti- 
of  tlie  former  type  are  usually  called  Plants,  and 
>,"or  "pasted." 

sing  a  iiolutioD  of  acetate  of  lead  found  thai  per- 

d  at  the  positive  and  metallic  lend  at  the  iiexative 

elements  in  a,  newly  ami  fully  oharc-d  l'lniii£  cell 

epoxide  of  lead,  FbOg.  and  8|ion^y  metallic  lead, 

.ositive  and  ncKQtive  plates. 

or  If  tliB  celt  l>e  allowed  to  remain  at  rest,  the  siil- 
(he  solution  enters  into  conibination  with  the  per- 
'and  partially  converts  it  into  Ktilphule.  Tbe  acid 
tctad  from  ihe  electrolyte  as  the  discharge  proceeds, 
ion  becomes  less.  In  the  cliarKi"K  operntlnn  this 
Bie  redudhlo  sulphates  of  lead  which  Iibth  been 
decomposed,  the  acid  being  reinstated  in  Ihe  liquid 
|i  increase  In  its  density. 

ntial  developed  by  lead  and  lead  peroxide  immersed 
»rly  as  niny  be,  two  volts. 

UTAdually  loses  its  t'locurical  energy  by  liKal  action, 
wing  according  to  tiie  clreiimmances  of  its  preimro- 
C  tbe  cell.  Various  forms  of  lioth  )'liint6  and  Faure 
in  "Practical  Electriral  EuKiueeriu^." 
Ited  cells  lead  piaU-s  are  coale<l  with  mininm  or 
ttjt  wlt.il  acidulated  waler.  Wiien  dry  Uieae  )>iateR 
>  dilute  HjSO,  unil  subjected  to  the  action  of  the 
Kide  on  the  positive  plate  is  converted  into  peroxide 
Negative  plate  i^educed  to  finely  divided  or  ponius 

found  that  the  initial  electro-motive  force  of  the 
\  volts,  but  after  behiR  allowed  to  rest  some  little 
tbout  2.D  volts.  The  followiuK  tables  show  the  size 
M  of  Faure  cells,  known  as  tlie  E.  P.  S.  cells.    (Enn;- 

*.  8.**  Stormce-celln,  L  Type. 


1056 


ELECTUICAL   BKGINKEUIXG. 
"  K.  P.  8.««  C«U>,  T  Ty  p«. 


1 


Descriplion  of  Cell. 

SS 

Worklug  RBte_ 

.2 

It 

AppiTJX    txU/nil 
I)Iijnwi»toii«     ? 

No.  ot 

MaleriftJ  of 

Si 

Charge 

IMh. 

, 

-'2'' 

Plales. 

Box. 

i'harK<?. 

E 

■*■■ 

be 
J 

i 

1 1|; 

n    B* 

Iba. 

Amp«r, 

.Auiper. 

in. 

In. 

In       In.  ' 

Wood  (no  lid  >  .. 

10 

16  to  ao 

1  to  20 

W 

^ 

»,  :■  . 

"  J 

••     uvHliIiil).. 

10 

16  "  ao 

I  ••  ao 

e« 

^> 

F.boiiltedin  lUt).. 

]0 

IS  •'  «l 

I  "  a) 

M 

• 

r», 

15-| 

Wood<noll(i).... 

14 

)M  '•  28 

I  '•  *J 

S6 

^ 

s». 

'■     (Willi  lid).. 

14  |34  "   -X 

1  "  ao 

l» 

»»> 

Khoiilte  (no  lid).. 

14 

24  "  as 

1  "  80 

06 

8 

71. 

Wood  (no  lid)  ... 

18 

30  "  So 

1    "   40 

130 

II 

K-, 

'"i 

'•     (Willi  lid). 

1« 

SO  "  3.S 

I  "  40 

ISOllI 

«-„ 

F.lHtiiite  (iin  lid),. 

IH 

80  •'  Sfi 

1   "  40 

laoioj^ 

:■', 

Wood  ( no  lid  I  ... 

*! 

88  ■•  ii 

1   "   BO 

145  lau 

146  18^ 

F?., 

CT- 

■■       (Willi  lid). 

■."S 

88  "  BS 

I   "  60 

H-. 

Kbonite 

tl 

88  ••  411 

1   "  90 

145,  Wj!  :v 

I 


For  a  very  full   description   of  various  forroa  ot 
"  rraclical  Kloctrica!  Kii^ueerinB,"  part  ill.    For  ii^ 
iimctlc*"  with  Difjiilieii  bnttery,  se<}  paper  on  Elevii  c  il 
P  (;.  .Sfiliiiii.  Tiiins   A.  I.  M.  E  .  xviii.  34«. 

Use  or  .Storase-batterles  In  Pnvrrr  and   Light  ] 
{trvH  A'lt:  Ni.iv.  ■,'.  ia).j.  i-Tho  si.  ' 
Klf(y-tldi'dS(r(«l,  New  Yurk,  rslir 
Iniul,  liy  (li-livLTinK  into  the  luiiiiw 
oihfrwise  have  to  come,  and  «t  girniir  luss  or   '  ilt    . 
of  tlie  :<taliijiis  coimtcliiiK  wltli  the  network  of  maii 
Imj  vnrip^l  nion;  or  less  nrV)itrarily  lit  ihw*  stntii'iiF   > 
tioii  of  lomi  tliHt  the  lai'cer  HtatlnoH  nrt^  desit'f^d  or  n 

'I'be  littttery  cniisiHls  of  110  cells  each  of  about  lUd 
weiiflillig  tii'tiie  '.T<)  lbs.,  nnd  of  iilKiut  48  Iih-It-s  in  !■ 
and  1.1  inches  in  deptli.    I'iw  battery  hn-; 
aoOomperes,  but-  can  he  dlacliarg'ed,  if  i.- 

A  tcKt  madK  when  the  station  wbh  nii 
uooii  10  iiiidniKht,  allowed  that  the  baller.v  n>' 
energry  delivermi  to  llie  mains.     The  iimximi! 
by  tile  Imltery  was  about  :^0  aniueres.    Tliii». 
ample  of  a  liatU'ry  whicli  i*  ustd  for  the  piiri'---^*':    :.  li 
^'tatlllll  iiiaeltinery' that  would  otherwl«e  he  idle.     i.  Uii 
euei-)»y  to  inci*aj«  the  rule  of  ou(f<iit  of  the  station  »f  • 
loud.  u'Uleli  wmilit  nthervvise  lii*c*'-^- '    '  '    ' 

The  ^VorklnK  4'urrcnt,  •> 
cell  is  (hi-  lalio  between  llie  vulut 

chiiri;ln>.'  operation,  aud  llial  obtaiii-ii  niH'n  iii,>  ceii   i>.  .1 
specified  rate. 

Iti  n  lead  Htornpepell.  if  tho  Niirfae*  and  ^iiaiititv  of  nr-'le 
accuintely  prop.  :•  '         '    '•  '      ' 

after  I  he  terinin 
iS%  iiiiij"  be  iibi.i 

Inted.  fo  piaeiiifu  ]•■  imuh.i  m.ii  k.m  im 
and  lis  the  curi'eiit  efllcliMii-v  always  1'. 
crea-ie!",  It  in  funn.l  Hint  tlir- 'nornlflil  cm 
noil  averfi;'  •     '       ■  "'- 

A»  'be  1  ^'  elrotro-niotlw  force  of  1%  lr*d  u_ 

nev.-r  ej, .  .  „n  Ht^frcnii'tfTr  fnfrr  if  fr-  ro  rA 


racnm^tm.  It  fullons  ihal  «n  ••ner 


i,m 

1.00 

J.W 

M.W 

IDQ 

2-'.99 

1.S 

».l 

I.M 

Il.DV 

S.S 

es  4 

T.W 

10T.60 

1.00 

81.5 

9.00 

63.00 

).8 

99.9 

1.8 

199.8 

7.8 

89.45 

1.8 

58.9 

S.» 

18.«4{ 

1.9 

S7.95 

S.6 

29.8 

4.S 

8S.45 

«.4 

103.« 

6.06 

7.98 

6.87 

85.87 

6.63 

138.53 

B.75 

79.75 

4.01 

4.07 

'  atom-repla(3iuK  power  of  an  element  com- 

Jiic)'  is  unity. 

of  oue  atom  of  each  element  coiupa.red  with 

i8  unity. 

Iday's  law  show(^d  that  the  eleclrn  chemical 

iponloiial  to  its  chtjinicdl  i^iniivali'nt.    Tlia 

'elprhl,  ami  not  to  ntomic  wi-lniit-*- valency, 

Italier,  and  others  who  have  copied  their 

salt  is  an  exception  to  Tbompson  s  rule,  r~ 


CTROLVSI9. 

omiioumi  into  ita  conatltueiitahy  meanB  of 
ve  Uie  iioincncliitiin"  rt-lalinif  to  elwlroly- 
>eiJt>(;r)nij)()si'<I  rhy  K.I«i'trol)lf.  nnd  ttip  prtv 
•poles  of  tlie  l)altery  lie  colled  Elt^-lrort«i. 
■csnure  exists  he  cnllpti  tli*  Anode,  and  the 
mliiota  of  liocoiiiposltion  he  cnll«l  Ions, 
urrent  nf  (:)iih  aiript^re  wlU  dppoBit  0.017958 
»er  per  (tt>coiKl  on  one  of  th*  platps  of  a  iill- 
iyacl  bein^  a  aolntion  of  Bilrer  nilrftM  con- 


Bet  tree  by  a  current  ot  (m« 


1058  ELECTRICAL   ENOUTEERLNQ. 

Knowlnc  tho  Ktnnimt  nf  li}-iln>Ken  Miuft  wt  free,  iknd  the  chMniMlHl 
lf*nU  of  th<<  cmi»Ulii«t>ls  «f  other  oiibntaocM,  wp  can  calculate  «bat  T 
o(  llif  1r  oleiiiriila  n  til  he  «>t  fit*  or  deposited  in  a  given  time  bj  s 
current. 

'I'lnm  111*"  ciirieia  tlinl  lllicriit*^  1  pniiiime  of  hydrogen  will  liboll 
(rr«mni<^  of  o3t)i;»"ii.  nr  107.7  ki»i>>'i>*^'*  "f  .Vilver,  llie  niioibersSand 
tiein^r  till-  <'l)''iiiii'iil  •'iitiivftlcni*  for  oxyeeii  ttiid  silver  respectively. 

To  flixl  the  Wfljs'i'  of  metal  ilepoBitfd  by  a  piven  current  in  a  given 
fltid  Iln»«eit;lit  of  hyilioifeii  lilj«-r»(ed  by  I  he  piveii  current  in  the 
lime,  and  niiilliply  dy  the  chemical  equivalent  of  the  nietal. 

ThiiB:  Wrijtht  of  ai'lver  deposited  in  10  seconds  by  a  current  of  10  am 
=  weight  of  hydro^u  liberated  per  second  x  nun<lH>r  seconds  x  ci 
«lreiwUi  >.  107.7  =  .00001038  X  10  X  10  X  107  "  =    11176  grsinme. 

Weight  of  cupper  deposited  in  1  boiir  by  a  cunvnt  of  10  amperes  = 

.00001038x3600  v  10x81.5  =  11.T7  grammes. 

Bince  1  am|)ere  per  seoontl  liberatea  .00001038  grsmme  of  bjdl 
■treugth  of  current  Id  amperes 


weight  in  grammes  of  H.  liberated  per  aecond 

.00001038 
_       weight  of  element  liberated  per  second 


ring")i 


.00001038  X  chemical  equivalent  of  element' 

pie  table  on  pace  1057  (from  "  Practical  Electrical  Engineering  . 
.rotated  upon  Lord  Ka.vleiKli's  determluntiun  of  the  electrd-chemidsJ  e| 
*»nts  and  Koscoe's  atomic  welght.<i. 

ELKCTBO-MAGNETS. 

Vnlla  of  Electro-niaBnetlc  Jneasaremenu. 

C.O.S.  unit  of  force  =  1  dyne  =  l.OI'.tM  milligrammeci  in  localities  in ^ 
the  acceleration  due  to  gravity  is  il81  centimetres,  or  32.1S5  feet,  perH 

CCS.  unit  of  energy  =  1  erg  =  energy  required  to  overcome  the  I 
ance  of  1  dyne  at  a  speed  of  I  itentinictre  per  second.     1  watt  =  KP  sj 

Vnit  ningnetism  =  tliat  amount  of  magnetic  matter  which,  if  eoncMl 
in  a  point,  will  repel  an  i-qnal  amount  of  mainietic  matter  coneeiilrar 
another  point  one  centimetre  distant  with  the  force  of  on«?  dyni?. 

Unit  atrength  of  field  =  that  flow  of  magnetic  lines  which  will  mm( 
mechanical  force  upon  unit  pole,  or  a  density  of  1  line  persqoaif 
metre. 

The  following  definitions  of  practical  units  of  the  ma.^^    •    '  ^ 

given  in  Hniislon  and  Keunelly's  "Electrical  Engineering  '  , 

Qilberi,  the  unit  of  inagneto-motlTe  force:  such  a  M..  A 

10 
produced  by  —  or  0.79S8  ampere-turn. 

If  an  air-core  solenoid  or  hollow  anchor-ring  were  wonnd  with  lOO 
of  Insulated  wire  carrying  a  current  of  &  amperes,  the  M.H.F.  exerudt 
be  500  amjwre-iiims  =  CiS.S  gilherta. 

ireber,  the  unit  of  niugnetic  flux;  the  flux  due  to  unit  M.M.F,  «M 
reluctance  is  one  oersted. 

G'auM,  the  unit  of  magnetic  flux-density,  or  one  weber  per  nomult^ 
centimetre. 

The  flux-density  of  the  earth's  roagneliu  field  in  the  neigliborto 
New  York  Is  about  O.B  gauss,  directed  cfowuwards  at  an  Incllnatiou  of 
72°. 

OeriUed,  the  unit  of  magnetic  reluctance;  the  reluctance  of  *  cubic 
metre  of  an  airpump  vacuum. 

RelucUmce  is  that  quantity  in  a  magnetic  circuit  which  limits  tb* 
under  a  given  M.M.F.    It  corresponds  to  the  resistance  in  th*  eliCIi 
cult. 

The  reluctivilu  of  any  medium  is  Its  speciflc  reluctance,  on  i  in  ih*  f 
l^lem  la  the  reluctance  ofT^-red  by  a  cubic  centimetre  of 
opposed  parallel  faces.    Ih*  t>-\ue\.Wliv  of  nearly  all  subs 
the  magnetic  meialK,  is  swwmXAs  ^^^^  ol  xacwmtt^Vi  «<^8.i 
independent  ot  the  flux  denisvly .  ,       ,      ,. 

J^rnieabilHy  is  the  recivToca\olTiasn«.\<it*VM>3crtq 


HwrsTs. 


1059 


^etio  circuit  la 
IJIberte, 

ierst«<l«' 

irce  ■+■  magnetic  reluctance. 

oersteds  =  gilberts  •*-  wfbism. 
reaslne  tlie  magnetic  fliur:  ].  by  In- 
.he  reiuct-aaca. 

In  disciisfiing  magnftio  and  electrical 
h1  t.bat  the  aitnic'[iuus  and  rejiulslnns 
of  a  ouiiduelor  iicii.111  irou  lIlinKx  are 
«  maenet  or  coucluctor,  Tlie  "  mini- 
)  of  the  forces  action.  As  tlie  iron 
:ric  circles,  we  inny  aHSUiiie  lliat  (lie 
•veu  or  "  loops  of  force."  llie  follow- 
;  the  loops  of  force  iu  a  conductive 

the  conductor  are  parallel  to  the  axia 

a  Ifae  conductor  are  proportional  in 
r.  that  is,  a  deHuite  curreut  e^twraiea 
heise  miiy  bo  stated  an  the  strength  of 

»  are  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 

1  a  point  is  equal  at  all  points  on  the 
:ribed  by  a  (?iven  radius  about  that 
surface  of  4ir  iwiuBrocentiraetmi.  If 
the  number  of  lines  of  forc«  einanat- 
naesetlc  matter, 

t=  Pfiir. 

roduct  of  strengtli  of  pole  Jf  (Uid  it« 

.    Maginetic  moment  =  — — . 

ug:h  each  square  centimetre  of  cross- 
flc  induction,"  and  A  =  cross-section, 

.       LAB 
nt  =  — : — . 

I  maipietic  Held  whose  Induction  Is  H, 
I  are  all  horizontal  uud  at  riKht  iiiiKles 
riU  be  pulled  forward,  tliat  is,  in  the 
the  south  pole  will  be  pulled  iu  the 
luclng  a  torsional  moment  or  torque, 

i-  iw,  in  dfoe-centiinetrcs. 

uiatJag  from  a  point  varies  inversely 
[  poiut.  The  law-  of  Inverse  squares, 
tism  prociieds  from  a  surface  of  «p- 
are  sinall,  as  In  dynamo-electrio 
Btlon  of  Heat,"  pa^  467.) 
pet,  -In  HM  electric  iiiagnef  mode  by 
ground  a  core  of  Hoft  iron,  ilie  Hpace 
^uoe  is  culled  the  mag'neiic  field,  and 
th  (if  tlie  Held  is  propnrliaiittl  to 
iirrouudinjc  the  uiajfnet.  Under 
it  pa«8lnK  tbrnugli  a  given  iiunilier 
ISjcnetic  loops  will  depend  upou  the 
It  aa  the  nirreot  with  a  given  press- 
Ipon  the  resitiliiDce  of  the  circuit. 
bat  Inipiirtaiit  principles  concerning 

I  of  an  electro-maKnet  ia  nearly  pr<^- 
iHsin^  current,  provided  ttus  co* 


I 


ELECTRICAL   ENOINEERIKO. 


iKHL'tirtio  slranirth  l«  (iroportlntial  to  Ilia  number  nf 
'il;  Dial  i«,  lo  llie  iiiiiiilier  of  uui^t^i'f  tui 
Mpngili  U  tiuleppijd<«nt  of  the  cliii-ktit^s 


f  mm 


Thcw-  ltt««  :im>  Ix-  <»nilir«ctHl  111  Ihe  more  general  RtatfniMt^ 
•trfnf,'tli  i>f  nil  elt-clri)  ii)»);Mrt,  lli<-  Ntzc  of  llie  magnet  liriDg  Ibe 
pr''|i<<rtii>iial  l>>  llie  niiniln'r  of  iIk  iiriipi-rv  liiriih. 

Porre  In  the  <Gap  belfvcMi   Two   PoIch  of  a  Mag 

C  =  ri)rc<' exerli-'l  liy  •■mi- L'f  Ilie  |i"lf.»  u|Hin  u  unit  pule  In  ilicjfaji, 
ili'ii^M  V  •  <f  hues  in  llif  Hi*ril  ctjini  is.  tliat  there  are  iii  al'snliHrviri'i 
on  ■  i'  renllmi'irp  of  the  polnr  surface  of  th-- 

wii  irv*?  relative  to  the  l>n>nttlh  of  the  (m|i.  / 

fi>rr  I    ci|)oii    ihe   unit   pole   by  hoth   nnrili  an^i  ■ 

niiVKiii'L  if,  -7'  ^  iirm.  ill  (l.viKW  =  B.  or  the  indiictloii  iu  hues  of  I 
square  cenliiiieife.  If  .S  =  number  of  funarc  eeulimefres  in  H 
imrfBCe.  A'/*  =  total  flow  of  foi-ce.  or  Held  streiiK'h  =  F:  Stii  =» 
atn?neth  =  W.  t;i>n'Hil  over  eaoh  of  Ihe  poljir  scirracvs  WuflKinl 
4«.V,  SH  lief<;re;  that  Is.  Ihe  total  HeM  is  4n  limes  ihe  Iota)  lulestre 
Total  attractive  force  t)etweeii  the  two  opposing  poles  or  a  main: 
SB* 
llie  distance  apart  is  iiiuaU,  =  — —  ,  in  dj-nes. 

Thia  (orniiila  may  be  used  lo  deteruiioe  the  llfMnfc- power  of  ai 
iiiaKtiel,  thuK: 

A  Ix-iit  iniiirnpt  proviiled  wllh  n  keeiH-r  is  3  cm.  square  oiieadil 
Ibo  iuductluQ  fi  =  ;iO,OIX)  lineii  per  square  ceatiuietre.    Tboi 

uteach  Umh  on  llie  k*<<>per  in  dj'ara  =    „  ,  or  Iu  kill 

o  X  o.  14 

both  limba.   ^  ig  x  ^lOOO  X  *  =  **^  kllograwme*. 
The  ]IIaKttetl«>  €lrcillt»— In  the  conductive  circuit  w«  j 

electro-mollTe  force         volta 

Ciirrpiit  =  — — =  — — — . 

■vaiataDoe  obms 

In  Ui«  maKoetio  circuit  wc  Itave 
Number  of  Unea,  or  loops,  of  force,  or  magneUsm 

_     Ouirent  x  conductor  turai Anipere  tuna 

~  Resistance  of  inaKnetic  circuit  ~  Resistance  of  magnell 

Or,  In  the  new  notation,  webers  =  F'  '^'.f.  _ 

oersteds 

Let  N  =  No,  of  lines  of  force,  Rut  =  total  magnetic  reslsMnc 

ampere  turns,  then  N=  -g— . 
Km 

The   niagnetlc  pressure  due  to   the  ami)ere   turns  =  -ifJ 

iirTC     i.ssrJi 
wher«  3"=  turns  and   P=  amperes,   whence  Jir=  '-v; —  =  — =— 

Am  K* 

If  Sill  !=  total  magnetic  resiHlance,  and  Ra.  Ra.  Kf  the  matnidl 

aQces  of  the  alrspawji,  the  anuature,  and  the  fleid-inognets,  rt*|« 

R^  =  R„  +  R^  +  Ry.    and    ^  =  ^-^^^^^ 

DetermlnlnK  ll>e  Polarltf  of  KI«ctro-niaBn«t«.-I< 

is  wotiiid  uroiinii  a  nin^iiet  in  a    I'ii^lit-liandeil   Itellx,  \\w  ^nrl  nt  i^' 

current  rtows  Inlii  the  helix  i»  tile  Boiilli  pole.     If  a  wire  i^ 

ordinary  wood  sorew.  and  tlie  current  flows  around  the  '■ 

tlon  from  tlie  liead  of  the  screw  to  the  point,  the  heart  ' 

south  pole.     If  a  inajtnet  Is  held  so  that  the  south  |    ' 

the  wlwerver.  Hie  wir<>  LieVug  wound  us  a  riKlitljiin 

CWreut  flows  in  a  rVg^l-\niiu\>!4i\reoVVH»,«\sAv  ill..-  i .- 


1 

ilsMDC 


t  eaenar  o(  routioa  b  eoB«««ta4  Mo 


bf  m  direct  concn  it  eovvcrteA  iMo 

>Mch  Uka  tofTgf  at  aum  or  man  atttr- 

■naicml  eoernr  of  ro««lfiw. 

loet  of  tte  pocamlAl  diSereaee  *irf  tk« 

t)w  eDcrry  sfrn  off.    WM^  iHiwii 
Irtoeurrmt  ■traocUi  b  crater  tfeia  tk* 

the  propertj'  of  mctiog  i 


. 


jB  nn'  I'  1 '"  -    am 
pecti  ry.\ 

chlt.<  nTerdoa  oC  MMlMi 

iOf  iuA^ut:U>«)ee»tie  ladncUon. 

Md-oiacBeM  arp  ea«Ke4  bx  ■»« 
I  k  Mcle  eleetrle  Msrce. 
t>Ua  mre  inoupnl  In  i 
.  collector,  lo  «•  tu  be  i 


,  tbotu^  oonnectod  to  the  mte- 
not  eaaaectcd  ooBttouoialr  la  «  ctoMd 


iirt-in*gn<>tii  Bi« 
liKlioct  from  tlioae 


I  himMi 


l-maKDet  coOo  have  Mi  ooAaao- 
llMsir  cuiTt«t  from  a  aaparMo 


|a-caiTent  aa<l  lh«ezt«m«lolrcult  are 
Ire  circuit .  nu  ttiat  the  rntlra  ariiiaiura 
DOils. 

p  annature-eolla,  the  5«ld,  aitd  the  cx- 
Mocreaae  in  tbe  r«aUtanoe  of  Uie  «z- 
tro-motitre  force  from  tb»  decrnaw  lu 
fee  in  th<>  resintanoe  of  lli«  «xt<-m*l  clr- 
th«  el«ctro-inotiv«  fnrer,  frorn  tbe  In- 
I  Tbe  iwe  of  a  r««ulaior  avoltlH  lbe»e 

■nd>»v>iind  Dynnnto.— Ttiepo  aro 
^  C"rti«.  onf  '>f  »'hi<-b  i«  c«>iitirct«l 
Ee'ext'^rnal  circuit,  and  tljo  utlicr  wtih 
r  ex<-ltwl. 

id-mBfpi&t  coila  are  placed  In  a  shunt 
»  a  (inrtlon  of  the  circuit  generated 
K,  but  all  tbe  difference  of  poteotial  of 
f  tlie  ftciil-circiilt. 

Tfom^  ill  tlie  reMislance  of  Ltui  external 
brce.  uiid  a  dpcrfUiw  in  the  reRistaiice 
electro-motivi-  force.    This  1»  just  the 

ftnua  halaocinfr  of  the  current  oc^nirs, 

(»f>fwff>ii  t>if  fii«!!l  niHl  the  external  clr- 
1-  "   ■  '     11119, if  tile  n>sist- 

I.  'nat^^ly  grt^ater 

t  plt>ctro-ini)tive 

c'iri;jiii.\ .  un-  ii",ibi«iiLH  of  ihtf  external 
les  llirniij^h  Uie  Held,  and  the  electro- 
IMisitd. 

touwIWDU'iil  f'l/iKiino. — Tl'*  "^ 
UIk,  out-  of  wlili'li  IH  iu  ir* 
kiiil  llie  otliiir  ill  slinill  W 
Hirjii-wiMiiid  niii^'iiinMf 
Truu/ioHHri-u'ound  Dn 


'^^   =  m.\9sncBio- 


9810000 


BxAMPLi.— The  niran  strength  of  fleld,  B,  of  a  dyni 
a  current  of  100  amperes  flows  throuKli  a  wire;  the  fi 
metres  of  the  wire  =  10.1987  X  10  x  100  x  5000  x  10 

In  the  "English"  or  Kairp's  ayotem  of  measuremen] 
O.O.8.  lines  Is  taken  to  equal  one  English  line.    Callii 
Bnglisb,  or  Kapp's,  Unefi  per  «quare  incli,  and  B  the  ioi 
per  aquare  cenUmetre,  Bs=  B  -t-  930.04;  and  taldn?  ' 

pounds,  Pp  =  631  CI"Bjs  10" 'pounds. 

Torqne  of  an  Armature.— i^  in  th«  last  formi 
to  move  oue  wire  of  length  /'',  which  carries  acurreot 
the  field  whom  induction  la  Bg  English  lines  jwr  sqi 
throuKb  a  drum-arnuituru  splits  at  the  commutaM 
each  half  Koing  throuRli  half  of  the  wires  or  ban 
upon  one  of  the  wires  undtM  the  influence  of  a  pole-pli 
Dumber  of  wims  under  the  pole-pieces,  then  the  total 
radius  of  the  armature  to  the  centre  of  the  conduct 
then  the  torque  =  HPptr,  =  ^  x  531  X  Cl"Bg.  X  10 
mnnient,  or  pounds  acting;  at  a  radius  of  1  foot. 

KxAMPUt.— Let  the  lenRili  /  of  au  arinalure  =  ao  It 
.5  ft.,  number  of  coniliiL-tors  =  liO,  of  which  <  =  80 
(if  the  two  pole- pieces  at  nne  time,  the  averags ' 
throuffli  the  armature-fiolj  Bg  =  5  English  li 
current  passing  through  the  armature  =  400  am) 

Torque  =  KX&3tx400X%X6xSOx.5xl 

The  work  done  in  one  revolution  =  torque  X  clrcu 
1  foot  radius  =  434.8  x  B.aS  =  2670  foot-pounds. 
Let  Uie  r«Tolutlou8  per  minute  =  SOO,  then  the  hor 


im|^^^ 


33000 
KIectr«>4notlTe  Force  or  the  Armatnre  u 


r*   J 


XACHUfES.  1063 


for  two-pole  machinaa. 


for  multipolar  machines  with 
series-wound  armature. 


chloea. 
for  multipolar  ma- 
chines. 


i.mFrClO-^  I  fortwo-potema- 

7MZtC10'*        '  chin«L 

SJB/VrplO-"    I 
lilOZreplO"'     f 

|tb  of  armature  i  =  SO  in.,  diameter 
e  344sq.  In.,  induction  per  sq.  in.  B^  = 
fc  240  X  5  =  liOO;  Uien  * 

ISO  X  SOO  X  10-*  =  TSvoUk, 

^Eappia 

i  aabmNlnW-'Ou 

I,  per  min..  Sab  =  sectional  &r«a  of  ami- 
lines  per  sq.  in.  of  arraature-core,  A'<  = 
Bted  all  around  the  ciroumrereDOC.  I  = 
Be  plate  in  tlie  commulAtor,  N  =  num- 
iber  of  EncliMii  lines  of  force, 
own  that  cbe  ileoKity  o'  line^  m  in  the 
rliich  is  reaoh'Hl  wh^n  the  core  is  satn- 
■  reachetl  when  m  =  W.  A  fair  average 
ors  is  m  =  30.  anil  th«  area  ab  must  be 
,  and  not  cbe  groBH  area  of  the  core.  Su 
0,8.  lines  per  square  centimetre,  Sil- 
viaable  in  coatiauou»,cti  rrent  machines 
than  B  =  17,000  C.G.S.  lines  per  square 

pe  for  the  ma^Tiettc  field  in  the  Kap-space 
r  sq.  cm.,  or  40,000  lines  per  sq.  in.,  and 
I  lb.  for  each  ampere  of  current  carried. 

or  =  =r ■     ^  --.  ra  which  Cte  tbe 

ft.  per  mm.  x  C^ 
rmatiire. 

KlclA>—Kapp  rives  for  tbe  total  num- 
C.G.S.  lines  -<-  OttW)  in  the  ma^etic  cir- 

iZ=  number  of  magnetic  lines.  X  =  the 

i  turna  =  .iwTC.  Ra,  TtA.  and  RW.  =  re- 
■paoes,  the  armatore,  and  the  fleJd-maK- 

I  raluas  of  So.  Ra,  and  ST,  for  dynamos 
rrought  iron,  witb  a  permeabUitj  of  |t  = 

put  between  armatan-ooTV  and  polar 
Dsaanred  parallel  to  axis,  A  =  length  of 
that  MJh  =  the  polar  area  out  of  which 
Kh  of  armatnre-core.  so  that  ofc  =  •«' 
jr  occupied  bj  Iron  onlj  b^no  ■  ■  ■^■uMid. 
fth  of  magnetic  cir  -i- 

fleld  magnet;* 


r 


I 


1064  ELECTRICAL  KXGISBKRtNG. 

o.8jr 

For  c*Bt-tron  rangnets,  Z  =  sj — -j -sf 


Tor  double  horse-ahoe  moenetsof  wrought  iron, 
"*'XB  +  SB  + 


2 

and  of  cast  Iron,  z  i ^r 

'    •<  + 

ThMOfonnuIie  apply  only  to  cases  In  wlilch  the  Interisily  of  maRoetl 
Ib  not  too  gretiX — say  up  to  10  Kspp's  lint?*  per  equara  inch.  ^ 

SllvaniiH  P-  TlKiiiipson  eives  the  ftillowiii(t  method  of  calcuiawj 
Btrtui|;t)i  o(  >b»  Ili'Wi.  or  the  inag-iietic  tiux.  MP,  or  the  whole  BUI 
magnetic  Unt«  Quwlnic  iu  the  circuit  iu  C.0.8.  lines: 

The  niOKneiio  r«-Ki«taDce  of  any  maenetic cninluctor  Is  proportlo»»l 
ly  to  Il8  leDKth  aod  luveniely  to  Itx  cross-svction  and  its  penueabilit;, 

HaKnetio  resistmice  =  tt,  in  which  L  =  length  of  the  mo^etjo 

paMilnK  throueh  any  piece  of  iron,  S  s=  sectioa   of  the  mA^etii: 
pMsi^K  through  any  piece  of  iron,  ii  =  permeability  of  that  piece ofj 
In  aaynamo-macnine  In  which  the  resUlaocea are  three,  vif.:  1. 1m 
magnet  coree;  it.  The  ariuature-corei  3.  The  gape  or  oir-spaoei  H 
tliem,— 

let  Lm.  Sm,  f  ra  refer  to  the  neld-niagnpt  part  nt  the  circuit; 
Lat.  fitu,  flan  refer  to  the  alr-epac«  part  of  the  circuit; 
f^i,  &i.  Mil  refer  to  U>e  arnialure  part  of  the  circuit: 

the  leneths  norotif;  each  of  the  air-npocee  being  Lm,  and  the  expoMdi 
polar  surface  at  either  pole  beiuf?  Haa. 

Total  magneUc  resUt^tce  =  ^^  +  ^  +  ^ 
Magnetic  flux,  or  total  number  of  msffnetio  lines,  = 


Mr  = 


Lm       ,       La*       .      La 


Smuni        JvojjMij    "^  Satt-a 
I\»  =  turns  of  wires,  or  number  of  turns  in  the  ai)iral; 

C  =  current  in  anipe-res  passing  ihrnnt^li  Rpinil. 
Application  to  Desigrning;  or  Dynainoii.    (S. 

Suppoxe  111  deiiigniiiK  a  dyiiaiuo  it  lias  btt'ii  ileouled  vibat  wlU  bea< 
lent  Kpeed,  how  many  coailuctors  aball  be  wound  upou  the  aniuUii 
what  quantity  of  magnetic  lineg  there  must  be  In  the  field,  it  tbeob 
ueccnary  to  calciilale  the  nixes  of  the  iron  parte  and  the  quantity  of 
tion  to  be  iirorided  for  by  the  fleld-riingnet  coil^.  It  being  known  •( 
\u  to  be,  the  problem  Im  to  desien  the  machine  so  aa  m  ^et  the  r 
value.  Experience  shows  that  in  every  t.rpe  of  dynamo  there  in  m 
leakage;  also,  that  it  is  not  wise  to  push  tlie  saturation  of  the  arniait 
to  more  Ihati  10.000  lines  to  the  square  centimetre  at  the  most  higll 
rate<l  part,  and  that  the  induction  In  the  fleld-mag-net  ouphf  to 
greater  Ihnn  this,  even  allowing  /or  leakage.  Leakage  may  bidou 
of  the  Mliole:  hence,  if  (ho  mngnet-corfjs  aremadu  of  same  qiiftlltj 
a«  the  armature-corea,  their  crosa-sei-tion  ought  to  be  at  least  S,  4 
aH  that  of  the  nrmntu re-core  at  its  narrowest  point  If  the  flelJ-i 
are  nf  ca^t  ircn,  the  secUon  oiiglit  to  be  nt  least  twice  aa  greaU 

Now.  lla  (the  induction  in  the  nrniature-core>  =  J/a -«- Sa  (ormaM 
through  ariuatura -«- cross-sectional  area  of  the  armature;  beMf 
ia  fixed  nt  Jfl.DOO  lines  Tier  ceolimotre  of  cro6s-«ection,  we  at  oacei 
Ma  -t-  [fa.  This  ftxes  Uw  (iros&sectiuo  of  the  armature-core.  (K»l 
Jta  =  4,(XX),000  ut  Viu«e,  VWn  \.tv«v«  mviaik.  "^n  «.  ocoss-aection  eoM 
.       4,0«W.»«       _„. 

•giiiire  t^ntlmetrea  tor  -^qoq  =^=m.-» 


-fwm 


rRIC  MACHINES. 


IOC'S 


-Tbe  six«  of  wirAA  i)li  Die  amut- 
1  which  It  Miusl  enrry  wilhoiit  rUk, 
j(iu  ring  or  tiruiii  ariiiatiires)  pomea 
,Br  is  aupposed  HI  huve  Ijkii  flxed  Lo- 
be quitntity  or  coppi-r  thul  inimC  lie  pul  OQ 
JH<^  tlial  ihe  eoru  .sliuuKl  b4!  made  so  larKe 

giiidiiiK  du«s  not  cjcct^  \,ii'>t  llie  radUl 
8  the  size  of  ihu  aruia(ur«-coi-e,  from 
;e  leugth  of  path  of  tiie  inaenotic  lioo* 

1  Ai/m  of  Air -tpuce.—KxiierieDco  further 
and  the  ndvwiiBg«i  of  making  'he  pole- 
«  uiacbiiies)  of  at  least  136°  t*acli,  ho  as  to 
I  li»  Imj  and  So*. 

'oiBM.  r(c.— As  abowa  above,  the  minimum 
and  uialorials;  /.*■  tlierttforu  renialiu  to 
idgnet-foies  must  be  Ifing  enouRh  to  allow 
Is,  but  Hliould  not  l>e  longer.  As  a  rule, 
Lr  in  the  joke  part,  tliat  tliey  do  not  odd 

ft  ib>-  circuit,  tntjn  a  lltilff  cxlra  k-n^h  as 
;  mutter  much.  It  now  only  ri'nialns  to 
lurus  u(  excitalioii  fur  wliicli  It  will  be 
to  rewrite  the  formula  of  the  magnetia 


Lm     ,  „     Lot 

Bmi^m'^     Ha, 

ag  through  the  fleld^roagnet  coIIb; 
g^«t  wire; 
ay  b/^). 


t.iBff 

A  X  g^w 
1m  +  ffa«  +  Ra 

magnetic  resisi 


ARm  +  ffa«  +  Ba 
mairnetic  resistaoM  of  magnets,  air- 
yet,  bvcauN*  the  values  of  il  in  it  depend  on 
on  in  the  various  partii.  These  bare  to  be 
,  (fiven  helow:  an<I.  indeed.  It  Ib  preferable 
uce  more,  by  JlvlJine  ii  ioto  its  separate 
f  tile  aMi|)ere-tiini»  reqiifulte  to  force  the 
les  tbrouifh  the  leparate  parts,  and  then 

|n«Koet-eore9  =  *  ^  X   — -i-l.«7. 


ir  spaces        =-5— x8 — 


irmaiure-core  =  -^   x  —  -<  1  -SST. 
ait        iia 

he  magnet-eorea,  and  reference  to  tlie  table 

Ibe  oorrwdpnding  value  of  iim  must  be. 

I>fw.    When  the  total  number  of  Btn»>»~ 

jpertaiued,  the  gize  and  len^b  c' 
ie  riso  of  temperature,  ami  r* 
iier  In  xerien,  or  as  a  shunt 


1066 

tPeri 
to  the  { 
permes 
Its  relai 
of  inaK 


BLECTRICA-L  EXGIKEEBINO. 


Permeability.— Materials  differ  in  regard  to  the  i 
to  the  passage  of  fines  of  forc-e;  thus  iron  is  more  peffiieable  ih 
permeability  of  a  gijisstanoe  is  exi)res8ed  t)y  a  co«?fllci«nl  ^  "h 
Its  relation  to  the  permeability  of  oir,  which  is  t«l<en  (u  1.    If  H  =  l 
of  roaanetJe  lines  jier  square  centimetre  wlilcli  w  ill  najs  llit  u.*li 
spaoebetween  the  pule«  of  a  uiHKnet,  and  B  li 
pass  through  a  certain  piece  of  iron  in  that  ^ 
permeability  variea  with  the  (jualily  of  tlu'  ir  ■ 
tlon,  reaching  a  praciieni  limit  for  soft  wruiii.-! 
and  for  cast  iron  when  B  =  ulK)ut  lO.OCiO  C  G  S 


■on's  experiments: 

*■'•■  B'"-"  "J 

Annealed  Wrought  Iron, 

•     Gray  Cast  Iroo. 

B 

H 

1^ 

B 

°  u 

E,000 

2 

2,500 

4,000 

»  ■ 

B.OOO 

4 

a,aso 

5,000 

!■ 

10.000 

i 

S.000 

6,000 

«.s 

a 

ll.OOO 

6.5 

l,«iS 

7,000 

43 

18,000 

8.5 

1.412 

8,000 

80 

■ 

13,000 

18 

1,08» 

s.ooo 

m       m 

14.000 

17 

833 

10,000 

188         ■ 

18,000 

as.s 

526 

11,000 

am      ■ 

is,(xn 

ss 

ftoe 

■ 

17,000 

105 

1S1 

■ 

18.000 

soo 

90 

■ 

19,000 

3.V» 

54 

1^ 

P«rmlf«ntl>l«  j%nipermge  and  Permliwible  Deplbefl 
lug  for  naeneta  with  C'ottoti-covered  Wire.    tW^ 

Kl,  Engineer,  Uiiu.  21,  1»!>2.»— The  tables  on   pp.  lOtW.  lOeO, 
lhos«  of  Mr.  Dix,  are  calculated  from  the  forinulii 


UXW 


X  rx  £ 


^L  where  C  =  current; 

^^^^L  W  =  emlsslvity  lu  watts  per  square  inch; 

^^^^B  a>inf  =  ohms  per  mil  foot  : 

^^^^^  if  =  circular  mils  ; 

B  T  =  turns  per  linear  inch ; 

■  L  =  number  of  layers  in  deptli. 

B  The  emissivity  id  taken  at  .4  n-att  per  aq.  In.  (or  statioisMy 
rise  of  temperature  of  85°  C  (OS*  K.).  For  ainiaturen,  socen 
exp<-rimi-nts.  it  i^  approximately  correct  to  vay  that  .9  wall 
be  Jissipaied  for  a  rlBe  of  ,'55''  C. 

The  iuKiilaUoa  allowed  Is  ,W7  inch  on  No.  i^ 
tin   No.  12  to  No.  24  ;    and  .OOl.'i  inch  on  No.  i')  ; 

values  for  insulaiion  of  double-covered  wires ^»i,  ..^j  ,^^i  „, 

for  ImheddinK  of  the  wires. 

The  litaodard  of  reiiistance  employed  is  9.612  ohms  per  tall^MlMl 

»   running  temperature  of  tables  is  taken  at  25°  -+-  a3'  =  «>•  C.    Tb» 
^Tlng  the  depth  for  one  layer  is  the  diameter  oTer  UistOatioii. 
Formnlae  of  Efliclenejr  of  DynmmiM. 
(S.  P.  Thompson  in  "  Munro  and  Jamieson's  Pock«(-|lMfc,n 
Tbfoi  Electrical  Knergy  (per  scivinif  i  of  ani-  drnamn  tex 

la  the  product  of  the  wbol-    ' 

whole  current  which  passeN  ■■ 
Unf/ul  glrctricnl  Knenji,    , 


DTVJJia-KLurT^':  iu^cEist^. 


£  JISISIISiSlsiiHilli.: 


-I  ■ 


9      3'  3      ?      -      ^ 

s  2    i  g  g  s 


§  !ii5u£^£Siiiiiliii1 


S-^^^S-SSi^i 


sSiSiliSS    J 


ii«.fi**^^  "■ 


fllipspSs^lHp,^!^ 


IS       «       t'O 


W     ■*     M        IB    ••    B     a 


:r    MA  CHINKS. 


10G9 


■i 


t 


1 


iiliS§l§giiiig^'r!ii§S 


*- -H t- ffl Ci o  a t- 1^ (Tt-  •-•  »  —  o «s  so rt 


igiiiiig§i£g3i«§ii 


H  s 


l§i§iai§l5§S5l5lsi 


i^    [ofM   V   lA   (D   K*ao   o   o   •« 

05   I  "  "" 


CO 


«  IS    <s  ^ 


1070 


ELECTRIC  A  I.  EXOTNKEHIKG. 


AII«>rnaUnK     Cnrrmln,    IHnlIIphB»i#     Cnrrenls,    Tranw" 
formers,  rt^'.-Tlu'  iiroptr  iIim'UssIoii  of  these  Riihjn.'t8  un'i 
*|«io>'  (Imii  fiiii  1>«  r>ITiiH|t-tl  in  ihU  wnrk      I'onsiilt  H.  V.  Th( ' 
linliiu  Kli'ctrie  Jlacliliifry."  Itok-ll  aud  Crehore  on  "  AlteruBlii 
Flciiiitii;  on  "  AlN'matinR  CurreiitK,'*  and  KApp  on  ^'Dynamus,  AlLfriiaiun 
anil  Trmisfonni'i-s." 

The  Kleflric  Motor.— Ilie  i-lectrit*  motor  is  the  sAuie  machinri 
the  ilynnnio,  liut  with  the  nature  of  its  operation  reversed.  In  iiie(1jTi»a 
nieclianioul  energy,  uucli  as  from  a  lu'll,  i«  eonverteii  into  electric  cum 
In  th<"  niutor  the  current  t'literInK  Ihi"  machine  is  ooiiverted  Into  meciuiri 
enerify,  wiiich  inav  lie  taken  -iff  by  »  lielt.  The  difference  in  the  actiooi 
the  niAu-hine  ana  tlynanio  atul  as  n  motor  Is  thus  explainol  by  Prof.  F.I 
Crocker,  (Ctufirr'n  Mug.,  Marvh,  ]S95): 

In  the  case  of  the  dynamo  there  exists  only  one  E.M.F.,  wliereHin  I 
Diotor  tliere  must  always  tie  two. 

One  kilowatt  dynamo,  C  =  E ■*■  R;  V>  amperes  =  100  volts  -(-  lOobBUL 


One  kilowatt  motor,  C  ■■ 


E-  g 


;  10  amperes  : 


100  ToUa  -  DO  Tolte 


1  obin 


R.  the 


ris  the  ourreot ;  B,  the  direct  E.M.F.:  «,  the  counter  E.M.F, 
rewlsianee  nf  the  circuit;  K,.  the  resistance  of  the  arrnaiiire 
and  direct  E.M.I'",  are  the  same  in  the  two  ca!«es.  lint  the  re> 
one  leDlh  tui  miicb  in  tlie  case  of  the  motor,  the  difference  i 
hy  tiie  counter  IC.M.F.,  which  acts  like  reKlntance  to  reduce  lb 
the  ca«e  of  the  motor  the  counter  E.Jl.F.  represents  the  amoii 
eli'ctrlcal  energj-  converted  into  mechaincal  enerpr.     Tlie  so-<»l|i 
oal  eniciency  or  conversion  fiictor  =  coiuiter  E.M.F.  -t-  direct  E.M.__ 
actual  or  commercial  efncieni'V  in  8<>r,<«wbat  less  than  this,  owing  to 
lion,  Foncanlt  currents,  anil  livsteresis. 

For  full  dlNCUSMions  of  the  llieor)'  and  practice  of  electric  t>  •■•..i 
P.  Thompson's   "  Dynamo. Electric   Moehiiier.v."   Knpp's   "  K 
niisHion  of  Kneriry,''   Martin  ami  Wetzler's  "Tlic  Electric  ' 
ApplicatioDS,"  Cox's  "Continuous  Current  Dynamos  and    i,..,,..  ,    _ 
Crocker  and  Wheeler's  "  Prftutical  MaDsgeDiuit  ot  Dynaatos  and  Motorftl 


>UOTED  IN  Tras  BOOK. 


is« 


188 


tc«  or  a  few  times  only,  the  page  or  pHC«a 
t  writers  of  text-books,  who  are  quoted  fre- 
ts" affixed  in  place  of  tlie  pagi>-nuinber, 
botb  OS  to  name!!  and  page  uumbera. 

Buel,  Richard  H.,  608,  631 
BnCfalo  Forge  Oo.,  519,  &i» 
Builders'  Iron  Foundry,  S74 
Burr   VVm.  A.,  565 
Burr,  Win.  H.,  !M7,  8S9.  S90.  SSI 

Calvert,  F.  Crace,  386 

CttlTert  &  Johnson,  4(59 

Cainpljell,  H.  H..  aii8.  450,  650 

llamprmlon,  Louis,  403 

CiifiifulB  Steel  Co..  177,  272.  277,  391 

Carjwnter,  R.  C,  451,  615,  718,  etc. 

C'hfuhvick  Lea.1  Works,  301,  015 

I'hainberlain,  P.  M.,  474 

L'hniH'H.  H.  M.,  C31 

Cliaiidlei-.  Clias.  F.,  533 

C'hupmaii  Valve  Mfg.  Co.,  103 

Cliauvenet,  S.  H.,  370 

Chase,  Clias.  P.,  31$ 

Clievanilier,  Eugene,  610 

C!hrisHe,  .Taints.  3W 

Clmivh,  IrvliifcP.,415 

Ohurclj.  Will.  Lei'.  7S4,  lOSO 

Clapii,  Gw.  H.,397,  403,  651 

Clark.  Diiiiiel  Kiunear,  various 

Clarke,  Edwin,  740 

Claudel,4.S5 

Clay,  F.  W.,  291 

Clerk,  Diigald.MT 

Cloud,  John  W.,  861 

Codman,  J.  E.,  IBS 

Coffey,  B.  H.,  810 

Cofflu,  Freeman  C,  SM 

CoKgawell,  W.  B.,  584 

Cole,  Koniaine  C,  8SB 

Coleman,  J.  J..  470 

Cooper,  John  H.,  87«,  900 

Cooper.  Tlieodore,  262,  28S,  8ES 

Colterlll  and  Slade,  433,  974 

Cowles.  Eugene  11.,  388,831 

Cox,  A.  J.,  m 

r.ox,  E.  T.,  829 

Cox,  Williani,  573 

Ooxe.  EekleN'  B.,  032 

Oraddtx-'k,  Tbomas,  478 

Cramp,  E.  8.,  405 

Crimp,  Santo,  564 

Croeker.  F.  B..  1070 

CuromiDs,  Win.  Russell,  TH 

Daelen.R.  M.,617 
Dagger,  John  H.  J.,  8S9 
Daniel,  Wm.,  492 
D'Aroy,  563 
Pavenport,  R.  W,,  690 
Day,  R.  E.,  l™"" 
Dean.  F.  W 


K» 


1072                          LIST  OF  AUTBOBlTIIiS.                        ^H 

Dwitfiir.  P..  BOO 

OreiirandEyth.aiB 

l>r                                  V.SflC 

GrosHotcflte,  W.,  TIB 

1'                     ^  K  ,  «0,  Ml,  781.  M2 

iiH               v..,m 

Gnmer.  L.,  683 

Ut\,  vv,.ii.i  s..  aw.  loco 

Hadfleld,  R.  A.,  301, 400 

iKnli^  Mnniiritoliiriiig  Co.,  344 

Hiilpin.  Druitl,  TM),  KM 

Donald,  J.  T.,lt3S 

Httlsey.  Fretl'lc  A.,  41)0,817 

iH.ilVln.  H,  Jr.,  491,788 

Harkuess.  Win.,  900 

Dudley,  Clitt».  H.,  aUT,  833 

Harrison,  W.  H.,  1«» 

Diulley.  P.  H..  401.«a» 
Dudley.  W.  D.,  m 

Hart,  K.  H,  1047 

Hnrlisr,  J.,il61 

DuloDK.  M.,4iW,47» 

nurluiuD,  Johik  M.,  384 

Dunbar,  J.  H.,  »« 

Hnrtneil,  Wilwn.  348.  818, fiW 

Durmnd,  Prof.,  S6 

HiisRoii.  \V.  F.  C,  1047 

DwelHh&uveni-DeiT,  (MS 

Hanksley.  T  ,  48.'i.  513.  WM 

Hazen,  H.  Allen,  4M 

EKleBton.  Thoiiion,  335,  641 
Emery,  (.'liaK.  R,  ««,  0:»,  830 
Engi'lbardt.  F.  E  ,  408 
UllfiiiiDd  Kowlaud,  G?7 

Hondeiwjn,  Q.  K.,  84T,  851 

Hfnlhorn,  J.  T.,  !)ti5 

IlLTiiiir,  Carl.  IIM5 

Herschel,  fl.'tneiis,  683 

EOKlisb,  Tlios.,  T53 
ErU>S8on,  John,  •■itH 

Hewitt,  U.C,  830 

Hewitt,  Wm.,  917 

EytelWfrIn,  &e4 

Hildenlirand,  Wm.,  913 

Hill.  John  W..  17 

Falibairn.  Sir  Wm..  i40,  904.  806,  304 

KIscox,  G.  t'..  908 

Fftlrley,  W.,531,  688 

Hondley,  Jolm  C.  45].  688      ^H 

r&Ikenau.  A, 009 

Hohart,  J.  J.,  e<K2                      ^^M 

riming,  J.  T,  804.  570 

llod|;kiii8nn. '.NO                         ^^H 

Fftvre  and  81lherinaDD,  6S1 

Hollev,  Alexander  !>.,  377             ■ 

Felton,  C.  E.,C4B 

Honey,  F.  R..  47.  B«                          ■ 

Fernow.  B.  E.,  040 

Hoopes  i  Townseud,210        ^^^ 

Field,  C.  J.,  30,  B87 

Honslon,  Rihviii  J.    1001         ^^H 
HuiiKlou  \:  Kcuui'lly,  10G8     ^^^H 

Film.  James  H.,  844 

FlBther,  J.  J.,  BC1.  INM 

(Inward,  .lames  K.,  -^4'.'.  383.I^^H 

Flynn,  P.  J..  4«.t  MO 
Foley,  NeUon,  700 

Uuwdeu,  JauiBS, 714                        V 

Howe,  Henry  M..  408.  407,  451, »»■ 

Forbes,  I'rof .  ](t33 

Howe,  Malverd  A.,  170,  31S            ■ 

Fortwy,  M.  N.,  856 

Honlnnil.  A.  H.,  i-llS                          ■ 

Foreylh.  Win,,  630 

Hudson,  John  U..  466                      ■ 

FoBier,  K.  J.,  051 

HuBhes,  D.  E.,  SlKl                     __M 

Francis,  J.  B.,  .V«,  789,  867 

Hngrhps,  n.  W.,  so»                ^^M 

Frazer,  Porsifor,  tH 

Hntrlios,  Thos.  E.,  ill?             ^^M 

Fr«eiiisu,  J.  R.,&Ul,Be« 

Huniiihreys.  Alex.  C  658      ^^H 
Hunslcki-r,  Millard.  397        J^^M 

Frith,  A.  J..  874 

FultoD,  John,  887 

HUMI,  Alfi&l  K..  -235,  317.  SlI^^H 

Hnni,  C'bas.  V'.,S4U,  923       ^^H 

GaoKUilkt  £  Kuttor,  BOS 

Hu)-t/>ii,  <  'hiirles.  383              ^^^M 

Ganlt.  H.  L..  408 

HuiliHi.  Dr.,  04                         ^^H 

QarriHOn.  F,  L.,  *»,  8.?!.  400 
Qarvhi  Machine  C^o.,  9U 

Huyglient),  ,58                           ^^^1 

^^^^^M 

Qaus^.  F.  T, ,  aoi 

Itieersoll-SerKeant  Drill  Oo.^^^| 

Gay.  Pttulin,  806 
Gill,  J.  P.,  067 

iRherwood,  Beuj.  F.,  47!       ^^^H 

Qilniore,  E.  P.,  241 

JftfoliiLS,  D.  3.,  511,  680,  ?«fl,  780 

Qlaf8ber,  483 

Johnson,  J.  3^309.314 
Ji>hns<>u,  W.  B. .  4T5 

Glasgow,  A.  G.,C64 
Goodman,  John,  934 

Johnson.  W.  R..  200 

Gordon,  F.  W.,  C89,  740 

Jones.  Horace  K.,  387 

Gordon,  247                        ; 
Oosa,  W,  F.  M..  668 

Jones  tt  Lamtion  Mucli!ii^Oi>.,lH 

Jones  &  Laiighliiis,  (j07.  S85 

Q08sler.P.  G.,  1061 
Graff.  Frederick,  SBi 

Kapp,  Otsbert.  1033 

Graham,  W.,  SCO 

Keep,  W.  J.,  366.  951 

Grant,  George  B.,  aw 

Kennedy.  A.  B.  W.,  8ii5,Bffl^J« 

Grant,  J.  J.,  MO 

Kemot,  Prof.  4M                     .^ 

Orashor.  Dr„  884 
any,  J.  McFarlaoe,  CU 

Kerr,  Walter  C.  781               ^^M 

\.  VLVct^.v^A.-'K  ..  ',^18                     ^^B 

Oruy.  J.  U..96a 

\ 'Kiia\.*\\,i.^.,«ft,«Sl,«R  ^H 

Onteae,  D,  ai.,S07 

\  i&\<a»ib\<j,)-U.xXan           ^^M 

^B^           ^^^^H 

M 

\                                                 « 

^m 

AUTHORITIES.                            1073 

Nbo.  J.  a.  367,409 
Nawberiy,  J.  S.,  6*4 
Newcoinlj,  8lmou,  488 

J 

■ 

,  ■ 

New  Jersey  Steel  &  Iron  Co.,  853,  UO 

\M 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac.  475 

1  ~ 

Nlchol,  B.  C.  471 

NichoU..  ass 

Norrig,  R.  Van  A  ,  5S1 

Norwalk  Iron  Works  Co..  488.  fiM 

Nystroni,  John  W.,  86S 

Ordwfty,  Prof.,  489 

\M 

Paret.  T.  Dunk  In,  9e7 

Parker.  W.,  351 

m 

Parsons,  H.  lie  B,  361 

^^H 

PassbiirK,  Emil,  486 

■ 

Pattiusou,  John,  GSS 

PH!let,  M.,471.  478,  73t 

^^^ 

VvUvn  Water  Wheel  L'o.,  tOl,  iS74,  B» 

Pence,  VV.  V,  394 

Pfiieoyd  Iron  Works,  !7»,  838,  809 

Pennell.  Artliiir,  BS5 

IWB 

Pt'iinsylvHiiia  R.  R.  Co..  807.  Hit.  3S9 
Philailelpli  in  Enj^neerinB  Worka,  M8 

Philbriek,  P.  H  .  440 

Pldllliis,  W.  B.,  B'» 

PhtPDix  Bridge  Co.,  262 
Pha-uix  Iron  Co.,  181,  887 

I  ■ 

Pieree,  C.  8..4a4 

Picrrt-,  H.  M..  641                          ^. 

Pittuburg  TentluK  Laboratory.  949 

Piatt,  Jiiiiii,  l!t7 

Pocock.  F.  A..  505 

t\)r(er.  Chas.  T..  66a.  VW.  8a0 

Polto!-,  E.  C,  (HO 

PoitHville  iT'on  &  Steel  Co.,  BM 

Pouillei.  *ao                                                        1 

1 

Poll  reel.  Alrxandre,  404                               ■ 

■ 

. 

Pouimrdiii.  M  ,  tiST                                          1 

H 

Powell,  A.  M  ,  975 

Pratt  &  Whitoi-y  Co.,  808,  IRS 

Price,  U.  !i,  iiiU 

Proiiy,  Sftl 
Pryibil,  P.,  977 

Quereau,  C.  H.,  663,  809 

1 

» 

Ramspv,  Ershine,  0.38 
KjviiU  lirill  Co.,  490,  608 
Hand  .Iph  &  Cloxres.  198 
Itankine,  W.  J  M  .  various 

1 

BooKOiue,  Erne:4l  L.,  'HI 
Raymond.  K.  W.CSl.OM 
Reeae,  Jacob,  900 
Regnanlt,  M..  various 
Rek-hhelm.  E.  P.,  651 

1 

Ronnie,  J.)lm,  9M8 

Reiileana.  varioiw 

HichariU,  Frank.  488.  491.  809 

Ricb«rds.  John.  906,  970 

KioharilB,  Windsor,  4<M 

Rledler.  Prof..  607 

Rilw,  F.  M.,  783,  818 

Rol)i"rl»-Aus(en,  Prof..  4B1 

Robinson.  H..  I05I 

Robinson.  S.  W.,  688 
/  Bockwood,  Q.  J..  W" 
/  JohnA-RoebUniftl 

s 

W?4 


LIST  OF  AUTHORrriES. 


Haul 


ilker,  C.  R.,  «6 
RowUnii,  Prof.,  4»6 

BiMt  »Bd  CooIWK''.  '••*' 

S<Mller.  P.  P..  ^ 
Saint  Tenant,  s« 

8andl*rK.  C  P.,  3*4 

Hnundere,  J.  L  ■  »J* 

B»iiud»T»,  W.  L,..«« 

-lJ,effler,F.A..««t 

:hrat«r.  Prof.,  ™°„_ 
ochutte,  L.,  *  <lo-.  "*< 
geatoii,  TariouB     ^^  „„  «- 
^eller8,  Oolenuui,  8»0,  BoS.  *«» 
Srilere.  Wm..  «04 
Sharpies  S  P.,  mi.  689 
Shelton,  F.  H-.  «M 
Sliock.  W.  H.,  30^ 
fUinpson.  M 
ancSlr,  Anrui,  803 
81o*ne,  T.  O'Connor,  ItBf 
SmeatoD  Wn>.,4M 
Sn.ilh,  ChM.  A..,  587  874 
Smilli,  U.  Shftler,  ii50,  MB 
Smith.  HftinlUon.  Jr..  580 
Siuitli,  Jeiise  M..  lOuO 
smith.  J.  U.ickuall,  t^,  308 
Smith  Oberlin.  («6,  978 
SraiUi.  R.  H..  962 
Smith,  Scott  A.,  OT4 
Snell,  Henry  I-.  »" 

stead.  J.  E,  409 
Stearns,  Ail><»rt,  4Ba 
Stein  and  Schwan,  410 
Slephena,  U-  F.,  208 
Rtillman.  Thoa  B.,9*l 
SloclcBllier,  E.   4B3 
Btrooiejer.  C.  E.,  3» 
Strutbers,  Joseph,  451 
Bturtevant.  B.  F.,  Oo.,  487,  878 
Rtut,  J.  C.  H  ,  844 
StyRe.  Knut,  888 
SupleiH.H.m77S 
Sut«r.  Geo.  A..  (^ 
Sweet.  John  E.,  888 


I 


Yabor,  Harrla.  751 

Tathani  &  Bros.,  201 

Taylor,  Fred.  W..  880 

Taylor.  W.  J..  M6 

Thels8,  Emit.  818 

Thoni»«.J.  W..  309  ^. 

Thompson,  Silvanus  P.,  1004,  W»6 

Thomson,  Rllbu,  lOT.'J 

Tlioiiison,  Sir  Win..  461,  \C«» 

Thurston,  R.  H.,  ■vanoun 

Til^liiuflu,  B.  F.,  966 

Tompkiiis,  c.  B.,  aao 


Torranw.  H.  C,  401 

Towne,  Henry  R.8;6.«^.»" 
Townsend,  I'lvid,  *>3 
Trautwine.J   C,69.11MU.48! 

Trautwine.  J.  C..  Jr  ■  ^        j|j 
Trenton  Iron  Co..  Sl«,  -"SS.  ^' 
Tribe.  James,  T6& 
Troiz.  E    458 
TrowbridKc,  John.  497 
Trowbridite.  W.  P..  4,8,  jI8.  .«> 
Tiilt.  J.  E  .  fll6 
Tweddell.  R  H..  619 
Tj-ler,  A.  H.,  ^U) 

Vnwhi.  W.  Cawthome,  rartOO* 
Urqnbart.  Thos..  615 
O.  S.  Testing  Board,  30o 

Vacuum  Oil  Co.,  943 
Vnir  O.  O.,  030 
Violette,  M.  640,0« 
Vladoniiroff,  I...  31" 

Wade,  Major,  32U  874 
Walles.  J.  W    404 
Walker  We.  Co..  906 
WalHs.  Philip.  «58  ,    _^  « 

Warren  Foundry  &  Mftch.  CO-,  W 
Weaver.  W.  D..  1043 
Webber.  Samuel.  MI,  »» 
Webber.  W.  O.. »« 
WebBter.W.  R.  3W     _^„ 
Weideniuun  &  ^  '^""u.**" 
Weiublman,  W.  H..  iO~ 

WellinKloH,  A.  M.,21>0.9i«.S8 
West,  Chas.  U..  916 
West.  Thoraan  D..  3« 
WesTinghoiise  &  Oalt^n,  «»     j 
WestinRhouse  E  .  it  Mfg.  U)..« 
Westou,  Edward,  1029  J 

Wbitham.  Jay  '*a*'^  "*' 
Whitney.  A.  J..  wB 

wiiUt,^j.R.,5)«.^ 

Williamson,  Prof.,  o» 
Wilson.  Uobert.^ 
Wheeler.  H.  A..  MB 
White,  Clias.  F..  .14 
White,  MiiiiuKel,  40(5 
Wohler,  *•«.  *tO 
WoU-ott,  F.  P..  9*'J       ,,_  ,^i 
Wolff.  Alf  fed  U  .  4»4,  517,  588.1 
Wood,  De  Volson,  various. 
Wood.  H.  A.,  9 
Wood,  M.  P..  886.  M9 
WoodhuiT.  C  J  H..  387,  m 
W«>tte".  J.  E..  »6 
Wriifht,  C.  K.  Alder.  881 
WriKht:  A.W..289 

Yarrow.  A.F..710 
Yarrow  &  CVi.,  807 
Xate«,J-  A..  S87 


\' 


INDEX. 


liiiies, 


Analyses  of  allovs  (Me  AJloya) 
of  asbcsuiii,  3S5 

of  coalu  («•«  Coal) 

of  fire-clay,  a94 

of  nia);DL>»ite,  385 

of  steel  (.see  Steel) 

of  water,  558 
Analytical  Vermel ry,  69 
AntMiiometer,  491 
Aii^lt^  Ixlrs.    sizes     and    weights,   17{ 

wei^lil  nntl  strenetli,  ^79 
AdkIi?,  Che  econiiinical,  447 
AnRlBa.  plotliiig-wiiliiiiit  protractor, 53 

problems  In,  ;t7-38 
Angular  velocity,  li'i 
Animal  powpr,  438 

AnnpaliuK,    effect    oil    couductirilXi 
IftiO 

iron,  effect  of  on  magnetic  capacity, 
3<M 

nou-OTiilizing  process  of,  33" 

of  steel,  394,  413 
Annuities,  15-17 
Antiular  georine,  896 
Antliracile,  aualyses  ot,  BM 

gas,  047 

apace  occiipEi^i  by,  SS5 

value  of  Bizea  of,  SSa 
Anli-fiieliuii  metals,  933 
Antimony.  107 

alitiyit,  336 
ApoMiecailes'   measure  and  welKbt, 

IS,  Ifl 
Arc  lamps,  li^hling  power  of,  105S 
Arches,  tie  roda  for,  S81 
Area  of  circle*.  HM,  108 

of  irretfular  ugui'es,  55, 56 
A  riHimt'tlc,  2 

Arilhiiietical  proprresslon,  II 
Armature  circuit,  E.  M.  F.  of,  106» 
Asbestos.  ii5 

Asymptdtes  ot  liyperliola,  71 
Atmosphere,  itiolstine  In,  ■ISB 
Atomic  weiKhl  of  elemeDts,  163 
,\vninlupoiB  weiRht.  lU 
Axles,  steel,  speciflcatloiis  for,  401 

strength  of,  'i99 


Batibitt  uifftals,  S36 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  boJto" 
different  coaVs,  VtA 


107G 


IMJliik. 


I   043 

L-li  III!  dti  IticoiTect,  19 
no 

•i-..ry  of,  8:6 
•  ii>.  011 
IJti 


BniT-T  -  - 

Hl.^ 
M.I 

]lui. 
Hi, 

►■  N 

Hn.i  .  :.■!     I!.:. 

IJfti.i..    -.    .,■    .  ,i.i!-u;.^  <<li   Vlflla.  o67 

roriiiuiu,  lluw  of  wuler,  !'CiA 
tVniiis  miii  chaiiiiflK,  Trenton,  'J78 
Ur„,,,.    il,v„...  of,  ar,7 

.1  i-iiKtii.  ail 

x.'i  I'iiie,  I0''j3 

tui;    -         ,  ^''1* 

str>'ii>;ili  mI.  '^'.8 
Beiii'iiik.'ini>lal  nlloyR.  .133 
Beariiitf  luatnlm  nnii  frloiloii.BS:! 
TVnrliitcs  iurr  JiMirnAl-be»HnEll) 

lutll,  UIO 

fnf  liii;li  opreds,  041 

pi»ot,  \m 

1U'<l-|>liilrs  of  viiKiiien,  CI? 
hvM  <'i'iiif 111.  S,S7 


BrI; 

Bi'l  •.!,  8T-I.  884 

Uff  .    'T.>ct  of  on  flow  of 

Benils,  vnlvi^,  eiv.,  resislttiicv  to  flow 

.1.,  isN.  ('.:■.' 

I  ffli 

Asl-lron,  STB 

Ihihaiiials,  tliv<'reiii,  SS,  S9 
BiriiiinicliAni  Oangv,  48 
Biiimiith,  lir? 

alloys.  S.W 
Bituiiiiiioiii  coal  (tec  ComI) 
Bkmt  furiiQcr  boilt^ni,  MO 
I)l»ok«  or  piillpys.  *i8 

Klreuglh  of,  90S 
Blowi^ni  tuid  f«u»,  Sll-Sdt 

experiiiivnU  wlUi,  514 

for  cupolas.  518,  %a 

IK>^ll>v.'  r\'1ary.  536 


Bl.> 

BI>.' 
Bivi 


-,  5« 

'  on  g(e«l,39Q 


n.  .,-..f.::i 

I, 

li'  -  II  •:,  ■-■^i  ."S6 

siiip,  and  UDk  pliUes.  399 
the  steam.  (577-741 

"iNso.  holiiiuK  power  of,  SUJ 
BwJf«  (j(riiiMiii.boners> 

fooomotircsflu 

tofwaier.SfiD 
t«,4B5 

aot,sii 


bullti,  lioldiiig  power  of,  ISO 

EtreiiKili  nf,  jflj 
BruiiA  hI1">k.  |)J5. 

cruiipuNiliun  uf  Hilled.  90S 

slie«t  niid  bar,  S(KI 

tublUK.  Uih  •JOO 

wir^  and  iiliitets  rHY^ 
Bdclc.  lift- .  sizoi  nf,  238,  234 

slreiiKlli  of.  302,312 
Brlcl<».  at>s«r]iiioii  of  water  bf,3l 

iimKncsia,  '.eib 
Bik-kwiiric,  wcIrIiI  of,  161) 
BridK^     ineniliers,    tvorlring 
aos 

proporliotiln^      niaterlak     in, 

tniss<?s,  44.1 
KriiH',  spt^-iJlc  cra\  ity.  etc.,  4M,  I 
Broiizt*  («fe  Allfivsi.  919 
Drdiixes,  aiiL-ieul.  S-iS 
Building  ('^unBtrnvlInn,  tOIJ 

rnnlfrials,    siziex  and    weichtk 
IM  ^" 

Bonvancy,  MO 
Burr  irutH,  443 

Pttblcs.  ••lect.i  io,  itisulalrd,  lOH 

wiif.  SSS.  323 
C»lile-w«js,  sutip«ii8ioD,  915 
Caduifuni,  )fl7 
Calculus,  diffrrrnlial.  T2 
Culorio  rngiDfs,  t^M 
Caloririielera,  sieani,  7W 
Caloriiiielrio  tests  of  0O»J|  CM 
Cam.  I  be.  <3S 

Canals,  sy-  -'Isou,  IOCS 

Canvas,  M  j« 

Carb.:.n,  t'l  f  sl«J,  4« 

efffvt  of  iiii  i^lrt-u^tli  (»f  at«t)l» 
Car-ht>atiOK  by  steam.  SiM 
CnskB.  (H 
CaslinKB.  iron,  oiialyiieg  of.  373 

ghrinkaco  of,  STil 


st.-^l,  li' 


II  patiem,  SOS 
iir«5,  STB 


Com 

Bl 

liad,  r.j 

nalinable.  375 

sptvitio  fcTiiivitT.  374 

sptviflei. 

BirengT  I 
Caieiiar.i    ■  n  of,  61 

tlie  Wirt  U'pr.  tie 
Cenieal.  welvbl  uf.  170 

for  bells.  I« 

mortar,  strenpii*  of,  319 
CeDtigmdr  and  KabmiltaM 
Centie  .f  i-.viiv.  418 

ft  -  ..V 

iv  421 

Onin:i  j:al  fans,  &il 

lotof  \ii  4^  -'*.\iits^«k.^3Ck  J9B 


\01'i 


ps 


Oompnuod  unite  of  weight  antl  meas- 
ure. 27 
Coiiipn»*e<]  air.  -ISS,  W 

vraoes,  ills 

motors.  SOT 

tnumiiisfiion,  488 

£t««l.  410 
C<>m|im«sion  and  czpaasioo  of  air,  SSt 

ID  steain-en^DeK,  fSl 

unit  strninn,  3n) 
t'onipressivif  strt^nKih,  iH 

of  iron  h»ni.  3M 
CoinprHSSOPs  air,  503 
I  ''initetMer,  evaporatlTe  surface,  SM 
(•'•nilenserB,  SaO-SlO 
C'jiideiuer-talNia,  tranamiaiioD  of  beat 

in,  47S 
CoDdenftin?  water,  coDtinaous  u*e  of, 

Mt 
Condiiciioti  of  beat,  4«8 
Coiuluetivity,  electrical,  I08« 

uf  steel,  iafluence  of  composttioii  OH. 
403 
Conductors,  electrical,  tOS> 
Cone,  uieaaurpv  of,  A| 

pullerjra,  874 
Coiiic  RectiOD«,  71 
Conoid,  parabolic,  C3 
Conned  III);  rod*.  799 

rods,  taiierj-d.  SOI 
Coniervation  of  energy,  138 
(.'oniftruiMion  of  tiiiililinga,  1010 
C'onrcction  of  iieat,  471 
(V.nvej'ors.  belt,  911 
Cooling  of  air  for  venttlatioa,  SSt 
OM>r«ltiiate  nxi'S.  60 
Copper.  187 

at  high  temperatures,  Mrergtb  of. 
309 

balls,  hollow.  S8D 

round  bolt.  4M 

strength  of,  800 

tubinK.  200 

wire  and  plat**,  803 

wire,  tables  of,  218-390 

wire,  resistance  of  hot  and    cold, 
1034,  1035 

wire,  cost  of  for  lontf'llstaitee  trans- 
mlseioD.  Wti 
Cordage,  841,  S44,  006 
Cork,  properties  of,  816 
Corro8lou  of  Iron,  385 

of  steam-boilers,  716.  719 
Corrosive  af^^nts  in  ntuio«p1)ere,  3S6 
CorruKitetl  iron.  181 

furnaces,  *.T,ti,  TCv',  709 
Cosecant  of  a<i  ani;le,  <I5 
Conine  of  an  ftiiftle,  fl5  » 

Conines,  tables  of.  159 
Cost  of  coal  (or  Hteam-power,  780 

of  Hteuin-pOM'er,  790 
Cotanpent  of  an  angle,  65 
CoiintiTliiilanciiiif  englnea,  788 

locoinotivea,  864 

of  winding  enRlnea,  90» 
Couple.-,  418 
CoveriiiBH  for  5l*e  •« 

x'k  fiinmila '  «n^ 

ICruiie^,  classif 


IU78 

.  CnuMW.  ««iBreHMl-air. 
turn  in.  4«> 


UJDKX. 


BU 


Cruk  A^e*.  880 
kruiLHb.(n) 

ptM.tor«>t 

■iwfu,  KJ«  

Crocs-lM'iMl  K*i<a«h  "H 

irrui:lble  Rtefl,  tlO 

('nifiliiiiK  KtreoKth  of  maaontr  mate- 

I'libitliire  of  Totuinea of  revoluUoa,  76 

('ill..  'riiols,  lableof, 80 

Clll.i  IS 

("III  iiiic*  for,  519 

I" 
Cm  -.-'.I 

CllM  M 

Cti  I  • 

illlfi  r.Mili, 
irK>ns>ir<< 


'f. 


r  >.f,  19 
ijllJltkill  iif,  TO 
(W 

C.i'olniilnl  irrtli  Of  nenn.  802 

CyWiitlers  urn)  pl|ieK,  conlenta  o(,  ISO, 

n\ 

<X>ndeii9iatlon,  TSa,  753 

enKliie,  dliiit-iiHlon<(  of,  798 

hollow,  ivsistance  of,  '-164 

hollnn-,  i)trf<n^h  of,  8if7-a80 

inc«8Ures  of,  01 
CjlliiilHcol  ring-,  68 
•  I 

naneeroiix  Rtcain  bojlf^ra,  790 
Dnin.stalilllt.vorH.  41T 
D'APoy's  forimilii,  (low  of  water,  B68 
Drcliual  raulYaleutu  of  tractions,  8,  4 
Declmols.  3 

Hqiiann!  and  cubes  of,  101 
r>«-ck  >)eauis,  nixes  ftud  wefgbta,  177 
D<-lta  metal,  8i6 

wire,  385 
Denominate  nuniben),  5 
Deoxiillsed  bronze,  937 
Ivrrioki*,  st-rewww  In,  441 


KXainetral  pltcli.  888 


)ifferetiliol  calculus,  78 

forniH,  int^rals  of,  78|19 

ifearlng.  808 

fiulley,  480 

Hcrev,  489 

rerew.  efllcleQcy  of,  874 

wirullass,  430 
niflcoiinl  Mild  interest,  13 
Disk  fans.  Rii 

TVHptwnmieiitor  vesselfl,  1001,1006 
Draufcht  of  chtmnsv!!,  731 
DrawlnB-presspH,  blankn  for,  973 
nrHJIne  holes,  speed  of,  BS6 

tnncliijiwi,  wloctric,  056 
Urnp-prens.  prfssuri"  of,  073 
Dniiiifi  fnr  lioi»tlin.'iopeB.  917 
Dryii>(f  aud  evaporatiuD,  46S 
J'O'lfiK  in  vaciium,  466 
Pry  nwnsuro,  18 
FHictllitv  of  metals,  169 
Kiist  espIoaioDB,  642 
fuel,  MS 


r>iM  ii)iiljl\  nf  {rOD,  88B 
•  lie,  56 
-  i>f  piinniiiigen, 

J  ajid    engine,    «' 

1149 

flet-lric  machines,  1061 
Dynamos,  deaifniing  of,  1064 

pffleiency  of.  1086 
Dynsniorueters,  078-080 

Earths,  weifrht  of,  170 
Earth  rilling,  weight  of.  170 
Ecceniric  loading  of  coluniiis.  ilH 
Ecceritrifj!,  8teani  enirine,  BIS 
Eeononiizera,  fuel.  »I3 
Edison    or  circular  mil   win  ga 

S9.S0 
EfBclency  of  a  tnai-liiiie,  499 

of  boilers.  C63,  680 

of  eln-tric  transmission,  1047 

of  pumps  ^-i.  008 

of  Bteani-enBiiies,  749.  776 
ElTort,  definition  of,  4S9 
Elastic  limit.  236 

elevation  of,  S38 
F.laf-tic  resilienre.  270 
Klastlc-ity,  niuduhiK  of.  237.  314 
Eleotrie  acoiuuulatitrn,  J055 

conductivity  of  sterl.  403 

ffunerator.  e(nc'len4.'y  of,  1018 

beatiog^,  M6,  lOfrt 

lif^btini;.  1061 

mo  lor.  1070 

pumpintr-plant.  1049 

railways,  1050 

traiisniit^lon,  tOSS 

trniismiKsinn,  ecoaomytll^ 

wridine,  1053 
Electrical  englneerinK,  1034 

horse-powers,  table  of,  1013 

reststance,  1088 

gtandardg  of  measurement,  II 

unit«,  1034 
Electricity,    analogy    with    flo' 
water,  1027 

heating  by,  W6,  1054 
Electro-chemical  ei|iiiralent<i,  II 

magoelic  measureineitits,  10G8 

mBKtieta,  1068 

mairnets,  polarity  of,  1060 
Elect  rtilysis.  1067 
Eieme rit8.  chemical,  163 

of  maclilues,  43."i 
EHipw.  constnictlon  of,  48 

equation  of,  70 

measures  of,  50 
Elli|»<oid,  08 

Kloniralion.  measure  of,  99 
Eiiierv.  Kradea  of,  068 

wheels,  967-969 
Eridlegs  Kcrew,  440 
Energy,  concervniioD  of, 

of  recoil  of  guuK.  431 

or  stored  wor-k,  430 

sources  of.  482 
\  V.T^¥^ne-f^ann•8  nr  bed-plales. 


icrr» 


{DBX. 


ot  '*»"■;  ■ 

Flu--- 

ecu  i  ■ 


I  Fly 


:/;;r.;:!.:"-^* 


1,450 


tO'.O 


Kera,  t<B 


'^""'"■■'  1    unit  n<  ""f"- *irto«  pr"^"*"" 

For'' 
Fori-- 

1^: ::^^^-^^ 

F'  .«i 

l-' —  .  ...  ,.,..*«iKe»'  ^, 


^  1 .  f,,jii 


1080                                         IKDEX.                                   ^H 

n—  -           .  ,              ivwi    ttw 

Heat,  st<*rlDE  of,  789              ^^^ 

Oltv    •-."-■■ 1    WS,  W3 

iranaiuitiiiis  powers  of  snbsUnws 

-I'l                    ...ibn,  714 

478 

unit,  4SA.  660                                      _ 

riii-i.biti 

HeateiT^.  feeil  water,  7'J7                 M 

lUtiriiiuATlliK.  U>I 

Ueatiuk'  ft  iMiildint:  to  70°  F.,  5<fi    ■ 

Ml •■■ '■'-'  <«lueof.  AM 

and  Vfuillaiion.  .■•■.38.540        ^^1 

|.                                   htn,  188,  m 

l)lo»-fr),y8ieni  of.  .54.5          ^^^H 

I'l 

l)y  eleotrlctty,  546.  1054       ^^H 

>.i  1 

by  e.tlm«Rl-st«'Bm,  780        ^^ 

Qii-                                     vlfc'ul.4riO 

1,.                          .  ..r,\M; 

by  hot  water.  542 

of  electric  conductors,  1083 

».  .....  -. ,  .  ......  h'ruTity  of,  ICO 

of  larg;e  liuiMingyi,  5S4 

pn*|«'rljr«  wf,  ■^7\t 

Hurface  of  boilers.  978 

K|j«'i-inc  lii'at  of,  •l.'iS 

Hoine  iKiiler,  te«t  with  different  «l 

whkIo.  n-...  in. .1,1  iMiilerx,  680,  010 

688 

ClnMnllrii- 

Helix.  60 

lluiitCK,  "                      't-meMI,  128-31 

Hodekiujwn'g  rormtila,  MS 

<l>-nnui'               :..-,    .,r,81» 

UoUtine.  90(1-910 
coal,  34.? 

..f    ...    1..-.,  ■,.■,-. 

enKint><i,  power  of,  9C6 
pneumatic.  909                     ^^ 

»()i,f,!  ..f,  w:, 

t.hilhi-tl-nliwl,  laO,  867-4)00 

rope,  :im                             ^^M 
Hookt.  liuiKthij;,  907              ^^H 

tlewr  (fvth,  »lreiiKlll  of,  900-800 

-wIimbIs,  Ki/e  anil  «i>e«d  of,  891 

Korse-i^in.  434                           ^^^H 

flr,.iii<-li  li-iil  iM-obleiiid,  3T 

work  of  a,  434                     ^^^H 

)>riiKi"''*<ioii,  11 

Horitti- power.  430                    ^^^H 

liniposiilouB,  ,'):i 

constants.  7.'.7,  7IV8               ^^^H 

Orrniuii  sllvci-.  .'««,  33i 

of  tioniDK  water,  n89         ^^^H 

Hilver,  NlrfiiKlli  uf.  900 

of  sEenin-boilers,  077,  9/19  ^^^H 

01r.leiM  f.ii-  li'iiliTS,  TUM 

uf  steam  eiiginefi,  7>K>         ^^^| 

UliiKS,  KkyllBlit,  Iftl 
strriifftli  of,  iwe 

ptjuer-lioui's,  429                ^^^H 

}lom«,  friction  Itffisec  in,  680 ^^^^H 

(ii.nliiu  K  formula,  847 

H.jt-air  engines,  881               ^^B 

water  beniing^,  M'^                       V 

fl..v..|n..rs.  8im 

Howe  tniinx,  445                                 1 

liniiii,  wi'lght  of,  i;0 

Humidity  iu  atfuOKpher«i,  48S       1 

GraiiU«,  ■l.niufcth  uf,  310 

Hydraulic  appumtus,  (S16             I 

Grale  and  healing  giirface  of*  boiler, 

enj.'iiif.  (119                                    u 

078 

Hydraulics,  Hon'  of  water,  S8fc|^H 

Cirn)ililte  as  a  lubricant,  IMS 

for^iufr.  018                           ^^^H 

paiiii,  ma 

^rnde  line.  578                    ^^^H 

Oravilv ,  HccelerntWu  due  to,  434 

power,  617                            ^B 

centre  of,  418 

|]r*n<.<iiu'e  t  rsnamisslon,  61$ 

speciflc,  168 

ram,  (114 

(irt>at<>>it  oriniinon  nieaEure,  8 

Hydriiiiieler.  1C5 

Grei'iiliouiiu  lionting  by  hot  water,  648 

JiyKiiiMielei-,  dry  and  wet  bulb,  1 

li.v  steniii,  ^i-W 

Hyperbola,  eqimtion  ttf,  71 

ftrrt-n's  fuel  rconnoiizers,  713 

conht  ruction  of,  4U 

UrindstoncH,  008,970 

Ilyperl)..lii'  loirariihnift,  ISO 

a.vrati..n,  centre  and  radius  of,   BIT, 

curve  in  indicator  itiafrntmit, 71 

-'»»,  i-X,  4^1 

Ilypocyclold,  50 

IlaulafTB,  wlre-ro|>e,  fllj 

l-beaiiiK,  Bixef!  and  weighlg,  177 

Hawiey  down-draught  furnace,  TV3 

properties  of,  474 

TTejidH  of  boUei's,  TOG 

spaciUK  of.  •m,  2S0 

Heat.  US  478 

Ice  ami  snow.  550 

boilliiB-iMiiiitg.  466 
ccindtiuliou  of,  408 

Ice-imikini;  inachineB,  961-10011 

inannfacture.  099 

coiivecMun  of,  <7I 

lilumlnatiuK  ,ras,  051 

(>zpiiiiHloii  by,4ri9 

Tm|>act  of  bodies,  431 

L-enerated  by  electric  eurrenti),  103J 
latent,  401 

Incandescent  lamps,  1051      .^^^| 
Inches  and  fractions,  deol^^^l 

latent,  of  eraporatiun,  462 
latent,  of  fiiBlou,  4fil 

foot,                                 ^^^H 

Inclined  plane.  437                           m 

aieltlug-poiula,  455 
0/ combustion,  456 

\)lanes,  haulitif^  on,  918,  915        1 

\      ^\M\«v'«\«i^^w<»  Qti,.428                1 

radtjxaon  of,  4ttJ 
1    specific,  457 

1081 


Leakage  of  gUiAin  in  eofrlnv*.  761 

Lenst  coMimoii  iiiuUiple,  i 

Leather,  stre iiitth  of.  303 

l>e  Cliatelifr's  pyromwier,  4AI 

LeToHinz  l.>¥  barometar,  4fti 

Lever,  the  bent,  486 

Levers.  435 

Ugnite^,  Western.  G31 

Lime,  weijilitof,  ITO 

Limestoae,  slreiigth  of.  313 

Limit  Kaii(;eA  for  sorew-threadii,  »)6 

Lines  of  forw.  1060 

LInkR.  encitie,  818 

Link-iuijtioii,  .S.34 

Liquation  t)f  alloys,  833 

Liquiil  iiiea-siire,  IH 

Lii)uid!i.  weight  and  sn.  gr,  164 

Locomotive,  tlrelesw,  S66 

Locomotives,  liil-#6« 

(liineiisious  i>r.  800 

tests  of.  ft63 
LoKHriihmIc  curve,  71 

Hine-S.  etc.,  162 
Lora^iihiiis.  hyperbolic,  ISO 

difte'-entitti  of  77 

o'  niiinbera,  rJT-lSli 
Jjogs.  Inmber.  efc.  weight  of,  S3! 
Loop,  the  »l<mni,  670 
I/iss  of  beftii  ill  pipes,  573 
LnViricant.*,  012 
Lubrication,  912 
Lumber,  weight  of,  S^J 

Machines,  elemenU  of,  485   ^"t**' 

Machlne-sliop,  the.  953-978  «^ ' 

shop  practl(,-e,  KV'J  ^ 

shops,  pcvwer  iigeri  In,  966 

tmrews.  208,  axi 

toots,  power  retiiilred  for,  980-985 

tools,  proportioning  tdzesof,  iffS 
SlaclnurTn's  theorem,  76 
Magnesia  bricks,  S35 
MoKnetiiiiin.  liW 
Magnetic  bHiaiice,  396 

capacicv  of  iron,  effect  of  auDeallug 
OU.396 

circuit,  1060 

elrcnit.  units  of,  10M 

HelJ,  slivngth  of,  1068 
Maencts.  wiuding  of.  1068 
JlBlleatiiliiv  of  rm-tals,  IfKl 
.llalieHlile  caMSiiRS,  rules  tor,  8T6 

oast-iroo.  375 
Mandi-uls,  sizes  of,  972 
Maognnese,  168 

bronze,  331 

liitUience  of  on  cast-iron.  Mo 

Inliiieii'ce  of  on  «teel,  389 

plnling  of  iron,  387 

steel,  4017 
Mannesmnnn  tubes,  286 
Manomoter,  air,  481 
Man-power.  433 
Maimre  as  fuel,  M3 
Man -wheel.  434 
Marlile,  Ktren'" 
Marine  engi'^ 
engine,  IK 
engine  p 


1082                                             INDEX.                                       ^H 

Ibrlns  cogine,  rmlio  o(  cyliudera,  T66, 
M«rrioiu-'s  law.  iro,  T42 

Nuts  and  bolu.  im.  211               1 

Olim,  defiuilion  of,  10^                1 

MAMmirv  malrrJalH.  sCreiigU)  Of.  313 

Ohm's  law.  lino                             ■ 

nmiirinlB,  wrifrhl  and  sp.  ^.,  IW 

Oil  nt- edfd  for  engines.  943          H 

Mnli-nalM,  Kl.V^a.'S 

Oils  and  ooal  n*.  fuel,  G46             H 

Hi ri-llt;tll  (if.  aiWtii 

lubrioaUnR,  !M4                              ■ 

Mnxjrim  an<l  fiiiiiliiiii.  TG 

Open-heartli  steel.  JiOl                   H 

Wi'iisures  rtiid  Wflulits,  17 

Ores,  w«i)rlit  uf .  170                      ■ 

of  WDik,  power,  unil  diity,  3T 
MtHilimiii-ai  e<|iilvnlent  of  htiat,  4S6 

Osclllutioa,  centre  of,  431      ^^B 

Oxen,  power  of,  435               ^^^| 

ivowerg  {are  Elfnients  of  Machioes), 

43ft 
Bli'kcrs,  711 

Ordinates,  69                          ^^H 

«,  value  of.  57                                 V 

M»-i-liiiiiics,  ^IR-MT 

PackinK-rinus,  enKlnes,  796          ■ 

M>*UHrHkl  oniiiiirfKWd-air  tnuiiway,  609 

Paddlc-wlieelH.  1013                         ■ 

Mi*liliiK')><>i><t^  ol  sulmtancvs,  455 

Paint,  qiiaiilies  of.  ;W9                    M 

Memphis  hricl|;p,  strains  on  steel,  881 

Paint itii;  wood  and  iron  structonfl 

Xt'iiHiiralion,  M 

Paiabola.  coiiBtruction  of, 48      fl 

MiTiMirv.  16S 

equation  of,  70                               ■ 

liHlh  pivot,  !M0 

Parat)olic  conoid,  68                     | 

Vf>rriiiian'«  foi-niiila  for  eolumiu.  960 
MeaiirA  nnil  Nouel's  pyrometer,  43$ 

Parallel  forceii,  417                 ^^U 

Farnllelnprnm,  54                 ^^^| 

Mainline,  BIT) 

of  forcfg,  410                       ^^^H 

SIi'fHl».  proptrties  of  the,  107 
t«Mi'  fur  i-ali'iilatiDt;  welKlit  of,  189 

Parpntlim-es,  3-S                        ^^^H 

Partial  payments.  15            ^^^H 

1       u>'ii;l<t  atxl  SI),  er,  of,  101 
'    Mi-tric  foiivi>rslnn  taliU-s,  93-26 

Peat  or  turf.  643                      ^^H 

Peltoiiwhi-el  table.  SiS6         ^^H 

imiisiirrs  ftnd  weiKlits,  21-32 

water  wheel.  597                  ^^^| 

Mi-firs.  wnlpr,  fiTB 

Fend iiluiii.  422                          ^^M 

MiKflrviilBr,  18. -Jt* 

conical,  4£'i                         ^M 

Milling  (.■iiltci's.  007 

Percus-sion,  centre  of,  482 

ciill.TS  for  ^>earH,  802 

Perforated  plates,  excess  streni 

iiiiiiliiii.'s.  rosiilt*  with,  060 

.H59 

Mill  pnwiT,  M«l 

Penniilation,  10 

MliiiT«  Inch.  18 

Perpetual  motion,  488 

iiicli  nipasiireim-'iit.  585 

Petroleum,  645 

MiiiH-voiitllntlnE  fans,  S2I 

as  fuel,  C4.'i.  646 

vi^iililalion.  Nil 

-l)iirnin«-  locomotive,  866 

M.idiiliirt  of  ela.sHLMI,v,  a37,  8M 

di.'itillatranr.  645 

*  MoUtiire  in  HieHni.  73» 

engines,  m) 

Mol«?swc.rtli"K  formula,  flow  of  water. 

priidiiei.s,  specifications.  944 

.■»-• 

Phosplmr-lironxe,  m^  384 

Moment  of  force.  1116 

wife.  225 

of  inertia,  ar,  410 

Phosphorus,  InBuebce  of  on  cast 

Riatimtl.  -117 

367 

M'^nifntuni,  428 

influence  of  on  s(«el,  889 

Moriir*  laws  of  friction.  938 

F'ieaoiueter,  the.  5K2 

Mrriar.  Btn-npth  of.  313 

Pie-iron,  annlyfiix of,  871 

Mi»lion.  Newton's  lows  of.  415 

cheniiHtry  of.  370 

Motor,  elfptrlr.  1070 

ifradioB  of.  365 

inHiience  of  silicon,  elft  on.  M 

Jloliu-R.  compress<tl-air,  B07 

Moiililiiif'Kand.  BS3 

te.(aof,8t)9 

Moviii(j  strut,  4'M 

Pillars,  strength  of.  346 

Milieu,  fwiver  of,  iHH 

Pi  tot  tube  Kaug«,  683 

MiilliphaAe  curretitfl,  1070 

Pipe, 
ottiiifrti,  cast-Iron,  187 

MiiBhet  steel,  409 

lead,  200,  201 

Nails,  213,  215 

riveted.  107 

Kcretvs.  pt<-.,  hoWine  power,  289-391 

sheet-iron  hydraulic,  191 

Napbtha-eneliies,  KM 

spiral  rivetw)   197 

N«plf,r>  riilp  for  (low  of  steam,  668 

Pipes,  air-bound,  .'i79 

NatiirnI  gag,  649 

and  cylinders,  oontente  of.  I». 

Nautical  measure,  17 

cast-iron,  thickness  of.  ies.  190 

Newton  "a  laws  of  motion,  415 
Nffkel,  166 

ca.<it-iron.  weight  of,  J85,  ISS 
COile<l,  199 

.f^nr-*" 

eKvKt  Of  bends  In,  488,  5V8,  TO 

Nogzles,  niefl8iireiii«ntot«r&teTb5,^M 

tio-n  Ql\^«a\.x>.,«zn           ^^^H 

»> 


air-l'»i",i  605,  «8 
gucuon  ol,  ^ 


(tea,  18 


»-« 


ftiid  e*^ 


ISDBX. 


llvr-tliiir-mao1iliir8.  brdnuilio,  618 

I 

u'l  of.  aco 


I  iaK««  on  4.SS 

■v.  Boa 

MM 

'  ial«,  IKl,  ItM 
,  i«-i-iW7 

Dl,  XW,  WOO 
mr.  .'m,345 
.«,  536 

|{.  .•lerKted,430 

Ktile  u(  tbra<«,  6 

KuHi  li-w  cotkUuga  for  iron,  889 

Safety,  factors  of,  8M 

Sitfeiy  valves,  7*1 

SHliuoiiieter,  (<trvui;tli  of  lirln«8,  Hi 

Salt,  i)itinu(acltii't' of,  403 

s.>liil>illly  of,  4U 

weijiht  of,  170 
Sa:)<l-I>las%9eie 

iiioiililing,  99d 
Kawiliial  as  fuel,  043 
,Sii»liig  ni>-tjtl,  966 
tfciilf  auil  iiiL-i'USlatiou,  BBl 

ill  Ktuaiii  iHiilei-H,  TlO 
Sc'lik-le'8  aiiiifrk'tluu  curve,  60 

liivoi-lvnrinK,  939 
Sfiewbolts,  effloiency  of,  B74 

•lifTrivutial,  439 

fDillesH,  440 

the, 437 

lliifiwl.  Powell's,  975 

ilireada, !»!,  208 

llireads,  metric,  9E0 

propeller,  lOlU 
BcrewB  and  acrew-threada,  074 

holding  power  of,  gSO 

iiiaehliie,  »)(!,  -JOO 
S«.'ant  of  an  angle,  6.5 
SiHilurs  and  Begments,  89 
Sediiiieut  lu  steam-lioilera,  TIT 
S«^t;er'B  flre-olav  pyrometer,  453 
Hegineiitsof  a  uircle,  table,  116 
Segregation  in  sieel  ingots,  404 
SepiirBtoi-s,  steam,  788 
Set  screws,  holJUiK  l>ower  of,  977 
Seivers.  (cra<le  of,  5<jfl 
Shiift-ln-arinKS,  810 

KOvernor,  Ki8 
Shaftliitf,  8CT-KT-.i 

table  for  laying  out,  873 
Sbafts,  engine,  iSO-SIS 

tly-whet'V,  809 

propeller,  etrenKtb  of,  815 
Shapes  of  leBt-speeimeng,  SM3 
Slienriiig,  effect  of  on  steel,  894 
strength  of  iron,  30«j 
Iti-eiiRrli  of  ivoodrt,  3V2 
■  sisianceof  rivets,  iW3 


3V 

i  Of,  lefe 


V 


Bbearinp,  imit  Mrains,  880 
Shear-pules,  stresses  in.  442 
Sheet  ii'iin  and  steel,  weight  of, 
Shells,  spherical  »trt-nglh.of, 
Shiii);les,  W\/x-i  and  weiKhi,  183 
Shlpplnif  measnif,  l!i,  luoi 
Ships,  rtsisluMi-e  of,  1002 
Shoclm.  reslBtunce  to,  SMO,  »il 
Shot.  laid.  VH 
Shrinl;,.,;.-  of  (.•n.stiupj.  951 
SI  973 

Si.  lionietrical  fuuctl 

n  I.  1 

SMK''Hi-lin.i;zi'  wires.  2SS,  3li8 
Silicon,  iiifltienee  oronos(-irol 

lutliience  of  on  steel,  889 
Silver.  IflH 
Simpson's  nile.  66 
Sine  of  an  unele,  OS 
Sines,  eosines,  et«.,  table 

etc.,  Inparilliiiiic,  108 
8iul(ing-fuTid«.  17 
Siphon,  the^  681 
Slate,  Hizes  and  weights,  18$ 
Slide-valve,  «!4-Ml5 
Sniokepieveniiciu,  718 
Bnow  nnd  io<-,  550 
Soapwlone  n.H  a  lubricant,  9IS     _ 
Softeners,  use  of  In  foundry,  M 
Softfiiinp  hard  water,  fAS 
Solders,  838 
Bolld  bodie!!,  inensiirtttkiii  of,  A 

of  revolnliou,  (t! 

nieasnie, IH 
Bjiecilii'  gravilv.  IIW 

trruvily  .if  alloys,  MSO.  fta 

pravii'y  of  cast-iron.  874 

gravity  of  gaset*,  iwi 

gravity  of  steel,  4(18,  411 

Kiavity  of  stoneg,  brick, eto., 

heat,  4K7 

heat  of  air,  484 
SpecificatiiinB  for  axleft.  Steel, I 

for  car-axleis,  401 

for  cnst-irnn.  .')74 

for  craitk-pin  steel,  400 

for  oils,  9H 

for  plate-steel.  3[<0,  400 

for  rnil-slcel.  401 

for  rivetJi,  401 

for  spriHK-iileel,  400 

for  steel,  SO" 

for  steel  cMsiinRS,  406 

for  Kleel  ruda,  40(1 

for  wronghr  iron. 378 
Speed  uf  enllinK  tools.  «6S,  9M 

of  vessels,  1(106 
Sphere,  iiieuMires  of.  61 
Spheroa.  table  of.  118 

weights  of.  tea 
Spherical  polytfou,  urea  of,  01 

sequent,  US  . 

shells.  )>I length  of,  280 

ateani  engine,  79i 

triaUBle,  area  of,  01 

zone,  62 

^.VVllB*,  ftVl«»  KttiV  M(.»«Jj;»*.^'3tJ 


Sgon — 

engines. "'    ^  econo"'"^ 

^,ipp?,«i'^  ,  eat 


JSlion  r«W. 


CLASSIFIED  INDEX  TO  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


We 


'-COMPRESSORS   AND   ROCK-DRILLS.  VJidS 

Ingersoll-Sergeant  Drill  Co 9 

Norwalk  Iron  Works  Co.,  The , 2 

<      Band  Drill  Co 4 

">  ""rar  Mbtau 

£pping>Carpenter  Co.  (IJmited) 17 

roes,  Airri-FRicTiONAL. 

Holmes  Fibre-Qraphite  aifg.  Co 18 

INO  AND  HOSB. 

Boston  Belting  Co 8 

BR  Feed-pumps. 
E^piog-Carpenter  Co.  (Limited) IT 

BR  Inspection  and  Insurance. 
Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance  Co 9 

BRS,  Steam. 

Abendroth  &  Root  Mfg.  Co 4 

ER  Tubes  and  Plates. 

Lukenslron  &  Steel  Co 9 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.  (Incorporated) 10 

ta. 

Wiley&  Sons,  John 19 

MB  Builders. 

Berlin  Iron  Bridge  Co.,  The 18 

P  FORGINQS. 

Rhode  Island  Tool  Co 5 

Weyman  &  Gordon 17 

JNES,  Steam. 

Watts-Campbell  Co.,  The S 

D-WATBR  Heaters. 

OoiibertMfg.  Co.,The 3 

Taunton  Locomotive  Mfg.  Co.,  The la 

■•HSDRANTS 

'Chapman  Valve  Mfg.  Co T 

J^^'^ONOl'IZBRa. 

^^^el-Economizer  Co.,  The » 

■^^awley  Down-Draft  Furnace  Co.,  The 14 

^^3fo  Machinery — Elevators,  Conveyors,  etc. 

lunt  Co.,  TheC.W 1 

.VLic  Presses. 

>ltien  &  Co.,  Tinius tO 

ORB  and  Inspirators. 

SaneocklaapiratorCo.,  The V 


loss 


■tW&BJE. 


twits  rope  ir^mwmss.  Hi 
atii«iiKUi  of.  HOirSra 

wamni  lly  ■  w'he«ta.  8iH 
Wfriiiir     formijln     for     Incuidmcuat 

liKtittofT,  1013 
Wires,  tlirneut  requil'ed  to  fuse,  I«ST 
Wlr«  Mbte  loT  IOOadiJ  (KlOvoltit.  1044 
Ublf,  l«it  find  cold  ^ilrea.  lu&l,  lOSA 
WoliltM'*!!  fxpiirinjuulii,  'iS& 
Wix-Hl  as  fuel.  OSS 
I  i.'utiip<:i»icii:in  i>r,  MO 

bi$ailu|f  value  of,  BS3 
eCr^DRtli  iir,  mt.  30(i,  SIO,  31« 
wpfKht  of.  106,  sa-i 
WiKMlieD  fly- wheals,  888 
WcMidiiinji«  or  xyloUtfa,  31S 
Wcniif  (.v(>e  fif  conipDubil  erring,  T63 
J  Woollen  V  ioeoiRO'lv*-,  lifili 
[Work,  >''-i-i'Ky>  puwer,  430 


Work  at  acoeler&tjon.  <S0 
of  men  and  auiriialH,  433 
tltilt  it!,  4i!S 

W^orin-gear.  44fl 

Wiisl-oin,  B04. 

Wiulielil-iron,  Z77S79 
olifPiilstrj  of,  377 

XylolItU  or  woDdstone^  31G 
¥Jel4  point.  SB? 

Z-bars,  properlies  of,  'US 

SiEta  and  weijrbts,  ITB 
ZiDC.  169 

tuljinp,  *i:iH 

uii*  of  III  Steam -boileni,i3il 
Zeuiier  TftlTe-diBjjram,  BJT 
Zero  absalutu,  461 


HUNT  COAirAiNY, 

4S    BROADWAY, 

NEW   YORK, 

MANUFACTURB 

ROPE.     .     .     , 

This  rope  Is  Inteoded  to  be  used 
for  Rope  Drlflng  »nd  Hotatlng 
only,  and  ii  sold  under  the  trade 
name  of  "Stevedore."  We  guar- 
antee that  more  work  can  be  done 
with  it,  in  proportion  to  its  cost,  than 
with  any  other  rope  in  the  market, 
without  any  exception  whatever, 
and  wiJl  gladly  refund  the  difference 
in  price,  if  it  is  not  all  we  claim. 
¥ou  cannot  lo»e  by  making  a  trial 

of  thla  rope,  and  are  sure  to  reduce 

t.  "^^^^^^^^  your  expense  account.    This  guar- 

W        T«D?«A^r  make.      We    do    not    manufacture 

■  TRADEMAHK.  tfansmission   pulleys,   shafting,    or 

hangeni,  neither  do  we  make  ordiaary  rope. 

INDUSTRIAL    RAILWAYS.     .     .     . 

cars  and    I    way.    The  cars  run  around  a 
g'auge,   is   |   curve  of  n  feet  radius  as  easily 

-     wagon 


This  system  of 
tracks,  31^  inches 
especially  de- 
signed for  use 
in  manufac- 
turing ,.stab> 
lish  mc  nts. 
Our  narrow 
gauge  railror.d 
track  is  made 
up  complete, 
ready  to  lay, 
with  steel 
croiis  ties  se> 
curcly  riveted 
lo  the  rails, 
Bad,  with  swit- 
ches, curves, 
crossings,  and 
makes    a   perfect 


turntables, 
permanent 


an 

turns  a  comer. 
The  advant- 
age of  this  will 
be  appreciated 
by  every  one 
who  has  had 
experience 
with  rigid 
wheel-base 
cars. 

A  ajriteiD  «r  c«ra 
sail  track  In  *  ru- 
Uiry  t«  fts  much  s 

••lathy,"  A  "iteam 
huiiimsr."or  >"lo<'Di,"  and  aboulil  bA 
Jadjfnd  In  tba  Bamo  nay. 


)AL   HANDLING    MACHINERY. 

Por  hoisting  Coal,  Ore,  and  Stone  from  vessels,  of  all  van'etle*, 

m  the  simple  and  cheap  Mast  and  GalT  hoisting  from  Canal 

"ts,  to  the  most  elaborate  plant  that  will  unload  a  3,000  ton 

sel  in  ten    liours,    Hoislins  Engines,  Automatic  and   Cable 

ilways  for  handling  and  distributinR  Coal  and  Bulk  Materials 

In  Coal  Yards,  on  Wharves,  and  at  Mamifactur- 

Ing  Establishments,  Coal  Tubs,  Steam  Shovels, 

^d«st  and  Gaff  FJttings,  Wheel  Barrows,  and 

:-**^isting  Blocks  tor  both  Manila  and  Wire  Rope 

^^JNVEYORS.     .     .     . 

^       Noiseless     Conveyors,     which     carry     the  I 

w^'^&terial  without  shock,  breakage,  or  violence 

•^  atiy  direction,  in  which  every  bearing  can  be 
pt  thoroughly  lubricated,  and  the  whole 
ichine  is  as  durable  as  an  ordinary  machine  tool.  We  print  a 
..alogue  describing  the  application  of  this  machine  -o  large 
earn  Generating  Plants,  Locomotive  Coaling  Staricus,  <]■« 
crks,  and  Coal  Yards. 


Improved  Corliss  Steam 


IN    MODERN    VARIE: 


Established   I85K 


Incorpo 


THE  NORWALK 
IRON  WORK 

OF   SOUTH    NORWALK 

MANUFACTORE 

AIR  AND   GAS   COMPRI 

ON  THE 

COMPOUND    COMPRE 

DDiNir^i  or  c 


ADVEBTISEMENTSL 


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;   BROADWAY, 

NEW  YORK, 
lACTURE 


[  Tlila  rope  Is  Intended  to  be  used 
Ir   Bope   Driving;  and    Holding 
gly,  and  is  sold  under  the  trade 
oe  of  "Stevedore."     We  guar- 
Intee  that  more  work  can  be  done 
ith  it,  in  proportion  to  its  cost,  than 
ith  any  other  rope  in  tbe  market, 
ithoat    any    exception   whatever, 
1  will  glaaly  refund  the  difTerenc 
price,   if  it   is  not  all  we  claim. 
I  Van  cauDot  lose  by  making  a  trial 
[of  this  rope,  and  are  sure  to  reduce 
'  your  expense  account.    This  guar- 
antee   goes    with    every    rope    we 
make.      We    do    not    manafactitro 
transmission  pulleys,   shafting,    or 
^ke  ordinary  rope. 

.WAYS.     .     .     . 


land 


way.  The  cars  run  around  k 
is  I  curve  of  u  feet  radius  as  easily 
as  a  wagon 
turns  a  corner. 
The  advant- 
age of  this  will 
be  appreciated 
by  every  one 
who  has  bad 
experience 
with  rigid 
wheel-base 
\     cars. 

I  A  iTHtein  it  tun 
i  AD<1  track  In  it  rac> 
I  unj  Is  as  luucb  a 
«  "msrhliie"  as  » 
...         I  ■•latbtj,"  II  "steam 

taoies,    I    |ian]tnar,**or  a  "lonin,"  and  shouJil  b» 
lanent    I    jadgsd  in  tbe  same  «a;. 

Q    MACHINERY. 

,  and  Stone  from  vessels,  of  all  varieties, 
eap  Mast  and  UafT  hoisting  from  Canal 
orate  plant  that  will  unload  a  ),ooo  ton 
[oistinR  En;^ines,  Automatic  and  Cable 
ind  distributing  Coal  and  Bulk  Materiala 
es.  and  at  Manufactur- 
I  Ttiba,  Steam  Shovel^ 
,  Wbeel  Barrows,  and 
Manila  and  Wire  Rope 


L  which  carry  the 
Dreakagc,  or  violence 
h  every  bearing  can  be 
cated,  and  the  whole 
san  ordinary  machine  tool.  WL  urint  a 
le  application  of  this  ma^  -■^9 

ita,  ikicomotlve  Coaling   "  .»« 


■ 


I 

■ 


pTheMon..        i 
Water=Wheel  «'-t 

is  coaTCftei 
power  in  bo  simple  and  economical  a  vay  that  niackiae 
be  said  to  be  almost  dispetiscil  irith.  Tboasaods  o 
wheels  arc  sent  out  every  year  eo  at!  parts  of  the  wo 
in  DO  in«tance  do  itiey  (ail  to  meet  tke  most  sangaioe  i 
lioBS  of  pur<hasers.  Adapted  to  bead*  from  tweaty 
^^      lo  ibc  higbcsi  in  any  case  obtainable. 

H  Electric  Power  Transmission. 

PELTON  WHEELS  afford  the  most  reliable  and  ^ 
power  for  such  service,  and  are  running  the  majorityj 
tions  of  this  character  in  the  United  States,  as  welh 
forei|;n  countries. 

Higrhest  Efficiency  and  Absolute  Regfula^ 

gu;trantecd.  covering  the  most  extreme  variations  c 
alogues  famished  on  application.     Address,  giving 

PELT0HWHTER-WHEELCO.'"J:r.f' 

INGERSOLL-SERGEANT  DRILU 

Hareui«yi>r  Bid';,  26  C'urtlandt  St 
NEW    VORK. 


ROCK  DRILL! 
AIR  COMPRESSI 

Coal  Cutters,  Stone  Channeling  Mac| 

AMI  Cl'KfUL  MAflUNXS  KOK 

KINING,  TUNNELING,  QUARRYING, 

AM)  lua  AI.I-  KINDS  (IK 

ROOK     KXCAVA-TIOIV. 

Sobmarinf!  Drilllig  Plants 


mnu   luuL  11U.9 


PUNCHED 
HEXAGON  NUTS, 

rRIMMED  WITH  DRILLED  HOLES.) 


INISHED 
NED  HEXAGON  NUTS. 


I 


STEEL  WRENCHES. 


;hine  bolts. 


ND  MILLED  STUDS. 


ID  SET  SCREWS. 


RN  BUCKLES. 


RGINGS  TO  ORDER. 


;E,  RHODE  1^1  UNO. 

6 


^ 

.^^ 


Rubber  Mats  and 
Rubber  Ca 

And  the  HIsKMt  Grades  of  Rubber  Oood*  for  all  M« 
Manufacturing  Purpose* 

BOSTON: 

356,  358,  360  Devonshire  St. 


GREEN'S  FUEL  ECONO 


FOR    STEAM     BOILERS. 


f, 


and  Steel  Co. 


•ORATet)  i«a 


4BOILER-PUTESIIIAMEEICL 

■iSTON.  Vic»-P.m--iiiK!rr 

■   Hl'MPrOX.  Seucktart  am:  T«BA&t'l 

FES,  ALL  GRADES, 


ons.  Width  up  to  10  feet. 

3.   10  Gauge  to  2  inches. 

rABLIHHEO    1810. 

'lUE,  PA.  New  Yofk  OfFce  1  No.  29  BROADWAY. 
:  535  DELTA  and  536  SOUTH  FRONT  SIR  1  T?. 
BUILDING,  Room]  405-6-7.8.  NORTH  BRD  D 
:ET,  above  Arch  Street 

lANlZED.    1866. 


H     INSPECTIONS 

AND 
or  Danuitfr    to   Proper ly    and   jA>$t  of 
ury  to  t'ermotm  caujird  by 

LER  Explosions 


;  Vioe-Pi'esldf'nt. 
EN.  S..*cond  Vice-President. 
B   PIEUCE.  SecreUrj  and  Trensurer. 
L.  B.  BKAINKRO.  ^JWX,  [ 


1821  ^ 1888 

MORRIS, TASKER  &  CO 

t  INCORPORATED. 

OFFICES :  222  and  224  Sooth  Third  St.,  PhiladelpMi 


MANTrrACTCREiu  or 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  RAILWAY  PIPE  POL! 

Boiler  Tubes,  Wrought  Iron   Pipe  and   Fitting 
Gas  Works  and  Structural  Work,  Heavy    j 
Castings,  Tools  and  Machinery. 


'  DICP 


PASC&L  [RON  WORKS, 

Philadelphia. 


DELAWARE  IRON  WOR 

New  Castle,  Del. 


Olsen's  TestlDg  Macliin 


FOR   TESTING 
Iron   Kpecimeiis.   Bridgre   .Muteri 
rhuin,Cr<iiient,  Wire,  Springs,  Oil 
bricants,  also  Viscos  I  meters, 


Hydraulic  Presses, 
Accumulators,   Gauges,  an 
Pumps. 

Awarded  the  Elliott  Cresson  Gold  Medal  by  the  Franklin  Instltl 
also  Medal  and  Diploma  by  tho  World's 
Colujtibiap  Exposition. 


I  TINIUSOLSEK'&Cq 

K  500  North  \'lVVv'5»\TftfeV^V\\&j\si5;j«\v^-^      I 


Jne  of  Holyoke  H 

I  MACHINERY.     " 


aOSS-COM HOUND  iilGH-DUTY 
PUMPING-ENGINE 

BinLT    BY 

e  Steam  Pump  Co., 

3LYOKE,    MASS. 

WAREROOMS: 
RK.  B09TC:> 

IILADELF'HIA. 

►ersJVER. 

"ii 


WIRE  ROPE 

Works  61'  Trppti^nN  I 

^.    117  LIBERTr  5t.  newyork    .'S 
'      25fREM0NTST6ANF;\ANriSCO      "         ' 

J>  ir3  Lake  5'^  CuiCAGO.iLL -oJ 


Fibre=Qraphite  Requires  No  Oil 

Avoid  all  cost  of  oil  and  attendance,  and  annoyance  (ri 
dripping  oil,  by  using 

FIBRE-GRAPHITE   BEARINGS. 

We  are  prepared  to  furnish  Boxes  for  any  form  of  Hang 
Pillow  Block,  or  other  standard  now  in  use,  or  to  furnish  I 
material  in  the  form  of  Bushings,  or  other  desired  shape, 
ready  introduction  into  the  frames  of  special  machines  or  el 
where.  The  anti-frictional  and  self-lubricating  qualities 
FIBRE-QRAPHITE,  together  with  case  of  adaptation,  rec 
it  eminently  suitable  fur  all  bearings  under  light  or  model 
pressures  where  freedom  from  oil  is  desired. 

A  few  of  the  special  uses  of  FIBRE-QRAPHITE  an 
Hearings  for  Water  Meters,  Dye  Tubs,  Bearings  subjected 
high  temperatures.  Plungers  for  Arc  Lamp  Dash  Pots,  C< 
mutator  Brushes  for  Dynamos  and  Motors,  etc..  etc. 

Awarded  [be  Elliott  Cresson  Gold  Medal  by  the  Ft; 
lin  Institute  of  Pennsylvania. 

HOLMES  FIBRE-GRAPHITE  MFQ.  CO., 

station  Z,  PV\\\adft\'p^K\«L,\i.'5^.Vv. 


"THE  HANCOCK  INSPIRM 


TVPE   *A  •• 


0v9f  200.000  m 

i^„tm  Highest  I 

oi  efficdenc 
reliability 


Smoke  Prevention  and 


Send  J  or  our  new  Catalogue. 


THE  HAWLEY  DOWN-DRAFT  FURNACE  G 


NEW   YORK, 

BOSTON, 

CHICAGO. 

CINCINNATI, 

DETROIT, 

ST.   LOUIS. 

BALTIMORE. 

P/TTSBURGH, 


39  Cortlandt  Street. 
Tremont   Building. 
Monadnock. 
328  West  Pearl  St 
40I   Chamber  of  Cor 
1   West   Broadway. 
1631    Fulton   Avenue. 
Tradiesvei^^  €>uUding. 


Jti^P 

orngj 


nil/uAULlllFixedand  Portable; 

INTENSIFIERS,    PUNCHES, 
SHEARS,   PRESSES,   ^nd   LIFTS. 


IlatthewR'  Pire  Hydrants,  Eddy  Valves, 
Valve-indicator    Posts. 

CAST-IRON  PIPE. 


R.  D.  WOOD  &  CO., 

Engineer!,   Iron   Founders,   McchinesU, 

'400  Chestnut  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


h 


n  Foundry  and  Machine  Co. 

WORKS  AT  PHILLIPSBURfii,  N.  J.  M 

YORK  OFFICE, 


160  BROAOWAY. 


;t-iron  water  and  gas  pipe 


From  three  to  forty-eight  inches  diameter. 
kNCHES,    BENDS,    RETORTS,   ETC« 


■l 


15 


I 


THE  PRATT  &  WHITNEY  CO,. 

HARTFORD,  CONN.,  U.  S.  A. 

MACHINE   TOOLS 

F\JK 

General  and  Railway  Machine  Shop  ServicCi 

Miiilcni  MrnbiiK- Tools  for  llif  Miinufm-turc,  on  tlic  IntiTchniik'rtiM 
SygU-iu.  or    Lociitntitive  Work.  Uieyclea,   Eilectrieal  Apr*"' 
wrilliiir  Mnt-tiliiri^.  fiiinsaiul  Scwinnc  Maebiiies.  iiic'lu>)ii)^  all 
Gnu^Tfs ;iinl  Fiitiins. 

Hilling  Macbines,  Screw  and  Turret-Head  Ctincking  Hacliiiits 

Pp*i'lnll>  iU-«l»{iio<l  MiuhJnery  nml  Tools  fur  the  Manufai-tuTVOf  Bras 
OchhIs,  Ai^rlculturul  Imiilftnciils.  etc..  anil  for  every  purpune  when 
Afruratr,  Knpid  anil  Econnmical  Proiluctioti  is  pssontiul. 

I".  S  Staiiclanl  Taps,  Dipsuinl  limi^es,  ^Uiuinr'!  Cyliu'lrioal  Sla?  i 
CaliiHT  (iuiijTCS,  KcunuTS  or  everj  kiinl.  Plain,  .S]iii-ally  FluHd  I 
lnH;rte<l  Tooth  MilliiiK  ("utters  of  cvt-ry  size  and  titylc. 

JIITO.TIATK-  WI^IUHINUai.tt'HtKES,  csi)CciaUy  adapU 
fur  ufi'uniicly  woijjrhiufr  cual  itnd  all  materials  of  unifonoa  &i2e, 
tu  iM.orui^',  that  cuo  be  spouted. 

Send  for  Illuiitrated  Catalofrues  unOl  Priccg.  Corrcspomieiuse  inr 


John  Simmons  Co. 

I  WROOGHT,  CAST  IRON  AND  BRASS  PIPE 

^       FITTINGS  AND  BRASS  WORK, 


STEAM 

GAS 

WATER 

OIL 

ELECTRICAL 

ENGINEERING 


SUPPLIE 


Offices  and  Salesrooms: 

106,   108  and   110   CENTRE 
ME.NN  XORK. 


Worcester,    N'lass. 


I 


i 


3HT  OR  HEAVY  FORCINGS 


MADE     BY 


DRAULIC  PRESS, 

DROP  HAMMER, 

STEAM  HAMMER, 

HELVE  HAMMER. 


L 


yaer  Welds  made  in  large  quantities  without  aid  of  electricity. 


EF»F»ING     SRKCIAL 

BOILER- 


I 


1 


FEED    * 
PUMP. 

I 


TI[E 

MOST    RELIABLE 

MADE. 


I 


CARPEMI 

TSBUPG,P, 


iv 


\m  PEHH  AYEME 


J 


!^    QL    u  u  n  U  U  11 


1 


HEAVY  FORGINGS 

MADE     BY 

RESS, 
HAMMER, 
TEAM   HAMMER, 

HELVE    HAMMER. 

irge  quantities  without  aid  of  electricity. 

O    SPECIAL 

BOILER- 
FEED 

PUMP. 


on  Metals. 


THE 

HOST   RELIABLE 

MADE. 


im  PENN  AVEr- 

_     Pittsburg, 


THE  NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 
RBPERBNCB  DBPARTMBNT 


Thia  book  is  under  no  cirouat«t«nc«*  t»  ba 
taken  from  the  Buildiat 


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