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I
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I
RAbuuri State Board of Agricultuie. !
, i
9
5
.A3
1. v.. WILKINSON,
St. Louts, Mu.
State BourU ol AKrloulture,
34TH ANNUAL REPORT
Missouri
State Board of Agriculture
YEAR 190JI.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
' State Board of Agriculture,
Office of Secretary.
Columbia, Mo., February 27,
LTURE, J
ARY, 5-
U 1903.
To Hon. A. M. Dockery, Governor of Missouri:
Sir— In compliance with the law 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a rejwrt of the
work of the State Board of Agriculture for the year 1902.
Very respectfully,
Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary.
City of Jefferson, Feb. 11, 1903.
To the Commissioners of Public Printing:
I require for use of my oflBce Fifty-five Hundred copies of the Thirty-fourth Annual
Report of the State Board of Agriculture— all bound in cloth— which I desire as per accom-
panying sample. Respectfully,
Gjso. B. Ellis, Secretary.
Approved:
Sam B. Cook, Secretary of State,
Albert O. Allen, State Auditor,
R. P. Williams, State Treasurer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Images
Report of- Secretary 7-51
Treasurer's Report 52-53
The Most Important Insects Injurious to Wheat in Missouri , . ^ 55-141
Corn as a Stock Food •. 142-181
Some Lessons From European Agriculture »... 182-204
Farmers' Institutes 205-269
State Industrial Meetings 270-413
Opening Session -. 270-278
Road Improvement Association 279-302
Sheep Breeders' Association 303-314
State Poultry Association 315-338
Improved Live Stock Breeders' Association 339-372
State Grange 373-391
Swine Breeders' Association 392-413
State Dairy Association 414-438
City Forestry ; 439-448
£iConomic Notes on Some of the Grasses of Southwest Missouri 449-456
Miscellaneous Tables 457-468
176223
OFFICERS OF STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE 1902.
President — ^W. R. Wilkinson, St. Louis.
Vice-President — F. J. Hess^ Charleston.
Secretary — Geo. B. Ellis, Columbia.
Assistant Secretary — Snowdon Willis, Columbia.
Treasurer — H. H. Banks, Columbia.
, Veterinarian — Dr. D. F. Luckey, Columbia.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
W. R. Wilkinson, St. Louis, W. L. Bryant, Independence,
F. J. Hess, Charleston, Wm. C. Howell, Ulman,
H. J. Waters, Columbia.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS.
Governor of Missouri — A. M. Dockery.
Superintendent of Schools — W. T. Carrington.
Dean Agricultural College — H. J. Waters.
CORPORATE MEMBERS.
Name. Postoffice. No. Dist. County.
Chas. F. Afflick Maud ist Shelby.
John W. Hill Chillicothe 2nd Livingston.
Alex. Maitland Richmond 3rd Ray.
S. H. Prather Tarkio 4th Atchison.
W. L. Bryant Independence 5th Jackson.
H. F. Hand .Taberville 6th St. Clair.
N. H. Gentry Sedalia 7th Pettis.
Wm. C. Howell Ulman 8th Miller.
J. A. Potts Mexico 9th Audrain.
Chas. L. Boisselier Gumbo loth St. Louis.
N. J. CoLMAN St. Louis nth Chemical Building.
W. R. Wilkinson St. Louis 12th 212 N. Main St.
Chas. M. O'Connell. ..Fredericktown 13th Madison.
Ferd. J. Hess Charleston 14th Mississippi.
J. J. McNatt McNatt 15th McDonald.
A. T. Nelson Lebanon i6th Laclede.
OFFICERS. 5
OFFICERS OF STATE FAIR DIRECTORY,
President — N. H. Gentry, Sedalia.
Vice-President — ^J. A. Potts, Mexico.
Secretary — ^J. R. Rippey, Lancaster.
Treasurer — C. W. McAninch, Sedalia.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE STATE FAIR DIRECTORY
N. H. Gentry, Sedalia, John W. Hill, Chillicothc,
J. A. PoTTS^ Mexico, N. J. Colman, St Louis,
Alex. Maitland, Richmond.
OFFICERS STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.
President — D. A. Robnett, Columbia.
First Vice-President — Geo. T. Tippen, Nichols.
Second Vice- President — C. H. Dutcher, Warrensburg.
Secretary — ^L. A. Goodman, Kansas City.
Treasurer — ^W. W. Gano, Parkville.
OFFICERS STATE POULTRY ASSOCIATION.
President — ^J. H. Casey, Liberty.
First Vice-President — ^Judge W. W. Graves, Butler.
Second Vice-President — ^Wm. Jones, Springfield.
Secretary — C. W. Nuss, Tina.
Treasurer — ^J. A. Maxwell, Fayette.
OFFICERS MISSOURI SWINE BREEDERS* ASSOCIATION.
President — W. L. Addy, Parnell City.
Vice-President for Poland Chinas — E. E. Axline, Oak Grove.
Vice-President for Chester Whites — ^J. C. Canaday, Bogard.
Vice-President for Duroc Jerseys — S. Y. Thornton, Blackwater.
Vice-President for Berkshires — T. A. Harris, Lamine.
Secretary and Treasurer — F. H. Schooler, Rockport.
OFFICERS MISSOURI ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIA-
TION.
President — Geo. F. Reed^ Springfield.
Vice-President — Hon. W. J. Ward, Idalia.
Secretary — G. W. Waters, Canton.
6 OFFICERS.
OFFICERS STATE SHEEP BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION,
President — M. F. Forbis, Chillicothe.
Vice-President — Prof. F. B. Mum ford, Columbia.
Secretary — L. E. Shattuck, Stanberry.
OFFICERS STATE HORSE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION.
President — C. F. Clark, Mexico.
Secretary — ^J. R. Rippey, Lancaster.
OFFICERS IMPROVED LIVE STOCK BREEDERS' ASSOCIA-
TION.
President — T. F. B. Sotham, Chillicothe.
Vice-President — W. P. Harned, Vermont.
Secretary — Hayes Walker, Kansas City.
Treasurer — J. C. Hall, Hallsville.
OFFICERS MISSOURI STATE GRANGE.
Master — C. O. Raine, Monticello.
Lecturer — T. B. Dunham, New Cambria.
Treasurer — ^W. P. Haines, Oilman City.
Secretary — E. H. Long, Monticello.
OFFICERS STATE DAIRY ASSOCIATION.
President — ^J. J. Smith, Sweet Springs.
First Vice-President — H. C. Goodrich, Calhoun.
Second Vice-President — J. R Brady, Kansas City.
Third Vice-President — B. C. Settles, Palmyra.
Fourth Vice-President — H. F. Hand, Taberville.
Secretary — Hon. Levi Chubbuck, St. Louis.
Treasurer — ^J. L. Erwin, Steedman.
GENERAL EXECUTIVE BOARD— STATE INDUSTRIAL AS-
SOCIATION.
For Horse Breeders' Association C. F. Clark, Mexico.
For Swine Breeders* Association F. H. Schooler, Rockport.
For State Board of Agriculture Geo. B. Ellis, Columbia.
For Improved Live Stock Breeders' Association T. F. B. Sotham, Chillicothe.
For State Poultry Association Dr. J. T. Dewey, Keytesville.
For State Sheep Breeders* Association L. E. Shattuck, Stanberry.
For Improved Roads Association Geo. F. Reed, Springfield.
For State Grange CO. Raine, Monticello.
ANNUAL MEETING.
Office of the Secretary, (
Columbia, Missouri, December 17, 1901. f
The Missouri State Board of Agriculture convened in regular
session in the Secretary's office, called to order by the President, W.
R. Wilkinson. The call of the roll by the Secretary showed the fol-
lowing members present: W. T. Carrington, H. J. Waters, Chas.
F. Aflflick, Alex Maitland, H. F. Hand, N. H. Gentry, Wm. C. Howell,
J. A. Potts, Chas.' L. Boisselier, W. R. Wilkinson, F. J. Hess, J. J.
McNatt and A. J. Nelson.
The following members were absent: Gov. A. M. Dockery, S.
H. Prather, W. L. Bryant, N. J. Colman and C. M. O'Connell.
Minutes of call meeting held in Sedalia, September I2th, 1901,
read and approved. Minutes of last annual meeting approved as
printed in Annual Report.
Report of Secretary read, and after discussing the suggestions
contained therein, the report was adopted and ordered printed in
the Annual Report.
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
»
Gentlemen of the Board of Agriculture:
According to a time honored custom and in the fulfillment of
my official duty, I present to you the following report of the work of
this office for the past year:
This year's work is now a part of the history of the State and
must be judged by what it has accomplished. Many changes have
been made in the membership of the board during the past year and
while we regret to lose the counsel and assistance of the old mem-
bers, some of whom had served the people of the State for many
ypars, we most cordially welcome to the membership of our body, those
who have been appointed to take their places.
Death of Hon. A. Nelson. — It is my painful duty to report to you
the death of one of your honored members, Hon. A. Nelson of Leb-
8 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
anon, Caclede county, Missouri, who died on Sunday, November
loth, 1901. He had been appointed by the Governor only a short
time before his death, and had the pleasure of meeting with you only
one time, that at the called meeting in Sedalia, September 12th. He
was present at the Institute meeting held in Lebanon only a few days
before his departure and took a great interest in the meeting. Had
Mr. Nelson lived, he would have been a valuable member of the
board. He was a successful farmer and fruit grower, a good busi-
ness man, a leading spirit in all public enterprises in his county and
had been a member and officer in the Missouri State Horticultural
Society for a number of years.
MONTHLY BULLETIN.
The work of the officers of the Board of Agriculture could not
accomplish much unless in some way it is put in form to reach the far-
mers of the State. The publication of the work done by the board
through the annual report has been practiced since the first organi-
zation in 1867. For several years past a number of. bulletins have
been printed containing crop reports and a great deal of other valu-
able information. The bulletin is perhaps the best means of reach-
ing the people with the results of the work of this office, as it can
be sent out at a time when the information is wanted. In order to get
the benefit of reduced postage, I decided, after conferring with your
Executive Committee, to publish a regular monthly edition under
the title of the Missouri State Board of Agriculture Monthly Bul-
letin, and have it admitted to the United States mail as second c^ass
matter. The amount saved, in postage and the amount saved by se-
curing a reduction in the price paid for printing, enables us to send
out about twice the amount of printed matter for the same money.
The increasing demand for this publication is sufficient evidence of the
appreciation the farmers of the State have for it and I am sure it
is filling a useful purpose.
More than three and a quarter million pages of printed matter
have been prepared and sent out the past twelve months, more than
eight thousand letters have been written pertaining to the current
business and in answer to hundreds of inquiries received, asking for
information on numerous subjects, several thousand blank inqui-
ries have been prepared and sent out, collected again and the informa-
tion contained on condition of crops and live stock compiled and
published. These bulletins have given information on the following
subjects: Condition of crops and live stock, dairying, quarantine
N. H. QESTttY,
SedKHH, Mi>.
President Mlssimrl I:)Mt« Fair.
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 9
regulations, agriculture in rural schools, tuberculosis of cattle, cattle
feeding experiments, the feeding problem or the relative value of dif-
ferent feeds, and many other subjects.
CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS.
There has been a very hearty co-operation between the Depart-
ment of Education through Superintendent W. T. Carrington and his
assistants, Dean H. J. Waters and other members of the Faculty of the
Agricultural College and the officers of the Board of Agriculture. This
is as it should be, for all employees of the State are servants of the
people, and should work together for the common good. Many far-
mers have co-operated in the work by acting as crop correspondents
without any compensation, and without this co-operation of the far-
mers themselves, our crop reports would be of little value, last, but
by no means least, of all the agencies that have assisted in our work,
are the newspapers of the State. The great city daily and weekly
papers, many of the county papers and all of the agricultural jour-
nals of the State have given their co-operation by publishing our
crop reports, interviews and information from our bulletins, thus
reaching thousands of farmers and rendering a most valuable service.
CROP AND LIVE STOCK REVIEW, 1901.
Perhaps the worst drouth in the history of Missouri has pre-
vailed in nearly every county in the State the past season. The
farmers of the State have entailed a loss on crops and live stock of
more than one hundred millions of dollars and yet in the face of
this great disaster there is no lagging nor sorrowing over "spilled
milk," but they are buoyant with hope and bending every energy to
recover the loss as soon as Providence again smiles upon them.
There is yet a bright side to the situation, and in the future many
will no doubt be able to look back to the year 1901 as the beginning
of better methods in farming, more systematic rotation of crops, of
breeding better live stock, of boring deep wells instead of depending
on shallow ponds, of the more general growing of drouth resisting and
soil renovating crops, the building of silos and the saving of the entire
fodder crop.
The season was rather unfavorable from the opening, the winter
having been mild and the early spring very wet put the ground
in poor condition for a crop. The following is a summary of crop
yields and conditions for the year:
10
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Corn. — -Tlic planting was considerably later than usual only
about one-fifth of tbe crop planted May ist, and only 90 per cent
planted June ist. The cool weather also retarded germination, and
was favorable to cut worms, wire worms, corn lice and moles, which
did considerable damage. The cool weather continued until the mid-
dle of June, and being very dry after April i8th, the corn made slow
growth. The condition on June ist was TJ, on July ist 68, and the
high temperature, withering winds and lack of moisture for July, cut
the condition to 21 on August 1st, the lowest of the season.
The showers that fell the last few days of July and early in
August made considerable improvement in late corn, but on most of
the early corn the hot winds of July had killed the tassel before pol-
lination took place and the improvement was in the fodder only,
which matured in fairly good condition, and was harvested to a
greater extent than ever before. The final estimate made up in No-
vember showed an average yield for the State of 9.9 bushels per
acre, which very closely agrees with the Government Report made
up at the same time and from an entirely different set of corresgond-
ents, the Government estimate being 10 bushels per acre. This in-
dicates a total yield for the State of 61,667,000 bushels. The quality,
however, is very inferior on account of being worm eaten, light and
much rotten corn, the average qi;ality given is 45. This would
bring the total yield down to a feeding value of only 27,750,000
bushels. A comparison of yields and acreage for the State and by
sections since 1894 is given in the following table:
Year.
.0,^,.
Yield
peraoro
Total yield.
prloe Dec.
1st.
i
1901
6.09!
i
000
000
000
000
000
000
33
1
1.
U 00
34 00
S S8
"1 i
\J0
if
tNovember Bulletin.
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
11
The following^ table shows the total acreage, average yield, and
total production of corn by sections for 1900 and 1901 :
Section.
Acres.
Bushels
per acre.
Total pro-
duction.
Northeast, 1900.
Northeast, 1901.
Northwest, 1900.
Northwest, 1901.
Central, 1900.
Central, 1901.
Southwest, 1900.
Southwest, 1901.
Southeast, 1900.
Southeast, 1901.
926,000
935,000
1,937,000
1,956,000
1.063,000
949,000
1,677,000
1,626,000
820.000
763,000
30
11
33
15
30
7
28
6
28
8
27,780,000
10.285,000
63,921,000
29.380.000
31,590,000
6,603,000
46.956.000
9,756,000
22,960,000
6,104,000
Note.— A slight error appeared In November Bulletin. Corrected in this table.
8T.LOUI8
MAP OF STATE SHOWING SECTIONS FOR CROP REPORTS.
12
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAIv REPORT.
Wheat. — The estimated acreage sown in 1900 for the harvest of
1901 was 1,040,000, being an jncrease of 4 per cent over the previous
year. The plant generally wintered well and practically all the crop
sown was harvested. The cool, dry weather the latter part of April
and in May, which was so unfavorable to corn, proved advantageous
to wheat. Some sections reported damage by Hessian fly, and a few
fields in Greene and Jasper counties were almost destroyed by plant
lice. The wheat filled exceedingly well and ripened almost perfectly,
and was put into the bin in first class condition. The quality for
the whole crop is placed at 98, and a great many samples are re-
ported testing as high as 64 pounds per sealed bushel.
Table showing the acreage, yield per acre, total yield and average
farm price for wheat 1894-1901, inclusive :
Acreage.
Yield
per acre.
Total yield.
Av. farm
price Dec.
l8t.
1,539,000
1,550.000
1,271,000
940,000
1,034,000
900,000
1,000,000
1,040,000
15
11
10
10
12
9
16
16
23.065.000
17.050.000
12,710.000
9,400.000
12.408,000
8,100,000
16.000,000
16,640.000
.43
.51
.70
.85
.59
.62
.63
.66
The above table shows the yield for the crop to be 16 bushels
per acre, exactly the average yield for 1900, and a total yield for the
State of 16,640,000. There is a wide difference between the acreage esti-
mate of this office and that of the United States Government, the Govern-
ment estimate being 1,500,000 or 500,000 greater than the State estimate.
The surplus shipments reported by the Labor Commissioner for 1900
places the shipments of wheat, not including the three large cities of
St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph, at 11,809,022 bushels. If
we account for what is kept for seed, consumed on the farm for bread
and feed, and what is sold to the local mills, we believe the estimate
made by the State is considerably below the actual production. This
discrepancy in the estimates, if the census report soon to me an-
nounced confirms, has probably been made in part at least by the
correspondents not taking the proper basis for estimates in the years
1898 and 1900, each of which followed a year in 'which the amount
harvested was much below the amount sown.
The acreage sown this year for the harvest of 1902 has been largely
increased, the estimate for the State compared with that of the previ-
ous year is 154 per cent. The greatest increase is in the Southwest
section, where the acreage is 199.
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
13
The ajjerage condition of the plant November ist, this year, was
91 compared with 96 for 1900. In some counties it was too dry to
properly prepare the ground, and a few correspondents report some
of it dying for lack of moisture, but generally the crop is in good con-
dition, as shown by the figures in the table on page 15.
Oats. — ^The unfavorable weather during March and up to April
1 8th, the time of the last general rain and, snow fall in the State,
caused a decrease in the acreage, compared with the previous ,year
of 19 per cent, making the acreage 810,000. The average condition on
May 1st was only 81 per cent, some correspondents putting it as low
as 20 per cent. Only about 24 per cent of the crop sown was
threshed, the remaitider being pastured or put up for hay. The aver-
age yield per acre on the acerage threshed is. 13.9 bushels, making a
total yield of only 2,898,000 bushels, compared with 30,000,000 busWels
for 1900. The quality of the grain is placed at 61 per cent.
Table showing total acreage, yield per acre, total yield and average
farm price of oats for the years 1894 to 1900, inclusive :
Year.
Acreage.
Yield
per acre,
Total yield.
Av. farm
price Dec.
1st.
1894
1895
1896
1897
1896
1899
1900
1,116,700
25
28,000,000
1,140.000
30
34,200,000
1,140,000
19
21,660,000
1,037,000
25
26.000,000
923,400
18
16,621,000
767,000
27
20,709,000
1,000,000
30
30,000,000
.29
.18
.17
.19
.23
.24
.23
Hay. — ^The hay crop for Missouri is second only to the corn crop
in value, the crop of 1900 was estimated at nearly $20,000,000. iTJie
drouth of this year cut the pastures short and many farmers were
compelled to turn on the meadows. Only 63 per cent of the timothy
meadows were cut for hay with an average yield of .84 tons pet
acre. Clover yielded slightly better, one ton per acre. The total
yield for the State is estimated at 1,242,000 tons, which at the average
farm value, November ist, of $11.80 per ton, gives a total value of
$14,556,000.
Table showing total acreage, yield per acre, total yield and
average farm price of timothy hay for the years 1894 to 1901, inclusive*
Year.
Acreage.
Yield per
acre.
Total yield
Av. farm
price Dec.
1st.
1894
1896
1896
1897
1896
1899
1900
1901
2.620.650
2,360,000
2,360,000
2,360,000
2,360,000
2,360.000
2.218,000
2,218.000
.9
1.27
1.6
1.28
1.6
1.5
1.3
.84
tons
( •
t (
C (
( t
< I
< •
t I
2.358,000
3,000,000
3,540.000
3.031,000
3,776,000
3,540,000
2.884,000
1.242,000
17.82
6.80
4.86
6.15
5.80
6.25
6.95
11.80
14 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL, REPORT.
. Fruits. — We do not attempt to gather detailed informa;tion of the
fruit crops, as we do not wish to encroach upon the State Horticul-
tural Department. A crop review for the State, however, is not com-
plete without mention of this very important and growing branch of
agriculture in this State.
The prospect early in the season was excellent for all kinds of
fruit. The canker worm appeared in several counties in large num-
bers in May, completely defoliating thousands of trees. Aside from
this there was less damage to the fruit crop from insects and fungous
diseases perhaps than for several years past. The strawberry crop,
while not large, was of good quality, and the growers generally re-
port making good profits. The withering July sun dried the blackberries
on the vines, killed many of the young orchard trees, and seemed
bent on cooking the fruit on the trees. The intelligent orchardist, «
however, did not lose hope, but gave greater attention to cultivating
his trees, and thinning and otherwise looking after his orchard with
the result that in many instances his profits were larger at the end of
the season than ever before. The yield was about 50 per cent of a full
crop, but . on account of the scarcity in other states it sold for
a very high price and brought a great deal of money into the
State. Many farmers have made good money off their orchards this
year, some of them receiving $100 to $200 per acre for their apple crop
in the orchard.
Live Stock. — The worst feature following the drouth is a gen-
eral decrease in the number of all kinds of stock in the State. The
greatest source of revenue for the Missouri farmer is the live stock.
Our reports show a decrease in the number of horses of 13 per cent;
of cattle, including all classes, a decrease of 30 per cent; of fatten-
ing cattle, 70 per cent decrease; hogs, all classes, 36 per cent de-
crease; fattening hogs, 58 per cent decrease; sheep showing a de-
crease of 21 per cent.
The loss on cattle will take some time to regain, but if our re-
ports are correct on hogs, showing a loss of all classes of only 36
per cent, while the loss on the number in fattening pens is 58 per cent,
it is apparent that a great many hogs have been kept for breeding
purposes, and with normal crops next year, the loss in number of
hogs may soon be regained.
Condition of Live Stock. — Our reports show a decrease in num-
ber of cases of hog cholera, only a very few correspondents report-
ing any diseases at all among the hogs. In quite a number of coun-
ties aphthous fever, or sore mouth, among the cattle has been re-
ported and the following dir eases show an increase over 1900: Corn
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
15
Stalk disease in both cattle and horses, black leg and lump jaw in cat-
tle, and rabies or hydrophobia in dogs.
Forage Crops. — A large acreage of forage crops, including sor-
ghum, Kaffir corn, millet, cow peas, rape and other crops was sown in
July and August with the hope of producing feed to take the stock
through the winter. While the yield was very good in many places,
a great deal of that sown did not mature any crop at all.
Other Crops. — ^The yield of other crops grown in the State and
the average farm price is shown in the following table :
SUMMARY OF CROP REPORT FOR 1901 FROM NOVEMBER BULLETIN.
Summary of Orop Reports.
CO
»
o ®
• «3
^
5!
o
H
• »
2P»
Wheat, condition of plant, Nov. 1st
Wheat, acreage sown compared with 1900
Wheat, amount of crop in farmers' hands Nov. 1st.
Wheat, quality of grain
Oom, quality of new crop
Corn, amount of old crop on hand
Oals, quality of grain
Average crop yields for 1901 :
Wheat, bushels
Corn, bushels
Oats, bushels
Rye, bushels
Flax, bushels
Clover seed, bushels
Timothy seed, bushels
Trish potatoes, bushels
Sorghum syrup, gallons
Timothy hay, tons
Clover nay, tons
Cotton, bales of 500 pounds each
Average price on farm, Nov. I:
Corn, price per bushel
Wheat, price per bushel
Oats, price per bushel /
Rye, price per bushel
Flax, price per bushel
Cloverseed, price per bushel
Timothy seed, price per bushel
Irish potatoes, price per bushel
Cow peas, price per bushel
Timothy hay, per ton
Clover hay, per ton
Wheat straw, per ton
Wool, per pound
91
154
48
98
45
10
61
16
9.9
13.9
13
2.7
1.7
2.2
17.4
41
.84
1
.39
.62
.66
.39
.70
1.31
6.51
3.07
1.07
1.48
11.80
10.66
5
.17
83
192
38
96
54
12
78
16
11
16
15
4
2.
2.
19
43
1.2
100
142
43
100
55
8
71
20
15
20
17
2.7
o
3
18
57
1.3
1.3
.55
.68
.37
.62
1.25
7
2.60
1
2
9
8
4
.17
.54
.66
.34
.60
1.30
6
2.60
9.55
8.27
3.41
.15
90
125
56
95
40
9
48
14
7
9.3
12
1
.8
1.8
11.9
14
.57
.82
.67
.66
.45
.77
1.42
5.50
3.70
1.14
1
13.84
13.15
6.21
.17
95
199
50
98
38
10
55
14
6
11
9
2.7
1.9
2
16
49
.64
.9
.29
' .63
.66
. tic
.74
1.26
6.87
3.15
1.05
1.42
11.62
11.15
5
.19
o 2
r en
86
114
55
99
38
11
55
14
8
13
11
3
1.3
2
22
42
.8
.9
.5
.72
.66
.42
.77
7.20
3.30
1.20
1.50
15
12.72
6.40
.18
LIVE STOCK SANITARY SERVICE.
The importance of a well regulated department having in charge
the live stock sanitary regulations of the State, is second to no other
work done by the State in behalf of the breeders of live stock. The
total value of all the live stock in the State is not less than $250,000-
000. The actual assessed valuation of the cattle, horses, mules, hogs,
sheep and other live stock for the year 1900, as shown by the Audi-
tor's books, was nearly $62,000,000. The live stock alone, saying
nothing about other investments necessary in carrying on the busi-
ness, pays into the State Treasury annually, in round numbers, the
sum of $155,000 and to the counties approximately $500,000 more,
16 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
making a total revenue derived from this source of $655,000. It is
then a profitable investment for the State to foster the live stock
industry to the extent of providing for and enforcing the best sani-
tary service possible.
Can the best service be provided with the amount of money now
appropriated for this work? Without hesitating, I answer it can
not. There are new lines of work demanding your attention and
must be provided for if the live stock interests receive the protection
its importance will justify. The loss in this State annually caused
by hog cholera, black leg, corn stalk disease, contagious abortion,
calf cholera, and other less dangerous diseases, such as scabies,
actinomycosis, aphthous fever, etc., cannot be actually estimated
without more reliable data than what we have, but it will reach hun-
dreds of thousands and perhaps millions of dollars. That a com-
petent force of veterinarians should be employed to make the most
careful study of these plagues and the best means of preventing their
spread, and perhaps entirely stamping them out, I think will not
be disputed. The State Veterinarian in his report will show that
his time is now all taken up, and hence if this work is thoroughly
done, increased help necessitating larger appropriations must be had.
Some other states with one-fourth to one-half the number and value
of live stock that Missouri has, spend more than twice the amount
of our appropriation for their veterinary service. The present annual
appropriation for this work does not exceed one-sixteenth of a cent,
per head of the live stock in the State. I offer these suggestions that
you may make your plans for the future, and ask of the next Legis-
lature the necessary funds to carry them out. Your authority is
given to you and the means provided by the Legislature, and it is
your duty to be governed thereby unless perhaps some extraordinary
conditions were to threaten more than ordinanry losses. The ap-
propriation made for the veterinary service for the year 1901 and 1902
was $16,200 or $8,100 per year. The expenditures for this year are
$8,886.46, which is $786.46 in excess of the appropriation. The ex-
penses -this year, however, arie $764.92 less than that of 190Q.
CATTLE QUARANTINE.
The cattle quarantine regulations adopted by the Executive Com-
mittee and promulgated by the Governor's proclamation on Feb-
ruary 14th have been published, and are not materially different from
the regulations of 1900.
The annual meeting on December 19th ordered that the inspec-
tion season should be for^the months of November, December, Jan-
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 17
ii^ry, February and March of each ^ear. The Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Order No. 80, dated December loth, 1900^ only provided for
inspection during November and December. This order was sub-
sequently amended so as to admit cattle upon inspection from the .
two northern tiers of counties in Arkansas, up to April ist.
These conflictions cause^ a great deal of confusion among the
cattle men, and no doubt to some extent bring the reg'ulations into
disfavor. It seems to me the proper thing to do is to authorize the
admission of cMtle into this State upon Federal inspection and re-
quire the State Inspectors to guard the line and thoroughly stamp
out the infection of our own territory. It has been contended that
a dual inspection gave double protection against the admission of
infested cattle. The State Inspectors stationed at the stock yards
of St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph are also agents of the United
States Department of Agriculture, and just how a dual inspection of
cattle made by one individual at the same time offers any protection is
difficult to perceive.
To get an expression from the Bureau of Animal Industry on this'
subject, the following letter was addressed to the Chief of the Bureau,
Dr. D. E. Salmon:
Columbia, Missouri, November 21st, 1901.
Dr. D. E. Salmon, Bureau of Animal 'Industry, Washington, D. C. :
My Dear Sir — It is now only a very short time until the annual
meeting of our Board when the quarantine regulations for next year
will be considered. I have been thinking for sometime of writing
to you and suggesting that I think it would be a good idea if the
United States Depaftment would take charge of all the inspection of
cattle coming into this State and for the Missouri Inspectors to try
to control the infection in our State and assist the United States In-
spectors in preventing violations of the United , States quarantine
regulations. I cannot see any need for both the State and the United
States seeking to do the same thing. Under our preseilt dual regu-
lations it is necessary for the cattle men to have inspection by both
the United States and the State. Under the plan that I suggest there
will be no confliction of dates as to time for the season of inspection.
If you are pleased with this suggestion, please let me know, for
1 want to call the attention of our Board to. this matter when they
meet; but unless it meets with your approval I cannot hope to sug-
gest any recommendation to the Board.
Yours truly,
Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary.
A— 2
IS MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI. REPORT.
The following reply was received:
United States Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C, Nov. 2y, 1901.
Hon. Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary Missouri State Board of Agriculture,
Columbia, Missouri :
My Dear Sir — Replying to your letter of the 21st instant, I
heartily agree with the plan mentioned in your letter, and will do
everything I can to carry it out successfully. I believe it would be
more satisfactory to have the Federal inspectors make the inspection
of cattle coming into your State from below the quarantine line, and for
your inspectors to assist in preventing violations of our quaran-
tine regulations. This would simplify matters for the shippers of stock
and I* think would give better service than the plan which has been
followed in the past of a dual inspection.
Very truly yours,
D. E. Salmon, Chief of Bureau.
#
If this suggestion meets your approval and the inspection of
cattle coming into Missouri is turned over to the Bureau of Animal
Industry it will save to this office a considerable sum that can be used
to advantage by the Veterinary Department.
• If competent veterinarians could be employed as live stock in-
spectors for the southern part of the State, they could in addition
to their work as inspectors do much of the veterinary work for that
territory, thus making a further saving of expenses, without in any
way interfering with the efficiency of the work.
The Governor's procla'mation rescinding the tuberculosis regula-
tions and the one promulgating the regulations concerning scabies
in sheep have both been published and require no further comment.
For further information concerning the veterinary work I refer
you to the following report of the State Veterinarian which has been
made by Dr. D. P. Luckey:
' REPORT OF STATE VETERlNARIAxM.
To the Honorable Board of Agriculture :
Gentlemen — In additon to the regular quarterly reports which
are required by section 10556, Revised Statutes of 1899, ^^ be made
by the State Veterinarian to the Secretary of the Board of Agricul-
ture, I wish to make the following explanation of my work during
the past year, and the plans I have in view for the future.
As is required by section 10546, Revised Statutes of 1899, all
petitions asking for the State \>terinarian to investigate outbreaks
of contagious diseases have been answered by myself or my deputies.
REPORT OF SKCKETARY. 19
By an understanding which was had with the Board at the beginning
of my term, letters from regularly graduated veterinarians over the
State, giving notice of a contagious disease, have been construed
as "sufficient evidence" of the existence of a contagious disease, and
the Secretary has ordered investigations according therewith by my-
self or my deputies. In order to control scab among sheep a system
has been arranged with the United States Bureau of Animal Indus-
try Inspectors at the public stock yards by which the Secretary of
this Board is notified of the receipt from any point in this State of
any lot of sheep affected with scab. These notices embrace such
facts in connection with the shipment as the shipper's name, address,
the station from which the shipment was made, name of the railroad
making the shipment, the number of the affected sheep, and other
points which would seem to be of value to us in investigating the out-
break. On receipt of such notices it has been the policy of the Secre-
tary of the Board to have the outbreak promptly controlled. In the
control of sheep scab it has been my policy to place the shipping pens
under quarantine until they have been disinfected, and to quarantine
the sheep until they have been permanently cured. The Bureau of
Animal Industry Inspectors at the public stock yards in this State
have been authorized by the Governor's proclamation of April 19th,
1901, to hold in quarantine any sheep that are affected with scab
until they are permanently cured, and no scabby sheep are allowed
to be shipped^ to any point in this State. By this system we are con- \
trolling the spread of scab and getting it eradicated at a satisfactory
rate.
A table, printed on another page of the Annual Report, shows ,
all the work done by the Veterinary Department in controlling con-
tagious diseases, together with the expenses incurred.
The extra traffic in mules and horses, during the past two years,
as result of the war demand and largely higher prices has made the
spread of glanders and other diseases of horses much more probable.
Extensive outbreaks of Anthrax or Charbon among all kinds of stock
in Mississippi, Louisiana and other southern states and in Illinois in
the vicinity of Chicago has caused no small amount of anxiety con-
cerning the stock of this State. This disease amounted to a veritable
plague in parts of the southern states and almost depleted many plan-
tations of their stock. In spite of all possible care on the part of the
sanitary authorities of the various states this disease spread until
vaccine firms were unable to prepare Anthrax vaccine as fast as it
was needed to protect exposed stock.
There is also renewed activity in the traffic in dairy cattle. ' The
20 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL RKPORT.
impetus given the dairy industry by an act of the recent Legislature
estabHshing the Chair of Dairy Husbandry in the University^ and
providing for a dairy building in connection with the Agricultural
College will doubtless result in the establishment of new herds and
the improvement and building up of old ones. The consequent ad-
dition of new blood to the herds and the interchange of dairy cattle
will have a tendency to spread and increase their diseases. With
even the very insignificant interest in dairying heretofore to cause
any traffic in dairy cattle, tuberculosis has gained a slight foothold
and contagious abortion is entirely too common for the best interest
of the dairymen.
Yet the owners of live stock all over the State have cause for
congratulation in that all stock are comparatively free from con-
tagious diseases. Compared with the vast traffic in horses and mules
the outbreaks of glanders have been very few, and they have all been
promptly controlled. Anthrax did not gain a foothold in this State at
all. There is reason to think that there are only a few herds of cattle
in this State affected with tuberculosis and contagious abortion alone
threatens to spread to an alarming extent.
The sanitary authorities of this State are fortunate in being in St
position to control most of the contagious diseases by preventing
their introduction anew, and their spread from the limited areas
V where they now exist. Laws and regulations for the prompt suppres-
sion of outbreaks of contagious diseases and their eradication and
plans carefully laid to prevent their^ future introduction from other
states will result in keeping our stock healthy. If our present op-
portunities are not neglected, we can, with small expense, prevent
the increase of the disease as has been the history in many of the older
states as the different lines of live stock production advanced. While
in some of the older states appropriations aggregating hundreds of
• thousands of dollars must be expended in order to give the live stock
a respectable reputation as to health, w^ will need to spend but a few
thousand yearly to prevent the accumulation of disease. A rough
estimate would show that the $40,000 expended semi-annually in
Pennsylvania to control tuberculosis would be enough to pay the
market value of all the tuberculous cattle in Missouri.
TEXAS FEVER.
The Texas fever infection in this State is in such a shape that it
requires special mention. In 1899 Texas fever infection existed in
seven counties in this State. Ever since then efforts have been made
t') control and eradicate it, and year by year the infested areas have
RKPORT OF SECRETARY. 21
become more limited. At the beginning of this year it was made a
part of the imperative duties of the cattle inspectors to locate and
place in quarantine all infested cattle and pastures and rfeport each
quarantine to the Secretary of the Board. During the year only
nineteen cases of infection of farms in the whole State have been re-
ported. While the introduction of Texas fever from the southern
states is equally as probable as ever, the infection within the State is
of little importance, and can be controlled in the future with small
expense. Through correspondence the Chief of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Secretary of Agriculture
have indicated that the Federal authorities are willing to take
the sole responsibility of preventing the introduction of Texas
fever into this State from without and to provide for the in-
spection of southern cattle which heretofore has been done
mostly at the expense of this State. If the matter is left .
in the hands of the Federal authorities, besides relieving this
State of an unnecessary expense the inspection of southern
cattle will be simplified to such an extent as to greatly benefit the
cattle industry. I advise that the Board consider this matter thor-
oughly, and, if the plan seems practicable, that it be adopted as soon
as is possible without upsetting present arrangements too much.
In addition to the control work done during the past year this De-
partment has promptly answered all correspondence from stock-
holders and given them all possible information concerning the dis-
eases of their stock. As has been the custom in the past the August
Crop Bulletin this year was used as a means of giving stockmen of
the 'State such veterinary information as their correspondence and
the observation of the State Veterinarian indicated that they most
needed. Another part, and probably the most important of all, was
the attendance at the Farmers' Institutes daily foi^ over ten weeks,
where lectures were given by way of explaining the nature of con-
tagious diseases and the method by which they could be prevented.
It seems to me that the ordinary run of diseases can be controlled
in the future by the same methods that have been used in the past.
This office will continue through correspondence, the August Crop
Bulletin and the Farmers' Institute to disseminate knowledge per-
taining to the diseases of live stock. As these labors consume my
whole time I have no opportunity left for the investigation of any
special disease. I suggest that it will be a matter of economy to the
Board to arrange for more of the control work to be done by depu-
ties, giving the State Veterinarian an opportunity to investigate in
detail- outbreaks of diseases that are not well understood. At the
22 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAIv REPORT.
present time the so called ^'corn stalk disease" is causing such ex-
tensive losses that the matter deserves careful attention. Contagious
abortion among cattle should receive special attention during the
coming year, and no pains should be spared to get its damaging
rature thoroughly understood by the breeders and dairymen of the
State. They should be aroused to the importance of the prompt con-
trol of this disease. An attempt to do the control work will make
it impossible for me to give these matters the proper amount of at
tention.
TUBERCULOSIS.
No special work in connection with tuberculosis is intended dur-
ing the coming year. This disease is fairly well understood now, and
tuberculin is an agent of undoubted reliability for its diagnosis. The
work in connection with it will probably be limited to an effort to
get the whole subject properly understood by breeders and dairymen,
that any undue prejudice in their minds against the tuberculin test
may be removed. It is hoped that they may be interested in getting
such legislation as will be absolutely necessary for successful work
in this line, and that, at the proper time, they will co-operate in
enforcing regulations by which tuberculosis may be eradicated from
our herds and its further introduction prevented. I do not believe
the present law of this State in regard to tuberculosis is adequate.
There is no effective plan for eradic^ing it consistent with the present
law that can be followed without working an injustice to the owners
of cattle which happen to be tuberculous. It is doubtful whether the
law authorizes the State Veterinarian to go into herds and make the
tuberculin test without being solicited to do so by their owners. . But
if he does make an examination and cattle are found to be tuberculous
the law only authorizes the cattle to be held in quarantine. The
loss of their use to their owner would be complete. No manner of
reimbursement for his loss is provided ^by law. The injustice to
the owner of the cattle is apparent. This course would stir up so
much resentment that the prejudice would make it impossible to
ever accomplish anything. I think it is best to let the whole matter
rest until the law can be revised so that the eradication of tubercu-
losis within the State can be attempted at the same time that regu-
lations are put in force for preventing its introduction from other
states. In the meantime I want to get the breeders and dairymen
in line in this matter and get up a plan for the control of tuberculosis
that will meet with their general favor. In regard to the law I sug-
gest that it ought to be changed so as to provide that any cattleman
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 23
could have his herd tested whenever he desired, and that if it be-
came necessary to destroy any diseased cattle he would be reimbursed
according to the present practice in connection with glandered horses.
I state this as a general plan, the details of which may be arranged at
the proper time.
I submit this report that the members of the Board may call at-
tention to any mistakes of the past and offer suggestions for the
future.
Very respectfully,
D. F. LUCKEY.
FARMERS' INSTITUTES.
The great benefit to the farmers and to the whole State resulting
from a well organized system of Farniers' Institutes is now recog-
nized by every intelligent citizen. The largely increased attendance
at the meetings and the intense interest in the numerous subjects
discussed show that the farmers of Missouri are abreast of the times
in this important work. The value of the work done this year is
shown in the endorsements now on file in this office from many of the
most progressive farmers of the State, and also from the fact that a
large majority of the places where meetings were held have already
asked for a meeting next year. Quite a number of places have per-
fected permanent organizations with a view of holding monthly meetings.
The following letter, among many others, received in this office
will give soine idea of the manner of conducting a local Farmers'
Club in a way to be of practical benefit to the community:
Lebanon, Missouri, February 8, 1902.
Geo. B. Ellis, Esq., Columbia, Missouri:
Dear Sir — I take pleasure in informing you that we are getting
along very well with our farmers' meetings. We hold a meeting
the first Saturday in every month. We have leased a hall with the
room adjoining, that we expect to use for a library. We throw this
hall open for the accommodation of farmers. These rooms are in
th^ center of the business part of our city. We would consider it a
great favor if you would assist us in getting up our library, and such
reading matter as would benefit or interest our farmers.
Very respectfully,
Phil Donnelly.
24 MISSOURI ACRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
The work of organizing local institute societies for the purpose
of holding frequent 'meetings and encouraging regular reading
courses for the members should, I think, be given the hearty co-
operation of this Board. Your board is organized on a non-partisan
basis, and this is undoubtedly in the best interests of our farmers.
The only question agked concerning any man employed for institute
work was, "Is he thoroughly qualified to give instruction in his line
of work ?"
In the work this year we have had the earnest co-operation of the
State Superintendent, the Faculty of the Agricultural College, the
Director of the South Missouri Fruit Experimept Station, and each
of the three State Normal schools.
Meetings were held at one hundred 'and twenty different places,
and the aggregate attendance would amount to many thousand
people, many of whom have expressed themselves as being well
pleased with the meetings and having received great benefit there-
fiom.
A DROUTH YEAR INSTITUTE EXHIBIT-PUTNAM COUNTY.
At a number of places the farmers brought their wives and the
wives brought well filled baskets of provisions, and two days were
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 25
spent in earnest institute work. In a great many places a fine display
of grain, fruits, vegetables and grasses were placed on exhibition,
showing what Missouri can do in a year of drouth.
A strong force of lecturers was employed, and the subjects dis-
cussed covered a wide range of subjects.
H. J. Waters, Dean Agricultural College, Columbia, Missouri,
subjects: What Kinds of Feeds Should be Bought this Winter?
Clover and Cow Peas as Soil Renovators. The Work of the Agricul-
tural College and Experimental Station.
Dr. D. F. Luckey, State Veterinarian, subjects: The Preven-
tion of Contagious Diseases Among Live Stock. Vaccines and Vac-
cination of Live Stock. Diseases of Poultry. Tuberculosis. The
Horse's Foot. How to Judge a Horse. The Horse's Teeth.
Dr. J. W. Connaway, Veterinarian to the Experiment Station,
subjects : The Southern Cattle Market. Immunizing Cattle Against
Texas Fever.
Hon. W. T. Carring^on, State Superintendent of Schools, sub-
jects : Nature Study Leading Up to the Study of Agriculture in the
Rural Schools. Unification of the Work in All of the Public Schools
of the State.
Mr. H. A. Gass, Editor Missouri School Journal and Prof. L. J.
Hall, Chief Clerk Department of Public Schools, attended a number
of meetings and rendered valuable assistance.
W. A. Hoover, Professor of Agriculture, Warrensburg Normal,
subject: Nature Study and Agriculture.
Hon. John R. Kirk, President Kirksville Normal, subject: In-
dustrial Education.
R. W. Clothier, Professor of Agriculture, Cape Girardeau Nor-
mal, subjects: Soil Improvement. Agriculture in Rural Schools. •
C. H. Eckles, Professor of Dairy Husbandry Agricultural Col-
lege, Columbia, Missouri, subjects: The Selection, Feeding and Care
of the Dairy Herd. Profits in Dairying.
C. L. Willoughby, Instructor in Dairying, Agricultural College,
Columbia, Missouri, subjects: Butter Making on the Farm. The
Farm Separator.
F. B. Mumford, Professor of Agriculture, Agricultural College,
Columbia, Missouri, subjects: Some Fundamental Problems in
Profitable Stock Feeding. Animal Form as Related to Profitable Food
Consumption.
T. I. Mairs, Assistant in Agriculture, Columbia, Missouri, sub-
jects: Comparative Draft of High and Low Wheeled Wagons.
The Value of Clover and Cow Pea -Crops.
26 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
J. M. Stedman, Entomologist Experiment Station, Columbia,
Missouri, subject: Insect Pests of the Farm and Orchard, and How
to Combat Them.
C. D. Lyon, Higginsport, Ohio, subjects: Improving and Keep-
ing up the Fertility of the Soil. Legumes as Soil Improvers. To-
bacco Growing. Farm Workshop. Poultry Yard and Garden.
G. W. Waters, Canton, Missouri, subjects: Soil Building. Les-
sons of the Drouth. Profitable Pig Feeding. The Farmers and the
World's Fair of 1903.
W. L. Howard, Assistant in Horticulture, Agricultural College,
Columbia, Missouri, subjects: Commercial Orchards for Southeast
Missiouri., Diseases of Fruits and Their Treatment. Budding and
Grafting.
John T. Stinson, Director South Missouri Fruit Experiment Sta-
tion, Mountain Grove, Missouri, subjects: Spraying. Insects and
Remedies. *
E. W. Robinson, LaBelle, Missouri, subjects: Thoroughbred
Hogs. Prevention of Hog Cholera.
Hon. N. F. Murray, President State Horticultural Society, Ore-
gon, Missouri, subjects: Commercial Orchards. Farm Orchards.
G. W. Williams, Humansville, Missouri, subjects: Scientific Bee
Keeping. Growing Small Fruits. Alfalfa.
INDUSTRIAL MEETING.
The fifth annual meeting of the different State Industrial Asso-
ciations was held in Chillicothe, December loth to 13th. A most ex-
cellent program was carried out and the information given in the
lectures and discussions will, when printed, make a valuable addition
to any farmer's library. At the suggestion of your Secretary a gen-
eral Executive Board, consisting of one member from each Associa-
tion was created to have the general management of the meeting.
The feeling generally prevailed in favor of organizing one grand
convention of farmers, to be participated in by every State Associa-
tion interested in the improvement of any branch of Agriculture.
The Tenth Annual Exhibit of the State Poultry Association held at
tlie same time was the largest held for several years, and demon-
strated to some extent the growing importance of this industry.
The most important thing to do to make a complete success of
these meetings in the future is a better system of organization for
some of the associations participating. Each association should not
only have its regularly elected officers, but it should also have some
plan of a fixed membership.
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 27
The resolution adopted by the Road Improvement Association
declaring in favor of an appropriation to be made by the Legislature
to the Board of Agriculture for the purpose of doing some object
lesson road building in different parts of the State, is an important
step toward the improvement of our roads, and I think should receive
the support of the people.
The next meeting will be held in Springfield, Missouri, begin-
ning January 6th, 1903.
WORLD'S FAIR 1903.
The people of Missouri are awake to the importance of the
Louisiana Purchase Exposition which will be the first great Inter-
national Exposition held within the borders of the State. The
farmers of Missouri have met the farmers of other parts of the world
in all the great expositions in the past twenty years, and have taken
a larger number of prizes on the combined products of live stock,
grains and fruits than any other State in the Union. Now, in this
Exposition held on our own soil, we must be ready not only to win
our share of the premiums for producing the best, but we should
show to the people of the world that Missouri produces a greater
variety of products than any other country of equal area on the
globe.
The Board of Agriculture has already, by resolution adopted at
the Sedalia meeting, tendered its assistance in any way that may be v
required. This Board, while not specially commissioned to do any
of this work, should as one of the departments of the State Govern-
ment proceed at once to perfect plans fof co-operating with the Mis-
souri World's Fair Commission for producing, collecting and prepar-
ing the Agricultural exhibit.
This Exposition will go down in history as one of the great mile
stones of the world's history, showing the achievements of the cen-
tury of greatest progress in the past, and marking the beginning of
a new century of still greater development than has heretofore been
thought possible.
ANTI-BUTTERINE LAW.
The enforcement of the Anti-Butterine Law is placed in charge
of the State Board of Agriculture, and an appropriation is made by
the Legislature for that purpose. Two inspectors have been em-
28 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ployed all the time, and for a part of the time a third inspector, who
haive given their whole time to the enforcement of the law. The large
profits made by selling oleo for butter afford an incentive for dis-
honest men to take chances in violating the law. Under the present
law, if the officers of the law would do their sworn duty, the illegal
sale of oleo could be suppressed in a very short time. But when the
prosecuting attorneys refuse to file the cases that have ample ^nd
positive evidence for conviction, and when judges on the bench will
make frivolous and the most ridiculous and arbitrary rulings in order
to shield the violators it can be seen what a difficult task it is to thor-
oughly enforce the law. However, the constant presence of the in-
spectors and an occasional conviction with a fine of $50 and costs^
and the fear of being arraigned in court as a criminal, no doubt cur-
tail the fraudulent sale of oleo to a very great extent.
With the protection of this law withdrawn, there is no doubt
that the dairy industry of this State would be almost entirely ruined.
The development of the dairy business in Missouri will add millions
of dollars to her resources, and that without injury to any other in-
dustry. From the practical working of this law for six years we
should be able to determine its defects and point out some improve-
ment. The greatest difficulty in the enforcement of the law has
been : First, an indifferent public sentiment in the towns and cities
where the oko is sold and consumed; second, the neglect of duty
by judges and prosecuting attorneys who are influenced by the in-
different public sentiment on the one hand and the power of wealthy
corporations and their agents engaged in the manufacture and sale
of the counterfeit article, on the other hand.
No one will object to the sale of oleomargarine if it is honestly
sold upon its merits as oleomargarine. The law, then, should seek
to confine the sale to its legitimate channel.
I believe that an inspection law requiring that all substitutes
for butter manufactured or sold in this State should be inspected,
and every package sold stamped with a stamp provided by the Stat^
through an agent of the Board of Agriculture would confine the sale
of oleomargarine to the proper channel. The principle is not new,
but has been successfully tried in other lines of business. This in-
spection law requiring every package to be stamped will protect the
consumers, will protect the dairymen from dishonest competition,
and produce a sufficient revenue to properly enforce the law.
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 29
OLEOMARGARINE INSPECTION IN ST. LOUIS.
For a statement of conditions concerning the enforcement of
the present law I refer you to the following reports of the Inspectors :
St. Louis, Mo., December i6, 1901.
To the State Board of Agriculture :
Gentlemen — I assumed the duties as an inspector of the Missouri
State .Board of Agriculture for the prosecution of the violators of
the law against the illegal sale of oleomargarine on the ist day of
April, 1901, and I desire to make a report of the work that has been
done in that direction since that time:
In the St. Louis Court of Criminal Correction the following
cases have been disposed of, viz.:
State of Missouri vs. Geo. Goener et al. ; acquittal. .
State of Missouri vs. E. Gerelman; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Otto Kohrs; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Louis Honig; acquittal.
State of Missouri vs. Henry Borrenpohl; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Chas. Adler; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. John Becker, Jr.; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Ben. Miller; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. John Dennis et al. ; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Jacob Maurer; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Frank Hertel; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. George Goener; conviction.
State of Missouri vs. Henry Bockstruck; conviction.
The prosecution in the above cases resulted in a conviction in
all cases with the exception of two. Three of the above defendants
had been prosecuted and convicted before for the illegal sale of imi-
tation butter, hence the above prosecution was for a second offense
in each of the three cages, viz. : J. Maurer, F. Hertel and Henry
Bockstruck, the punishment for a second offense being not less than
$250.00 and not more than $500. We secured a conviction of $250
in the case of the State vs. J. Maurer, the first and the only conviction
for a second offense ever obtained in Missouri under the law against
the sale of oleomargarine. After the above conviction, at the sole
suggestion -of Judge Clark, which we took to be in the nature of a mild
command, the remaining second offense cases were disposed of at
a fine of $50 and costs of court.
30 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
On the 19th day of June of this year the law permitting a civil
suit to be brought before a justice of the peace of the district where
the violation occurred went into effect, and since that time the follow-
ing cases have been brought in the justice court, viz. :
#
State of Missouri vs. F. F. Harrision.
State of Missouri vs. Chas. D. Kelting.
State of Missouri vs. B. H. Surkamp.
State of Missouri vs. F. D. Mundinger.
State of Missouri vs. H. Bohn Grocery Company.
State of Missouri vs. H. W. Heuman.
State of Missouri vs. John B. O'Connor.
State of Missouri vs. C. Kuhlmatin.
State of Missouri vs. C. Kuhlmann.
State of Missouri vs. Zurheide Bros.
State of Missouri vs. Wm. Loewnau.
State of Missouri vs. B. Surkamp.
State of Missouri vs. F. H. Heehs.
State of Missouri vs. L. F. Meyerhoff.
State of Missouri vs. Stocker Bros. Grocer Company.
State of Missouri vs. Henry W. Meyer.
State of Missouri vs. John C. Duemler.
State of Missouri vs. Schrieber Bros.
State of Missouri vs. Thomas McCormack.
State of Missouri vs. Aug. F. Reller & Son.
All of the above cases have not been disposed of. Twelve of
them remain to be tried. The rest have been disposed of. A ver-
dict in favor of the State was obtained in four of the cases. No ap-
peal by the defendant was taken. The judgments were paid. The
State lost three cases before a jury in the justice court, and an appeal
was taken in each of them. Mr. R. D. Ellis, the attorney, informs
me the three appealed cases will not come up for trial in the circuit
court till the latter part of January or first part of February, 1Q02.
If the State obtains a favorable verdict in these cases, the sale of
oleomargarine will rapidly diminish. There will be no doubt, then,
of the validity of the new law, and not much difficulty of securing a
conviction for all violations.
While there are more wholesalers there are not so many re-
tailers, as there were this time last year. Some of the retailers have
agreed to sell only uncolored goods, among them being Louis Mein-
ecke, 1017 N. Vandeventer Ave., and the Graffman Dairy Company
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 31
at 2020 and 1700 Franklin Ave. Both of these are very laree dealers.
On the whole, the prospects for a diminished sale of oleomargarine
are very much brighter. As soon as the law allowing civil suits to
be brought in the justice court has been declared constitutional, all
we have to do to stop the sale of oleo in such large quantities is to
make a vigorous, prosecution for all violations of the law.
Very respectfully,
Jno. H. Wilkinson.
oleomargarine inspection in kansas city.
When the present Inspector was appointed last May, he found
that fifty-three licenses had been issued during the year. That oleo-
margarine was being sold in many places for genuine butter, and no
attempt was being made to even comply with the Federal law in
putting the required label "Oleomargarine, etc.," upon the retail
packages. Two months, perhaps, were spait interviewing the vio-
lators of the oleomargarine law with the result that many abandoned
the oleomargarine business entirely.
The criminal court docket being crowded. Prosecutor Hadley
has advised that the oleomargarine cases be filed in the several jus-
tice courts, with the hope that justice might be had there without
having to take the criminal court's time with these prosecutions.
Of seven cases filed in the justice court, four have b^en tried and
lost, two others dismissed by the State, and one is still pending. In
every instance but one, defendants take a change of venue, barring
every justice in the city, but one particular justice, in whose court
the State has never 'won an oleomargarine case. It is opr hope that
when the case now pending in the justice court is finally disposed of
that we will have sufficiently demonstrated to the prosecutor that
justice in these cases cannot be had in the justice courts. The late
law provides for a civil action against violators of the oleomargarine
law. Under this act six cases are now pending in the circuit court
and two in the justice court. These civil actions in the justice court
are appealable to the circuit court.* One case was taken where the
Federal law was being violated. Defendant in this case quit the
business, plead guilty to the charge and was fined by the court.
The results of this work show that the better class of dealers
have ceased to handle oleomargarine in violation of the law. That
all of the dealers are now complying with the Federal law, labeling
the retail packages. We further find that the number of retail licenses
in Kansas City have decreased. That convictions are easily obtained
32 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAIv REPORT.
before an impartial court or jury. The butter dealers say that the
market is now in better shape than it has been in a number of years.
Respectfully submitted,
Frank Yeoman, Inspector.
The Auditing Committee, appointed by the President to ex-
amine the books of the Secretary and Treasurer, made the following
report :
. REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.
We, the undersigned committee authorized to examine vouchers
in the hands of the Secretary and warrants paid and returned by
the Treasurer and compare these with the financial statement, after
a careful examination, submit the following report: The books in
the Secretary's and Treasurer's office were found to correspond and
vouchers approved by the Executive Committee Were exhibited cover-
ing all expeditures reported in the financial statement. We find the
following balances in the hands of our treasurer to the credit of the
several funds:
Monthly Orop Report Fund.
Expense OJC Members' Fund .
Office Expense Fund
State Veterinary Fund
Butterine Fund.*
Farmers' Institute Fund
$106 12
449 27
136 34
377 30
286 66
691 37
The money appropriated has been expended so as to meet all
requirements. No deficit is charged to any of the funds. All of
which is respectfully submitted.
F. J. Hess,
W. C. Howell,
Arthur T. Nelson.
Report unanimously adopted.
Recess taken until 7 :30 p. m.
m
December 17th, 7:30 p. m.
Board called to order by President.
Committee appointed to examine and report upon the work of the
Agricultural and Mechanical College and Experiment Station, submitted
the following report :
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 33
REPORT OF AGRICUI^TURAL COLLEGE COMMITTEE.
We, your committee to whom was assigned the duty of examin-
ing into the affairs of the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts,
including the Experiment Station, as provided by law, beg leave to
submit the following report :
We find the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts to consist of :
(a) School of Agriculture.
(b) Experiment Station.
(c) School of Mechanic Arts.
(d) School of Engineering.
(e) School of Architecture.
We find the School of Agriculture to consist of the following
departments :
(i) Agriculture, with two professors, one instructor and two
student assistants, having i6o students.
(2) Horticulture, with one professor, two non-resident lectur-
ers, having 130 students.
(3) Entomology, with one professor and one student assistant,
having 38 students.
(4) Veterinary Medicine, with one professor and one student
assistant, having 35 students.
(5) Dairying, with one professor and one instructor. Being a
recently organized department, the courses will not open
until the first of January, 1902.
' (6) Agricultural Chemistry, with one professor and one in-
structor, having about 40 students.
(7) Domestic Economy, with one professor, having 16 students.
This department was organized last year.
(8) Botany, with one professor, having 82 students.
(9) Commercial, with one instructor, having 82 students. ^
Experiment Station work is divided into Agriculture, Horticul-
ture, Entomology, Veterinary Science, Dairying, and Agricultural
Chemistry, and at least half of the time of the officers for these de-
partments enumerated above is devoted to investigations along these
lines.
We find the School of Mechanic Arts to consist of :
(l) Shop- work, including carpentry, blacksmithing, wood-turn-
ing, pattern making, machine design and machine shop,
with one instructor, and three student assistants, having
237 students.
A-3
34
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI^ REPORT.
(2) Drawing, including mechanical, agricultural, machine de-
sign, with one professor and one student assistant, hav-
ing 160 students.
We find the School of Engineering to consist of the following de-
partments :
(i) Civil Engineering, with one professor, one instructor and
two student assistants, having 69 students.
(2) Electric Engineering, with one professor, having 48 stu-
dents.
(3) Mechanical Engineering, with one professor, having 30 stu-
dents.
The number of students enumerated here is taken from last year's
catalogue. We could not determine the enrollment in all of the de-
partments this year, owing to the fact that some of the courses are
offered in the second semester only.
A SUMMARY OF THE RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS FOR I90I.
We herewith submit a statement of the receipts and expenditures
of the fund of the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, exclusive
of the Experiment Station, together with the apportionment of these
funds between the College and University:
INCOME.
Prom Morrill Fund— U. S. Appropriation— after deducting one-fourth which goes
to RoUa
Land Grant Endowment, after deducting one-fourth which goes to Holla
Incidental fees from students
117,578 00
13,120 50
750 00
131,448 50
EXPENDITURES.
Salaries of Technical Men.
Paid out of
College of
Agr. fund
Paid out of
Experiment
Sta. fund.
Dnan
Professor of Agriculture
Two student assistants
One assistant in agriculture to Exp. Station.
Horticulture— Professor
Assistant to Station
Non-resident lecturers
Entomology— Professor
Student assistant
Agr. Chemistry
Assistant Chemist to Station
Veterinary Science
Student assistant
Drawing
Mechanical Engineering
Oivil Engineering (2)
Electrical Engineering
Shop Work (4T.
Commercial Work
Stenographer
Household Economics
Botany
Dairying
$1,250 00
2,200 00
160 00
1,100 00
400 00
1,100 00
1,100 00
1,100 00
1,350 00
2,000 00
3,100 00
2.000 00
1,100 00
800 00
300 00
1,300 00
1,200 00
300 00
$21,860 00
$1,250 00
720 00
1,100 00
600 00
1,100 00
200 00
1,100 00
»00 00
1,100 00
300 00
300 00 '
$8,670 00
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
35
Salaries of Non-technical Men.
Total Cost
of Dep't to
University.
Amt. paid
by College
of Agricul-
ture.
English
Mathematics
Geology and Mineralogy
Physics
Biology
General Chemistry
Economics and History.
Bacteriology
Peda[?ogy
Physiology
Totals
$6,000 00
4,100 00
2,150 00
4,150 00
3,200 00
5,400 00
5,200 00
2,200 00
2,000 00
2,200 00
$36,600 00
$1,250 00
1,250 00
125 00
1,000 00
500 00
1,000 00
' 125 00
$5,250.00
Whole Uni-
versity.
A. and M.
College.
Current expenses, such as heating, repairs to buildings, campus, in-
surance, printing, advertising, etc, , etc
Fund set aside for equipment of Agriculture College
Grand total of expenditures of A. and M. College.
Total receipts
Overdraft on University fund.
$40,000 00
$7,000 00
1,100 00
$8.100 00
$35,210 00
31,448 50
$3,761 50
From the above it is seen that the fixed income of the CoUeg^e of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts is insufficient to maintain all of its
departments as at present organized.
IMPROVEMENTS DURING THE YEAR.
We find that the following improvements in the material equip-
ment of the College are now being made through the liberality of the
41st General Assembly:
1. A building for instruction and scientific investigation in dairy-
ing, and a building for work in veterinary science and live stock judg-
ing. These two buildings are being erected on the College Farm, of
stone, at a cost of $40,000.
2. A building for horticulture and entomology on the Horticul-
tural grounds, of stone, to cost, with the equipments, $40,000.
3. An engineering laboratory to be built on the campus, to cost,
with the equipment, $40,000.
The 41st General Assembly appropriated $5,000 for the establish-
ment of a department of dairying, $3,500 for enlargement of the ex-
perimental work of the College, and $1,200 for student labor. None
of these appropriations have been included in the foregoing financial
exhibit, for the reason that only a small proportion of these moneys
has been expended up to this time.
3t> MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
In addition to the foregoing statement of receipts and expen-
ditures of the College of Agriculture, the Experiment Station receives
an annual appropriation of $15,000 from the United States Govern-
ment, which is expended in investigations in stock feeding, farm crops,
soil fertility, the control of animal diseases, fruit and vegetable g:row-
ing, spraying against fungous diseases and insect pests, etc., the results
of which are published in quarterly bulletins and distributed to the
farmers of the State.
We find the Agricultural Farm and Horticultural Grounds in ex-
cellent condition; the Agricultural, Engineering and Mechanic Arts
Buildings well arranged and equipped for their several purposes. So far
as we are able to determine, the work in all departments is in efficient
hands. The fact that three of its graduates have been recently called
to fill important positions in the, Argicultural Colleges of Kentucky,
Pennsylvania and Georgia, is an indication of the high standing of
this institution.
We cannot in too strong terms endorse the action of the college
in offering the short terms in Agriculture, Horticulture and Dairying
for the benefit of farmers and farmers' boys, who cannot take the long
course, and also for offering in the Summer School instruction in Agri-
culture and Horticulture to the teachers of the State. We believe
that it can be made still more helpful by providing one instructor for
each of several Summer Schools to be organized in different sections
of the State, and by preparing and publishing free to the 12,000 rural
teachers of the State a monthly nature study bulletin.
We believe that the interests of agriculture and horticulture in the
State, and of the Agricultural College, will be best subserved when the
teachers of the. State are prepared to do efficient work in nature study
in rural schools. Hence we insist that it is the duty of the Agricul-
tural College to take advantage of every means of helping the teachers
to better prepare themselves for this work, and thereby secure the
co-operation of all of the public school interests of the State, for the
reason that the professors of the Agricultural College are certainly
the best equipped people in the State to do the work in these summer
schools and in preparing the above mentioned bulletins. The cost of
such bulletins would not be great, since the work could be done with-
out extra cost, except for printing and distribution. To this end we
recommend that a committee of three members of this Board be ap-
pointed to present the matters of summer schools and nature study
bulletin to the Board ^f Curators.
One of the most important departments of such an institution is
bacteriology, as it is related to the animal industry, dairying and plant
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 37
life, and, as we find no such department connected with it, y/t hope that
the Board of Curators will take steps to establish such a department at
the earliest moment p' 'Ssible. Very respectfully submitted,
W. T. Carrington,
W. C. Howell,
A. T. Nelson,
Committee
Aft-er discussion by W. T. Carrington and H. J. Waters, the re-
port was unanimously adopted.
Mr. Carrington moved that a committee of three be appointed to
draft cattle quarantine regulations. Motion carried. President ap-
pointed on the committee Geo. B. Ellis, H. J. Waters and Dr. D. F.
Luckey.
election of officers.
The following officers were elected to serve the Board for the en-
suing year :
President, W. R. Wilkinson, St. Louis.
Vice-President, F. J. Hess, Charleston.
Secretary, Geo. B. Ellis, Appleton City.
Assistant Secretary, Miss S. B. Willis, Columbia.
Treasurer, H. H. Banks, Columbia.
executive committee.
W. R. Wilkinson, St. Louis.
F. J. Hess, Charleston.
H. J. Waters, Columbia.
W. L. Bryant, Independence.
Wm. C. Howell. Ulman.
• On motion of Mr. Carrington, the Board took recess to permit a
meeting of the State fair directory.
Board called to order by the President after recess of one hour.
Committee appointed to draft cattle quarantine regulations sub-
mitted the following report :
REPORT OF committee ON CATTLE QUARANTINE REGULATIONS.
That the cattle industry of the State may be more fully protected
against southern or splenetic fever, we do hereby declare the following
quarantine line and regulations, which shall be enforced from and after
the date hereof, unless changed by the order of the State Board of
Agriculture.
All that country lying south of or below the following described
38 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
line shall be considered infected territory, and cattle from said country
shall not be brought into Missouri only upon the condition and under
the regulations herein provided :*
4i 4c 4( 3k lie
First — Cattle from the above described infected territory shall not
be transferred on foot into or through the State of Missouri, nor kept,
grazed or watered on public ranges, unfenced land, State lands, high-
ways, or within the corporate limits of any town or city within the State
except as hereinafter provided.
Second — ^AU cars carrying cattle that have been brought from
the above described territory into or through the State of Missouri,
shall bear a placard setting forth plainly in large letters that said car
contains southern cattle, and each way-bill of each shipment shall have
a note upon its face with a similar statement. And when said cattle
shall be unloaded at any point in this State for any purpose whatso-
ever, the places occupied by the animals shall be considered infectious
grounds, subject to quarantine, and shall be immediately set apart by
the owners or lessees of the property for the accommodation of south-
ern cattle, and no other cattle shall be admitted thereto.
Third — All the stock yards which shall keep or receive southern
cattle for trade or transit within Missouri shall provide for use a suf-
ficient number of pens, to be used exclusively for the accommodation
of cattle coming from within the territory above described. Such tjens
shall be marked or designated by reasonably large signs, conspicuous
ly posted, and bearing in plain and large letters the words "Southern
Cattle Pens."
Fourth — Cattle brought by boat from infected districts or all cattle
on board boats that are carrying infected cattle shall be unloaded only
at such points in this State as are provided with southern cattle pens
sufficient for their reception, and the unloading and transferring from
the landing to the stock yards must be under the instructions and regula-
tions provided by an inspector of this department.
Fifth — ^The cars and boats used to transport such animals, the
chutes, alleyways, and the pens used during transportation and at
points of destination, shall be disinfected in the following manner :
(a) Remove all litter and manure. This litter and manure may
be disinfected by mixing it with lime or saturating it with a five per
cent solution of lOO per cent carbolic acid or if not disinfected it may
be stored where no other cattle can come in contact with it.
*NoTE— The line adopted and described is the same as the United States quarrantine
line, which traverses the southern border of Missouri.
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 39
/
(b) Wash the cars and the feeding and watering troughs with*
water until clean. ^
(c) Saturate the entire interior surface of the car, and the fencing,
troughs and chutes of the pens with a mixture made of Ij4 pounds
of lime and one quarter poimd of lOO per cent of straw-colored car-
bolic acid to each gallon of water; or a solution made by dissolving
4 ounces of choloride of lime to each gallon of water may be used ; or
disinfect the cars with a jet of steam under a pressure of not less than 50
pounds to the square inch.
Sixth — It having been demonstrated beyond further controversy
that the southern cattle tick (Boophilus bovis) is a means of dissemi-
nating southern or splenetic fever, it is ordered that all cattle infested
with these ticks without regard to the territory whence they originated,
and cars and boats used for transporting them, shallbe subject to all the
rules and regulations herein provided governing the movement of
southern cattle.
Seventh — Southern cattle, if upon examination by a live stock in-
spector of this State or by a duly authorized agent of the Bureau of
Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture are
found free of Texas fever infection and not infested with Texas ticks
(Boophilus bovis) may be admitted to this State as natives during the
months of November, December, January, February and March of
each year, or during such time as is provided by the Federal quaran-
tine regulations for the admission of southern cattle. Provided, first
that such cattle be rounded up and placed in an enclosure where the
examination can be thorough and sufficient ; second, that no examina-
tion shall be made and no permit shall be issued for such cattle until
they are ready for immediate shipment or movement into the State;
third, the cattle after the examination must not be driven through
nor unloaded from cars in infected territory, and cars used for shipping
must be free from infection.
Eight — The townships of Lowell, Garden* and Spring Valley in
Cherokee county, Kansas, shall be considered infectious territory, and
cattle originating therein may be admitted to this State as natives only
upon permits issued by a live stock inspector of this State or by the
live stock sanitary authorities of Kansas.
Ninth — The State Veterinarian and all deputy veterinarians and
alJ live stock inspectors in the employ of this department are charged
with the enforcement of these regulations and are hereby empowered
to quarantine all cattle brought into this State in violation thereof and
to remove from the native to the southern division of any stock yard
40 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
in this State any such cattle or others that may be infested with
Texas ticks or capable of spreading infection to native cattle.
The Executive Committee of the State Board of Agriculture is
hereby authorized to make any changes in the above quarantine line
and in the quarantine regulations herein described that may hereafter
become necessary to fully protect the cattle interests of Missouri.
Note — ^These regulations are adopted by authority of Section
10551, Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1899, which provides a penalty
for violation of a fine of not less than $1,000, nor more than $10,000
for each and every offense, to be recovered in any county into or
through which such stock is brought.
Sheriffs and constables in Missouri are hereby directed to en-
force these regulations and to arrest any and all parties who may be
guilty of violation thereof.
Respectfully submitted.
Geo. B. Ellis,
H, J. Waters,
D. F. LUCKEY,
Committee.
On motion of Mr. Maitland, the regulations as reported by the
committee were unanimously adopted.
The President appointed the following committee to draft suit-
able resolutions on the death of Hon. A. Nelson, member of the
Board.
Prof. W. T. Carrington.
H. F. Hand.
Dean H. J. Waters.
On motion, the President appointed the following committee to
draft resolutions in regard to pure food legislation :
W. T. Carrington.
John W. Hilh
H. F. Hand.
The Board took a recess until 8 a. m., Wednesday.
Wednesday, Dec. 17th, 8 a. m.
Board called to order by the President. Committee on death of
A. Nelson submitted the following report, which was unanimously
adopted :
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS.
Whereas, It has pleased our Heavenly Father to remove from
among us one of our number, the Hon. A. Nelson of Lebanon, one of
the most earnest horticulturists of the State, a man thoroughly de-
REPORT OF SECRETARY. 4 1
voted to his duties as member of the Board of Agriculture, and to the
State's material development; therefore, be it
Resolved, That we hereby express our sincere condolence to his
family and regret that Providence in His wisdom has seen fit to de-
prive us of his counsel and assistance, and further recommend that a
copy of this resolution be sent to his family and also spread upon the
records of this Board.
W. T. Carrincton,
H. F. Hand,
H. J. Waters,
Committee.
The Committee on Pure Food Legislation made the following re-
port, which was unanimously adopted :
report of committee on pure food legislation.
Whereas, there are now pending in Congress certain bills, the
objects of which are to prevent the sale of fraudulent imitations of
butter; therefore, be.it
Resolved, That the Missouri State Board of Agriculture convened
in annual session, does hereby declare that it is opposed to the manu-
facture and sale of imitations of pure food in any form whatsoever,
and requests our Senators and members of Congress to use all legiti-
mate means to secure the passage of a law by Congress, similar to
what is known as "The Grout Bill," and that our Secretary be in-
structed to furnish a copy of this resolution to each Senator and Rep-
resentative in Congress from Missouri, and to the press of the State.
Respectfully submitted,
J. W. Hill,
H. F. Hand,
W. T/ Carrington,
Committee.
On motion of W. T. Carringtoii, a committee was appointed to
present to the Board of Curators the suggestions contained in the
report of Agricultural College Committee, that the Board of Curators
set aside $500 to pay for printing a Nature Study Bulletin to be edited
by the Faculty of the College of Agriculture.
The President appointed W. T. Carrington and Geo. B. Ellis on
the committee.
There being no further business, the meeting adjourned.
Geo. B. Ellis,
W. R. WiLKERSON, Secretary.
President.
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT,
SECRETARY'S FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
D.„.
^Si.
Name.
„..
Ot.
1801.
1190 00
seEtiis::
107
IIWOO
ttsooo
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
T,r-
«!S
Apr. ..
"1"
"IS
100 00
1^^
100 00
JS :
100 00
233
230
"jsi"
232
233
lOOOO
100 00
234
Z3T
sas
lOOOO
1
1869 78
1869 73
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
43
BZPBNSB OF MBMBEBS' FUND.
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Op.
1901.
«Tao. 1-.
Jan. 1..
410
Jan. 1..
411
Jan. 1..
412
Jan. 1..
413
Feb. 6..
414
Feb. 6..
415
Feb. e..
410
Feb. 6..
417
Feb. 6..
418
Feb. 6..
419
Feb. 6..
420
Mch. 6..
421
Mch. ft..
422
Mch. ft..
423
Mch. 0..
424
Mch. 0..
425
Apr. 3..
420
Apr. 3..
427
May 1..
428
May 1..
429
May 1..
430
June 5..
June 5..
431
Aug.* 7..
432
Aug. 7..
433
Aug. 7..
434
Aug. 7..
435
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
430
Sept. 12..
437
Sept. 12..
438
Sept. 12..
439
Sept. 12..
440
Sept. 12..
441
Sept. 12..
442
Sept. 12..
443
Sept. 12..
444
Sept. 12..
445
Sept. 12..
44ft
Sept. 12..
447
Oct. 5..
448
vyCt . 0. .
449
Nov. ft..
Nov. 6..
450
Nov. ft..
451
Nov. 8..
452
Dec. 3..
To Balance *
By Geo. 14_Ellls
By W. R/lVllklnson. ..
By D.A.Ely
ByO. P.Oook
By W.R.Wilkinson....
By H. J. Waters
By D.A.Ely
By F. L. Luthy
ByT.B. North
By Oeo. B. Ellis
ByO. P.Oook
ByO. P.Oook
By J. W. Hill
By W. R. Wilkinson....
By H.J. Waters
By Geo. B. Ellis
By D.A.Ely
By W. R. Wilkinson. . .
ByD. A. Ely
By F. J. Hess
By W. R. Wilkinson....
To Keguisitlon
By D.A.Ely
By H.J. Waters
By Geo. B. Ellis
By W. B. Wilkinson...
ByD. A. Ely
To Reguisitlon
By W. T. Oarrlngton..
By W. R.Wilkinson...
By Ohas. L. Boisselier.
By J. J. McNatt
By W.L.Bryant
By A. Nelson
ByO. M. O'Oonnell. ..
By W. O. Howell
By Geo. B. Ellis
By H. F.Hand
By H.J. Waters
By D. A. Ely
By Geo. B. Ellis
By F. J. Hess
To Requisition
By F.J. Hess
By H. J. Waters
By Geo. B. Ellis
By Balance
1415 32
100 00
200 00
300 00
$1,015 32
14 00
11 70
10 50
25 10
10 85
080
1ft 00
15 00
800
19 50
22 60
27 45
18 00
12 00
8 10
550
1100
11 20
*
11 00
20 80
11 20
2105
14 95
10 00
025
15 10
00
8 80
12 05
995
7 10
18 20
15 20
8 85
15 35
550
5 45
29 30
10 70
10 90
10 20
12 50
725
449 27
$1,015 32
44
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
OFFICE BXPBNSB FUND.
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
1901.
Jan. 1. .
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Feb. 6..
Feb. 6..
Feb. 6..
Mch. 6..
Apr. 3.
May 1.
May 1..
May 1..
June 5..
.Tone 5..
June 5..
June 5..
June 5..
July 3.
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Sept. 12.
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Oct. '5. .
Oct. 5..
Nov. 6.
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 8..
366
866
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
376
376
377
378
'379'
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
'389*
390
391
392
393
304
396
*396'
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
To Balance
By Leila B. Willis
By Sam Berry
By W. E. Harsne. .
By S. P. Howell...
By Sam Berrv.
By Lelia B. Willis.
By S. P. Howell.
To Requisition
Requisition
BySnowdon Willis
By S. P. Howell
BySnowdon Willis
By S. P. Howell
By S. H. Elkins
By Oolumbia Telephone Oo. .......
By W. E. Harshe
To Requisition
By S. P. Howell
By Oolumbia Gasworks
BySnowdon Willis
By Wyekoff, Seamens & Benedict.
By Oolumbia Telephone Oo
By W. E. Harshe
BySnowdon Willis
By 8. P. Howell
By J. W. Strawn
By S.H. Elkins
To Requisition ♦.
By W. E. Harshe
ByS. P.Howell
BySnowdon Willis
By O. O. Newman & Oo
ByS. H. Elkins
By a P.Howell
By Snowdon Willis
To Requisition
ByS. P. Howell
By Snowdon Willis
By A. B. Dick Oo
By S. H. Elkins
By Oolumbia Telephone Oo
By W.E. Harshe
By Snowdon Willis
ByS. P. Howell
By Balance
171 22
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
157122
$1000
15 OO'
1 75-
8 70
945>
1000
16 11
30 00-
30 90-
10 OO-
15 15
10 90-
60O
250
15 75^
330^
10 00-
3 42
636^
1 25-
10 00^
16 06
]5 60-
15 00
54<^
15 40
10 00-
4ia
30 00
15 90^
10 00
17 00
1000
4 25
240
705-
5 10-
1000
15 10
136 34
157122
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
45
STATE VETERINARY FUND.
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
1900.
Dec. 18
Dec. 19.. 1122
Dec. 19.. 1123
Dec. 19.. 1124
Dec. 19.. 1125
Dec. 19.. 1126
Dec. 19.. 1127
Dec. 19.. 1128
Dec. 19.. 1129
Dec. 19.. 1130
Dec. 19.. 1131
Dec. 19.. 1132
Dec. 19.. 1133
Dec. 19.. 1134
Dec. 19.. 1135
Dec. 19.. 1L%
Dec. 19.. 1137
1901.
Jan. 1.. 1138
Jan. 1.. 1139
Jan. 1.. 1140
Jan. 1.. 1141
Jan. 1.. 1142
Jan. 1.. 1143
Jan. 1.. 1144
Jan. 1.. 1145
Jan. 1.. 1146
Feb. 6.. 1147
JMch. 6.. 1148
Moh. 6.. 1149
Mch. 6.. 1150
Mch. 6.. 1151
Apr. 3
Apr. 3.. 1152
Apr. 3.. 1153
May 1
May 1.. 1154
May 1.. 11&5
May 1.. 1156
May 1.. 1157
May 1.. 1158
May 1.. 1159
May 1.. 1160
May 1.. 1161
May 1.. 1162
May 1.. 1163
May ].. 1164
May 1.. 1165
May 1.. 1166
June 5.
June 5.. 1167
June 5.. 1168
June 5.. 1169
June 5.. 1170
June 5.. 1171
June 5.. 1172
June 5.. 1173
June 5.. 1174
June 5.. 1175
June 5.. 1176
June 6.. 1177
• July 3
July 3.. 1178
July 3.. 1179
July 3.. 1180
July 3.. 1181
July 3.. 1182
July 3.. 1183
July 3.. 1184
July 3.. 1185
July 3.. 1186
July 3.. 1187
July 3.. 1188
Aug. 7
Aug. 7.. 1189
Aug. -7.. 1190
Aug. 7.. 1191
Aug. 7.. 1192
Aug. 7.. 1193
Aug. 7.. I 1194
To Balance
By H. H. Banks
fy 0. M. O'Oonnell...
y Eugene Bhoades..
By L. P. Luthy
By W. R. Wilkinson..
By George B. Ellis...
By N. J. Oolman
By O. P.Oook
By Alex Maltland
By N. H. Gentry
By W. T. Oarrington.
By John W. Hill
By P. J. Hess
By T. B. North
By J. A. Potts
By D. A. Ely
ByJohnPorhes
By Geo. H. Boughner
By Joseph Bruser
ByM. L. Blackwell
By D. P. Luckey .^
By Jesse Robards
ByG. G. Henry
By Ira Penlmore
By J. A. Eylar-Smith Premier Typewriter Oo.
ByM. L. Blackwell
By Oolumbia Telephone Oo
By E. P. Ammerman
By D. P. Luckey
Bv M. L. Blackwell
To Kequisition
By W. E. Harshe
ByS. H. Elkins
To Requisition
ByM. L. Blackwell
By John Forbes
By G. H Boughner
By Joseph Bruser
ByG. Q. Henry
ByE. M. Hendy
^ByR. B. Love
ByD. P. Luckey
By B. P. Milstead
By I. O. Penlmore
By Jesse Robards
By E. P. Ammerman
By Andrew Brown
To Requisition :
By George H. Boughner
By Joseph Bruser ,
ByS. H. Elkins
ByM. L. Blackwell......
By Andrew Brown
ByG. G.Henry
ByB. P. Milstead
ByD. P. Luckey
ByE. M. Hendy
By Jesse Bobards ,
By John Porbes
To Requisition
ByD. P. Luckey
By E. Brainerd
By Andrew Brown
By Jesse Robards .' ,
ByE. W. Stephens
By E. M. Hendy
By G. H. Boughner
By John Porbes
By B. P. Milstead
By M. L. Blackwell
By Joseph Bruser
To Requisition ,
By M. L. Bl ackwell
By E. P. Ammerman
By Geo. H. Boughner
By John Porbes
By Joseph Bruser
By D. P. Luckey
$1,163 76
3,000 00
i.ooooo'
500 00
1,000 00
500 00
$32 94
26 80
25 00
9 10
16 15
11 50
6 00
27 54
7 50
4 10
460
15 00
25 40
18 45
6 50
14 00
25 00
25 00
25 00.
50 00
217 30
125 05
120 25
104 43
47 75
50 00
600
15 46
75 00
3 44
225
20 00
150 00
100 00
75 00
75 00
253 65
79 02
24 50
870 75
231 49
309 15
505 08
5 76
75 00
50 00
50 00
3 07
50 00
104 85
10 00
114 40
160 70
41 85
108 00
25 00
208 77
24 85
98 25
110 00
58 50
19 15
25 00
25 00
112 00
50 00
25 00
50 00
8 18
25 00
25 00
25 00
257 86
46
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
STATE VETERINARY ruND— Continued.
9
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
1900.
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Sept. 12..
8ept. 12..
Sept. 12. .
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12.
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12.
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
.Oct. 5..
ijCXit 0..
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5..
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
5.
5..
5.
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5.,
Oct. 5..
Nov. 6.,
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
uec . Q. •
Dec. 3.
Dec. 3..
X-fec. V. <
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3.
Dec. 3.
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208-
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
By B. F. Milstead
By Andrew Brown
By R. B. Love
ByS. H. Elkins
To Requisition •
By M. L. Black well
By S. H. Elkins
By S. H. Elkins
By Missouri Statesman
By E. Brainerd
By E. W. Stephens
By B. F. Milstead
By Jesse Robards
By Jesse Robards
By G. H. Boughner
By John Forbes
By Joseph Bruser
By D. F. Luckey
By E. F. Ammerman
By American Express Oo..
To Keguisition
By E. P. Ammerman
By John Forbes
By Joseph Bruser
By G. H. Boughner
By B. F. Milstead
By Jesse Robards
By R. B. Love
By D. F. Luckey
By M. L. Black well
By E. M. Hendy
To Requisition
By M. L. Blackwell
By John Forbes
By Geo. H. Boughner
By Joseph Bruser
By D. F. Luckey
By E. F. Ammerman
By American Express Co.
By Jesse Robards
By B. F. Milstead
To Requisition
By Geo. H. Boughner
By Joseph Bruser
By John Forbes
By M. L. Blackwell
ByS. B. Cook
By E. M. Hendy
"By F. W. O'Brien
By R. B. Love....'.
By E. Brainerd
By E. M. Hendy
By B. F. Milstead
By D. F. Luckey
By E. F. Ammerman .. .
By D. F. Luckey
Ry Jesse Robards
By Balance
1,000 00
300 00
500 00
300 00
$9,263 76
$118 27
103 OO
33 22
20 00
50 00
28 84
500
56 00
13 4d
11 25
112 65
111 25
111 35
25 00
25 00
25 00
260 32
5 34
49 46
9 43
^ 00
25 00
25 00
112 29
124 00
41 05
200 84
50 00
15 80
50 00
25 00
25 00
25 00
150 00
12 00
14 55
122 50
114 70
25 00
25 00
25 00
50 00
3 70
14 35
22 46
92 19
19 79
36 20
105 50
59 45
21 12
150 00
124 75
377 30
$8,263 76
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
47
BUTTEBINB FUND.
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Cr.
1901. -
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Jan. 1..
Feb. 6..
Feb. tt..
Feb. 6..
Feb. 6..
Feb. 6..
Feb. 6..
Mch. «..
Mch. 6..
Mch. 6..
Mcb. 6..
Mch. 6..
Apr. 3.
Apr. 3. .
Apr. 3..
Apr. 3.
Apr. 3..
Apr. 3..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1.
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
June 5..
June 5..
June 5..
July 3.
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
July 3..
July 3. .
July 3..
Aug. 7.
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Aug. 7..
Sept. 12. .
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12..
Sept. 12. .
Sept. 12..
Oct. 6..
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5. .
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5..
Oct. 5..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov. 6..
Nov, «..
Nov. 6..
UQCm O. .
Dec. 3..
Dee. 3..
Dec. 3..
Dec. 3..
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
306
309
310
311
312
313
314
315-
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
a54
355
356
.357
358
359
360
361
To Balance
By H. H. Banks
By J. R. Rippey
By Oarl G. Hinrlchs.
By Thomas Davies .
By L. F. Lathy
ByR. L. Wright
By F. M. Slutz
By Hackley . . . .
By R. D. Ellis.
By L. F. Luthy.
By R. L. Wright.
By J. W. Carter
By Olney Burrus *. . .
By Geo. B. Ellis
By Thos Davies
By L. F. Luthy
ByR. L. Wright
By Thos. Davies
By H. O. Arnold
By Geo. B. Ellis
To Requisition
By J. W. Carter
ByR. L. Wright
By Thos. Davies
By L. F. Luthy
By Geo. B. Ellis
ByR. D.Ellis
By Carl G. Hinrlchs....
By J. W. Carter
By Thos Davies
By Mrs. Lutie Ward. . . .
. ByC. G. Miller
ByR. L. Wright
By F. M. Slutz
By John H. Wilkinson.
By Geo. B. Ellis
By Frank Yeoman
$1,073 68
500 00
By Geo. B, Ellis.
H. Wilkinson.
By John _
To Requisition.
By Missouri Statesman.. .
By Frank Yoeman
ByC. A. McCrum
By John L. Stringley
By Carl G. Hinrlchs
By R. L. Wright
ByR. D. Ellis
By John H. Wilkinson...
To Kequisition
By Frank Yeoman
ByC. A. McCrum
By J. W. Carter
By Carl G. Hinrlchs
By John Wilkinson
ByR. L. Wright
To Kequisition
By Carl G. Hinrlchs
' By J. W. Carter
ByC. A. McCrum
By Frank Yeoman
By R.D.Ellis
By John H. Wilkinson...
By Carl G. Hinrlchs
By John H. Wilkinson...
ByR. D.Ellis
By Frank Yeoman
By Carl E. Klmpton.....*.
By Wm. E. Smith
To Requisition
By Frank Yeoman
ByR. D. Ellis
By John H. Wilkinson...
By Jas. W. Bibb
By Carl G . Hinrlchs
By Frank Yeoman *
By John H. Wilkinson. . .
By Clara Herzel
By Balance
500 00
200 00
200 00
500 00
12,973 63
19 92
50 00
85 00
52 00
42 50
44 30/
11 85
4 00
80 00
43 05
44 45
30 00
200
50 00
52-30
62 75
42 50
48 CO
1 50
50 00
25 00
42 50
52 45
37 40
50 00
60 00
15 00
50 00
53 50
500
1 00
55 00
500
54 95
800
42 00
4 75
54 00
400
50 00
1 20
300
60 00
59 00
80 00
57 10
54 25
8 00
50 00
80 00
63 75
6 00
15 00
*
25 00
600
58 10
9 45
54 00
25 00
60 65
30 00
60 35
600
1 05
59 25
170 00
59 20
500
25 00
62 00
61 45
6 55
286 66
12,973 68
48
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAl, REPORT.
FARMERS' INSTITUTE FUND.
Date.
No.
War.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
1901.
Jan. 1 To Balance
Jan. 1.. 439 By A. S. Prather
Jan. 1.. 446 By G. W. Waters
Jan. 1.. 441 ByO. O. Raine
Jan. 1.. 442 By H. H. Banks
Jan. 1.. 443 ByS.H. Elkins
Jan. 1.. 444 ByS. H.Elkins
Feb. 6.. 445 By G. W. Waters
Feb. 6.. 446 By Missouri Statesman
Feb. 6.. 447 By S. H. Elkins
Feb. 6.. 448 By W. E. Hapshe
Feb. 8.. 449 By Jas. Root
Mch.' 6.. 450 ByS. H.Elkins
Mch. 6.. 451 By Woodward & Tierman. .
Mch. 6.. 452 By E. F. Ammerman
Mch. 6.. 453 ByG.W. Waters
Mch. 6.. 454 By R. R. Skipper
Mch. 6 . 455 . ByJ. O.ErwIn
Mch. 6.. 456 By R. L. Harbaugb
Mch. 6.. 457 By J. M. Ballenger
Aprils To Requisition
April 3.. 458 By G. W. Waters
May 1 To Kequlsition
May 1.. 459 By E. F. Ammerman
May 1.. 460 By American Express Co.. .
May 1.. 460V2 By E. W. Stephens
May 1.. 461 By Geo. B. Ellis
June 5 To Requisition
June 5.. 462 By Geo. B. Ellis
June 5.. 463 By J. Manz Engraving Oo.
July 3.. 464 By Geo. B. Ellis
Aug. 7.. 465 By J. Manz Engraving Co.
Aug. 7.. 466 By Geo. B. Ellis
Aug. 7.. 467 By Missouri Statesman
Aug. 7.. 468 ByS. H.Elkins
Sept. 12 To Requisition..
Sept.l2.. 469 By Geo. B. Ellis
Sep*. 12.. 470 By G. W. Waters
Sept. 12. . 471 By Geo. B. Ellis ,
Oct. 5 To Requisition
Oct. 5.. 472 ByS. H.Elkins
Oct. 5.. 473 By Missouri Statesman
Oct. 5.. 474 By Geo. B. Ellis
Oct. 5.. 475 By Geo. B. Ellis
Nov. 6 To Kequlsition
Nov. 6.. 476 By Geo. B. Ellis
Nov. 6.. 477 By Missouri Statesman.. ..
Dec. 3.. 478 By Geo. B. Ellis
Dec. 3.. 479 By Missouri Statesman
Dec. 3 By Balance
1855^
300 00
'206*00'
200 00
1,000 00
2.000 00
300 00
$4,855 22
$85 76
100 00
5000
7 14
200
30 OP
81 10
16 00
15 00
10 63
20 00
700
22 50
6 03
50 00
25 00
25 00
15 00
15 00
100 00
6 54
5 11
288 00
50 00
50 00
543
50 00
4 41
50 00
3 50
20 00
50 00
176 70
1,000 00
15 00
23 50
50 00
1,500 00
50 00
23 50
50 00
900
69137
$4,856 22
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
49
SECRETARY'S ACCOUNT.
Date.
Name.
Dr.
Or.
1901.
Sept. 1&
Sept. 21.
Sept. 26.
Sept. 28.
Sept. 26.
Oct. 4.
4.
4.
5.
5.
8.
9.
9.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct. 11.
Oct. 14.
Oet. 15.
Oct. 16.
Oct. J 7.
Oet. 19.
Oct. 21.
Oct. 25.
Oct. 26.
Oct. 28.
Oct. 30.
Oct. 31.
Oct. 31.
Oct. 31.
Oct. 31.
Nov. 1.
Nov. 9.
Nov. 11.
Nov. 11.
Nov. 13.
Nov. 14.
Nov. 14.
Nov. 20.
Nov. 21.
Nov. 23.
Nov. 26.
Nov. 27.
Nov. 29.
Nov. 29.
Nov. 30.
Nov. 30.
Dec. 3.
3.
3.
3.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec. 4.
Dec. 7.
Dec. 12.
Dec. 13.
Dec. 13.
Dec. 13..
Dec. 16.
Dec. 16.
Dec. 17.
To Warrant No. 471 on Farmers' Institute Fund.
ByO. H. Eckles
ByOeo. W. Waters s
By O. D. Lyons
By N. F. Murray
ByGeo. W. Waters
ByG. W. Waters
ByD. F. Luckey
To warrant No. 475 on Farmers' Institute Fund.
ByL. H. Rice
ByS. H. Elklns
By N. F. Murray
ByO. D. Lyon
ByS. H. Mklns "
ByL. H. Rice
ByS. H. Elklns
By F. B. Mumford
ByE. W. Robinson
By T. I. Malrs
ByO. D. Lyon
ByG. B. Ellis
ByGeo. W. Waters
By J. M. Stedman
ByO. D.Lyon
ByO. H. Eckles
ByT. I. Malrs
By N. F. Murry
ByE. W. Robinson
By G.W. Waters
ByO. D.Lyon •.
ByGeo. W. Williams
By O . D. Lyon
ByO. L. Wlllobughby
By Reliable Poultry 00
ByO. L. Wllloughby
ByG. W. Waters
ByT. I Malrs
ByO. H. EcKles
By W. L. Howard
By H. J. Waters
ByO. H. Hancock
By K. M. Magruder.
By J. N. Price
By J. M. Douglas
BvS. H. Elklns
To Refund by Burlington Railroad
By D. F. Luckey
ByR. W. Olothler
ByG. W. Waters
By W. L. Howard
ByO. W. Nuss
ByG. W. Waters
By Alex Maltland
By J. W. Hill
By Snowdon Willis
By Minnie Lee Blackwell
By Balance
11,000 00
1,500 00
36 32
$2.536 32
$40 00
50 00
50 00
50 00
50 00
50 00
100 00
6 75
500
50 00
50 00
5 00
6 75
500
52 67
50 00
36 00
25 00
550
100 00
64 64
50 00
30 00
40 00
145 29
48 37
50 00
50 00
152 28
92 20
15 00
16 00
3 75
50 00
50 00
30 00
40 00
40 62
11 70
300
11 70
11 70
300
103 38
26 68
150 99
26 84
100 00
25 00
10 00
1165
12 05
12 55
261 26
$2,536 32
A-4
50
MISSOURI AGRICUI^TURAL REPORT.
SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
1901.
Aprill..
Dec. 3
DistribxUion of AnniMl Report Frnid,
To appropriation .•
By vouchers paid
By balance with State Treasurer.
Dr.
$300 00
$300 00
Or.
$150 00
150 00
$300 00
Monthly Crop Report Fund.
1901
Jan. 1
April 1
Dec. 3
Dec. 3
To balance
To appropriation
By vouchers paid
By balance with our Treasurer. . .
By balance with State Treasurer.
Expense of Members Fund,
1901
Jan. 1.
April 1.
Dec. 3.
Dec. 3.
To balance
To appropriation
By vouchers paid
By balance with our Treasurer...
By balance with State Treasurer.
Dr.
$169 73
1,500 00
$1,669 73
Dr.
$415 3S
1,200 00
$1,615 32
Or.
$763 61
106 12
800 00
$1,669 73
Or.
$566 05
449 27
600 00
$1,615 32
Farmers* Institute Fund.
1901.
Jan. 1.
Aprill.
Dec. 3.
Dec. 3.
To balance
To appropriation ^.
By vouchers paid
By balance with our Treasurer
By balance with State Treasurer
Dr.
$855 22
8,000 00
$8,855 22
Or.
$1,163 85
691 37
4,000 00
$8,855 22
Office Expense Fund.
1901
Jan. 1.
April 1.
Dec. 3.
Dec. 3.
To balance
To appropriation
By vouchers paid
By balance with our Treasurer..
By balance with. State Treasurer
Dr.
$7122
1,000 00
$1,071 22
Or.
$434 88
136 34
500 00
$1,071 22
State Veterinary Fund.
1900.
Dec. 18.
1901.
Apr. 1
Dec. 3
Dec. 3.
To balance
To appropriation
By vouchers paid ,
By balance with our Treasurer
By balance with State Treasurer
Dr.
$1,163 76
16,200 00
$17,363 76
Or.
$8,886 46
377 30
8,100 00
$17,363 76
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
51
ButUrin& Fund.
1901.
Jan. 1 .
Apr. 1 .
Dec. 3
Dec. 3.
To balance
To appropriation
By vouchers paid
By balance with our Treasurer. . .
By balance with State Treasurer.
Dr.
$1,073 68
4.000 00
15,073 68
Or.
$3,687 02
286 66
2.100 00
15,073 68
52
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
TREASURER'S REPORT.
To the State Board of AgrUsuJUbire:
DUtrCbviion of AnnunL Bevort Fund.
Date.
Dr.
Or.
1901.
Apr. 3....
To State warrant
By vouchers paid and returned
$150 00
1150 00
1150 00
1150 00
Monthly Crop Report Pund.
IWl.
Jan.
1....
Apr.
3....
May
1....
June
5....
Aug.
7....
Sept. 12....
Oct.
5«.. •
Nov.
6. •• •
D^c.
o. • • .
To balance
To State warrant.
By vouchers paid and returned.
By balance
1169 73
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
1869 73
$763 61
106 12
$869 73
Expense of Members' Fund,
1901.
J an. X* *f »
June 5....
Sept. 12. . .
Nov. 6....
jjec. «>••.•
To balance
To State warrant.
I {
By vouchers paid and returned
By balance
$415 32
100 00
200 00
300 00
$1,015 32
$566 05
449 27
$1,015 32
Ojfflce Expense Fund.
1901.
Jan.
X • • • •
Apr.
3* • • •
May
J.9 • • •
July
u* • • •
Sept. 12....
Nov.
6* • • •
Dec.
o« • • •
To balance
To State warrant.
( (
t <
« (
By vouchers paid and returned
By balance
$7122
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
100 00
$57122
$434 88
136 34
$571 22
REPORT OF TREASURER.
5^
State Veterinary Fwnrt,
1900.
X^6C.
la* • « •
1901.
Apr.
O* • • •
May
1....
June
Da • • •
July
O* • « •
Aug.
7....
Sept.
12....
Oct.
D* • • •
Nov.
6* • • •
Dec.
o* • • •
Dec.
tJ« • • •
To balance , - .
To State warrant.
By vouchers paid and returned.
By balance
Dr.
11,163 76
3.000 00
1,000 00
500 00
1,000 00
500 00
1.000 00
300 00
500 00
300 00
99.263 76
Or.
$8.886 46
377 30
19.263 76
BvUerine Fund.
1901.
Jan.
X • • • •
Apr.
«)• • • •
July
t)« • • •
Aug.
i • m m •
Sept. 12.... 1
Nov.
6* • • «
Dee.
U« • • a
To balance
To State warrant.
• (
( •
• (
By vouchers paid and returned.
By balance
Farmers* InstUute Fund.
Dr.
$1.073 68
500 00
500 00
200 00
200 00
500 00
$2.973 68
Or.
$2,687 02
286 66
2,973 68
1901.
.Tan.
1....
Apr.
tJ« • • •
May
1....
.Tune
D* • • •
Sept.
12....
Oct.
D« • • •
Nov.
6* •• •
i/ec.
(J* • • •
To balance
To State warrant.
By vouchers paid and returned.
By balance
Dr.
$855 22
300 00
800 00
200 00
1,000 00
2,000 00
900 00
$4,855 22
Or.
$i,163 85
691 37
$4,855 22
All of which is respectfully submitted.
H. H. BANKS, Treasurer.
The More Important Insects Injurious to Wheat
In Missouri.
BY
J. M. STEDMAN,
Professor of Entomology in the University of Missouri and
Entomologist of the Eperiment Station.
THE CHINCH BUG.
Blissus leucopterus, Say.
INTRODUCTION.
The chinch bug is perhaps the most destructive insect affecting
the wrheat plant, although the Hessian fly in some years is a close
second. While the Hessian fly is confined in its ravages almost en-
tirely to the wheat plant, the chinch bug is broader in its selection of
food, and infests nearly all the members of the grass family. This
includes, of course, the wheat and other grains, and the corn, et al.
While it will feed when forced to, on account of the scarcity of other
varieties, upon practically all members of the grass fan^ily, yet it has
its preferences, and seems to prefer, other things being equal, such cul-
tivated grasses as Hungarian grass, Panicum crus-galli, millet. Set-
aria glauca, J)lue grass, wheat, corn, sorghum, broom corn, Bermuda
grass and rab grass. It will thus be seen that the insect will live and
multiply upon various grasses in regions where there is very little or
no wheat or corn. In the State of Missouri, the insect does its vast
amount of damage by attacking the wheat and the corn plants.
DISTRIBUTION.
The distribution of the chinch bug in North America is confined
very largely to that portion east of the Rocky Mountain region, ex-
tending from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. The insect is
56
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
found west of the Rocky Mountains in only isolated places. By ob-
serving the map of North America, shown in figure i, one can see at a
glance the known areas of the chinch bug infestation. It should not
be understood, however, that the chinch bug does an unusual amount
of damage throughout this entire area. As a matter of fact, its region
I ■■« m-
FIG. 1.— Map of North America showing areas infested by Chinch Bug. (F^rom
Webster, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
WftEAT INSECTS.
67
of greatest destrnctiveness is confined to the following states : Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma, Indian Territory, Virginia, North Carolina and South
Carolina. Of these twelve states, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota and Indian Territory are
by far the greatest sufferers. A glance at the map of the United
States, shown in figure 2, will give you an excellent idea of the
area of greatest destrnctiveness. In the states just mentioned we
expect a great annual loss from the ravages of the chinch bug;
but Kke many other injurious insects, the chinch bugs have their
ups and downs, and will, as a rule, increase in number, and de-
strnctiveness for two or three years before they reach their high-
est ambitions in this direction, and then they will suddenly drop
down to comparatively normal numbers again,, and then gradually in-
crease until the height is again attained. They behave very much
like spasmodic waves passing over the country.
FIG. 2.— Map showing areas In the United States over which the Chinch Bug
occurs in most destructive numbers. (From Webster, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
While the chinch bug has been with us for a great many years,
in all too numerous quantities every year, yet in some years, as for in-
stance 1871, the chinch bugs have been untfsually numerous and de-
structive. It was carefully computed by Dr. LeBaron, then State
entomologist of Illinois, that the loss in the single year 1871, in only
seven states, by the ravages of the chinch bug was $30,000,000. Those
seven states were Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, Wiscon-
58 MISSOURI AGRICUIvTURAL REPORT.
sin and Indiana. In the year 1874 the chinch bug was again unusually
destructive, and in Missouri alone, Dr. C. V. Riley, then State Entomol-
ogist of Missouri, computed the loss in this one State by the ravages
of this one insect during that single year at $19,000,000, and stated that
for the seven states I have above mentioned the loss for that one year
might safely be estimated at $60,000,000. The loss in the United
States for that one year has been estimated at upwards of $100,000,-
000. While these estimates are undoubtedly correct, they are enor-
mous, and cover the ravages of but this single insect during one single
season. If we take into account the aggregate losses from year to
year, one could hardly realize that insects could cause so much dam-
age.
THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE CHINCH BUG.'
The chinch bug is so well known to most farmers in Missouri that
it hardly seems necessary to give any detailed description of it, al-
though the false chinch bug is very frequently mistaken for it. A
short description of the different stages of the insect, however, may not
. be out of place, since the insects differ in their coloring to such an
extent between the young and adult stages.
The eggs of the chinch bug are very small, and are deposited in
masses, each female depositing upwards of five hundred eggs. The
eggs, however, are not all deposited in one mass, but may be scat-
tered in several masses ; and are placed, as a rule, just under the surface
of the ground near or upon the roots or the base of the stems of the
grass or the wheat plant,, as the case may be. The eggs, while large
for an insect the size of the chinch bug, are really very small, measur-
ing only three one-hundredths of an inch in length. See figure 3,
a, b, which represents two eggs greatly enlarged. When in masses,
such eggs appear of a whitish translucent color when first deposited,
but later become amber colored, and just before they are ready to
hatch, have a decided reddish hue, due to the fact that the young
insect shows through the egg envelope.
While most farmers have not observed the eggs of the chinch bug,
it is really a very simple matter. If they will pull up clumps or
bunches of grass and carefully pull the dirt away from the roots, they
will find the little masses of eggs tucked away just under the little
clumps of dirt about the base of the plant. Occasionally the eggs are
deposited on the stem or between the stem and a leaf, above the
ground, or between the earth and stem of the plant, rarely on the
leaves or further up the plant. See figure 4, g, which represents the
masses of eggs about the roots of a wheat plant, and also some masses
WHEAT INSECTS. 59
on the lower leaf. The females take from two to four weeks to de-
posit their eggs. The eggs hatch in about two weeks, but vary con-
siderably according to the weather. In some instances they may
hatch in ten days, and in other cases they may take three weeks.
From the time the egg hatches until the adult stage is reached, re-'
quires about forty days. Hence you can readily see that from the
time the first eggs are deposited until the first adults of this brood ap-
pear, would require practically two months.
^I,
PIQ, B.— Chinch Bug, BUasus Icacopterua, showing dttterent staeea In Ita develop-
ment: a, b. egga; c, newly hatched bug; d, Ka tarsus; e, bug after first molt;
/, aame after aeeond molt; u. aame after third molt; at the left an adult which
la the reault 6t the fourth molt, much more magnified; h. enlareed leg of adult bug;
i, proboBls or beak enlarged; f, tarsus of same still more enlarged. The lines at
the aidea of each bug represent ita natural size. (From Webster and Riley, U. 3.
Dept. Agrlc.)
The young chinch bugs when they are first hatched look very
little like the adult. They are very small, of a pale yellow color, and
with an orange spot on the back of three abdominal segments. See
figure 3, c, and figure 4, b. In form these newly hatched bugs are
not unlike the adult, but of course, they have no wings whatever. As
soon as hatched, they lose no time in seeking a place in which
to insert- their beaks through the tissues of the plant and suck the
sap. After a time they have grown in size so that their skin becomes
too small for them; it then splits open along the back and the crea-
ture crawls out, leaving its first skin behind. This is known as the first
molt. The insect now appears quite decidedly red, or vermilion, with
a pale band across the middle of the body. See figure 3, e, and figure
4, c. After feeding for sometime, the larva again becomes too large
for its old coat, and it again splits open along the back and the
creature crawls out, leaving its cast skin behind a second time. The
insect now has a dusky head and thorax, while the abdomen is of a
duller red, with the pale band still distinct. See figure 3, /, and
figure 4, d. The future wing pads now become apparent. After
60 MISSOURI AGKICUI-TURAL REPORT.
feeding and growing for a time, this young chmch bug again sheds its
skin. This is the third molt; and this stage of tlic young bug, which
is its fourth stage since leaving the egg, is sometimes spoken of as the
PIG. 4.— Chinch Bug, Bliai
three bugs natural size; a, ar
on lower leaf; fi, c, d, e, youne
bug. A molt occurs between ea
of each etage. (After Lugger.)
la leacopterui, and wheat plant. On the stems are
e^ greatly enlarged; g, egg massea on roots and
chinch bugs after succeeding' molts; /, adult chinch
ach stage. The hair lines Indicate the natural atM
WHEAT INSECTS. 61
pupa stage, since it is next to the adult stage. But in reality, there is
no true pupa in this case, because these insects develop by means of an
incomplete metarnorphosis, and, therefore, these younger stages should
all be known as nymphs. See figure 3, g, and figure 4, e. This so-
called pupa has a brownish black head and thorax, and the little wing
pads that made their appearance in the previous stage are now larger.
The adbomen is dingy gray in color with a dark horny spot at the tip.
When this insect has reached its proper size, the skin again splits open
along its back, and the adult insect comes forth. See figure 3, bug
at left, and figure 4, /.
This adult insect has, as a rule, well developed wings extending
practically the length of the body, but in some instances the wings
seem to be aborted, so that they are not fit for use as organs of flight.
By observing a great many adult chinch bugs, one can find various
stages, from the adults with very short and useless wings to the
adults with long, normal wings, that are of service as organs of
flight. The adults are about three-twentieths of an inch in length,
and the body is of a black color with a very fine grayish down. This
down can be readily seen under a magnifying glass, but is not visible
to the ordinary naked eye. The wings and the wing covers are white,
and the wing covers have two irregular black lines and a black spot
near the margin. By referring to figures 3 and 4, one can obtain a fair-
ly good idea of the general shape and comparative size of the different
stages of chinch bugs, from the time they hatch, up through the vari-
ous stages that I have just described to the adult bug. While the
figures show simply the comparative or relative size and the general
markings, they do not show the color, which differs so greatly between
the adult and the younger stages. Figure 3, bug at left, shows an
adult with normal wings, while figure 5, shows three adults with the
aborted wings of different lengths, the one to the left showing an
adult with 'very small aborted wings, and the one to the right show-
ing an adult with wings nearly the normal size. Of course all of
these figures show the insects greatly enlarged.
HOW AND WHERE THE CHINCH BUGS SPEND THE WINTER.
Chinch bugs always hibernate in the adult condition during the
winter. While there are possibly no exceptions to this rule, at least
in Missouri, yet it is a fact that by the time the chinch bugs are
forced to seek winter quarters, some of them are not quite full grown
or adult insects. It appears that those chinch bugs that seek winter
quarters before they have reached the adult condition fail for some
reason to live through the winter. While this may not lessen the
62 " MISSOURI AGRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
number of chinch bugs to any appreciable extent, it nevertheless is a
fortunate circumstance. Late in the fall, when the proper food plants
have become more or less dried and cooler weather is approaching,
the chinch bugs begin to migrate and scatter, leaving the plants or the
fields in which they have been feeding, and crawl about or fly, as the
case may be, in search of suitable places in which to pass the winter.
This migration usually occurs in Missouri at the time most people call
"Indian Summer." The great bulk of chinch bugs have by this time
reached the adult condition, and have fully developed wings by means
of which they can fly from place to place and scatter about the
neighborhood. But it is a very common sight to see those chinch
bugs that are perfectly able to fly crawling about, occasionally in large
numbers, even in the villages, showing that they .have come from the
neighboring country, probably by flight. Very frequently they occur
in villages at this time of year in such immense numbers as to attract
a great deal of attention from the village people, who do not understand
the invasion or the name of the insect. Chinch bugs are very apt to
leave in great numbers the fields that they have infested during the
summer, especially if these fields do not contain a sufiicient amount of
grass and weeds or shocks of corn, and seek such places as the edge of
timber, Osage orange hedges, wind breaks, places where there are
plenty of rubbish as along fences, among «tone piles or wood piles,
hay and straw stacks, and places where there are great masses of rank
growth of grass and weeds, especially in the corners of rail fences.
The insects crawl under such rubbish, especially under leaves and
under matted grass, and will collect in these places in vast numbers.
They seek especially the above places that are on high, well drained
ground, and seem to prefer sandy or rocky soil to mucky. They
shun to a great extent the low places that are liable to be flooded or be-
come excessively damp.
During the winter, these insects remain in a dormanf condition
in these sheltered, protected and more or less dry places, and may be
readily found during the winter in great numbers by the ordinary
farmer, if he will take the trouble to turn over the rubbish near the
ground in the places I have mentioned. These insects, however, will
become more or less active and sometimes crawl about during the
warm days that occur at frequent intervals during our. winters here
in Missouri. No amount of cold seems to affect the insects whatever,
at least 30° below zero has no terror for them, that temperature having
been reached in Missouri. In some of the northern states they have
been known to withstand 40° below zero without any apparent incon-
venience. They seem to stand continuous cold weather much better
WHEAT INSECTS. , bO
than they can the rapid changes iq temperature, from extreme cold
to comparative warm spring like weather and then suddenly turning
cold again, as usually happens during our Missouri winters. Those
immature chinch bugs that' go into winter quarters probably perish from
the alternate cold and warm weather as well as from dampness. It
appears that- the immature insects especially cannot eiidure any great
amount of moisture. They seem to have an instinct that teaches them
to seek dry places, and the shocks of con. that are so common in this
State, afford the very best places for these insects to collect in the fall
and hibernate during the winter. It is no uncommon thing to see
thousands of these chinch bugs under a single shock.
THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE CHINCH BUG.
In the spring, as soon as settled warm weather appears and the
grass begins to grow, the adult chinch bugs that have passed the
winter come forth from their hiding places and fly about in great num-
bers in search of suitable food. In some springs the insects at this
time are so numerous that they attract a great deal of attention from peo-
ple in the towns by alighting upon them, sometimes by the dozens,
especially is this the case if they chance to drive out into the country a
little ways. It appears that, in Missouri at least, this is the 'great
migrating season, a season in which the chinch bugs seem to scatter
over vast areas and cover greater distances than is the case with
the falKmigration just previous to their seeking winter quarters. Of
course a great many of these chinch bugs do a great deal of crawling
instead of flying, but -it has been my observation that the vast ma-
jority of chinch bugs coming out in the spring from their winter quar-
ters fly instead of crawl; while the migration in the fall is to a very
large extent confined to crawling instead of flying. After the insects
have found suitable fields or suitable plants for their food, they alight
64 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
and crawl about, inserting their , beaks through the tissues of the
plant and sucking its sap. Chinch bugs in seeking their proper food
plants in the spring alight in immense numbers in our wheat fields.
If the wheat field happens to be near a wood, or Osage orange hedge
fence, or a wind break, or a place where there is plenty of shelter in
which vast numbers have hibernated during the winter, then, in this
case, the chinch bugs are very apt to come out from their winter
quarters and crawl in vast numbers to the wheat field. In such in-
stances they are usually found collected or massed together on the .
plants nearest the hibernating quarters, and their presence will soon
be detected by the effect that they have upon the plants. It seems
that chinch bugs, when they insert their little beaks into the plant, in-
voluntarily inject a little poison, which poison causes an increased flow
of sap to that place, and has more to do with the injury to the plant
than the amount of sap that the insect actually extracts. A wheat
field attacked in the way just mentioned will appear bleached in the
area or strip attacked. If left undisturbed, the chinch bugs will grad-
ually spread from plant to plant, so that the area of infestation will in-
crease and move onward, gradually, covering the entire field.
While a great many chinch bugs mate in the fall, the vast
majority of them mate in the spring soon after leaving their winter
quarters, and presently the females begin to deposit their eggs in the
wheat fields or other places, usually just below the surface of the
ground under little clods of earth about the roots and base of the plants.
In about sixteen days these eggs will begin to hatch, and present-
ly the agriculturist will detect the little yellow or reddish bugs in his
wheat. In about six weeks these insects will have reached the adult
condition, and his wheat field will be literally over-run with chinch
bugs. Meantime, the young bugs have been drawing their nourish-
ment from the wheat plants by sucking the sap^ and have done more or
less damage according to the number of bugs in a field. Since each
female lays upwards of five hundred eggs, one can form an idea of the
extent of the multiplication of these insects since leaving their winter
quarters. As the females take about three weeks to deposit their
eggs, and as these insects hatch at different periods according to the
weather, we find that new adult chinch bugs are appearing for three
weeks or more after the first ones have appeared. At about this time
the chinch bugs have become dangerously numerous in the wheat
field, the great bulk of them have become adults, and have done a great
deal of damage, and the wheat plant has become ripened and no longer
fit for their food. The chinch bugs in such a field now take it into
th^ir little heads tp seek green pastures, and they usually do so all
WHEAT INSECTS. 65
at once, and migrate in a body leaving the old field. In this migrating
army we find the adults with fully developed wings and perfectly
capable of flight, and the young in various stages of development. It
is a curious fact that in this migrating army of chinch bugs, the adults
with fully developed wings rarely attempt to fly, but crawl along
with the mass the same as those immature bugs that cannot fly. In
fact, it seems difficult to induce the adult chinch bugs to fly at this
time, and it is curious to watch such a migrating army when they
attempt to cross dusty roads or plowed fields. The adult bugs will
struggle along with the wingless immature ones and not attempt to
fly, when by so doing they could readily span the difficult places.
At this season the chinch bugs are very sure to migrate in the
above described way from the wheat field to the corn field, and when
they reach the corn field, they are tired and hungry, and undoubtedly
thirsty, for they attack the first corn plant and begin to insert their
beaks and immediately suck the sap from the plant. At this time the
bugs will cover the first few rows of corn to such an extent as to ren-
der it black with them, and especially is this the case with the lower
part of the corn plant. The bugs will remain here on the first few
rows of corn for a short time, and then they will gradually disperse
throughout the corn field. The adults pair and lay their eggs for
another brood, and this second brood of chinch bugs, in addition to
the first brood which has now migrated, infest the corn and causes
the vast amount of mischief so well known to the farmers of Mis-
souri.
By the time the bulk of this second brood of chinch bus^s in the
corn have reached the adult condition, the time has approached for
them to seek winter quarters, and the fall migration begins to oc-
cur. If the proper winter quarters are near at hand, the bulk of the
insects will migrate on foot to those places; otherwise, the winged
forms wjll now readily take to flight and travel considerable dis-
tance in search of suitable places in which to pass the winter. If the
corn is cut at this time and stacked in shocks about the field, the far-
mer has given these chinch bugs the best kind of winter quarters, and
they will readily seek them and hibernate in vast numbers in these
situations. It will be seen then that chinch bugs have three migrating
periods. A period in the fall during which they migrate by crawling
and by flight in search of winter quarters ; a migrating period in the
spring when the insects come out from their winter's hibernation and
fly about in search of the proper food plants ; and a mid-summer migra-
tion in which the chinch bugs crawl in a mass in search of a fresh
A-5
66 MISSOURI AGRICUIvTURAL REPORT.
supply of food and rarely take to flight. There are, in Missouri at
least, only two broods of the chinch bug each year, but these two
broods always occur.
NATURAL ENEMIES,
Unfortunately for the agriculturist at least, the chinch bug has
few natural enemies; especially is this the case with its insect en-
emies. Most insects are held in check by oth^r insects that are either
predaceous, (that is devour them,) or parasitic upon them. But the
chinch bug seems to be largely immune from the attack of either the pre-
daceous or the parasitic insects; at least they are not in sufficient
quantities to do us any particular good in that direction, and it there-
fore seems hopeless for the agriculturist to ever expect that the
chinch bug will be held in check by other insects. One of the pre-
daceous insects most destructive to the chinch bug is shown in figure
6. There are some birds, however, that feed upon chinch bugs, but,
unfortunately, the birds are so scarce now-a-days that we can hope
for very little help from this source. The quail is perhaps the most
beneficial bird that we have along these lines, for they devour great
numbers of chinch bugs, but quail are sought as a game bird with such
diligence, that they are becoming extremely scarce. Meadow larks
also devour immense numbers of chinch bugs — perhaps as many as
do the quail, but here again these birds are also killed as game birds.
Prairie chickens, red-wing black birds, cat birds and thrushes also
readily feed on chinch bugs.
FIG. 6.— A Predaceous Bug, Milyas cinctus, which feeds on chinch bugs by suck-
ing their blood. (From Riley, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
There are certain fungoid and bacterial diseases that attack chinch
bugs under certain conditions, and these diseases do more good to-
wards keeping the chinch bugs in check than all the other natural
enemies of the chinch bug combined. However, we cannot hope to
ever see the day in this region of the United States when the natural
enemies of the chinch bug will ever keep it reduced in numbers to
within harmless bounds. We must assist nature with her task by
WHEAT INSECTS. 67
artificial means. From what has been said in regard to the habits and
the life history of the insect, it is apparent to anyone giving the subject
any particular thought, that the chinch bug has several weak places
that we may take advantage of.
REMEDIES.
It is advisable that the agriculturist resort to every means pos-
sible within the bounds of reason looking toward the suppression of
the chinch bug. There can be no doubt, that if all or the great bulk
of agriculturists will see to it that proper means are taken each year
to hold the chinch bug in check and reduce its numbers, that in the
course of a few years the chinch bug will cause no more loss than
is caused by a great many other injurious insects. The great difficulty,
however, is to educate the mass of the agricultural people up to the
point of living up to such rules. The farmers are busy during the
summer, and, as a rule, do not feel like taking any time to the fight-
ing of insects. They feel like relying more upon some remedy that
can be easily applied, with a hope that it will smffice ; and in the great
bulk of cases, they will not take the pains to do this in as thorough a
manner as they should.
In the first place, every agriculturist should take advantage of the
fact that chinch bugs hibernate in the adult condition during the win-
ter under rubbish of various kinds, as before described. If the farm is
kept thoroughly clean, and no rubbish of any description, or no hedge
fences or other places where the insects can readily hibernate are
allowed, then there will be little chance of the chinch bug hibernating
on that farm. In other words, clean farming will do a great deal
towards lessening the number of chinch bugs. If the rubbish of
various kinds is gathered from the fields and from about the corners
of fences, and placed in piles or in rows early in the fall, and allowed
to remain there until the chinch bugs have collected under these for
their winter quarters, and these are then burned, vast numbers of the
chinch bugs will be destroyed with them. There are a great many
hedge fences in this country that contain dead grass and weeds, and
rubbish of various kinds, tltat could well be set on fire late in the fall,
and thereby destroy the hibernating bugs. If dead leaves and the like,
especially those along the side of forests and other wind breaks in the
neighborhood of cultivated fields that are infested, are burned over in
late fall, great numbers of hibernating bugs will be killed.
Then again, if the farmers will sow millet' at the proper time so
that the millet will be up early in the spring, it will attract the migrat-
ing chinch bugs that are coming out from their winter quarters, and
68 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
they will collect upon the millet in great numbers, and can readily
be destroyed by spraying with kerosene, or by scattering straw over
the millet and setting fire to it. This millet trap can profitably be
used along the border of those places where the chinch bugs hiber-
nate, or along the line separating an agriculturist's farm from his
neighbors.
The practice, which is so common in Missouri, of stacking the
corn in shocks in the field, and then cultivating and sowing wheat
there, is a very bad one for the chinch bug proposition, because the
chinch bugs in such a corn field hibernate under these shocks in vast
numbers, probably the bulk of the chinch bugs in such a field seeking
this place of hibernation, and in the spring, they have but a few feet
to crawl before they are upon the young wheat plant, and in that
way the farmer simply reinfests his fields in as thorough a manner
as could possibly be done. Once the chinch bugs are in a wheat field,
practically no artificial means can be taken, from an economic stand-
point at least, looking towards any help from this evil.
We cannot economically kill chinch bugs that are scattered over a
wheat or corn field ; but it sometimes happens that the chinch bujs^s in
the spring coming from their winter quarters, especially if the wheat
field be near a forest, will get upon the first few rows bordering such
forests, and collect in great numbers, forming a band but a few feet
wide along this area. In such cases, it would pay to spray that badly
infested area with kerosene emulsion or ten per cent kerosene, as
will be described later on.
A great many people send to this office in the spring of the year
for the chinch bug disease, with the idea of scattering this disease
about the fields of wheat and killing the chinch bugs infecting them.
It is a fact that under certain climatic conditions this chinch bug
disease, which, by the way, is nothing more or less than a minute
fungous plant, will kill great numbers of chinch bugs. But, from
seven years' experience and observation with this disease in the wheat
fields throughout the State of Missouri, I am firmly convinced that
the artificial use of this disease by the farmers of Missouri does very
little, if any, good. This tallies with the exiferience of other Entomolo-
gists who have had considerable to do with this matter in other states.
While this statement may seem strange to a good many, the reasons
are perfectly obvious when properly understood. In the first place,
the chinch bug disease is a natural one, found in nature, and is not an
artificial one. What we did was to collect the spores of this fungous
and put them in boxes containing a great many living bugs. The air
and the soil in these boxes were kept continually moist and warm,^
WHEAT INSECTS. 69
and, as a result, the spores readily germinated, and the mycelium of
the plant found its way inside tjie bugs and fed upon them, killed
them, and produced spores again on the outside of the bugs. It was
these white fungous covered biigs that we distributed throughout the
State to anyone applying for them. The persons receiving these bugs
were supposed to place them in boxes similar to ours, and keep them
under similar conditions, and thereby develop large quantities of this
fungous disease, and to scatter these throughout the wheat field. As
a matter of fact, I have each year found that over half of the farmers
do not go to the trouble of cultivating this disease, but simply scatter
in their fields the bugs that we send them.
FIQ.T^ Chinch Bug, Bliaaua teucopterua , killed by the rungous disease, Bporot-
-TiStiatn. The mycelium la within the bus, a.nd the fungoua l9 eta.rtlng: to develop
Uhe .white spores on the outside and ultimately cover It. (After Lugerer.)
The spores of this fungous require for their germination practically
the same conditions that the seed of your wheat or corn requires in
order to germinate, that is, the spores must have a considerable
amount of moisture in connection with heat, otherwise they will not
germinate. If the chinch bugs are in large numbers and the weather
is hot and very moist, these spores will germinate on the bugs, and the
fungous plant will kill them in great numbers. But if the weather is
hot and dry, or too cold, although it may be moist enough, then these
spores will not germinate, and no agriculturist has the power to bring
about the proper conditiohs in his wheat field that will enable them
to germinate. Hence you see that, although the farmer may obtain the
■chinch bug disease and scatter it in vast quantities throughout his
70 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAlv REPORT.
field, if the climatic conditions are not right, the chinch bug disease
will not take, and will do absolutely no good whatever.
But some may say that in obtaining these diseased chinch bugs
from this office, and putting them in their fields, they introduce there
the spores that will germinate when the proper conditions are right.
I wish to say that it is very doubtful whether there is a wheat field
or a corn field in Missouri that does not now naturally contain spores
of this disease. I have been impressed with this fact every summer ;
because, almost invariably, when the person applying for the chinch
bug disease sends to this office living chinch bugs that have been
placed, as they should be, in a tin box containing no dirt, but some
green vegetable matter, as, for instance, pieces of green corn, wheat
or grass, and that box closed up as it should be, perfectly tight, thereby
generating moisture in the box from these green vegetables, that by
. the time these bugs reach me, the box contains more diseased fungous
covered bugs than we return; thus showing that the spores were
already there in his field, and all that was required was the proper
amount of heat and moisture in order to enable them to germinate.
Knowing these facts, I can do no other than to conscientiously advise
the farmers of Missouri not to trouble themselves with obtaining and
scattering this disease about their fields ; but to rely entirely, as they
ultimately will have to do, upon nature to bring about the proper cli-
matic conditions for the development of this disease in their fields.
Even if it were possible for the farmer in any way to develop the
proper conditions in his wheat field, then there would be no grounds
•
for him obtaining this disease from any other source whatever.
Bear in mind, that while I can not advise agriculturists to trouble
themselves with this chinch bug disease, because of the reasons above
given, nevertheless, I am far from claiming that this disease does not
do a great deal of good. The facts are, that when the chinch bugs are
in a field in great numbers, or massed in places about the field, and
warm rains appear, that this fungous disease spreads rapidly through
the mass of chinch bugs, and kills them in immense numbers regard-
less of whether the farmer has ever introduced the spores into the
field or not. This whole chinch bug disease then is one entirely out
of and beyond the control of the agriculturists. I am perfectly well
aware of the fact that it frequently happens, that within a few davs
after we have sent out this chinch bug disease that the farmer will
write back and tell me that he scattered the disease in the field, an4
that within from two to three days the chinch bugs died in vast num-
bers, and were all but exterminated. Such letters are of daily occur-
ance during the chinch bug season ; and any one knowing the nature
WHEAT INSECTS. 71
of this disease, and of the chinch bugs, would know at once that the
chinch bug disease that he received from us did not cause their death,
because of the fact that the time that elapsed from the putting in of
the disease to the death of the chinch bugs was far short of the pos-
sible time for the disease to take. This again simply shows that the
proper climatic conditions had occurred to cause the disease to develop
naturally among those bugs, and before he had introduced it.
Another great error that farmers frequently make is due to the
fact that the chinch bug, when it comes to shed its skin and transform
from the last nymph condition to the adult, does so after climbing
down between little clumps of earth and about the base of the plants, and
there casts its skin. It frequently happens that this is done by vast
numbers of chinch bugs within a day or two; and the farmer, if he
has artificially introduced the disease into his fields, and happens to go
out to observe whether the disease has caused any deaths among the
bugs or not, notices these cast skins, and mistakes them for killed
chinch bugs. This mistake is very readily made, and he immediately
jumps to the conclusion that the chinth bug disease that he has re-
cently introduced, has killed vast numbers of his chinch bugs. But
there is no need of saying anything further in regard to this chinch
bug disease. I think that I have said enough now to enable the agri-
culturist to s^e the folly of wasting any time in trying to send for and
cultivate and introduce the chinch bug disease into his wheat or corn
field.
Chinch bugs cause a great deal of worry on the part of the agri-
culturist at about the time they are migrating from the wheat to the
corn, and, fortunately, this is one of the best times in which to com-
bat this insect. It frequently happens that at this time the chinch
bugs migrate in a mass and in great numbers, leaving the wheat field
and crawling in the direction of the corn field. When this is the
case, whether the bugs are leaving your own wheat field or your neigh-
bor's wheat field, and are moving in the direction of your corn field,
this corn field can be protected from the ravages of these bugs without
any great amount of labor. This is done by taking advantage of the
fact that this migration occurs almost invariably on foot, that even the
adult chinch bugs in the migrating army do not readily take t© wing,
that these chinch bugs have great difficulty in passing over the loose
and unprotected soil, such as a dusty road or a plowed field, and that
the hot sun readily kills great numbers of chinch bugs that can find no
place for shelter. While it is a well known fact that chinch bugs
thrive better in hot and dry seasons and are easily killed or held in
72 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
check by damp seasons, yet it is a fact that the chinch bugs cannot
endure to any considerable extent the direct rays of the sun on a hot
day. They are, for that reason, found in fields where plants are numer-
ous enough to give them shelter, and are not apt to occur in fields
where the plants are scattering and shelter from the direct rays of the
sun not so easily obtained.
It is a fact that a migrating army of chinch bugs will be held in
check in hot sunny weather by a dusty road, and die in immense num-
bers before many of them will succeed in getting across. We can take
advantage of this fact, and, when we find the chinch bugs are about
to migrate from the wheat field to the corn field, plow a belt around
the corn field, or at least along the sides toward the migrating army
of bugs. This plowed belt should be about ten feet wide. After glow-
ing, the ground should be harrowed with a disc harrow, and rolled so
as to break up all the lumps, and then reharrowed, dragging brush
after the harrow so as to make this ten foot belt just as dusty as can
be made ; then a log or a V-shaped trough should be drawn lengthwise
along this dusty belt two or three times so as to make furrows running
lengthwise. Along one of these furrows at least it is well to dig little
postholes, which can be readily done by means of a post-hole auger.
When the bugs try to cross this barrier, they will have great difficulty
in even crossing the dust to these furrows. Once they reach the fur-
rows, they will try to ,crawl out, and, if the furrows have steep and
dusty walls, the chinch bugs will not succeed in getting over, but
will crawl along the furrows and fall into the holes, where they may
be killed by turning on kerosene or tar, or where they may be cov-
ered up and other holes dug between.
One will see that the chinch bugs find it almost impossible to
pass this dusty barrier, that the hot sun striking them without any pro-
tection will kill vast numbers of them, and that just so long as it re-
mains hot and dry, this arrangement will form a complete protection
for the corn field. It is well, however, to have one or two men, as is
needed, to attend this barrier during each day, and, by means of a
hoe, to fix the places along the grooves where the chinch bugs may
find places to escape, to see that the chinch bugs do not occur in too
great numbers in the furrow or in the holes before they are killed, and
to do the utmost not to allow any of the bugs to find places through
which they may reach the corn field. It is not absolutely necessary
to make these furrows along this dusty belt, although it is advisable.
If one does not make the furrows, or in case it should rain soon
after the plowed strip has been made or before the migrating bugs
have been captured, one can turn coal tar in the form of a band the
WHEAT INSECTS. 73
length of this dusty barrier and a few inches in width, and, as soon as
dried, put tar on again, and so on until the tar will not run down
through the soil, but will remain on top, and the chinch bugs will not
cross this barrier or band of tar. If it should rain after you have made
this dusty barrier and the bugs have collected in vast numbers about
it, the rain will undoubtedly start the fungous disease among such a
mass of the bugs and practically exterminate them, or you can main-
tain the barrier by means of the ribbon of tar.
When the chinch bugs collect in good numbers along the dust}'
barrier, or in the trenches, or along the coal tar barrier, or in case the
farmer has neglected to make this barrier, and the chinch bugs have
collected upon the first few rows of corn in Immense numbers, then
he should immediately stop all other work and at once spray those
chinch bugs with either kerosene emulsion or ten per cent kerosene
and water mixture. In spraying the chinch bugs that have collected
in the trenches or along the barrier, one would do well not to wet
the dust any more than possible, but spray those places where the
bugs are most numerous so as not to destroy the dust as a barrier. It
sometimes happens, although not often, that where the bulk of the
chinch bugs making this migration are adults with fully developed
wings, and find themselves confronted with a barrier, they will take
tc wing and fly over, and in such cases they may collect upon the first
few rows of corn, where they can be readily killed by means of kero-
sene.
It is a fact that chinch bugs die like magic before a spray of kero-
sene emulsion or ten per cent, kerosene mechanically mixed with
water; and if we could always be sure that in this migration from the
wheat to the corn field, the chinch bugs would collect in immense;
numbers upon the first few rows of corn, and stay there long enough
to allow of spraying them, this would be the ideal method of exter-
minating them from the corn field, or of preventing them from enter-
ing the corn.
An agriculturist should watch the chinch bugs, and when he finds
them collected on the first few rows of corn or in masses along his
barrier, he should be thankful, because he now has the bugs in the
very best condition possible for obtaining his revenge. When the
bugs collect in such places, the agriculturist should drop every other
work and spray these insects at once, especially if they are upon the
first few rows of corn, since they will soon spread through the corn ;
and when this happens he is barred from any further method of killing
them.
I would advise the agriculturist to purchase one of the new pumps
74 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
with the kerosene attachment. These pumps are made by the better
manufacturers, and cost very little more than the pumps without such
attachments. They save an immense amount of time and labor, es-
pecially for such purposes as chinch bug extermination. The pumps
do away with the necessity of making kerosene emulsion. All that
is needed is to turn pure kerosene or coal oil in the receptacle attached
to the pump for that purpose, and set the indicator at ten per cent ; put
the pump in a barrel of water and spray without any further trouble.
This ten per cent mixture of kero3ene kills the bugs readily, and does
not injure the plants.
In spraying for chinch bugs it is necessary to touch every bug
in order to kill it, because these bugs, are killed by contact with the
kerosene. This necessitates thorough work, and one must, therefore,
spray on all sides of the plant that is infested with these bugs ; but
where the bugs have collected in this way in immense numbers, the
agriculturist will be delighted to do the work and see the bugs die so
rapidly and in such great numbers.
Where one has no modern spray pump with the kerosene attach-
ment, then an ordinary spray pump may be used ; but one must make
kerosene emulsion. This is made in the following way : Dissolve one-
half pound of hard soap (in case you. wish to use soft soap one pound
should be taken), in one gallon of boiling soft water; after the soap
has been thoroughly dissolved and stirred through the water, remove
this from the fire and add two gallons of common kerosene or coal oil,
while the liquid is still hot. Remove the spray nozzle from_your
pump, put the pump int© this mixture, and pump the liquid right back
into itself. This will churn it, and do so more thoroughly than any
other process that we know of. This churning should be done vigor-
ously and kept up continually for ten minutes, at the expiration of
which time, a complete emulsion will have been formed, and the liquid
will have increased about one-third in bulk; hence the necessity of
putting it into a larger receptacle than will exactly hold it in the be-
ginning. After the emulsion has been made, add nineteen gallons of
water to it, stir thoroughly, and spray with this.
These two methods of killing the migrating army of chinch bugs
when they try to enter the corn field (that is by barriers or by spray-
ing the bugs with kerosene), if followed out, are worth more to the
agriculturist than all the other methods combined. In one day, we, in
this way, practically exterminate the mass of chinch bugs in the im-
mediate neighborhood, and we do so at a time just previous to the de-
positing of eggs for the second brood, and, therefore, prevent that
numerous increase which would otherwise occur. Hence it would not
WHEAT INSECTS. 75
be unwise to again call your attention to the fact that when the chinch
bugs come to migrate from the wheat to the corn, they should be
stopped by means of a dusty barrier around the corn field, or, if this
can not be done, you should spray them with some form of kerosene
immediately after Ihey occur in large numbers on the first few rows
of corn.
THE HESSIAN FLY.
Cecidomyia destructor, Say.
INTRODUCTION.
The United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
has carefully estimated the average annual loss to the Agricultural inter-
est of the United States, caused by the ravages of injurious insects on
cultivated plants only, and finds that $300,000,000 per year is as near as
can be estimated of the above loss. The wheat plant suflfers as much,
perhaps, from the ravages of insects as any other single crop grown in
the United States, and two insects cause by far the greatest amount of
this damage. One of these is the Hessian fly, which in some single years
has caused an estimated loss of $60,000,000 in the United States alone.
In some foreign countries, this insect has been the cause of great fam-
ines. By referring to the map of the United States in figure 8, one can
obtain a good idea of the general distribution of this insect in the United
States, and it will be readily seen from this map that Missouri is com-
pletely within the area of dangerous infection. The Hessian fly is found
throughout the entire State of Missouri, and is, next to the chinch bug,
the most destructive insect attacking our wheat and menacing the general
farm revenue.
Judging from the large number of letters received by this office
each year making inquiries in regard to this insect and the best means of
suppressing its ravages, the average agriculturalist does not understand
the life history of this pest, or the few simple methods of farm practice
which may be varied so as to prevent its destructive work. Unfortunate-
ly, there is no literature on this subject that is accessible to our people,
and to which they may be directed for information, and hence no apol-
ogy is necessary for the publication of this bulletin, which was preceded
by three years' continuous and successful tests, on sixteen widely scat-
tered farms, of the methods of combatting this insect herein described.
Although the original home of the Hessian fly is not known, it is
generally believed to have been introduced into the United States by the
76
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Hessian soldiers during the war of the Revolution. It is probable that it
was transported in the ''flaxseed" stage in straw used for bedding and
other purposes of the soldiers, and thus obtained a foothold in Long
FIG. 8.— Map showing distribution of Hessian Fly, Cecidomyia destructor, in Amer-
ica. (From Osborn, U. S. Dept. Agric.) ,
WHEAT INSECTS. 77
Island, New York, in about 1776. From this locality it gradually spread
at the rate of about twenty miles each year, until it occupied the wheat-
growing region of the Eastern United States; and ultimately and more
rapidly spread to all the wheat-growing regions of the United States
east of the Rocky Mountains, south of the 45° of latitude and east of the
100° of longitude, and now has established itself in California.
The name Hessian fly was first applied to this pest about 1778, but
it was not until 181 7 that it was scientifically described by Say, who gave
it the appropriate name of destructor. •
HABITS AND LIFE HISTORY.
How It Spreads. — The adults of the Hessian fly have two well de-
veloped wings, which enable them to fly about and to spread over the
neighborhood, thereby extending the distribution of the species; but it
is doubtful if they travel in this way more than ten miles as a rule unless
aided by the wind, and ordinarily they will deposit their eggs and perish
in the immediate vicinity where they emerged, provided food plants be
plentiful. The life of the adults is ordinarily of very short duration,
lasting only long enough to enable them to mate and to deposit their eggs.
The distribution and spread of the species over long distances is no doubt
attained by the transportation of the puparia or "flaxseeds," either in
the straw or in the chaflf.
Its Food Plants. — The Hessian fly attacks wheat, barley and rye ;
but has not yet been known to infest oats, although in CaliTomia it is
said to be able to exist to a limited extent on certain grasses ; not enough,
however, to threaten contamination from that source. We have no record
of its perpetuating itself on grasses in Missouri. It is well to note, how-
ever, that according to Marchal the oats of France is now attacked by a
closely allied species, which he believes has directly descended from the
Hessian fly.
Its Effect on Plants. — The effect of the presence of the Hessian fly
upon the plants is very characteristic, and differs with the season, or
rather with the stage of development of the plant. In the fall, the eggs
are deposited upon the leaves of the young plant, and the larvae, as soon
as hatched, crawl down the leaf into the sheath, and down as far as the
surface of the ground, or below, and even to near the roots. Their pres-
ence and feeding at this point causes an increased local growth of the
base of the leaf and culm, resulting in a swelling, which is scarcely enough
to be called a gall, but which is very nQticeable. The plant, when first
attacked, develops a dark green appearance, and the infested tiller later
turns brown and then yellow. If the plant is attacked early it may fail
to tiller, and the death of the entire plant will be the result. If the plant
78 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
has already started to produce tillers the larvae may attack only part of
them, and the other tillers may develop into healthy plants. In the
spring, the plants being larger, the eggs are deposited on the lower
leaves, and the larvae when hatched crawl down the sheath to just above
the first joint as a rule. Here they feed, and so weaken the stalk that it
bends over until the upper portion is horizontal. Occasionally the larvae
will be found higher up the stalk, to the second or third joint, but not
often ; and sometimes they will be down even below the ground, but this
is rirely the case, and when it does occur, the stalk falls at this point.
Its Life History. — ^The adult Hessian fly deposits her eggs in the
furrows on the upper side of the lower leaves of the plant, and usually
deposits a large number of them on a single blade. Figure 9, e, shows an
adult female, natural size, ovipositing. The eggs, one of which is shown
enlarged at Fig. 9, a, hatch in about four days, and the young larvae
crawl down the leaf to the sheath and between the sheath and the stalk
to near the base of the culm, and there they feed. This position is usual-
ly below the ground in the fall wheat, and just above the first or second
joint in the spring wheat. The larvae now remain at this point and feed
until full grown, which usually takes about three weeks. A full grown
larva is shown magnified in Fig. 9, b, and at its side a line indicating its
natural size. The larva now shortens and shrinks away from its old
skin, which now forms a puparium or "flaxseed" within which the larva
remains in a quiescent stage for a varying length of time depending upon
the climatic conditions. At Fig. 9, c, is shown one of these "flaxseeds"
enlarged. It seems certain that jnoisture is now necessary for further
development. If the conditions are right, this larva ultimately changes
to a pupa within the puparium or "flaxseed ;" and here again, we find
the duration of this stage greatly varied and dependent on climatic condi-
tions of temperature and moisture. Fig. 9, d, represents a pupa much
enlarged, the line at the side indicating its natural size. When the con-
ditions are favorable, the pupa forces off the end of the puparium, and
makes its way out and up the sheath to the open, then the adult emerges.
At Fig. 9, f, is shown an adult female greatly enlarged, and g, an adult
male also enlarged.
Number of Broods. — Under what may be termed normal conditions
prevailing in Missouri, the Hessian fly has three broods each year; but
under more favorable climatic conditions, such as an unusually damp
season, the insect's development is so accelerated that there may be four
broods; while,. on the contrary, an unfavorable season caused by an un-
usually dry one, will retard their development to such an extent as to
allow the emergence of only two broods. Probably no other insect is
more susceptible of variation in the number of annual broods for a given
locality; and it is of the utmost importance tliat the cultivator understand
the causes controlling these variations, in order that he may govern him-
Fia. B.— Wheat Plant Attacked l>v Hessian Fly C idomyi i d %U
Ing the different sta(.os or th insett also its adiilt para'^lte at i t
fly greatly cnlarRpil b lir\a cnHiged e luiinrium lUicsepil i
larged; d. pitpa; > adult female depO'Sltlns her eggs natural sIzp
enlarged: g, adult mile enlarged h naxseeilH In iiosltlon br('
Ktalk. Lines at Hides oC flgurcs Indicate natural size of each
U. S. Dept. Agrlc.)
80 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
self accordingly in his effort to suppress their ravages, for upon it de-
pends the success of our most important remedial or preventive measures.
It is the general want of a knowledge concerning these facts and princi-
ples that results in so much failure on the part of our grain growers to
contend with the pest.
Under normal climatic conditions, the adult Hessian fly will appear
early in October, and will soon deposit her eggs oh the young fall wheat.
By the approach of cold weather the larvae will have reached the puparium
or "flaxseed" stage, and will, in this stage, hibernate over winter, and in
the early spring change to pupae, and emerge as adults about the middle
of April. These adults will now deposit eggs on the wheat, and will
mature adults about the latter part of May. Those flies will now deposit
eggs on the spring wheat, and will reach the '^flaxseed" stage before har-
vest, in which condition they may remain until fall, when the adult flies
will appear. If the summer and fall be unusually dry, the adults that
emerge in the fall will be later than usual in appearing and depositing
their eggs; in fact, an exceedingly dry and hot summer and fall will so
retard and dry up the "flaxseed" stage of the Hessian fly, as to cause the
death of a large per cent ; while if the late summer and fall be an un-
usually moist one, the adults will emerge and deposit their eggs much
earlier than usual. If the spring be an unusually dry one, the first
brood will be so retarded that the insect will still be in the "flaxseed"
stage by harvest time, thus cutting out one brood from the normal
number. On the contrary, if the summer be an unusually wet one,
the insects that otherwise would have passed the summer in the "flax-
seed" stage will emerge as adults, which will deposit eggs on volun-
teer wheat, thus producing one brood more than the normal number.
Cause of Variation in Number of Broods. — All the facts of observa-
tion go to show that warm and moist weather will greatly accelerate the
development of the Hessian fly, while cold or dry, or even warm and dry,
weather will greatly retard their development. So great is the influence,
that the nuniber of broods may be doubled in unusually warm and wet
seasons, to what they are in unusually dry years. While temperature has
a marked influence on the acceleration and retardation of the rapidity of
development of the fly, it is evident that humidity has even a greater in-
fluence; and the two influences combined may cause wonderful differ-
ences in the number of broods from year to year. It is generally known
that the climatic conditions which favor the chinch bug is unfavorable to
the Hessian fly, and vice versa, so that we find the two pests alternate in
their years of greatest destruction.
Description of the Hessian Fly. — For many and obvious reasons it
is desirable to have an accurate description of the Hessian fly, such as
WHEAT INSECTS. 81
will enable one to separate it from closely allied species found feeding on
closely allied plants. To this end we can do no better than to quote the
excellent description given by Professor Osborn.
Adult. — "The adult (Fig. 9, / and g), like other members of the
family Cecidomyidae, to which it belongs, is a small, gnat-like, two-
winged creature, about half as large as a common mosquito, which it re-
sembles in form.
"The female is about one-tenth of an inch long (2.5 mm.), of a'
dark color, the abdomen in freshly issued specimens appearing red, with
black patches or bands of black, and with red bands at the articulations,
depending upon the amount of distension.
"The head is small, somewhat contracted dorsally, with a row of
bristles on the posterior margin ; eyes black, antennae long, black, semi-
pallid, usually of 17 joints, this number varying in different specimens
from 16 to 18; joints rather short, cylindrical, and joined by a very short
filament, each provided with an irregular whorl of fine hairs. The thorax
has two rows of long backwardly curving bristles near the median line,
and a patch on either side. The legs are long and delicate with a dense
covering of blackish scales dorsally, the basal joint of the tarsus very
short. The wings appear smoky black from scaly covering, but the
scales are very narrow, not broad, as those on the body and legs. The
halters are yellowish, with broad blackish scales covering the outer
part, the broad part naked, except a narrow border.
"The abdomen is long, ovate when contracted, but capable of great
extension for the terminal segments. The ovipositor is compressed,
cylindric, very minutely hairy, with an oval lobe at the extremity,
which is minutely striate and more densely hairy than the basal por-
tion.
"The male is smaller, more slender, and appears darker than the
female. The antennae are larger, the joints more distinct, 17 to 19 in
number or 16 to 20 for extremes, and connected by a much larger fila-
ment and the whorl of hairs is much more prominent, the hairs larger,
and arranged in a more perfect vertical. The outer claspers are very
robust and apparently loosely connected to the abdomen. The basal part
is heavy, with numerous strong tubercules and a few scattered bristles,
The distal part is, when at rest, at nearly right angles with the basal part,
narrower, faintly tuberculate, very minutely hairy, and with a strong
clear-like tooth at end. The inner claspers are broad, oval, minutely hairy,
the posterior margin with a row of fine hairs, and toward the apex three
or four blunt teeth. Between the claspers is a strong chitinous process,
and anterior and dorsal to them two pairs of finely haired, slender, finger^
A-Q
82 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
like processes directed dorsally ; anterior to these, and forming the poste-
rior border of the abdominal segment, is a prominent hairy rim, broken
at the median line dorsally.
Eggs. — "The egg is characterized as about one-half millimeter lon^,
cylindric, roundingly pointed at the ends, glossy translucent, slightly red-
dish in color, and becoming deeper red with development.
Larva. — "The larva has usually been described without reference to
distinct stages, but Marchal has defined three forms, the first of which,
just issued from the ^gg, is capable of locomotion and travels from the
point of hatching to the location under the sheath. Its size is slightly
larger than the Q,gg from which it hatches, and it presents thirteen, seg-
ments, of which the first constitutes the head. It is distinguished from
the second form principally by the presence of two triangular, plerby,
ear-like appendages, lightly incurred below on each side, and comparable
to tentacles; the anterior buccal border is trilobed, and beneath is the
mouth in the form of a small triangular opening. The last segment is
lightly emarginate posteriorly, and each of the two lobes thus formed
carries four setiform papillae.
"The second larva form, which is fixed to the stalk and is the one
usually described by writers, is, when grown, 3 miUimeters long by a
little less than i millimeter wide, of a flattened, cylindrical form, and so
transparent that the internal organs are easily seen. There are twelve
segments besides the head, which is small and more or less retracted.
The anterior end is narrowed and usually somewhat bent. The posterior
end tapers, is bluntly rounded, with two lobes on the posterior segment.
The segments are but slightly indicated externally, but are plainly marked
by the internal masses of adipose tissue arranged in series along each
side, as well as the respiratory organs ; the spiracles being plainly visible
under the microscope as minute openings in rounded yellowish tuber-
cules. The mouth part is indistinct, and the sternal spatula is, until the
larva in ready to pass to the next form, either entirely wanting or incon-
spicuous. The digestive, nervous, tracheary and adipose systems, which
are very plainly visible in the larvae, have been described in particular
by Marchal, whose paper should be studied for details in this regard.
"The third larva form — that enclosed within the paparium — is dis-
tinguished especially by the development of the sternal spatula or 'breast-
bone.' In other respects there is little difference anatomically from the
preceding, but it is a quiescent not a feeding stage. The sternal spatula,
which becomes conspicuous at this stage, is a homy structure project-
ing from between the first and second body segrnents, and is provided
at its anterior extremity with two pointed spurs. The bifurcate form
of this spatula is used by Marchal to separate this species from avenae,
WHEAT INSECTS. 88
in which there is but one point, the use of this organ, which projects
forward under the first segment and rests against its vertical surface,
has been a subject of considerable discussion. The explanation which
is best supported was proposed by Enock and is sustained by Marchal.
This is that the spatula is used by the larva to reverse its position in
the paparium so that, whereas the larva rests at first with its head down-
ward and toward the roots of the plant, it rests, after turning, with
its head upward and toward the upper part of the plant, a position which
has obvious advantages when we consider the direction in which the
pupa and imago must escape.
Pupa. — "The pupa when first issued from the puparium is white,
but acquires a rosy tint. It presents a very delicate appearance, the pupal
case being extremely thin. On the front is a prominent pointed chitin-
ous rostrum qf a brown color, the function of which is considered to
be the cutting of the puparium to permit the exclusion of the piipa. Above
the origin of the antennae are the- horns, called by Marchal the cephalic
horns, and posterior to them two larger, curved, thoracic horns which
contain, according to Marchal, trunks of the tracheary system."
NATURAL ENEMIES.
The great importance of the work of various parasitic insects in
destroying the Hessian fly and preventing its undue increase can scarcely
FIG. 10.— Platygaster hcrrickH: A Parasite on the Hessian Fly. The hair lines
at the right show Its natural size. (From Osborn, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
be overestimated. Undoubtedly these parasites kill practically every year
from fifty to ninety per cent of the Hessian flies before they reach ma-
turity, and in some years even a greater per cent are thus destroyed.
Still, notwithstanding this great reduction by parasitic insects and also
by unfavorable climatic conditions, these insects frequently become un-
duly numerous and consequently destructive. It is not only because of
the economic importance of these parasites of the Hessian fly, but also
because of the fact that otherwise the cultivator would not, as a rule,
84 MISSOURI AGRICUI^TURAL REPORT.
be able to distinguish them from the Hessian fly itself, that we have
thought best to give an illustration of two of the more common species
of these parasites found in this vState. A glance at the illustrations shown
in figures lo and ii will go much further toward acquainting the aver-
age agriculturist with these insects, and of enabling him to recognize
and separate them from the Hessian fly, than any amount of descrip-
tion would do ; and hence we will not enter into a description of each
species. It should be observed that the Hessian fly has but one pair of
wings, the second pair being represented by a slender stub-like rudiment ;
while in all the parasites there are two pairs of wings, the first pair, how-
ever, much larger than the second pair. In one species, Baetornus subap-
terus, not figured, the insect is frequently found without wings at all.
Although the Hessian fly and its various parasites look alike to the casual
observer, the above facts will enable one to note the difference, if followed
with a little close observation and sharp eyes, especially if one be provided
with a hand lens.
FIG. 11.— lferisM« destructor'. A Parasite on the Hessian Fly. The hair lines at
the right show Its natural size. (From Osborn, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
REMEDIES.
The use of insecticides for the suppression of the Hessian fly is
practically out of the question, and recourse must, therefore, be had to
preventive rather than remedial measures. To this end, one must thor-
oughly understand and be perfectly familiar with the habits of the insect,
and with the conditions affecting its early or late appearance and varia-
tions in the number of broods. Knowing these, it is possible to so alter
and arrange ordinary farm practices as to practically escape damage from
the Hessian fly. No single measure or method of procedure will give
the excellent results to be attained by an intelligent and systematic appli-
cation of two or more according to the climatic conditions of the season.
Primarily, the modifications of the preventive measures are based on the
prevalence of wet or dry weather.
When the grain is harvested, if the weather is wet, the stubble should
WHEAT INSECTS. 85
at once be burned over or deeply plowed under and rolled, while if the
weather is very dry, this may be deferred until later, in order to allow
the parasites to emerge; but in all cases, it should be done before the
fall rains begin, and before it becomes grown up with weeds, or volunteer
i^rain appears. In either case, the field should be plowed under and rolled
as soon as volunteer grain appears, and hence the plowing under and
rolling has an advantage over simply burning. All volunteer wheat
about stacks should be thus destroyed.
The planting of winter wheat should be deferred ^s late as practic-
able, in order that there may be no grain up when the fall brood of
Hessian flies appear. The exact date when the fall planting can be safely
done will vary greatly from year to year. If the summer and fall be a
very dry one, it will have to be postponed much longer than will be the
case if the fall be a wet one.
Late Solving of Fall Wheat, — From what has previously been said,
it is evident that this method of escaping the Hessian fly is the simplest,
as well as in many respects the most effectual. Since there is such a
considerable seasonal variation from year to year for a given locality,
and since latitude, and temperature and moisture have such a marked
influence on the early and late emergence of the adults, it is 'not wise
to give definite dates for the sowing of fall wheat, even for a given local-
ity. Our experience for the past three years, in many localities and with
many agriculturists, has been that not more than one in ten will miss the
proper time when told to sow their wheat just as late as they possibly
can for their locality and the season, and not to sow until after they have
had some good fall rains. No doubt still fewer would miss it if they
understood more fully the habits of the pest, and the conditions influenc-
ing and varying their development. Obviously, the wheat must be sown
early enough to enable it to obtain sufficient growth to withstand the
winter, and still be sown late enough so that it will not be above ground
until all the Hessian flies have emerged, deposited their eggs, and died;
and in order to do this intelligently, one must take into account all that
has been said in this bulletin, and supplement it with a little observation.
Should one succeed in escaping the Hessian fly by this late sowing of
fall wheat, it will not be absolutely necessary, as a rule, to follow other
methods, although advisable to follow both the above and the following
for the best protection. But if you should fail to escape the fly in the
fall, it would be well the following summer not to neglect the practice
of the following method :
Burning or Plowing Under the Stubble. — This method of fighting
the Hessian fly has for its immediate object the destruction of the insect
while still within the wheat, and, before it has emerged as an adult. Where
86 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the conditions arc favorable, the burning over of the stubble will be
found effectual. To this end it is well to cut your wheat very high, so
as to leave as much straw as convenient, in order to more readily burn
over the field, and also to be the more certain not to remove any of the
"flaxseed" with the wheat. The burning should be done soon after the
harvest and before any of the adults have emerged, or before weeds have
grown up in the field. Later, if volunteer wheat appears, it must be
plowed under, in order not to allow the development of any Hessian flies
from those that might have escaped burning.
If, for any reason, burning is not resorted to, then ,the stubble should
be plowed under as deep as possible, and the field then rolled, so as to
compact the earth and prevent the emergence of the flies that might
develop under the ground. 'Obviously this plowing under of the stubble
must be done before any of the Hessian flies have emerged. In many
cases it can be done soon after harvest, and the field then planted to an-
other crop, as corn, on which the Hessian fly does not feed. If the
weather continues very dry after harvest, the plowing under of the stubble
can be postponed, since the insects will not, as a rule, emerge, but will
remain dormant, and those that may emerge, will not find volunteer wheat
on which to rear another brood, and will perish without doing any harm.
If, however, the weather be wet during harvest, or should it later be-
come wet, the Hessian flies will emerge and the volunteer wheat will
appear, on which they will deposit tlieir eggs for another brood. Hence
it will, under these circumstances, be necessary to immediately plow un-
der and roll the field, preferably before the Hessian flies have had time
to emerge or the volunteer wheat to sprout.
While no sort of wheat is absolute proof against the attack of the
Hessian fly, it is a well known fact that those sorts or varieties that have
a strong hard stem and develop tillers freely, and these in turn freely de-
velop secondary roots, will resist the attack and injury from this pest
to a great extent. Such resistent varieties are the Clawson, Underbill,
Mediterranean, Red May and Red Cap.
THE WHEAT BULB-WORM. •
Meromyza americana. Fitch.
INTRODUCTION AND WORK.
This insect is a very common one in the State of Missouri, but
its work is usually ascribed to the Hessian fly. The effect of the work
of the wheat bulb-worm is indeed similar to that of the Hessian fly. The
WHEAT INSECTS.
wheat bulb-worm is a true fly belonging to the order Diptera, while the
Hessian 'fly belongs to the order Hymenoptera, and it is not to be won-
FIG. 13.— The Wheat Bulb-Worm, Heromgia americana. Fitch. Adult fly, en-
iarged. In upper figure; and natural alze resting on stem to the right; larva and
puparlum, enlarged, at lower right hand corner; and puparlum. natural size, within
a stem Just above. A parasite of the wheat bulb-worm is shown, enlarged, at the
lower left hand corner. The hair lines at the side of each flgure represent Its
natural slie. (After Lugger.)
88 MISSOURI AGRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
dered at that the agriculturist should ascribe all the injury to the work
of the well known Hessian fly. Frequently there are many wheat fields
more or less damaged by this bulb-worm when no Hessian flies appear to
be present. As a rule, the bulb-worm does not cause the extensive loss
that the Hessian fly does throughout the entire State. It is usually found
in more or less numbers in wheat fields associated with the Hessian fly,
but the great damage to wheat is usually done by either the one or the
other, and not by the united efforts of the two. That is to say, a wheat
field may be ruined by the Hessian fly in one locality, and in another
locality a wheat field may be ruined by the wheat bulb-worm. It is not
every year that these bulb-worms occur in sufficient quantities to cause
any serious complaint, since the agriculturist has learned to attach a cer-
tain amount of injury as a matter of course, and unless the damage ex-
ceeds his usual expectations, no complaint is received from that source.
While I have known of wheat fields being entirely ruined by this insect,
as a rule the five per cent injury is the more common.
The effect of the work of the wheat bulb-worm in the fall wheat
is almost identical with the effect of the work of the Hessian fly. The
wheat becomes yellowish, either in spots throughout the field, or in
badly infested fields the entire field may become bleached and yellow, and
it is impossible for one to simply look over a wheat field and determine
whether the injury is due to this insect or to the Hessian fly. If one
pulls up a clump of wheat at this time and examines it closely by remov-
ing the leaves and the sheath from about the base of the stem, if they
have sharp eyes they may be able to determine which insect is causing
the trouble. If the trouble be due to the presence of the wheat bulb-
worm, one will find, near the lower joint and between the sheath and
stem, minute, light, watery green colored, footless maggots, a little less
than a quarter of an inch in length, tapering from a compartively large
central portion down to a small point at each end; and by looking at
the head, especially with a magnifying glass, two minute black bodies
will be seen projecting forward and curving downward. See figure
12 where a larva is shown, enlarged, at the lower right hand comer. If
the injury be due to the Hessian fly, one may readily determine this
point by examining the head of the grub, since in this case no indication
of the two black bodies will be seen. Then again, by closely noticing the
way in which the grub works, one can usually determine what insect is
with him. The Hessian fly grub will always be found between the sheath
and the stem, and frequently in a little hollow place within the stem, that
has not been excavated by the insect itself, but is due to the way in
which the stem has grown about the insect. While in the case of the
grubs of the wheat bulb-worm, the stem will be seen to have been gnawed
WttltAT INSECTS. 89
and lacerated, and the grub will be found within this lacerated and
gnawed channel.
When the injury is noticed about the time the* wheat is ready to
ripen, one can quite readily determine whether the injury be due to the
Hessian fly or the wheat bulb-worm by the fact that in this case the
wheat bulb- worm will be found just above the upper joint, while the
Hessian fly work is still confined to the lower part of the plant. By tak-
ing hold of the head of wheat and pulling slightly, it will be readily re-
moved from the sheath, and the lower end will look lacerated and torn,
and by pulling the sheath down, one will find just above the joint the
grub of the wheat bulb- worm that has caused this injury.
To be sure, the direct eflfect upon the plant is practically identical,
whether the cause be the Hessian fly or the wheat bulb-worm. The
Hessian fly relies upon its presence between the sheath and the stem to
irritate the plant sufficiently to cause the sap to exude at that point,
while the grub feeds upon the sap. There is no laceration or eating of
the tissues. The grub of the wheat bulb-worm, on the contrary, lace-
rates and tears the tissues of the stem, and thereby causes the sap to
flow and thereby enable it to feed. There is very little doubt but that
the grub feeds upon the sap, the lacerating and tearing of the tissues
being simply a means to cause the sap to exude in sufficient quantities
at that point. But in either case, the plant suffers in the same way, due
to the checking of the flow of sap above the point of attack, and causing
it to wither and die above. If the injury be in the fall wheat, it makes
its appearance by causing the wheat to bleach and turn yellow, and ulti-
mately die; while if the injury be near the ripening period of the wheat,
the lower portion may look perfectly healthy, while the heads will be
seen to prematurely ripen and die. This is due to the fact that the insect
now works just above the upper joint, and has prevented the proper flow
of sap to the head, and has caused it to prematurely ripen. If such
heads of wheat be examined, it will be found that they will, in many
cases, contain no kernels whatever; and in those that do, the kernels
will not be matured, but will be very small and shriveled, and unfit for
either food or germinating purposes. A stalk of wheat attacked in this
way by the second brood is absolutely ruined, while the wheat that may
be attacked in the fall is not necessarily ruined, because the plant will
send out tillers and frequently make a good crop from them.
The wheat bulb-worm infests rye and oats as well as wheat, and
there are good reasons for believing that the insect will work in timothy
and blue grass, although we have no absolute proof of this as yet.
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
DESCRIPTION.
The adult wheat buib-worm is a very small fly, not quite two-fifths
of an inch in length. It is of a yellowish-white color, with a black spot
on the top of its head, and three black stripes along the back of the
thorax, which become interrupted at the separation between the thorax
and abdomen, and are then continued down the back of the adbomen
with more or less interruption. The eyes are bright green in color.
While this description is by no means complete, yet, I think, it will suf-
Meromyza aouricarta, greatly enlarged.
fice to describe the fly to the ordinary agriculturist, especially in con-
nection with the figure. One of the adult fiies, greatly enlarged, is
shown in figure 12, near the middle of the plate, the hair line at the right
showing the natural size of the fly. A much larger figure of the fly
is shown in figure 13.
The larva is a small footless maggot of a pale watery green color,
tapering anteriorally, and about one-fourth of an inch in length. The
head is provided with a pair of black, hook-like organs. A fairly good
idea of the general shape of the larva may be had by referring to figure
12, where one will be seen, enlarged at the lower left hand corner, with
a hair line at the side, showing the natural size of the insect.
FIG. 14.— Larva o( Wheat Bulb-Worm, greatly enlarged. (From Forbes.)
The pupa. The true pupa is enclosed within a dehcate skin, called
the puparium, which is really the last larval skin, and through this
WHEAT INSECTS. 91
delicate skin the wing pads and legs of the pupa may be s^en. A pupar-
ium is shown enlarged near lower right hand corner in figure 12, and
still more enlarged in figure 15. The color of the pupa is greenish, and
FIG. 15.— Puparium of Wheat Bulb-Worm, greatly enlarged. (From Forbes.)
is about one-fifth of an inch in length. A figure of a pupa, greatly
enlarged, is shown in figure 16. This puparium is quite readily distin-
guished from the well known "flaxseed" which is the puparium of the Hes-
sian fly.
FIG. 16.— Pupa of Wheat Bulb-Worm, greatly enlarged. (From Forbes.)
LIFE HISTORY.
The fly which is the adult of the wheat bulb-worm lives through the
summer, and in the fall, when the wheat or rye is up far enough, she
deposits her eggs there by pushing her abdomen down between the leaf
and the stalk near the base and inserting a little Ggg, As a rule but
one egg is deposited in a stem. This is usually done about the latter
part of September. After busying herself depositing her eggs in this
way the adult perishes. These eggs hatch in from ten days to two weeks,
and the little grub immediately crawls down the sheath, and begins
to lacerate the tissues, causing the sap to flow, upon which it feeds. It
gradually increases in size and lacerates more tissue, until finally the
stem is almost entirely destroyed just above the joint. This naturally
kills the plant above, and it, therefore, turns yellow and bleaches out,
giving the well known appearance to an infested field.
By the approach of cold weather, the grub has become nearly full
grown, and it now remains in this place and hibernates in the grub §tage
during the winter. In the spring the grub again begins to work aiid do addi-
tional damage, killing those stems of wheat that did not happen to die dur-
ing the fall. About the middle of April the grubs begin to transform to
pupae, and by the forepart of May practically all of them have entered the
pupa stage. This pupa stage lasts about two weeks, and then the adults ap-
pear"; hence we may look for the adults to emerge about the first of
May, and they will continue to appear for upwards of two or three weeks,
so that we may expect the adults to emerge throughout the entire month
of May. They at once pair, and the females begin right away to deposit
their eggs. They do so by alighting upon a stem of wheat, walking up
92
^IlSSOtJRI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
and down, and finally inserting their abdomen between the sheath and
the stem above the upper joint, and there depositing a single egg. They
then fly to another stem and do likewise, keeping this up until they have
deposited all their eggs.
It will be noted, then, that this brood of adults in depositing
their eggs, do so in an entirely different place than do the adults
that deposit their eggs in the wheat during the fall. The adults
in the fall deposit their eggs between the sheath and the stem at the
base of the plant, while these spring adults deposit their eggs between
the sheath and the stem just above the upper joint of the plant. This
FIG. 17.— A Parasite, Caelinius mcromyzac, on the Wheat Bulb-Worm, greatly
enlarged. (Prom Forbes.) .
depositing of the eggs usually takes place in Missouri during May. The
eggs hatch in about ten days, and the larvae or young grubs feed on the
young pedicles of the heads just above the upper joint, where they lace-
rate and tear them, causing the sap to flow at this point, and thus pre-
venting the heads from filling out their seed, or entirely preventing their
development, depending upon the time of attack. In all cases they ab-
solutely ruin that head for any purpose whatever. About the first of
WHEAT INSECTS. 93
July these larvae change to pupae, and the adults soon emerge and then
usually wait until fall for the fall wheat to come up in which to deposit
their eggs. In some instances, however, they have been known to de-
posit eggs for another brood in volunteer grain.
From what has been said, it is evident that the great damage resulting
from an attack by this insect is due to the spring brood, because here every
stem of wheat that is infested is ruined ; while in the fall, a stem of wheat
infested with this insect, although itself ruined, is not such a great loss to
the agriculturist, because that plant will send up tillers, which will neces-
sarily be free, and these tillers will make a crop of wheat, provided they
do not become infested the next spring. Many fields of wheat and rye
are injured more or less by the spring brood, and yet the attention of
the agriculturist is not called to it, because the wheat appears all right,
except that it apparently prematurely ripens. If these prematurely rip-
ening heads are gathered and examined, they will be found to contain
either no kernels at all, or else minute shriveled kernels, that are abso-
lutely worthless. It is not an uncommon occurrence for wheat fields
to be frequently reduced from five to ten per cent as a result of the
presence of these insects. Where the fields are reduced to twenty-
five or thirty per cent the agriculturist usually complains. Cases
have been known where the entire crop has been ruined.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
Like most other insects, this one is attacked and more or less held
within bounds of reasonable numbers by a small hymenopterous para-
sitic insect. This little creature is illustrated in figure 12, greatly en-
larged at the lower left hand corner, a hair line at the side, however,
representing the natural size. It is also shown still more enlarged in
figure 17. This friend of ours stings the grub of the wheat bulb-worm,
lays an egg within its body, and the larva h^itching from this egg, feeds
upon the tissues of its host and kills it.
REMEDIES.
Fortunately for the agriculturist, the wheat bulb-worm can be com-
batted and its ravages greatly lessened, if not entirely done away with,
by the same methods as we employ in combatting the Hessian fly. The
adult flies, as we have just seen, are about during the summer waiting for •
the wheat and rye to come up in the fields, and are ready to lay their
eggs just as soon as these plants reach the proper stage to enable
them to do so. They finish laying their eggs and disappear, or at least
are perfectly harmless, quite early in the season, as a rule by the first
of October, provided some wheat or rye is in a suitable condition for
94 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
them by that time; hence,' if the wheat is sown in the fall just as late
as can possibly be done, such a field will almost invariably escape an
attack from these insects. It is not necessary for the farmer to pay any
attention to the climatic conditions prevailing during the summer or
during the fall to help him as a guide in the proper time to sow, because
this insect does not depend upon these climatic conditions, that I have
described in regard to the Hessian fly in order to enable the insect to
transform to the adult stage ; but on the contrary, this adult of the wheat
bulb-worm is about and ready to lay its eggs regardless of such climatic
conditions, it having hatched out early in the summer. It is advisable,
especially in the case of this wheat bulb-worm, to sow early a row or
strip of wheat around the field, so that this will be sufficiently above
the ground to attract the attention of the flies, and enable the adults to lay
their eggs before the main mass of wheat is up. In such a case, one
forces these insects to deposit their eggs in this early strip of wheat,
while the main wheat will escape. This trap strip of wheat can then
be plowed under deeply and rolled, and the insects thereby buried, and
the strip can then be resown to wheat. By following these two methods,
one can escape the ravages of this insect even more certain than is the
case with the Hessian fly. A frequent rotation of crops or the aband-
oning of wheat or rye for a year or two in the region badly infested with
these insects, will also tend to practically do away with their injurious
numbers for a year or two.
THE WHEAT STRAW-WORM.
Isosoma triticL
The wheat straw-worm does not occur in such great numbers nor
do such extensive injury to the wheat crop of Missouri as the other in-
sects that we have just discussed. It is perfectly capable, however, of
doing fully as much damage, but is held in check by our ordinary meth-
ods of farming, which interfere with the habits of the insect. This is
one of the very few insects attacking wheat, where the general farmer
can hope to do considerable good by combatting the insect on his own
farm, regardless of whether his neighbors take any means looking to the
suppression of the insect or not. The reason for this is that the bulk
of these adult insects have no wings and, therefore, cannot fly, and their
method of transportation is thereby so retarded and restricted, that they
are not readily disseminated from one man's field to his neighbor's.
WHEAT INSECTS.
95
The adult wheat straw-worm is a very small hymenopterous insect,
measuring scarcely one-tenth of an inch in length, and of a glossy black
color. Not more than one in twenty of them have wings at all. The other
nineteen out of the twenty being wingless, and looking very much like
extremely minute ants or wasps without wings. By referring to figure
1 8, /, you will observe an enlarged illustration of one of these adults,
with a little hair line down at the lower right hand part of the figure in-
dicating the natural length of the insect. At the right g, and h, show
the wings that are occasionally found upon the adults. These adults
appear during the latter part of March, hatching out from the straw in
straw-stacks and the stubble remaining in the old wheat field. They de-
posit their eggs in the wheat during the latter part of April and the
forepart of May. The larvae hatching from these eggs feed inside ot
the stem of the wheat, sometimes being found inside of the lumen, anil
at other times within the walls of the stem. They are usually found
FIG. 18. —Wheat Straw- Worm, Isosoma tritici: o, larva, ventral view; 5, larva,
lateral view; f, adult, female, greatly enlarged; (7, fc, front and hind wings of ex-
ceptional individuals; i, aborted wing of normal Individuals. All figures greatly
enlarged, the hair lines indicating their natural size. (From Forbes.)
just above the third joint, although some may occur below this, and
others near the top of the stem. The larvae when full grown are small,
pale, yellow grubs, scarcely one-fifth of an inch in length. A good idea
of the general shape and make up of these larvae can be had by referring
to figure 1 8, a, and 6. The -larvae feed in the stems of wheat, causing
it to be checked in its growth, but not killing the stem as is the case
with the other insects just described. Usually but a single larva is
found within the stem. These larvae continue to feed upon the plant,
causing the wheat to become stunted and the heads to become smallei,
and to not contain as much wheat as they otherwise would were these
insects not below sapping the life out of the plant.
When the wheat is cut, the bulk of these larvae will be left in the stub-
96 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ble, especially if the wheat be cut rather high. Those that happen to be
above that part will be carried with the straw and ultimately reach the
straw stack, or be scattered through the barn yard when the straw is used
for bedding. Towards fall, usually along in the latter half of October, the
larvae transform to pupae within the stems of straw, whether they be in the
field as stubble or in the straw stack. The pupae pass the winter in these
situations, and transform to adults along in the latter part of March the fol-
lowing spring. It will thus be seen that these insects are single brooded.
This fact is of great advantage to the wheat grower, and of a decided
disadvantage to the insect. So, likewise, is the fact that the bulk of the
adults have no wings. On account of these two peculiarities in the Hfo
history of this insect, is due the fact that the creature does not, as a
FIG. 19.— Pupa of Wheat Straw- Worm, IsiMoma Iritiei, greaUy enlarged. (From
Porbea.)
rule, become such a decided foe as it otherwise would. Where fields
are sown to wheat from year to year without any rotation of crops,
these insects have been known to cause considerable injury by prevent-
ing the development of the proper amount of wheat in the heads.
It is a very simple matter, however, to elude this insect. The simple
rotation of crops will lessen the number of these insects to a surprising ex-
tent. This is due to the inability of the insect to readily migrate from the
old field to a new one. Where the'insects are numerous enough to warrant
it, one should mow the stubble field, and leave the grass and weeds long
enough to thoroughly dry out, and then set fire to such a field, and allow
it to bum over. This method will bum the insects that are in the stubble
FIG. 20.— A Parasite, Eupelmui oiij/nf, ot the Wheat Btraw-Worm. (Prom
Forbea.)
and it may also, in some cases, be advisable to bum the remains of the
straw stacks early in the spring, about the latter part of February, and
thereby prevent the adults that may hatch out from such places from
escaping. In case an p,14 wheat field that is infested with these insects
WHEAT INSECTS. 97
has not been burned and adjoins a new field of wheat, the insects may
migrate to and attack the first few rows of wheat in the new field, but will
rarely spread any distance.
While destroying the stubble and the straw containing these in-
sects, and the frequent rotation of crops in the wheat field, will
practically control these insects, nevertheless, it may be of interest
to know that certain parasitic insects also infest these wheat straw-
worms, and do a good deal of good in keeping them within bounds
of reasonable numbers. Frequently these parasitic insects have well
developed wings in the adult condition and can readily fly from place
to place; and as they hatch out early in the fall or during late summet,
it is well that these facts be known, and that, therefore, the agriculturist
cut and burn the stubble as late as he can well do, so as to allow what
parasites there may be in the field to mature and to escape, and leave
only the wheat straw-worms to be destroyed and burned.
THE ARMY-WORM.
Leucania tmiptmcta, Haworth.
INTRODUCTION.
The army-worm belongs to the great family of moths known as
Noctuidae. There are a great many insects belonging to this family
and closely related to the army-worm, which under certain conditions
may, in the larva stage, leave the field in which they are feeding and
march in a body, and hence it has. come about that several distinct spe-
cies of insects are popularly spoken of as army-worms, when these
marches occur. But there is one insect that is known as the true army-
worm, and it is this insect alone that we will describe in this article.
Let it be distinctly understood that the marching of the larvae of even
the true army-worm in numerous masses as they sometimes do, is, like
the marching of the closely allied species, an entirely abnormal stato
of affairs.
The true army- worm is found in various places over the world, but,
with the exception of Australia where the insects cause some damage,
that part of the United States and Canada east of the central portion of
Kansas and north of Tennessee, seems to be the region in which these
insects occur in great numbers and cause such a vast amount of damage.
Practically every year the army-worm causes several hundred thousand
98 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
dollars damage in some portion of this region of the United States and
Canada, and occasionally more or less throughout the entire region in
the same year.
While we cannot say that the army-worm is on a whole so destruc-
tive as the Hessian fly or the chinch bug, yet within certain restricted
orn plant; nearly r
WHEAT INSECTS. 99
areas it does, in certain years, cause more damage. The western part
of the little State of Massachusetts lost upwards of five hundred thou-
sand dollars by the ravages of one brood of this insect in a single sea-
son. About eight hundred thousand dollars worth of oats alone went
down the throats of these army-worms in one season in the states of
Indiana and Illinois. Just what the damage in any one year in the
State of Missouri due to the ravages of the army-worm has been, I am
unable to say, but certain it is' that many thousands of dollars are lost
nearly every year in some portion of Missouri as a result of the ravages
of this insect.
Fortunately the army-worm does not occur in sufficient quantities
to attract the attention of the agriculturist every year. Nevertheless, let
it be understood that the army-worm is with us in our fields and meadows
every year, but only in certain years do these insects multiply in such
vast numbers as to destroy the food plants in their locality and cause
them to march in armies in search of fresh food. When these marches
occur, the agriculturist has his attention called to it at once, and then
wonders where these army-worms came from and what becomes of them.
As a matter of fact, very few agriculturists know the adult insect that
lays the eggs from which these army-worms hatch, and very few know
anything about the life history of these little fellows. It is important,
therefore, in order to intelligently understand the control of these insects,
that he should at least know briefly the general outline of the life history
and habits of these worms.
THE INSECT DESCRIBED.
The adult of the army-worm is a small, brown or fawn colored
moth, somewhat speckled with black scales, and with a distinct white
spot near the center of the front wing; the hind wings are of a lighter
dusky color with the outer margin and the veins darker or blackish. The
expanded wings of these moths measure about an inch and a half to
an inch and three-quarters. By referring to figure 22, b, one can obtain
a good idea of the general size, shape and markings of these adults.
This figure is natural size, and the one shown at a is also natural size,
but has the wings folded showing the insect at rest. In c the insect is
shown twice its natural size.
The eggs are small, round and whitish or tery light yellow in color,
and are deposited in rows in grasses and other places, and smeared over
with a glutinous excretion from the insect. The larvae or worms, or cater-
pillars as many people call them, are, when full grown, about an inch
and a half in length, of a dark greenish color, with three stripes along
each side. The head is of a greenish brown color, mottlqd with black,
100
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
and this mottling is found more or less over the entire body. The stripes
along the body are greenish yellow with whitish margins. A good idea
of the general appearance of a larva can be had by referring to figure 24,
where the larva will be seen natural size, and to figure 23,' where the
larvae will be seen magnified twice their natural size. The pupa stage.
f ^
rest natural size
C, adult V
Itti wlnga
expanded i idult twiti. iidlurjl slzt ci
(. t, a.
(igga of army-wo
m moths
as they ar
e laid In grass lei\e9 much enlarsed
(From
SUngerlajia.)
WHEAT INSECTS. 101
which is passed under the ground, is not unHke the pupa of a number of
others insects, some of which you have probably removed from coccoons.
The pupa is dark brown in color and measures about seven-eights of an
inch in length. Two pupae are shown, natural size, at a, in figure 25, and
two enlarged in same figure.
THE UFE HISTORY AND HABITS.
The adult moths appear in the spring and seek those places in the?
fields and meadows where the vegetation grows the rankest, and deposit
their eggs in masses under the leaves of grass near the stem. The eggs
are placed as a rule in a row, and are then smeared over with a glutinous
substance that fastens the eggs together and to the leaf. The female,
after laying a bunch of eggs in one place, passes on to another suitable
place and deposits another bunch of eggs. Each female is capable of
laying upwards of seven hundred eggs, and herein lies one of the secrets
that influences the development of these army-worms at certain times.
The moths fly at night, and the depositing of the eggs by the female is
done principally in the forepart of the night. During the day time the
moths remain concealed in some sheltered or protected place.
The egg laying season for Missouri varies from the middle of April
in the southern portion of the State to the forepart of May in the north-
ern part of the State. A corresponding difference occurs as regards
the hatching and appearance of the various stages of these insects through-
out this State. In central Missouri the eggs begin to hatch about the
first of May, which is about one week after the eggs are deposited. The
young larvae or worms, as soon as they hatch, feed upon the leaves of
their food plant.
The plants that these insects will feed upon include especially the
members of the grass family. They are not very particular in their menu,
but, nevertheless, seem to prefer oats, corn, timothy, wheat, barley, rye,
Hungarian grass, millet, sorghum and flax. While they seem to prefer
these plants, they will eat onions, peas, beans and other garden crops.
The worms seem to shun the direct rays of the sun and seek shelt-
ered places. This is usually 'provided for them by the fact that the adult
moths seek those places containing the rankest growth of grasses and
other vegetation. The larvae feed especially on cloudy days and in the
evening and night, and when disturbed they have a tendency to drop to
the ground.
The grass or the wheat in which these larvae hatch may be very
badly infested without their presence being detected by the agriculturist.
When these worms are very numerous, they succeed in eating the plants
to such an extent that by the time they are half grown the proper amount
102 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
of food in that locality has become too scarce for them, and they then
take it into their little heads all at once to crawl in search of a fresh sup-
ply of food. In doing so these worms crawl in a mass, each one seem-
ingly to have taken it into his little head to perform this march at the
same time. This marching; of the worms in an army is brought about
purely and simply by the scarcity of food in the place they had thus far
been feeding. In these marches we find millions of worms massed to-
gether and all moving over the ground in the same direction, and it is
this habit that has given these insects the common name of the army-
worm. No one who has not seen an army of these worms traveling in
search of a fresh supply of food can form any conception of the vast
numbers, and of the destructive work that these insects are capable of
causing. At such times the insects seem to be uniisually hungry, and
will utterly destroy nearly every green vegetable substance in their line
of march, especially any members of the grass family, which of course
includes our com and wheat and other grains.
FIG. S3.— Light and dtirk varieties of Army-Worms, Leucania nnipuncta, twice
natural size. (From Slingerland.)
When these insects encounter a field of wheat or a corn field, they
devour practically every green leaf and cut off the heads of the wheat.
An ordinary marching army of these insects will completely destroy two
acres of wheat or early corn in one day. When they attack a certain
field, they usually march forward as fast as they are able to devour the
plants. It is usually the case that these army-worms develop in low
places about the meadows or wheat fields where the plants are more
thrifty, and should their number not be unusually great, they confine
.their feeding to this locality ; but where they occur in immense numbers.
WHEAT INSECTS. 103
as soon as they have obtained about half their larval growth, their appe-
tites become so ravenous, and they devour so much more than they did
previously, that the plants in this particular area are not sufficient to sup-
ply their food. It is in such cases, then, that the well known migralion
occurs. Whether the larvae have migrated or not, when they become
full grown they enter the ground a little ways blow the surface, and
wiggle their bodies back and forth in drder to pack the earth and make
a little cell, and then presently change to pupae. The larvae usually
require about twenty-five days in order to become full grown larvae, and
the pupa stage usually lasts about seventeen days. At the expiration of
this time, the adult moths emerge from the pupae. Hence in central
Missouri we find these larvae as a rule marching about the first of June.
At this time the wheat plant is in the milk stage, and should an army of
these worms encounter a wheat field at this time, the amount of damage
that they will do cannot be appreciated by anyone who has not actually
seen their work. Two acres of wheat will disappear down the throats
of an ordinary army of these worms each day.
Soon after the adults have emerged they pair and lay eggs for an-
other brood. These eggs are deposited in the same situations as were
those for the first brood. If conditions are favorable for the develop-
ment of the army-worms, this second brood of larvae coming from these
FIQ, 24.— Larva of Army-Worm, teuconio unipuncta, natural size. (From Smith.)
eggs will be several hundred times more numerous than were the larvae
of the first brood, and it frequently happens that this second brood is
the one that does the most damage by marching in armies, and attack-
ing the corn at this season of the year. The wheat plant in Missouri
usually escapes this second brood, but the com plant suffers severely.
By referring to figure 21 you will observe a number of larvae photo-
graphed in the act of stripping a corn plant. These insects are not quite
natural size.
104 MIS&OI'RI AHRlCULTURAr. REI-ORT,
In due course of time the larvae of this second brood enter the
ground in order to pupate, and the moths which hatch from this brood
appear during the forepart of August.
This second brood of moths again pair and lay their eggs for a
third brood of worms, which appear in the central portion of Missouri
usually about the middle of August. It is not often that the migrating
horde of the third brood of army-worms do very much damage here in
Missouri. During the latter part of September or the forepart of Oc-
tober the third brood of adults appear. These adults seek sheltered
places later in the fall, and there pass the winter hibernating as do the
adults of the chinch bugs. They seek as a rule the loose bark on trees,
secluded places under logs, and in piles of rubbish. We have no data
to show that in central Missouri, at least, the winter is never passed in
any other stage, I have never been able to determine that the pupae
ever fail to transform to adults in the fall if they are going to transform
at all, neither have I ever been able to find that the larvae have ever
failed to make pupae in time to allow the adults to emere. It is quite
different, however, with the states north of us, where there seems to be
good reason to believe that the winter is passed not only by the hibernat-
ing insects, but by the pupa, and occasionally by the larval stage. It
will thus be seen that the army-worm in Missouri has three distinct
broods each year.
The army-worm has its ups and downs, but fortunately for tht
agriculturist of any given region, it is more often downs than ups. Ii
is a well known fact that the appearance of army-worms in great de-
WHEAT INSECTS. 105
structive numbers never lias occurred in any given locality for two con-
secutive seasons. While the army-worm is with us in small numbers
every year and can be readily found by a person searching for tliem in
pastures and meadows and wheat fields, yet the insect is held within
bounds by a number of foes, some of which will be discussed later on.
It appears that it is only about once out of ten times that these natural
enemies fait to do their duty, but when they fail, the army-worms suc-
ceed in multiplying sufficiently to cause the larvae to take upon them-
selves the habit of marching in great masses, and practically devour
every green thing within their path.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
While the cutworms are greedily preyed upon by a number of di!
ferent birds, especially the robins and thrushes, and while poultry of all
kinds thrive on this luxuriant food, and also while certain parasitic fungi
and bacteria also kill numbers of the larvae and pupae, yet the great
FIG. 2S.— The Red-Tailed Tachlna t'ly. Winthtmia i-pustulala. a parasite on the
Army-Worm; o, the fly, natural size; b, same, much enlarged; e, army-worm on
which the fly has laid eggs, natural size; d, parasitized army-worms, enlarged.
(From SUngerland.)
war raged against these insects is particularly due to the presence of
certain parasitic ones. Some Ichneumon flies string the larvae and de-
posit their eggs within their bodies, and the resulting grubs feed upon
them and kill them. Certain parasitic flies especially do an immense
amount of good in holding these army-worms in check by depositing
their eggs upon them, and the grubs which hatch work their way within
and feed upon the tissues of the army-worms. Probably every agricul-
turist who has observed the army-worm marching in great numbers has
106 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
had his attention called to the presence of vast numbers of flies that buzz
around or about the marching army, and have caused him to wonder
why and what they were there for. One of these flies is shown in figure
26, natural size at a, and greeatly enlarged at b. A part of an army-
worm on which you will see the white eggs of these flies is shown in
figure 26, natural size at Cy and enlarged at d. They are to be found
in great numbers wherever the army-worms occur in quantities such as
is the case when on the march, and they may be seen darting down and
depositing an tgg upon the body of the doomed army-worm. The agri-
culturist then should be delighted to see these flies about the fields that
are seriously infested with army-worms, for it indicates to an almost cer-
tainty that the next brood of army-worms will be so reduced as to not
become especially troublesome.
REMEDIES.
Ordinarily for any particular given locality, it is not especially nec-
essary to take any means of fighting the army-worm each year, because
it does not ordinarily occur in that particular locality in sufficient quan-
tities to warrant such precedure ; and from this very fact is due no doubt
the want of a knowledge on the part of most of the agriculturists in re-
gard to the habits, life history and methods of controlling this insect;
while those insects that are injuriously abundant each year, the agricul-
turist soon learns to combat. Unfortunately the army-worms may be
very numerous in a meadow or in the low and rank growing places of
a wheat field and yet not attract any attention from the owner until the
larvae have become about half grown, when he will suddenly discover
that the plants in such places are being destroyed, and by that time the
worms have undoubtedly taken it into their little heads to seek fresh
feeding ground. If an agriculturist be fortunate enough to discover the
presence of vast numbers of army-worms in the meadows or fields, he
may resort to some means of destroying them there, and not allow them
to migrate or march to other places. It is possible to spray the badly in-
fested areas with strong arsenical poison, or kerosene mechanically mixed
with water as described under chinch bugs, and in that way practically
exterminate the colony, but, nevertheless, it is a rare thing that such a
discovery is made in time. The next best method is to plow a few
furrows around the badly infested area. These furrows should be as
deep as possible and should have their vertical sides away from the in-
fested area. Post holes should then be dug every six or eight feet along
these furrows. When these army-worms start to migrate, as they are
sure to do when they occur in quantities sufficient to attract the attention
of the agriculturist, they will not be able to readily get across these
WHEAT INSECTS. 107
furrows. They are rather clumsy worms, and once they find they can
not ascend the perpendicular walls they will walk along the furrows in
the hope of finding some escape, and will tumble into the holes where
they may be killed by sprinkling with kerosene or by burning them. I
have seen hundreds of bushels of army-worms captured in these holes.
This method absolutely prevents further damage by the army-worm,
and, as a rule, up to the time of marching the damage from army-worms
is not a great one ; hence it is a comparatively easy matter to confine the
army-worms by this method to a small area, and j)revent the destruction
of large crops. In case the arihy-worms are on the march or have es-
caped from the original badly infested area, or in case they are upon a
neighbor's premises and you have fear of their ultimately marching upon
your fields, then you should plow these furrows about the fields you wish
to protect, except that in this case the vertical side should be towards
the field to be protected. Holes should be dug along these furrows every
few feet and the same method of killing the worms resorted to as given
above. In case there be some doubt as to whether the worms are coming
to your field or not, the furrows may be readily plowed and the digging
of the holes left until you are satisfied the worms are approaching. This
furrow and post hole method has such an advantage over the coal tar,
the lines of fire, or the dragging of a log through the furrow, that it
seems to me unnecessary to discuss them.
THE FALL ARMY-WORM.
Laphygma frugiperda, S. and A.
INTRODUCTION.
While as a rule the true army-worm does not occur in devastating
numbers in the fall of the year, another insect, the fall army-worn does
frequently occur in immense numbers in the fall of the year, and, like
the true army-worm, when the proper food in the locality in which it
was born gives out and the insects occur in sufficient numbers, they
migrate in a mass and march in search of fresh fields. This has given
the name of army-worm to this particular insect, and since this migra-
tion in great armies occurs in the fall of the year, it has been called the
fall army-worm. The insect is, to be sure, closely related to the true
army-worm, but can readily be distinguished from it.
The moths differ from one another greatly, but are, as a rule, of a
light-gray color with the hind wings more or less whitish and semi-
108 MIBSniJRI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
transparent. The insect is a little smaller across its expanded wiifigs'
than the true army-worm, as a rule not greatly exceeding one inch. In
collecting a good many of the moths, one will notice that they vary
fiom the color just described, to those individuals that have a consid-
erable admixture of bluish white. The markings on the fore wings are
quite different from those of the true army-worm. A good idea of the
general appearance, size and variation of the fall army-worm may be
had by looking at figure 28.
The larvae or worms are also quite different and readily distin-
guished from the true army-worm. They are not quite as large when
they are full grown. The bands along the side are broader, and the
insect is spotted with small dark or black tubercles, on the end of
each of which a short black hair is found. The head has a V-shape
mark upon it, which is not found on the true army-worm. The worms
when full-grown are a little over an inch in length, with a brown head,.
the body striped with greenish-gray above, and a broad dark stripe
along the sides, below which is a band of dull yellow. Underneath;,
the insect is greenish-gray, and on the b;',ck are three lines of yellow,
A good illustration showing the general size and characters of this
larva will be found in figure 27.
The eggs are deposited by the parent moth more frequently on
the under side of leaves, on small twigs in trees, and on bushes in the
neighborhood of low meadows, as well as on the rank growing vegeta-
tion. There are also three broods of this insect each year in Missouri,
but unlike the true army-worm, the larvae of this insect rarely occur
in great numbers until the third or fall brood, by which time the in-
sects may become so extremely numerous within certain areas as to
destroy the plants upon which they are feeding, and thereby be forced
to migrate in a mass.
WHEAT INSECTS. 109
These insects, if they attract the attention of the agriculturalist,
usually do so in the fall wheat to which they march from nearby
meadows. If the green wheat or other grains or grasses be unhandy,
they will attack corn and devour not only the leaves but eat of the
stem, and frequently eat their way through and about the green ear of
.corn. In the gfreat majority of cases, however, these fall army-worms
enter the wheat fields in the fall and devour the young green wheat.
Agriculturalists frequently become very much alarmed by the presence
of vast numbers of these worms eating the wheat, but frequently they
do much less damage than the agriculturalist is as a rule disposed to
admit. The fact of the matter is, that these larvae may eat off very
thoroughly every vestige of wheat above the ground in the fall of the
year, and yet the wheat suffers very little, if any, from such an attack.
The wheat will come up in the spring as if nothing had happened, and
may even grow considerable in the fall after the worms have ceased to
work.
c^
FIG. 28.— The Fall Army- Worm, Laphygma, frugiperda; o, adult moth, natural
size; 6, c, wings showing variations, natural size. (.From Smith.)
Like the true army-worm, the larvae of the fall army-worm in
their various broods enter the ground in order to pupate. The winter
is passed in the pupa stage, rarely in the adult stage.
\yhile the true army-worm feeds upon almost all the members of
the grass family with an occasional change of diet, the fall army-worm
seems to be broader in its selection of food, and while the grasses in-
cluding, of course, the grains and corn, form its principal diet, yet the
insect has been known to attack the fall fields of turnips and ruin them,
and also various other succulent garden vegetables and plants, even
feeding upon the leaves of certain trees.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
Why it is that the first or the second brood of the true army-worm
is so great in numbers while the first or second brood of the fall army-
110 MISSOURI AGRICULTUPAL REPORT.
worm is so reduced in numberis as to attract no attention is something
which we cannot understand. One would expect that the birds and
predaceous and parasitic insects that succeed in preventing the early
development of the fall army-worm, would likewise check the early de-
velopment of the true army-worm at that season of the year. The facts
are, however, that the fall army-worm seems to increase in numbers
with each succeeding brood throughout the season, so that it is only
the fall brood that ever becomes unduly numerous. While on the other
hand, the true army-worm frequently becomes unduly numerous in
the spring and early summer broods, and then is held in check and pre-
vented irom being too numerous by its patural enemies. Some birds
that prey upon and devour so greedily the larvae of the true army-worm,
also feed just as readily upon the larvae of the fall army-worm.
The same may also be said of the parasitic insects that destroy
them. Like the true army-worm this fall army-worm does not occur
in damaging quantities every year, neither has it occurred in one locality
in damaging quantities in two consecutive seasons.
REMEDIES.
*
The fall army-worm may be prevented from spreading away from
the badly infested areas in our meadows or fields, or may be prevented
from entering our fields, by the same methods as were described under
the true army-worm. It is frequently an easy matter to successfully
kill vast hordes of these larvae when in the wheat field by the simple
process of rolling the field. This should be done when the field is hard
enough, and comparatively free from stones or rough places, so that
the insects will be crushed while the wheat will not be injured in any
particular way. Late plowing will destroy vast numbers of these in-
sects in their winter quarters, and the continual rotation of crops will
have a great deal to do towards checking their undue development.
It would also be a good plan to turn poultry of all kinds into the
infested fields and allow them to devour the worms. It sometimes
happens that in the marching of the fall as well as the true army-worm,
that they are detected trying to cross a road or lane, and in such cases
one can crush them in immense numbers by drawing a roller back and
forth over the area across which they are marching.
Where these larvae occur in gardens or fields containing late veg-
etables, they sometimes do considerable damage, and will also attack
the flower garden and devour sweet peas, pansies and other varieties.
Where garden vegetables are in the immediate vicinity of fields badly
infested with these worms, the garden plants may be protected either
by the plowing of furrows or by scattering rows of poisoned bran
WHEAT INSECTS. Ill
around the field. This will necessitate, however, the keeping of the
poultry out of such patches, otherwise the poultry will be killed. The
poisoned bran may be made by mixing a pound of Paris green or a half
pound of pure arsenic with a bushel of bran. This should be stirred
up thoroughly in a dry condition, and then made into a thick dough
by means of sweetened water.. This should then be scattered about
the plants, or along the sides of the garden nearest the worms.
THE WHEAT-HEAD ARMY-WORM.
Leucania albilinea, Guen.
The wheat-head army-worm differs from the other army-worms
in that the larvae have the peculiar habit of eating the heads of wheat,
rye and timothy, and occasionally other grasses. The larvae are some-
what smaller than the ordinary cut-worm and are brighter in color, lon-
gitudinally striped with yellow, and with light and dark-brown bands.
A general idea of the appearance of these larvae and of their size may
be had by referring to figure 29, a, a, which shows two worms in the act
of feeding upon a head of wheat.
When the larvae are full grown they display many variations, but
the best marked specimens may be described as follows : Along the
back is a broad, dark-brown line, along the middle of which is a fine
white, more or less obsolete band, and beneath on the sides is one of
about the same width with a yellowish tinge on the lower edge ; next
below this is a narrow dark-brown band in which the white spiracles are
situated ; just below this band is a yellow band, and then a less dis-
tinct, light-brown one; the under (ventral) surface is pale yellow, the
head is straw-colored and comparatively large, with two attentuated
brown marks from the tip to the lower part of the face.
The adults are also quite different; from the other army-worms,
and may be distinguished by the fact that they are about one and one-
half inches across their expanded wings, with the fore wings of a pale
yellow or straw-color, with a narrow, silver-gray margin and a dusky
stripe through the center of the wing, and a white streak just above it.
The hind wings are of a satiny-white color. These moths are quite
variable. A good idea of the general size and appearance of these
adult wheat-head army-worms can be had by observing figure 29, in
which one is represented, natural size.
The eggs differ from the eggs of the common army-worms in that
112 MISSOURI AGRICULTUFAL RliPORr,
they are shaped like flattened spheres, of a pale yellow or light-slate
color. They are deposited in rows of from ten to fifty, there frequently
being several rows in the cluster. The female moths place them be-
tween the sheath and the stalk, not covering them with an adhesive
fluid.
The adult moths are decidedly nocturnal in their habits, as is also
the case with the other army-worms. They appear during May, and
soon lay their eggs as just described between the sheath and the stem
PIG. 29.-The Wheat-Head Army-Worm, touenrriu albllinea, a. a. larvae, natural
size; 6, eggs under a. leaC sheath, natural size; e, d, eBSa. enlarged; adult inotb,
natural alEe. at the top. (From Smith,)
of wheat, rye and timothy, and probably other grasses. Thesi.- eggs
hatch in from three to five days, and the larvae feed usually during the
evening or early part of the night, rarely on bright sunny days. On
cloudy or rainy days they will feed more or less during the day time,
but keep themselves more or less concealed during the bright days.
They rarely attract the attention of the agriculturalist during this time.
WHEAT INSECTS. 113
These larvae continue to feed upon the leaves of the wheat, rye
and timothy, and perhaps other grasses, attracting no attention and
doing no particular amount of damage, until they have become about
one-half to two-thirds grown, when the larvjie assume the peculiar
habit of abandoning the leaves as food, and feeding from this time on
upon the heads of grasses, wheat or rye, and eating not only the young
and developing seed or kernels, but also devouring more or less of the
seed coverings. At this season the wheat has reached the milk stage.
If the larvae are already in the wheat field, the adults havinsr de-
posited their eggs upon the wheat, they remain there. But if the larvae
happen to be in nearby meadows, where the adults have deposited their
Gg^&s, then they are very apt at this stage to migrate more or less all at
the same time, and crawl to the nearby wheat, where they now attack
the heads only. From this time on until the larvae are full-grown,
they continue to feed upon the heads of the wheat or the grass, as the
case may be, and do a vast amount of mischief. The larvae simply
crawl up the plant to the heads and feed upon them.
It is at this time that the wheat grower's attention is called to
>
them and to the great amount of mischief that a single larva is capa-
ble of doing in a comparatively short '.ime. They appear to be quite
wasteful when feeding upon the heads, and in passing through an in-
fested field one will find the ground in the worst infested places liter-
ally covered with the chaff the insects have caused to drop. Some
agriculturalists use the expression "that the ground appears covered
with chaflf as though they had been threshing there." The amount of
damage that these insects do to the wheat and rye crop varies consid-
erably in the different localities from year to year according to the
number of worms that season. In some instances they have been
known to destroy ninety per cent, of the crop of wheat in a given field,
but of course this is exceptional. As a rule they are not found in suf-
ficient quantities to cause such a great loss, but it is no uncommon thing
for them to cause twenty-five per cent, of the wheat to be ruined.
From the time the larvae hatch from the eggs, until they reach
the full grown larval stage, requires about three weeks at this season
of the-year. When they have become full grown, they work their way
into the ground for about an inch in depth, and there wiggling their
bodies and packing the earth so as to make a little cell, they change to
the pupa stage. The pupa stage lasts about two weeks, and then they
transform to the adult moths.
The moths of this brood usually appear about the latter part of
July. They soon pair and lay eggs for a second brood of worms. The
A-8
114 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ft
larvae appear during the month of August, and are confined at this
time almost entirely to timothy meadows. This larval stage lasts
about four v^eeks, when they then enter the ground near the base of
the plants upon which tbey have been feeding, and there just below the
surface change to the pupa stage about the first of September.
These pupae remain in the ground throughout the winter and
transform to adults the next spring during May.
It will thus be seen that there are two broods of these insects each
year, and that it is the larvae of the first brood that cause the damage
to the wheat and rye crops in this State. The larvae of the second
brood feed almost entirely upon timothy and perhaps some other
grasses. It will also be seen that it is the larvae that have at least at-
tained one-half their growth that cause trouble, since it is only when
they are at least half grown that they abandon the habit of feeding
upon the leaves and take to the destruction of the head with its content
of seed.
These insects are preyed upon in the larval condition by a number
of birds, also by some parasitic insects, the most important of these
being the fly which deposits her eggs upon the body of the larvae, the
resulting grubs feeding upon the tissue within and destroying it ; and
also two species of parasitic Hymenopterous insects known as Ichneu-
men flies, both of which sting the larvae and deposit eggs within, the
resulting grubs from which feed upon and destroy the tissues and
thereby kill the wheat-head army-worm.
Unfortunately, the agriculturalist will have to depend very large-
ly upon these parasitic insects and the few birds that will devour them
to hold this wheat-head army-worm in check. Very little can be done
by the wheat grower in the way of successfully combatting this insect.
About all that is worth considering is the frequent rotation of the crop,
and late plowing of the previously infested field, with a view to the kill-
ing of the pupae that are in the ground.
When one discovers the presence of injurious numbers of these
insects in a wheat or rye field, and this will not occur until the wheat
is in the milk stage, if the grain is far enough advanced to warrant it,
it would be advisable to cut this and thresh it, even though this may
be earlier than would otherwise be advisable. If this is not done and
the worms are in goodly numbers, they may ruin practically all of the
grain before it has reached its proper maturity.
WHEAT INSECTS. 115
THE DINGY CUTWORM.
Feltia subgothica, Haworth.
We have in Missouri a great many species of cutworms, and while
at certain times numbers of these different species may infest the wheat
as well as other farm and garden crops, nevertheless, two species are
usually the ones found doing the most damage to wheat. Of these the
dingy cutworm is the most important.
Like all cutworm moths the adults of the dingy cutworm are un-
attractive and inconspicuously colored. They are about an inch and a
quarter across their expanded wings, and the general color of the fore
wings is a smoky-gray. By referring to figure 30, one can obtain a
good idea of the size and appearance of these adult cutworm moths.
Like most of the other members of this family, the moths are noctur-
nal in their habits, and during the day remain concealed in sheltered
places upon the bark and twigs of trees, bushes and fences, etc., and
fly about after sundown in search of sweets, and for the ourpose of
mating and laying their eggs. They are readily attracted to light and
will for that reason frequently come into our open windows in the
evening.
The moths appear during August and the forepart of September,
and begin to lay their eggs during the latter part of August or the
forepart of September, not long after they have emerged. The eggs
are deposited in clusters upon the stems and leaves of various trees
and bushes, in the neighborhood of which there is plenty of food in
the form of various weeds and grasses, also upon the stems and the
leaves of shrubs and weeds, and sometimes upon stones.
These eggs hatch in about ten days, and the young larvae soon
crawl to the nearby plants upon which they feed in case they are not
born upon suitable plants, and some of them may feed for a very short
time upon the leaves of trees and bushes upon which they are born,
but very soon crawl down or drop down to the ground and seek vari-
ous weeds and grasses, feeding there upon their leaves. These larvae
are not at all particular about what kinds of plants they feed upon,
but will be found feeding upon almost any green succulent plants,
whether they be various weeds or grasses, or other uncultivated or
cultivated plants. They are usually unnoticed by the agriculturist at
this time, and when the cold weather approaches, they seek some shel-
tered place in which to hibernate, doing so under stones, under a quan-
tity of leaves or, as a rule, enter the ground a little ways at the base of
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL HEFORT.
the plants upon which they have been feeding, and there hibernate
through the winter as partially grown larvae.
PIQ. 30,— The Dlnsy Cutworm, Fellia subgothica: m, and t, male and female
moths, natural size; nun, and f/, male and female moths, twice natural size; larvae.
Bide and back views, twice natm'al size, at lower part of plate. (From Sllngerland.)
In the spring when settled weather appears, these larvae come
out from their winter quarters, and during the night crawl about in
search of some green vegetable substance upon which they may feed.
They are now even less particular in their choice of food plants than
they were when younger, and will attack not only all the various green
plants and other field crops including corn, but will attack various
grasses, weeds and other uncultivated plants, and will get into the gar-
WHEAT INSECTS. 117
den vegetables and feed upon sweet potatoes, strawberries and the
like.
During the daytime they hide under rubbish of all kinds or under
stones, or bury themselves a little ways in the ground, sometimes try-
ing to carry part of the way with them pieces of the plants upon which
they have been feeding, evidently with the intention of feeding there
out of sight during the daytime. In the evening they come forth again
and feed in their characteristic manner, doing more or less mischief ac-
cording to the plant upon which they are feeding and according to the
numbers in' which they appear.
At this season of the year these insects have a peculiar habit of
eating through and cutting down, just above the surface of the ground,
the various small and succulent plants, like wheat and corn. They
thus feed and gorge themselves, rarely remaining at the sarne plant
until they have partaken of sufficient food, but pass on to other plants
and cut them down in like manner. At this stage of the larva, which
is now nearly full grown, the creature appears as a fat, smooth larva,
of about an inch and a quarter to an inch and st half in length, with a
wide gray stripe down the back, and a dusky or dingy-gray along the.
sides. The head is dark-brown in color, and there is also a dark-brown
area on the back of the tail-end of the worm. The spiracles or breath-
ing pores are black. A good idea of the appearance of these larvae
may be had by observing the two enlarged ones in figure 30.
The amount .of food that these larvae now consume during: the
night is amazing. They gorge themselves until they appear ready to
burst, and the damage they do when in sufficient numbers in a wheat
field is considerable, because of the fact that they cut down so much
more wheat than they eat. This same rule applies to their habits in a
corn field or in the vegetable garden.
During June these larvae enter the ground about two inches and
soon change to mahogany-colored pupae. They now remain here in
the pupa stage for a long time in comparison with the summer pupa stage
of most insects, for they do not change to adults until during August
and the forepart of September. It will thus be seen that with this dingy
cutworm there is but one generation each year, and that the damage
the insect does occurs in the late spring and early summer, from the
time the larvae come out from their winter hibernating quarters until
the time they enter the ground to pupate.
Since the parasitic and predaceous enemies of this insect and the
methods to be used for controlling it are similar to those for most other
cutworms, we will defer the discussion of these points until we have
discussed one other cutworm. (See under variegated cutworm.)
ACRin-l.TURAr. I
THE VARIEGATED CUTWORM.
Peridroma saucia, Hiibner.
This variegated cutworm is equally as common as the dingy cut-
worm in the State of Missouri. Sometimes one and sometimes the
other appears to be the most numerous in the wheat fields whenever
they occur in sufficient quantities to attract attention.
The adult moth of the variegated cutworm is somewhat larger
than the preceding species, it being about one and three-quarters of an
inch across its expanded wings. It is likewise an inconspicuously
colored moth, tlic front wings being of a dull grayish-brown, tinged
with reddish, and with a darker margin. The hind wings are of a
pearly-white color, with the margins tinged with light-brown, as are
also the principal veins. A better idea of these adult moths can be had
!idult moth, natural
ion; (I, dark colored larva,
natural size. (EYom
by observing figures 31, a, and 32, c and d — a and c ,are natural size.
This color, however, varies considerably with the diflfercnt individuals,
the species being quite variable in the adult condition as well as in the
larval stage.
These moths are likewise nocturnal in thetr habits, seeking shel-
tered places such as the bark of trees and about rail fences, where they
WHEAT IN SFXTS. 119
remain during the day and, like the preceding species, are rarely no-
ticed by the ordinary observer unless they should happen to take flight,
which, by the way, they do not readily do at this time. Their color
so closely resembles that of the object on which they are resting, that
they escape not only the notice of persons, but, undoubtedly, are more
or less protected thereby from the attack of predaceous animals like
birds that may perhaps feed upon them.
Most entomologists writing on this insect seem to think that it has
two and perhaps three broods each year, but my observations in this
State lead me to believe that the insect is only single brooded, in Mis-
souri at least. I have never been able to find good reasons for believ-
ing otherwise.
The adult moths are to be found throughout the greater part of
the spring, summer and fall, but these are no doubt from the same
brood, the moths themselves living for a long time. So far as my ob-
servations go, it appears that these insects hibernate as adults during
the winter, and come forth early in the spring as soon as warm weather
appears, and lay eggs upon the stems and twigs of various trees and
shrubs, frequently in orchards, especially where these orchards have
become more or less grown up with weeds and grasses, and also lay-
ing eggs upon leaves and stems of weeds.
The eggs are found in large masses. Each egg is semi-spherical
in shape and beautifully ribbed and marked as can be seen by referring
■to figure 31, e, and 32, a, which represents these eggs greatly magni-
fied. In 31, f, and 32, b, we have a cluster of these egg^ upon a twig,
shown natural size. These eggs hatch in about fifteen days.
The young larvae appear during the latter half of March and
the first half of April. They feed at first upon the egg shells from
which they have been hatched, and then attack the leaves of the plant
upon which they have been born and feed there for a short time.
They then either crawl or drop down to the ground, leaving the trees
and shrubs, and then feed upon the leaves of the various grasses
and weeds near at hand. By May these larvae have become from half
to two-thirds grown, and they then assume the characteristic cut-
worm habit of cutting down various succulent plants. These in-
sects are likewise general feeders, and attack almost any green vegetable
substance found in the uncultivated fields in the form of grass or weeds,
or in our cultivated fields on corn, wheat, timothy, alfalfa and clover,
or in the garden upon almost any vegetable that may be growing
there, even relishing tobacco and onions, and attacking berries,
squashes, potatoes and the like. During the latter third of the de-
velopment of these larval cut worms, which usually occurs during the
120
MISSOURI AGRICULTtlBAI. BItPORT.
month of May, llicsc croaturi'S do an iuimense amount of damage to
garden crops, and also to corn and wheat.
When the larvae are full grown, they measure about an inch and
three- fourths in length. They are also fat looking worms, of a dark,
dull, brown color, sometimes with a greenish tinge, and are faintly
mottled with gray and dark along their backs; while along the ven-
tral surface they are much lighter in color. The head is of a reddish
ated Cutworm, Perldroma gnueia; a, an egg, greatly enlarged;
al size; c. adult motli. natural size; d. adult, twice natural
elr natural Blie. In upper right hand comiir of plate. (From
WttKAT INSECTS. 121
yellow color. These larvae differ considerably in their general ap-
pearance. The light form is shown natural size in figure 31, b,
and a darker form at d. Two larvae, twice natural size, are shown in
figure 32. When disturbed these worms curl up as is shown in figure
Occasionally where these, cutworms, and also the preceding cut-,
worms, occur in vast numbers over a comparatively small area, they may
tend to migrate more or less or at least scatter about in search of food.
Usually about the forepart of June these larvae become full grown and
then enter the ground, wiggling their bodies until they have packed
the earth away and formed a little cell, and then change to pupae.
This pupa stage lasts from two to three weeks. The adults emerge
during the latter part of June and the fore part of July.
The fact that these adults appear so early in the summer has un-
doubtedly led many writers to suppose that they now soon lay eggs
for a second brood, yet no one has been able to demonstrate the
presence of such a brood ; and there are reasons, which I will not take
the time to discuss, which lead me to believe that the so called second
brood does not occur, at least in Missouri, but that these moths now
live until cold weather approaches and then seek sheltered places
undej loose bark of trees, under logs and in protected rubbish, and
there hibernate during the winter, coming out early the next spring
in order to deposit their eggs. We have, however, some species of cut-
worms which are known to be double brooded.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
Both the dingy and the variegated cutworms are preyed upon,
sometimes greedily, by certain birds. Fowls of all kind devour them
readily, crows, blackbirds, robins and blue jays are known to feed
upon them; toads will also devour them; certain species of wasps like-
wise make use of them, and some ground beetles in both the adult and
larval stages likewise feed upon them ; but above all, the parasitic in-
sects are the great enemies of these cutworms. Especially is this the
case with at least two species of flies belonging to the sub-family
Tachininae and known as Tachinia flies.
These insects, one of which is illustrated in figure 26, persistently
lay their eggs upon the bodies of the cutworm larvae ; and the young
grubs hatching eat their way through the skin and feed upon the
tissues of the larvae, reducing them and weakening them to such an
extent, that should they even be able to make pupae, they will never be
able to transform to adults. One instance is recorded where cut-
worms appeared in such immense numbers that they were ruining a
122 MISSOtTRI AC.RICtTLTURAL REPORT.
clover field, and upon close observation, it was found that ninety per
cent of these worms were infested by these parasitic flies, and prob-
ably not more than one per cent of the larvae in that field ever reached
maturity on that account. There are several species of Ichneumon
flies that greatly devastate the ranks of these worms.
REMEDIES.
The means and methods to be taken, looking to the control of cut-
worms and the protection of various crops from their ravages are simi-
lar, regardless of whether we are dealing with the dingy cutworm or
the variegated cutworms. It is well known that the fields that have been
in meadows for two or more years, and are then plowed up and sown to
wheat, corn or other crops, are much more liable to be injured by cut
worms than are fields which have been cultivated for the past two
or three years, or even for the past year. Meadows and pastures are
very apt to become infested with cutworms in a year or two. While
these insects may not attract any special attention in such places, be-
cause of the fact that there exists a great many plants in proportion to
the number of worms, yet, when such fields are plowed up and a culti-
vated crop sown to take the place of the other, these cutworms, de-
prived of the great bulk of their food, and the number of plants exist-
ing in the field many times reduced, become thereby proportionately
greater in numbers. Hence it is that when these cutworms feed, their
injury becomes apparent; and in the case of corn this is still more true
than it is with wheat.
It is no uncommon occurance to have to plant corn two and three
times before one can get a stand, on account of the presence of cut-
worms ; and in the case of wheat fields, it is not uncommon for large
areas to be completely cut down by these creatures. It is not my in-
tention in this connection to enter into a discussion of the work or the
methods of fighting the cutworms in garden vegetables or such field
plants as tobacco, potatoes, etc., and hence the methods here suggested
are to be regarded as applying only to wheat, and incidentially to
corn.
It is advisable to plow the meadow in which wheat or corn is to be
planted just as early in the spring as possible, so that the cutworms
will be deprived of their natural food in the form of grasses and
weeds, and when they come out in search of suitable plants will be
forced to abandon the plowed fields and seek other places where a food
supply can be obtained. This applies likewise to the fall sowing of
wheat. If these intended wheat fields are plowed early, the larvae there
will be likewise forced to abandon those fields, so that by the time
• WHEAT INSECTS. 12B
the corn or wheat is up, the cutworms will not be found, at least in
sufficient quantities to cause any alarm. The practice, so general in
many localities, of plowing the wheat field and sowing it to corn, and
later of plowing a corn field and sowing it to wheat, is not especially
favorable to the destruction of cutworms, because of the fact that the
various weeds and grasses are growing in the field intermediate be-
tween the time the corn is unfit for their food until the sowing of
the wheat ; and as this comes up soon, the insects are not deprived for*
any great length of time from finding sufficient food to sustain them
in that particular locality, and hence they attack alternately the wheat
and the corn plant, as these two are usually rotated. However, these
alternate rotations of wheat and corn in the same field from year to
year are much better from the cutworm standpoint than allowing the
wheat or corn field to grow up to grass, clover or weeds for a year or
two, and to then plow it up in the hopes of raising wheat or corn free
from the attack of cutworms.
Perhaps the best direct method of fighting cutworms is the
following, which I have advised for a number of years, and which
has almost invariably given good results: The corn or wheat field
may have certain areas, well known to the owner, in which the cut-
worms are more abundant and destructive. In such cases, it will
not be necessary to apply this method throughout the entire field. In
other instances, the field may be so situated as to suffer more or
less along the sides bordering a meadow, especially a newly plowed
meadow, infested with these worms, which would then tend to leave the
newly plowed meadow and migrate to the wheat or the corn. In
such cases, it would be especially advisable to apply the following
method along that portion of the field which we wish to protect :
The method I have reference to is what is known as the poisoned
bran method,. A bushel of bran and one pound of pure Paris green,
or a half pound of pure powdered arsenic are to be stirred up
thoroughly together while dry, and then some sweetened water is to be
added in sufficient quantities to make a thick dough. If one needs to
use a large quantity, and can get glucose, it will be found to be much
cheaper than molasses or sugar for the purpose of sweetening this
water. It is well to use a fairly good quantity of this sweetened sub-
stance, because it will tend to hold the particles of bran together so
that in drying it will not fall apart and become lost, as it will if the
sweetened substance is not used. This poisoned bran is then to be
scattered along in rows, through or around the field to be protected,
or in which the cutworms are to be killed. In the case of corn, this
posisoned bran should be placed there before the corn comes up, and m
124 MISSOURI AGRICUI^TURAL REPORT.
the case of spring wheat, it should be placed there just as early as
warm weather appears, so as to kill tiie cutworms before they have
had time to injure the wheat. Cutworms will feed very readily upon
this poisoned bran and be killed, and in some instances they seem to
prefer this bran to the plants. Of course it is necessary to see that the
poultry and live stock are not allowed access to such fields while the
poisoned bran is there. In case one does not wish to or cannot readily
• use bran, a clover field or hay field may be sprinkled or sprayed with
Paris green in the proportion of one pound of Paris green to one hun-
dred gallons of water, and as soon as this has dried, the sprayed por-
tion should be mowed, and the clover or hay scattered in little clumps
about the field to be protected. From experience, however, I cannot
advise the use of these poisoned plants where it is possible to obtain
bran.
THE WHEAT WIREWORM.
Agriotes mancus, Say.
The well known wireworms are the larvae of beetles that are
known under the popular name of click beetles, snapping beetles or
snapping jacks. These beetles are well known to every country lad,
and more or less even by the town boys, because of the peculiar habit
these beetles have of bending their bodies when one is held in the
fingers and suddenly straightening out with a snapping sound, which
results in a considerable jerk, and also because of the fact that if
these beetles be placed on their backs on a hard. substance, they will
go through this same motion and therby be thrown suddenly into the
air for a considerable heighth, and perhaps alight upon their feet.
This habit enables these insects to regain their feet should thev fall
and light upon their backs, for otherwise they are not able to turn over.
There are in Missouri about one hundred species of these in-
sects, and while a great many of them are injurious in the larval stage,
we will confine our remarks to one species which has gained the
common name of the wheat wireworm. Do not understand, how-
ever, that this particular species is the only one that infests and injures
wheat. There are several species that have been known to attack
wheat, and especially is this the case with a somewhat smaller one,
known under the scientific name of Drasterius elegans, Faber, which
in many places is at times as injurious to wheat as the one we are to dis-
cuss. The adult of the Drasterius elegans is represented in figure 34^,
WHEAT INSECTS. 125
enlarged seven and one-half diameters. A larva enlarged seven dia-
meters is represented at figure 34j^. I do not think it necessary to enter
into the life history and discussion of the methods of work of both of
these near related beetles, because of the fact that their habits and life
history are so similar.
The adult wheat wireworm beetle is a small, dark, brown, ova!
shaped beetle, nearly one-third of an inch in length, with the body
densely covered with minute hairs, which, however, would not attract,
the attention of the ordinary observer unless he were to look at the
creature under a hand lens. The beetles are hard and quite slippery
when held in the fingers, and are very apt to wiggle away from one
when thus carelessly handled. A good idea of the general appearance
of these beetles can be had by observing figure 33, which represents
one magnified seven diameters. These beetles appear along in the
spring of the year, usually during April, at which time they may be
found hiding under clumps of grass growing in meadows and pastures,
and along the fences and byways, also under logs, stones and other
secluded places in the fields and along outskirts of forests; These
adults fly readily and also scramble over the ground with consider-
able rapidity.
They lay their eggs in cultivated and uncultivated grassy
meadows and other places. When these eggs hatch, the little larvae
burrow in the ground and feed there upon the roots of various grasses.
These larvae grow very slowly indeed, at least in comparison
126
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
with the larvae of some insects, still not as slowly as do some well
known insects, as for instance, the seventeen year locust. The larvae
remain burrowing through the soil and feeding thus upon the roots
of the grass until the approach of cold weather, when they hibernate
wherever they happen to be, usually, however, having previously en-
tered the ground to a somewhat greater depth for this purpose.
Next spring they become revived and feed again upon the roots
of the grass and allied plants, continuing thus to feed and gradually
growing during this second summer. At the approach of cold weather
again, they likewise hibernate under the ground near the plants upon
the roots of which they have been feeding. The next spring, at the
approach of warm weather, they again become active and feed as be-
fore until July. By this time the larvae have become full grown.
They are generally about three-fourths of an inch in length, of a pale,
waxy, yellowish brown color, cylindrical in shape, being practically of
the same diameter from end to end^ and tapering or rounding bluntly
at the two extremities. They are distinctly ringed, and are unusually
hard, so much so that when taken in the hand their bodies do not seem
'^\
'ii^miif'--**frf^ ««**s»^-' i^iJit^' «o*w«.W"v^t^-i;^i^-:j^'_
FIG. 34.— Larvae of the Wheat Wireworm, Agriotea manctts, enlarged five
diameters. (From Forbes.)
to give, and if stepped upon on an ordinary plowed field, will be
pushed into the soil instead of crushed. This hard character of the
body, together with the shape, has given to them the well known name
of wireworms. Their bodies are thinly clothed with a few hairs, which,
however, are not ordinarily observed by the agriculturist. An excel-
lent idea of the general shape and appearance of these wireworms will
be had by observing figure 34, which represents a dorsal and a lateral
view of one of these larvae mangified five diameters.
This particular species can be readily distinguished from the other
common wireworms by observing the last segment of the body, which
is smooth and conical in shape and has two dark colored pits upon its
dorsal surface, as can be seen by referring to the figure just described.
The wireworms have three pairs of small joined legs, one pair on each
WHEAT INSECTS. 121
of the three first segments following the head, but the rest of the
body is devoid of the fleshy prolegs, which are so commonly seen in
ordinary caterpillars with which the farmer is so familiar.
During July these full grown wireworms crawl a little deeper into
the soil, and there wiggle their bodies until they have packed the
earth away and thus made a little cell in which they change to pupae.
These pupae are entirely different in shape from the wireworms, and
more closely resemble the aduit beetle in shape. They are a little
longer, however, and their bodies are almost pure white in color.
While the wireworm larvae are so extremely tough, these pupae are
extremely and unusually delicate and tender— a character we may
take advantage of in controlling this insect in our cultivated fields.
In three or four weeks these -pupae change to adults. Thesi
new adults are of a light cream color, and are likewise extremely deli-
cate and tender. They remain in these earthen cells, and very
gradually attain the normal color of the insect, and also gradually
become hardened. These adults now remain in these earthen cells
during the rest of the summer and fall and throughout the winter,
and come forth the next spring, usually during April.
From what has been said, it will be seen that the larvae are three
128 MISSOURI AGRICULTUHAL REPOliT.
years in reaching their full grown larval stage, during which time they re-
main almost constantly beneath of the surface, readily burrowing
through it and feeding upon the roots of various grasses. The pupal
stage lasts but a comparatively short time, and the adults that come
from these pupae remain in a quiescent condition for an exceedingly
long time before they attempt to free themselves and assume an ac-
tive life. It will also be seen that while the larvae are unusually tough
and hard to destroy, as are likewise the adults that have appeared
above ground, yet the pupae and the young adults are unusually tender
and very susceptible to any disturbance of their subterranean cells. It
might be well to mention in this connection, however, that not all wire-
worms require three years in order to reach the full grown larval
condition, and that we have reasons for believing, on the contrary,
that others required even as much as five years in order to complete
their full larval life.
Meadows and pastures and other grass lands may be very badly
infested with wireworms and yet show no particular indications of their
FIG. SS.—A Common Wlrsworm: Adult and larva, enlarged; and younE larvae
feeding on roots of grasB. The line below the beeUe indicates its natural size. .
(From Brehm.)
presence or at least do no appreciable amount of damage such as the
farmer would observe. These grassy fields and byways may be thus badly
infested for a good many years and their presence not observed until
such places are plowed, when they may find these wireworms in such
immense numbers that a single cubic foot of earth may contain fifteen
to twenty of them.
When such infested fields are plowed and planted to some crop
such as wheat or other grains or corn, or in fact most any farm or
garden crop, these wireworms are deprived of their great abundance of
food, and then show their presence by the great injury which they do
by feeding upon the roots of the comparatively small amount of plants
that have been introduced there by the agriculturist.
WHEAT INSECTS. 129
Wireworms do not confine their attacks to the roots of wheat and
other cultivated plants, but will attack the corn or seed when put in
the ground and before it has had time to germinate, and will eat holes
through it, hollowing it out inside or devouring it entirely. Those
seeds that have succeeded in germinating are also attacked and the
young developing roots eaten, or the plant that has succeeded in
reaching several inches in heighth will have its roots eaten or holes
eaten through them or more or less undermined, and even the base of
the stem eaten into and the plant killed. The farmer, however,
usually complains most severely of the attack upon the seed of the corn
before it has had time to germinate. It appears that those wheat fields
(this also applies to corn fields) which are in low ground, or those por-
tions of larger fields that are low or in hollow places, are more liable
to injury from these wireworms than are the higher and better drained
fields or portions of fields. In some instances it also appears that wheat
planted the second year after the plowing of a meadow or pasture
seems to suffer more from injury from the attack of wireworms than it
did the first year from plowing. In such instances it appears that the
young wireworms had sufficient food remaining in the form of the roots
of the original grass to sustain their life for the first season, and that
by the next spring the roots had decayed and disappeared sufficiently
to deprive them of food and force them to then attack the cultivated
plants. It is also frequently the case that the wireworms do the
greatest amount of damage during the spring, apparently their long
winter fast having sharpened their appetites, which become somewhat
satisfied later in the season.
REMEDIES.
It is almost impossible to poison the wireworm, either in the
adult or larval stage. Certainly the poisons in our ordinary insec-
ticides are not strong enough to kill them. The application of various
chemicals to the soil will not injure them unless used in such un-
reasonable quantities as to utterly unwarrant any such a procedure.
The only successful method of killing the wireworms that I know of
is to take advantage of the weak point in their life history, which I
have before described, viz., the extremely delicate condition of the
pupae and newly developed adults. It has been found by Prof. Com-
stock that these insects are so readily killed when in the stages men-
tioned, that by plowing the ground to a depth of at least six inches
and harrowing it thoroughly, that this disturbance of the insect due
to the rupturing and destroying of its earthen cells, is sufficient to kiU
130 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
it at this time. This explains the well known fact that plowing is the
best remedy.
Infested wheat, corn and other grain fields, or sod land intended
later for such crops, should be plowed deeply during August and har-
rowed several times, and if necessary, plowed and harrowed again
before September, with a view to destroying the insects in the stages
mentioned. It must be borne in mind, however, that since these in-
sects require three years in order to reach their full grown larval con-
dition, that only one-third of the insects in a field may be destroyed ;
but it must be borne in mind that unless this one-third is destroyed they
will hibernate, and the next spring deposit eggs for a greatly in-
creased number of wireworms to follow.
If this simple method just described is carried out each year, one
wall soon cease to be troubled with wireworms. Fields that are
plowed during August of each year, or that are plowed even during
September of each year, are rarely infested with wireworms in suf-
ficent numbers to cause any mischief.
THE CRANE FLY.
The larvae of the crane flies are known to most argriculturists
under the name of meadow maggots or leather jackets. The adult
crane fiies have been observed by every person living in the country
or small village. They look for all the world like enormous mosqui-
toes, and occasionally fly about the house where they attract the at-
tention of people. Their bodies are long and slender, and they have
one pair of well developed wings, and their legs are enormously
elongated. You will have no difficulty in recognizing the crane flies
from* the illustrations of the adults of the two species represented in
figure 36 and figure 37.
These insects appear in the meadows and grassy places, especially
in low places about the farm and along streams. In walking through
such grassy places during May, one is sure to have his attention
called to these insects, which fly up before him. They lay their
eggs during May in these grassy situations, and the larvae feed usually
just below the surface of the ground upon decaying vegetable matter,
dead leaves of grass and clover, and more or less upon the living roots
themselves.
The maggots reach their full grown larval condition by the latter
part of July, by which time they appear as dirty white or gray, foot-
WHEAT INSECTS.
131
less maggots, about one and one-half inches in length, with extremely
soft bodies. The general appearance of these maggots is illustrated
in the picture of a larva at the left of the adult shown in figure 37.
These larvae are apt to be noticed in the low places that have become
temporarily overflowed or unusually wet, when the larvae are apt to
come to the surface and crawl about on top of the ground.
During the latter part of July these larvae change to pupae under
the surface of the ground, and transform to adults again during
August. These adults soon lay eggs in the grassy fields and meadows,
usually during the latter half of August. The larvae or grubs hatch-
ing from these eggs live as did the other brood of larvae, and when
cold weather appears, hibernate in the ground in the nearly full grown
FIG. 36. ~A Crane Fly, Pachyrrhina spl, natural size, also body somewhat en-
larged. (From Webster.)
larval condition. The next spring, along about April, these larvae re-
vive and feed upon the roots and base of the stems of various grasses and
clover, doing as a rule no great amount of damage, although some com-
plaints have been received where these larvae have more or less ruined
the clover and pasture fields situated in low mucky or wet places. The
132
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
larvae change to pupae the latter part of April, and the adults from
these emerge during May, which completes the life history of the insects.
It will thus be seen that there are two broods of the insects each
year, although some species are known to have but a single brood.
It was not thought advisable to divide these crane flies and treat of
them individually according to their species, but to give this general
outline of their life history.
Fig. 37.— A Crane Fly, Tipula hebes, natural size, also a larva and a pupa,
natural size. (From Webster.)
Reports have been received where these insects have destroyed
fifty per cent of the wheat in certain fields. These cases of extreme in-
jury are, however, not universal throughout the State, yet nearly every
year such complaints are received from some portions of the State.
Almost invariably the wheat fields that have become injured by these
maggots are those that have stood in grass or clover the previous
year, and are also such fields or sections of fields as are situated in
the low, wet places.
These insects usually come to the surface of the ground after a
heavy rain and crawl about until the ground dries sufficiently to en-
able them to work just below the surface. In such cases these worms
are preyed upon by some birds, and are subject to the attack of their
insect enemies. There is very little that a farmer can do towards
combatting these pests, provided he has sown his wheat in low, damp
WHEAT INSECTS. 133
places previously occupied by clover or grass. The most we can do
in this case is to plow such intended wheat fields early in September,
or pasture as large a herd of sheep as possible in this low field. The
tramping of the sheep over the ground will crush and kill a great num-
ber of these maggots. The wheat fields situated on high, well drained
ground are not injured by t'hese insects.
THE GRAIN PLANT-LOUSE.
Siphonophora avenae.
THE WHEAT PLANT-LOUSE.
Nectarophora cerealis.
These insects resemble very closely in appearence the other well
known plant-lice that the agriculturist is so familiar with infesting
his fruit trees and garden vegetables. They are all small, greenish or
brownish creatures, occuring usually in clusters or colonies, as can be
seen by refefrring to figure 38, which represents a colony of these
aphids on a portion of a wheat head, greatly magnified. Figure 39
shows a wheat head with plant-lice, natural size.
These insects, although very small and not attracting attention
every year by any means, are, after all, of considerable importance, be-
cause in certain years these insects do a great amount of injury, some-
times absolutely ruining certain fields of wheat. During last fall, win-
ter and spring scarcely a day passed without my receiving inquiries in
regard to these insects. The great bulk of these inquiries came from
the southwestern portion of Missouri, over which region these insects
caused considerable alarm, since they occured in very unusual num-
bers upon the wheat plants, and caused the plants to wither and
bleach, thus attracting the attention of the farmers, who, on examina-
tion, finding these insects in such vast numbers, supposed that their
wheat fields were being ruined.
Our very open winter that year enabled these insects to unduly
multiply and to live throughout the entire winter upon the wheat
plants. Early in the spring the prospects seemed still more hopeless
to most wheat raisers in that region, but, fortunately, a minute par-
asitic Hymenopterous insect made its appearance in the fields and soon
134 MISSOURI ACRICULTt'RAL REPORT.
effectually checked further injury by killing the great bulk of these
aphids. Thii numerous samples of wheat containing apliids that were
sent to this office at that time demonstrated the effectiveness of the
work of these minute parasites. Not a single sample was received
that did not contain parasites, and some of the samples of wheat
TiQ. K.-Tbe Grain flant.LouBe, Biphonophara ovmae, on a head of wheat. All
greatlj' enlargol (From Porlies-)
plants that had been enclosed in boxes and mailed to me, contained
not only hundreds of plant-lice, but also hundreds of these little para-
sites. In some instances there appeared to be more parasites than
plant lice, and I then informed my correspondents of this fact, and
advised them not to worry, since this little insect was undoubtedly
destined to relieve them of any further trouble from plant-lice; and
this proved to be the case, for later, as the warm weather appeared,
these minute parasitic insects did almost exterminate the aphids from
the fields.
These parasitic insects just referred to are very small, black,
winged creatures, much smaller than the plant-lice, and are extremely
active, flying about and seeking the plant-lice, and may be observed
by any person with sharp eyes or anyone who has a hand magnifying
glass. If one will carefully pull up a clump of wheat, these parasites
jvill not be disturl)ed to any great extent and will busy themselves
WHEAT INSECTS. 135
performing their duties, apparently without notice of the fact that they
are being watched. At such times one can readily observe the females
approach an aphid and sting it and lay an egg within its body. Of
course this egg is so small that it cannot be seen. Some of the
aphids will show no^ apparant concern, while others will move their
bodies a little as though they had been hurt. As soon as the egg
is deposited the insect will quickly approach another aphid and do
likewise.
FIG. 39.— The Grain ^ Plant-Louse, Siphonophora avenae, on a head of wheat,
natural size. (From Forbes.)
In this way a single parasite will deposit a great many eggs in
the bodies of as great a number of plant-lice. These eggs hatch, and
the resulting grubs feed upon the tissues of the plant-lice, and, when
full grown, change to the pupa stage within the host's body. Of
course, the plant-louse dies. Its body becomes somewhat swollen
and distended, but its body remains upon the plant and turns brown.
These swollen, dead plant-lice may be seen in great numbers at such
times. In fact, the greater bulk of aphids sent to this office during last
fall, winter and spring were thus killed when they reached me. When
the little parasite transforms to an adult within the body of the aphid,
it cuts a little circular flap through the body wall, leaving a little place
uncut as a hinge, and by pushing up this trap-door, escapes. Such
aphids with the trap-door part way open are readily found by any
agriculturist at such times, and can be readily seen by means of a
little hand lens. One of these parasitized plant-lice is shown in figure
40, rf, greatly enlarged, and with the trap-door open, the parasite hav-
ing emerged.
The life history of the grain and wheat plant-louse is briefly as
follows: The aphids feed by sticking their little beaks through the
tissues of the plant and sucking its sap. They are found frequently
upon grass. At certain seasons some of these plant-lice will be found
to have wings. Such a winged form is shown in figure 40, a. Some
of these winged forms will fly from the grass to the wheat field, and
there they will bring forth living young, which will suck the sap
from the wheat plant and soon bring forth living young. These in
turn will soon bring forth others in the same way. So rapidly is this
development and multiplication, that under favorable conditions a
single aphid will soon cause the development of a large colony upon
ISfi Mipsnnni Anmri'LTiiRAr,
liiat plant. It has been estimated that a single apliid will be the cause
of millions of aphids in a single season, this method of development
being much more rapid than is the case where eggs are deposited.
Winged forms soon appear among the colony of aphids on the wheat,
and some of them will fly to neighboring wheat plants, and when the
FIG. 10.— The Whont Plaiil-l.ouap. Xi-iUimphniu eereiitia: a. winged rolgrant; B,
tiymph of winged migrant; c, K'.r,£\e:s p^irEticnogcnctlc female; d, parasitized aphid
showing the trap-door out of which the advilt parasite emerged. All flguree greatly
enlarged. (From MaHatt, U. S. Dept. Agrlo.)
wheat becomes too mature to furnish further food for the aphids,
some of them will then fly to grass and thereby perpetuate the species
there.
There is nothing that the agriculturist can do in a practical and
economic way towards destroying these plant-lice in his wheat. As
a rule, the parasitic insects, the habits of which we have just described,
will prevent any serious injury, but in those cases which sometimes
actually happen where the plant-lice have nearly ruined a field of
wheat, there is no help for it.
THE ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH.
Sitotroga cereaila, Oliv.
This minute moth is well known to the wheat raisers on account of
its injury to the wheat while in the field as well as to the grain while
stored in the granary. The insect was originally an imported one, hav-
ing come from the Province of Angoumois, France, where its injuries
are well known. It has now spread throughout practically all of the
WHEAT INSECTS.
137
grain-growing regions of the United States. Two years ago it seemed
to be unusually abundant in the southwestern part of Missouri and a
great many inquiries, with specimens of the insect and its work, were
received by me at that time.
The adult moth is a small grayish-brown insect, about half an inch
across its expanded wings. The hind wings are beautifully bordered
with long delicate hairs. The insect is represented in figure 41, r, en-
larged about three diameters, the hafr line just below indicating its.
natural size. The moths emerge in the spring from granaries and other
places where the grain has been stored, either threshed or in the shock,
and fly to the wheat fields and there deposit their eggs in the heads of
the developing wheat at about the time the wheat is in the milk stage.
Each female lays a large number of light-red eggs, one of which is
shown greatly enlarged in figure 41, e.
FIG. 41.— The Angoumois Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealla: a, larva; 6, pupa; c,
adult moth; d, wing; e, egg; /, larva within grain. The lines near each figure indicate
its natural size, most figures being enlarged. (From Howard, U. S. Dept. Agric.) *
These eggs hatch in a few days into minute larvae or caterpillars,
which eat their way through into the developing kernel of wheat, feed-
ing within upon the starchy material. When this wheat ripens and is cut
and stacked in shocks, the larvae soon reach their full development, by
which time they are upwards of a half inch in length and of the general
appearance and shape represented in figure 41, a. They then -spin a
little cocoon within the hollowed out kernel of >yheat and transform to
pupae, one of which is represented in figure 41, b.
These pupae transform to adults during the latter part of July, and
the moths work their way out and escape. They soon pair and deposit
their eggs for another brood upon the grain from which they have
emerged.
If the wheat after being cut is soon carried into the barn, or is
threshed and stored away in bulk in the granary, these moths that emerged
from the grain deposit their eggs there upon the threshed grain, or in
138 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
case the grain is not threshed, deposit them upon the heads of the wheat.
The larvae constituting this second brood reach maturity during the
fall and hibernate within the kernels of wheat, changing to pupae in the
spring, and the adult moths appear in May or early June and seek the
new wheat fields. If the grain be stored in warm granaries there may
be as many as four broods during the year in such wheat.
It appears that the adult moths which deposit their eggs in the
wheat field in the early summer come from the nearby barns and other
places where the grain is stored, either threshed or unthreshed.
It is advisable not to leave the wheat standing in the field in shocks
any longer than is absolutely necessary, because the moths will emerge
from such wheat and be scattered through the neighborhood. Neither
is it a good plan to store the wheat in an unthreshed condition for the
same reason. If the wheat be threshed soon after it is cut, and stored in
bulk in the granaries, the moths that will come out from the kernels of
wheat that are situated very far below the surface will not be able to
crawl out of the stored grain, and will, therefore, be prevented from
pairing and depositing eggs which will hatch and produce another brood
of larvae. Of course the moths that happen to be in the upper tiers of
the wheat will be able to escape and fly about the bin, and pair and lay
eggs upon the wheat for succeeding generations. These moths that can
thus continue the species and cause the destruction of the grain, can be
readily killed by the use of bisulphide of carbon, which you will find
described under the head of the Grain Weevil.
The amount of injury to wheat sustained by these little moths is
sometimes quite considerable. In badly infested cases the wheat has
been known to lose forty per cent of its weight and seventy-five per cent
of its farinaceous matter. Wheat infested with these insects is not suit-
able for milling purposes nor for food for man, and the kernels that arc
hollowed out to any great extent will not germinate, and hence the wheat
is greatly damaged for germinating purposes.
Where one has suffered more or less from these moths, the careful
following out of the plans suggested will prevent future trouble. These
insects not only infest wheat but also other small grains and corn, and
develop and breed generation after generation in corn stored in cribs
and other places about the farm. Hence it is necessary in order to suc-
cessfully combat this insect in the wheat to attend to its destruction in
other places, especially in the corn. It must be understood, however,
in this connection that there 'is no way of combatting this pest in corn
or other grains stored in the open bin or crib.
For methods of fighting this insect see under The Grain Weevil.
WHEAT INSPXTS. 139
THE GRAIN WEEVIL.
Calandra granaria, Linn.
This minute beetle is about one-seventh of an inch in length and of
a glossy, chestnut-brown color, the head is prolonged into a beak on the
end of which the mouthparts are placed, the angular antennae being sit-
uated on the upper part of the beak. By referring to figure 42, c, you
will be able to obtain a good idea of the appearance of the insect when
seen under a magnifying glass, and just above it the outline of one of
the beetles natural size.
These beetles, fortunately for the agriculturist, infest the grain
only when it is stored and will not be found infesting wheat in the field.
These beetles eat holes in the grain for food purposes as well as for de-
positing their eggs, which they push down in some of the holes they
have eaten. The larvae hatching from these eggs are small, footless, fat,
grub-like creatures, one of which is represented greatly magnified in fig-
ure 42, a.
FIG. 42.— The Grain Weevil, Calandra granaria; a, larva; 6, pupa; c, adult. All
greatly enlarged, except the outline of small beetle just above the large one. (Prom
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
These larvae feed within the kernel, mining it out, and when they
become full grown transform to the pupa stage within the kernel, similar
to the grain moth previously described, but not, however, by first mak-
ing a little cocoon as do the moths. Presently these pupae transform to
the adult beetles, and they eat their way out of the grain and lay their
eggs for another brood. It requires about six weeks from the time an
egg is deposited until the adult stage is attained.
These insects breed generation after generation in the stored grain,
and under favorable conditions in this State we find upwards of five
140 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
broods a year. These insects multiply very rapidly, the adult female
beetle laying a great many eggs and laying these during quite a long
period. These beetles are also much stronger and more powerful than
the grain moth, and for that reason are able to escape from the stored
grain at greater depths. For this reason also they are able to do more inr
jury.
REMEDIES.
The angoumois grain moth and the grain weevil, as well as a num-
ber of other insects that feed in stored grains and seeds, may be readily
killed by proper fumigation with bisulphide of carbon. The following
method should be strictly adhered to: In the first place, it must be dis-
tinctly understood that in order to kill these insects in stored grain, the
grain must be confined in a tight room, granary or box as the case may
be. If such places are not tight, then every crack and crevice must be
stopped up with rags or by other means, because the first essential is to
have a close place where there will be no possibility of the fumes escap-
ing. The door should also be looked after and arranged so that it may
be closed without leaving any cracks. The bisulphide of carbon is then
to be placed in shallow basins, and these are to be placed on top of the
grain. The bisulphide of carbon may be thrown on top of the grain, or
rags may be saturated with it and these be placed on top.
It is absolutely important also that this bisulphide of carbon be
placed on top of the grain to be fumigated, because the fume's from this
bisulphide are much heavier than the air and therefore settle. If
the bisulphide is allowed to evaporate on top of the grain, the fumes will
penetrate down all through it, but if the bisulphide be placed near the
floor, it will evaporate, but the fumes will not rise and the bulk of the
grain will not be fumigated at all.
The amount of bisulphide of carbon to be used depends upon the
nature of the room or bin holding the grain, and also upon the quantity
of grain to be fumigated. As a general rule, if the bin, granary or room
be very tight, as will be the case if matched boards are used, then two
pounds of bisulphide of carbon will properly fumigate every one hun-
dred bushels of wheat. If th€ room or bin be not made of matched ma-
terial, more bisulphide of carbon should be used. If the room or bin be
a comparatively large one for the amount of grain it contains, then one
should use two pounds of bisulphide of carbon for every five hundred
cubic foot of space, regardless of whether this space contains grain or not.
As soon as the proper amount of bisulphide of carbon has been
placed on top of the wheat or other grain or seed, the person should
leave the bin at once, close the door and keep it closed for three days. It
WHEAT INSECTS. ' 141
I
may then be opened and the fumes allowed to escape. It is well to thus
fumigate grain, including corn, soon after it is thrashed and put in the
granary, and if it is badly infested, it is a good plan to fumigate again
in the spring.
This fumigation will kill not only the insects that may be within the
room, but will also kill mice and rats confined in such places.
There is one precaution in the use of bisulphide of carbon which
should not be overlooked. While bisulphide of carbon is perfectly harm-
less to handle, yet one should not use it near a lantern or a lighted pipe,
or near any trace of fire whatever; neither should one enter the room,
granary or bin while the fumes of this bisulphide of carbon are there
with a lantern or a lighted pipe, because in so doing an explosion would
be sure to follow. Do not let this precaution, however, prevent anyone
from using this material, since it is one of the best substances that we
know of for killing insects that are confined within a closed place. It is
hardly necessary to caution a person about staying in a room too long
where the fumes are very dense, because few people would stand the dis-
agreeable odor of this substance long enough to be injured.
The bisulphide of carbon is a clear, heavy Hquid that evaporates im-
mediately, and will not injure the grain for germinating purposes nor
for milling purposes when used as directed.
Bisulphide of carbon may be obtained from the manufacturers in
fifty-pound cans, which are about the size of five-gallon cans, for ten
cents per pound. It is therefore a comparatively cheap substance consid-
ering the amount of good one can will do.
142 * MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
IMPORTANCE OF CORN AS A STOCK FOOD — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION — DIGES-
TIBLE NUTRIENTS — INFLUENCE OF MATURITY ON FEEDING VALUE
— INCREASING THE VALUE OF CORN — VALUE OF STOVER —
SHOOING, FIELD CURING, SHREDDING^ GRIND-
ING^ COOKING, SOILING.
By H. J. Waters, Dean Missouri Agricultural College and Experiment
Station, Columbia, Mo.
It is not possible within the limits of this paper to present a treatise
on animal nutrition, and no attempt is here made to discuss any of the
many interesting and important scientific principles which form the basis
of the rational feeding of animals, beyond those problems which are in-
timately related to the proper and profitable utilization of the corn plant.
In no case is it possible or indeed advisable to attempt to set down fixed
rules or definite directions for the guidance of the feeder. Local and
varying conditions with reference to the abundance, convenience and
cheapness of certain classes of food stuffs, the chss, quality and value of
the animal product sought to be produced; the convenience to market,
etc., are important and usually determining factors to which it would be
impossible to make a general adjustment of any set of fixed rules.
IMPORTANCE OF CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
Com is the great American stock food. No other plant compares
with it in its wide and general distribution, in the ease, certainty and
cheapness with which it may be produced; in the yield of valuable food
material per acre, and in the close relation it bears to the develop-
ment of the live stock interest of the country. Pracitcally every State
in the Union is reported as growing corn commercially. Where corn
is grown extensively, there the live stock interests are ex-
tensively developed and prosperous. A corn center is synony-
mous with a live stock center, and the geographical distri-
bution of corn production is in a general way an index
to the distribution of live stock production. Eleven prominent
corn states, of which Missouri is one, producing something over 75 per
cent of all the corn of the United States, produce practically 60 per cent,
of the horses, mules, cattle, hogs, milch cows and sheep of the country.
From these states are drawn the chief supplies of well finished beeves
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
H3
and hogs, and well developed horses and mules. They are the feed yards
of the nation. It is a significant fact also that in this territory are con-
centrated the great herds of blooded cattle, horses, hogs and sheep. A
country pre-eminently adapted to corn growing, is at once pre-eminentl}
adapted to the production of a high class of live stock. Even the stock-
men and dairymen on the high-priced lands of the East find it profitable,
indeed necessarv, to make corn the basis of the rations for their stock.
An idea may be formed of the importance of this crop to the feed-
ing operations of the country when it is realized that the normal com
crop of the United States is in round numbers two billion bushels and
that more than one and a half billion bushels of this crop are normally
required for the feeding of our own stock, leaving only about 200,000,000
bushels for export, and the same quantity to be converted into manu-
factured products such as flour, starch, glucose, whisky, alcohol, beer,
high wines, etc.
IMPORTANCE OF CORN TO MISSOURI.
All that has been said of the importance and prominence of corn in
the United States applies with even more force to Missouri. No other
crop compares w4th it, either in acreage, total yield, or value. Upon no
other crop do the farmers and stockmen so fully and completely depend
for their sustenance and profit. A failure of this crop means the forced
sale of their stock in an unfinished condition on a dull market; the re-
stocking of their farms later at high prices, or delay until their herds
may be replenished by the natural increase. It means the complete de-
rangement of their plans, and virtually forces them out of business for
that season and leaves them poorly prepared for the next one.
The normal acreage, yield and value on the farm of the more impor-
tant staple crops of the State are shown in the following table compiled
by Secretary Ellis.
NORMAL CROPS OF MISSOURI.
Total acres.
Total yield
bu.
Av. yield
bu.
*Corn
♦Wheat
*Oats
+Potatoes
♦Average 8 years.
+Average 3 years.
U'aluation average 10 years, 1891 to 1900
6,378,000
1,159,000
1.013,000
2.375,000
90.000
Total valua-
tion. 1:
191,340,000
30
14,487 000
12.5
25,325,000
25
3,114,000
1.3 tons
6,750,000
75
57,400,000
8,981,000
6,078,000
20.116,000
3,105,000
144
AlISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
In the subjoined tables will be found the average chemical composi-
tion of the grain, mill products, etc., of the different types of corn* :
SB
«;♦■
«
*1
O
A
a
2
o
•
8B
>
CD
•=1
5
»2
o
•-*
e*'
^
»
«^3
<D
O
►<
•^ o
■«
•s
»-*•
«
poq
g
S
•0
^
n
•
»<
O
S^
CO
•
P
CD
•
2.®
•
•
.
«rK
•
• (V
Grain :
Dent— All analyses
Flint— All analyses
Sweet— All analyses
Pop varieties
Soft varieties
All varieties and analyses
Mill and waste products:
Oornnieal— All analyses
Corn and cornmeal
Corn cob
Hominy chop
Corn bran
Oorn germ
Corn germ meal ,
Cream gluten meal
Chicago gluten meal
King gluten meal
Gluten feed
Bulfalo gluten feed
Peoria gluten feed
Rockford gluten feed
Chicago maize feed
Gluten feed and refuse
Dried starch and sugar feed
Starch feed, wet
Oorn fodder, green :
Dent varieties
Dent varieties— Kernels glazed..
Flint varieties
Flint varieties— Kernels glazed.
Sweet varieties
All varieties
Leaves and husJis— Green
Stripped stalks— Green
Oorn silage ^
Oorn fodder— Field-cured (2)
Oorn leaves— Field-cured
Oorn husks— Field-cured
Oorn stalks— Field-cured
Oorn stover— Field-cured (3)
86
68
26
4
5
208
77
7'
18
12
5
3
6
11
3
2
4
12
63
4
40
10
21
126
4
4
99
35
17
16
15
60
10.6
11.3
8.8
10.7
9.3
10.9
15.0
15.1
10.7
11.1
9.1
10.7
8.1
10.1
12.3
7.4
7.8
9.6
7.5
8.9
9.1
6 5
10.9
65.4
79.0
73.4
73.8
77.1
79.1
79.3
66.2
76.1
79.1
42.2
30.0
50 9
68.4
40.5
1.5
1.4
1.9
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.4
2.5
1.3
4.0
1.3
.8
1.3
.5
1.1
2.3
.8
.8
.9
1.1
.9
.3
1.2
1.5
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.2
2.9
.7
1.4
2,7
5.5
1.8
1.2
3.4
10.3
10.5
11.6
11.2
11.4
10.5
9.2
8.5
2.4
9.8
9.0
9.8
11.1
33.7
36.5
33.7
24.0
27.1
19.8
23.6
22.8
20.7
19.7
6.1
1.7
2.0
2.0
2.1
1.9
1.8
2.1
.5
1.7
4.5
6.0
2.5
1.9
3.8
2.2
1.7
2.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
1.9
6.6
30.1
3.8
12.7
4.1
9.9
1.7
1.4
1.2
5.3
6.7
8.2
6.6
7.6
4.5
4.7
3.1
5.6
6.7
4.3
4.3
4.4
5.0
8.7
7
6
14
21
15.8
11.0
19.7
70.4
70.1
66.8
69.6
70.2
69.6
68.7
64.8
54.9
64.5
62.2
64.0
62.5
51.1
45.8
52.6
51.2
51.1
51.1
56 6
52.7
56.8
54.8
22.0
12.0
15.5
12.1
14.6
12.8
12.2
19.0
14.9
11.0
34.7
35.7
28.3
17.0
31.5
5.0
5.0
8.1
5.2
5.5
5.4
3.
3.
s!
5
7.
8
5
5
3
8
4
7.1
2.6
2.7
4.6
10.6
3.2
12.6
3 5
6.9
10.4
9.0
3.1
.5
.9
.7
.8
.5
.5
l.l
.5
.8
1.6
1.4
.7
.5
1.1
(*) Arranged from Jordan's "The Feeding of Animals— 1901."
(3) By corn fodder is meant the entire plant, including the ear.
(3) By corn stover is meant the portion of the plant remaining after the ears are re-
moved.
A more detailed study of the chemical composition of the corn kernel
has been made by the New Jersey Experiment Station*. One hundred
grams of corn kernels were separated as nearly as possible into skin,
germ, and starchy and hard portion, and the different parts analyzed
with the result shown below.
'^S,ey^ Jersey Experlm,eat Sbatioa,— Bu^Uetia N^o. lOti,
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
145
PERCENTAGE OF DRY 8UB8TAKCB OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE CORN
KERNEL.
.^
>
^•^
^•=3
^^«
*^
roportlc
parts,
cent. . . .
09
20
'd^
C3 O I.M
»
-t
• P
ber,
nt. . . .
rogen
tract,
nt. . . .
••
' $ o
iS
i?
'■n
• Ng 54
•
• ►<
•^
• "^ »
Original kernel
100
6.5
10.2
1.7
1.3
11.1
12.8
6.6
21.7
2.0
16.4
2.9
79.4
74.1
34.7
4.3
Skin
1.6
Germ
39.6
Starchy and hard parts
84.3
.7
12.2
.6
85.0
1.5
These results are of particular interest in connection with a study
of the by-products of corn such as the gluten feeds, germ meal, hominy
chop, corn bran, distillery slops, etc., resulting from the manufacture of
starch, hominy, glucose, beer, spirits, etc., from corn. These corn
feeds are now offered on the markets in such quantities as to be of con-
siderable commercial importance and to be worthy of the careful study
of the feeder.
The cut (Fig. i) which we are permitted to use through the
courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station, will help the student to
a clearer understanding of the particular parts of the com kernel re-
ferred to in the tables above, and what parts enter chiefly into the com-
position of the different com by-products now on the market.
It will be observed that the starchy portion constitutes more than
four-fifths of the entire kernel, that the germ, which is only about one-
tenth of the kernel, contains practically two-thirds of the fat and almost
two-thirds of the ash of the entire kernel. The crude fiber is largely in
the skin.
Most of the so-called feed is what is left after the starch has been
removed more or less completely from the grain. This is accomplished
by mechanical means, and leaves the residue uninjured by the process,
which in brief is as follows:
The grain is ground into meal, usually in warm running water or
after it has been thoroughly soaked and the various parts of the kernel
named in the table are separated in water by gravity. The skin or hulls
forming the bran, float on the surface; the germs sink to the bottom,
while the starch and hard portions of the kernel carrying, in addition to
the starch, a considerable portion of gluten cells, are held in suspension
in the water. The water carrying the starch and gluten in suspension
is then conducted slowly through long troughs, where the starch being
A-io
146 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the heavier settles to the bottom, and the gluten is carried on to be re-
covered by evaporating the water.
The composition therefore of the by-products will depend upon the
particular part of the kernel from which it is made. When derived
largely from the hulls, as in the case of the bran, the content of crude
fiber will be relatively high, and the content of protein and fat will be
relatively low. If made from the germs as in the case of the germ meals,
FIG 1. II. The husk, or skin, whLch coirers the whole kernel,
tluct layers, the nuter aod Inner, which, wheo removed, coastltatc
practically all ot the crude fiber at the whole grain.
b. A layer of gluten cells, which lies Immediately underneath the husk! It is yellow In
color, and cannot be reanlly separated from the remainder ol the kernel. This part Is the
richest of any In protein.
c. The germ, which Is readily distinguished by Its position and form, also contains
gluten, though It Is partlc:ulary rich In oil and mineral constituents,
d. Thelarge portion IscomDOsed ohlelly ot starch; the dark color Indicates the yellow,
flinty part, In which the stare h-holdlnji cells are more closely compacted.
it will run relatively high in fat and ash and moderately high in protein.
The gluten as separated from the starch when unmixed with other ma-
terials, is distinfjuished by its high content of protein.
"As found in the market, the principal brands are 'sugar corn' or
'starch' feed, made up mostly of hulls and germs; gluten meal, which
tomes from the flinty portion of the kernel, and gluten feed, which is
now a mixture of hulls and the gluten part. When unmixed with other
CORN AS A STOCK FOOt). 149
parts of the kernel, the hulls are also known as corn bran and the germ
portion from which the oil has been pressed is called, when ground,
germ oil meal. The corn bran contains the least protein and the gluten
meal the most, while the gluten feed and germ oil meal occupy a position
between these. It should be remarked that the commercial names for
gluten products are not always a safe guide in their purchase."*
All foods of this class, including such other by-products as wheat
bran, wheat middlings, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, etc., should in-
variably be purchased on the basis of a guaranteed content of protein,
fat, nitrogen free extract and fiber just as commercial fertilizers are now
purchased, on a guaranteed content of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
acid.
DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS.
While the foregoing tables, showing the composition of the different
varieties of corn and the different parts of the plant cannot fail to be in-
teresting and instructive to the student of animal nutrition, at the same
time it should be borne in mind that only a part of any vegetable food is
digested by the animal, the undigested portion being voided in the form
of dung as so much worthless or waste material.
In general the grains and concentrated feeds are more completely
digested than the coarse fodders. A larger proportion of the corn grain
is digested than of the corn stover. A larger proportion of wheat than
of the straw. It is worthy of remark in passing, that the corn grain
is one of the most concentrated and is the most completely digested of
any of the grain feeds.
Then, too, the digestibility of any food stuff may be affected within
certain narrow limits by its palatability, by the quantity consumed by the
animal, the stage of growth or development at which it was harvested,
and its combination with other food stuffs.
Contrary to the general impression, the digestibility of a feed does
not appear to be affected either favorably or unfavorably, at least to any
considerable degree under ordinary circumstances, by cooking, soak-
ing, grinding, or the method of preserving or drying, so long as it is not
subjected to mechanical loss of the finer parts in drying and handling,
or to molding or fermenting in the process of preserving, unless such
process add materially to its palatability.
The amount of digestible nutrients, therefore, is a far safer measure
of the feeding value of any substance than the mere chemical composi-
tion. For, aside^ from its palatableness, the value of a food depends first
upon the amount of digestible material supplied and second upon the
♦Jordan— The Feeding of Animals.
loO
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORt.
proportion of protein, carbohydrates and fat in this digestible material.
To present this information concerning the products of the corn
plant in a form convenient for reference, the following table has been
arranged :
The average percentage of digestible nutrients supplied by the grain,
the mill products and the different parts of the corn plant.*
Protein per
cent
a r b o h y-
drates, per
cent
n
n
s
Grain, mill and by-products.
Corn, all determinations
7.9
7.8
8.0
8 8
4.4
0.4
7.4
25.8
9.0
11.4
26.7
7.5
30.3
18.7
5.5
0.9
1.0
2.5
1.7
66.7
667
66.2
63.7
60.0
52.5
59.8
4.3.4
61.2
58 4
38.8
55.2
35.3
51.7
21.7
11.3
11.6
34.6
32.4
4.3
Dent corn
4.3
Flint corn
Sweet corn
4.3
7.0
Corn and cob meal
2.9
Oob meal
Corn bran .
0.3
4.6
Gluten meal
Germ meal
Starch refuse
11.0
6.2
6.5
Grano gluten
Hominy Chops
Glucose meal
12.4
6.8
14.5
Sugar meal
Starch fee^-wet
Silage, Fodder etc.
Corn silage
8.7
2.3
0.7
+Corn fodder, green
0.4
Corn fodder, field cured
1.2
$Corn stover, field cured
0.7
fThe entire plant.
$What is left after the ear is removed.
INFLUENCE OF MATURITY UPON YIELD OF DIGESTIBLE SUBSTANCE.
The stage of development of a plant at the time it is harvested may
materially affect its value as a feed in two ways, (i) In the quantity
of digestible material produced. (2) In the palatableness of the foddei.
Aside from these considerations, the greater certainty and convenience
in curing the more mature plants; the mechanical loss of the finer por-
tions due to storms or to the handling of the plants in harvesting when
they are too mature, affect in practice, to a considerable
degree, the time of harvesting each crop independently of
the yield and the palatability of the product. It is also
true that in handling large areas of any crop, it is not con-
venient or profitable to arrange for sufficient force of men
and machinery to harvest the entire crop in precisely the stage that is
considered to combine the maximum yield with the highest degree of
palatableness. Hence the harvest must usually begin at a stage when
some sacrifice in yield is made and extend to the point where some loss
in palatableness is sustained.
* Henry. "Feeds and Feeding."
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
151
In the case of the corn plant, the impression has long prevailed that
after the roasting ear stage is reached, nothing is actually added to the
plant, that it then contains all the nutrients it will ever contain ; that the
non-nitrogenous compounds then consist chiefly of sugar which is to
some extent at least converted into indigestible compounds in the process
of ripening and that by allowing it to ripen a loss of digestible material
occurs by reason of these changes.
That the position is wholly erroneous and that the plant continues to
gain in dry substance until fully mature, is clearly shown by the results
of numerous careful experiments.
WATER AND DRY MATTER IN CORN CROP AT DIFFERENT PERIODS AFTER TAS-
SEUNG — NEW YORK (GENEVA) STATION.*
July 30.
Aug. 9.
Aug. 21.
Sept. 7.
Sept. 23.
Fully tasseled
Fully silked
Kernels watery to full milk.
Kernels glazing ,
Ripe
9.0
8.2
12.9
11.3
16.3
14.0
10.1
12.5
14.2
10.2
.8
1.5
2.3
3.6
4.0
♦Henry's * 'Feeds and Feeding."
It will be observed that the most rapid gain in pounds of dry matter
per acre occurred between the roasting ear and glazing stages and that
there was a material gain from the glazing stage to the time when the
plant was ripe. Had the crop in this case been harvested in the roasting
ear stage, the yield of dry matter would have been 2.3 tons per acre,
while four tons were secured when the plants were fully ripe. In other
words, the yield was practically doubled between the roasting ear and
full ripeness.
An elaborate study of this problem by Jordan at the Maine Experi-
ment Station* confirms the results already quoted and adds to our knowl-
edge of the changes that take place in the composition of the plant during
the later stages of growth. A summary of the results are shown in the
following table:
* Maine Experiment Station— Report 1896, page 62.
152
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
PRODUCTION OF THE CORN PLANT PER ACRE AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF
GROWTH.
Stage of development when harvested.
(»5
a
B
«
a
ft
CD
O
I?
w ©
*i>^ Si
0(l> D
: 5-^
Ears beginning to form.
A few roasting ears
All roasting ears
Some ears glazing
All ears glazi'd
Total increase
13
7
8
9
3,064
5,210
6,060
6,680
7,039
2.146
849
620
358
3,974
165.0
121.3
77.5
39.8
In this case the yield of dry matter per acre was more than doubled
in 37 days or between the silking stage and the fully glazed stage.
It will be interesting to see what the character of this gain was. The
table below furnishes this information.
PRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS PER ACRE AT DIFFER-
ENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
Stage of development when harvested.
>
•V
•aj
^2
02
w
•=3
w
*t
M.
CD H^
c
et
P
a'
3
O*
Mej
iq
tP
c«-
rt-
o
c*2
p
2
^
®
►t
hi O
s
•
•
O
1— 1
a"
CO
p
•
•
•
•
t
•
gen free
a<;t, lbs.
O*
•
Ears beginning to form. . .
A few roasting ears
All roasting ears
Some ears glazing
All ears glazed
Gain after first cutting.. . .
Gain after second cutting
286
458
812
1,428
35S
339
612
1.314
2,892
1.004
108
376
690
1,192
3,621
1.248
297
373
639
1,291
4,177
1,407
357
416
650
1,309
4,457
1,161
1,083
130
191
497
3,029
802
1,083
77
38
95
1,565
97
975
80
154
182
200
200
139
55
"Two facts are clearly shown. First, that the later growth of dry
matter in the corn plant is made up chiefly of non-nitrogenous com-
pounds ; second, a large percentage of these compounds consist of
sugars and starch, substances that are the best of their class for the pur-
poses of animal nutrition."
Not only is the yield increased by allowing the plant to mature, but
contrary to general opinion, the mature material is actually more digest-
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 153
ible as is shown by the following summary of American Digestion Experi-
ments compiled by Jordan.*
DIGESTED FROM 100 PARTS OF ORGANIC MATTER.
GK2
(-»
P
CF)
Out before glazing, 13 experiments 65.7 67.4'
Out after glazing, 10 experiments 70. 7 73.6
>
Applying these figures for corn fodder to the yields shown by the
New York experiments in the preceding table it is found that an acre
yielded of dry digestible matter when :
In roasting ear stage.
Fully ripe
1.5 tons
2.8 ••
Again, when the field-cured fodder is allowed to remain in the shock
until required for feeding, as is the custom in the corn belt of America,
it has been found that the more mature plants keep much better than
those harvested green, and the season is usually sufficiently advanced by
the time the corn is reasonably mature to escape the warm wet weather
that is so destructive to feed of this class.
In the light of these investigations and the experience of the most
successful farmers it is considered that when the outer husks and the
leaves below the ear have turned yellow but have not become dry; when
the stalk and leaves above the ear begin to show the golden tinge will
perhaps as nearly approximate the maximum yield without sacrificing
palatability and present a condition when the material may be put up in
large shocks without danger of rnolding. At this stage the kernels are
fully glazed and practically mature.
TO INCREASE THE VALUE OF THE CORN PLANT.
The two most important ways in which the efficiency and value of
the corn plant may be increased are :
First. — By supplementing the com and stover with such food stuffs
as are relatively rich in protein so as to furnish the animal a more nearly
balanced ration than these materials alone supply.
Second. — By carefully saving and properly feeding the great crop
♦Jordan— The Feeding of Animals.
154 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
of corn stover (the plant after the ears are removed) which now for the
most part is allowed to go to waste in this State.
CORN A CARBONACEOUS FOOD.
Notwithstanding the fact that corn is the best single stock food
known and that thousands of animals are successfully wintered or fat-
tened each year on an exclusive ration of corn and corn stover or some
similar roughage, it is true that it is by no means a perfectly bal-
anced or complete food. As has already been shown by the tables of
composition and digestible nutrients, corn contains a very large quantity
of carbonaceous matter in proportion to the protein compounds. It does
not give a proper balance between the carbohydrates (which includes
starch, the sugars, fat and digestible fiber) and the protein. In other
words, practical experience and scientific experiments have proven be-
yond doubt that by combining corn with some feed that will increase the
proportion of protein, a more efficient ration will be the result; more-
rapid gains will be made by the animals to which it is fed; more rapid
and healthful growth will be made on young animals ; a larger flow of
milk will be obtained from the dairy cow; and the steer will carry a
smoother finish and a finer coat to market; and under ordinary circum-
stances, or if the material for balancing the corn be selected judiciously
and with a due regard to the cost as compared with the increased effi-
ciency obtained, an increased profit will be returned.
FOOD STUFFS FOR BALANCING CORN.
All stock feeds may be divided into two general classes — one in
which the fat-producing and heat-forming ingredients such as starch,
the sugars, etc., designated as carbohydrates, and the fats largely pre-
dominate and the other class containng a relatively large amount of
muscle-making material commonly known as protein. This protein is
required for growth in young animals and for breeding stock and
animals in milk and is very valuable even in the final fattening process.
The line between these two classes of foods cannot be sharply drawn in
all cases, some feeds being so nearly between the two as to be as appro-
priately placed in one class as in the other.
As has already been pointed out, corn is the most important repre-
sentative of the carbonaceous group, and we are here chiefly concerned
in discovering the materials which may be used to supply the protein in
which the corn is deficient.
The following table contains some of the more important foods of
this class, together with the digestible nutrients supplied by them.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
155
PARTIAL LIST OF FOODS RICH IN PROTEIN.
Percentage of Digestible Nutrients.
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fat.
Oorn (for comparison)
Corn stover (for comparison)
Cottonseed meal
Linseed meal— old process...
Linseed meal— new process...
Glucose meal
Grano gluten
Gluten meal
S agar meal
Wheat middlings...
Wheat bran .
Dark feeding flour
Huch wheat middlings
Oat feed or shorts
Malt sprouts— dried
Brewers grain— dried
Boy bean grain
Horse bean
Oowpea grain
Field peas— grain ,
Alfalfa hay
Oowpea hay
Crimson clover hay
Red clover hay
Skim milk
Butter milk
7.9
66.7
1.7
32.4
37.2
16.9
29.3
33 7
28.2
40.1
30.3
35.3
28 7
38.8
25.8
48.3
18.7
61.7
12.8
53.0
12.2
89.2
13. .5
61.3
22.0
33.4
12.5
46.9
18.6
37.1
15.7
36.3
29.6
23.3
22.4
49.3
18.3
54.2
16.8
51.8
11.0
39.6
10.8
38.6
10.5
34.9
6.8
35.8
3.0
4.0
3.9
4.0
4.3
.7
12.3
7.0
2.8
14.5
12.4
11.
8.7
3.4
2.7
2.0
5.4
2.8
1.7
5.1
14.4
1.2
1.1
.7
1.2
l.l
1.2
1.7
.5
1.1
Among those who have essayed to give advice on this subject are
two classes of extremists. One who unduly exalts the value of the nitro-
genous group of nutrients, and, by inference at least, insists that the ra-
tion must have a more or less definite proportion of protein in order to
be adapted to a given purpose, even regardless of convenience or cost.
The other, realizing the unsoundness of this extreme position, is unwill-
ing to concede that any financial benefit will accrue from attempting to
balance the ration to better meet the requirements of the class of animals
to which it is to be fed.
It is not difficult to discover the absurdity of the position of the first
class when corn is worth, delivered to the railroad, from 20 to 25 cento
per bushel — equivalent to $7 to $9 per ton, and corn stover may be had
in abundance for the labor of cutting it, and the extra labor involved in
husking the corn from the shock — amounting all told to not over $1^50
per ton — and when cottonseed meal or linseed meal costs from $20 to
$30 per ton. It is clear that it would be necessary for the balancing of
the ration to exert a profound influence upon its efficiency in order to
meet the increased cost involved. A study of the experimental results
with balanced and unbalanced rations for different classes of stock which
follow in this chapter, while showing a decided and uniform advantage
in favor of the balanced ration, yet fail to show sufficient difference for
most purposes to justify the expense in the particular case noted above.
156 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL RFT'ORT.
Clearly there is no law of nature or nations requiring the feeder to bal-
ance his rations beyond the point of profit.
On the other hand if, as will be clearly shown from the experi-
mental data submitted, there is in practically every situation an oppor-
tunity to so combine materials at hand or materials that may be pur-
chased at a reasonable cost as to practically balance the ration, and in
so doing increase the profits correspondingly, the conservatism and pre-
judice of the other class of extremists must at once yield.
In general the best ration is made of such a combination of food
stuffs as will give the proper proportion'of protein and carbohydrates
for the particular class of animals or the special purpose for which it is
to be used, at the same time that careful attention is given to ithe cost
of the material to be used, the palatability of the ration and the conveni-
ence with which it may be obtained and fed. In short the controlling
factor in making up every ration should be its cost in proportion to its
productiveness, but as has already been stated the taste and appetite of
the animal should be catered to and heed should be given to the adapta-
bility of the ration to the special use to which it is proposed to be put.
A vast majority of the feeders of America find it necessary and profit-
able to use the product of the corn plant as the basis of all rations and
for all classes of stock. It is clear that when feed is to be purchased, it
should, as far as practicable, be selected with reference to supplement-
ing, balancing or adding to the value of the material already on hand,
rather than to purchase more of the same class. For example, it would
not be good business to purchase timothy, kafir corn, sorghum, millet,
or any of the straws to feed with corn and stover, since such a combina-
tion adds nothing to the ration above the sum of digestible nutrients
contained in the two feeds. Whereas, if clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, bran,
middlings, gluten meal, cottonseed meal, or linseed meal be selected to
combine with the corn products, the feeding value of the resulting ration
would be directly increased. As illustrations of the value of combining
such materials with corn products the following results of careful experi-
ments are cited:
Dairy Cows. — ^Jordan* reports the result of an experiment in which
the yield of milk from cows when fed on six pounds of corn daily and
all the timothy hay they would eat was compared with the quantity of milk
obtained from the same cows when fed on a balanced ration consisting
of two pounds corn meal; two pounds of cottonseed meal; and two
pounds of gluten meal together with all the timothy hay they would
eat. Both rations supplied practically the same quantity of digestible-
nutrients, but the proportion of protein was nearly twice as much in
♦Maine State College Annual Report 1893, page 8L
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
157
the mixed grain ration as in the corn meal ration. The results showed
that during the time the cows were fed the balanced ration, they pro-
duced from one-fifth to nearly one-third more milk than when they were
fed on the unbalanced ration, and that the yield of milk solids was
from 30 per cent, to 40 per cent, greater.
Grozving Steers, — ^The results of several years' work with yearling
steers, at the Missouri Experiment Station* are reported, in which a gain
from corn and timothy hay is compared with that from several other ra-
tions, in which the corn was at least partially balanced with cowpea hay,
clover hay, etc. The following tables present a summary of the results :
COMPARISON OF BALANCED AND UNBALANCED RATIONS FOR WINTERING
YEARLING STEERS.
First trial— 1899— 00— 104 days— 4 steers in each lot— 4 pounds of corn per day per head.
Kind of feed.
0-2 1
-a
Total g
lbs
??
I
99
c
. 99
d
• d
: «<
o
dS.
dO
d h,
Corn and timothy hay ,
Oorn and cowpea hay.
1,568
1,568
6,536
7,757
^60
6S4
.64
1.54
6.00
2.51
In this trial the substitution of cowpea hay for the timothy more
than doubled the gain.
Second trial- 1900-01—80 days— 4 steers in each lot— 6 pounds of shelled corn per day pep
head.
Klnd'of feed.
o
m
^
->
d
p
*<
ST '
i'r^
A
2
t-^
; ch
&
1
d
g
<•
d
: "^
H^
(— '
• OQ
s
S
s-
•
•
•
•
•
•
' d
il
• d
Oorn and timothy hay..
Corn and clover hay....
Oorn and millet
Corn and sorghum hay.
1,926
4,543
318
1.00
1,926
5,719
640
2.00
1.926
3,941
119
.37
1,926
4,727
166
.53
6.06
3.01
16.10
11.60
The results of the two experiments are in full accord. Note the
difference in the amount of gain and in the number of pounds of corn
required per pound of gain of the steers that were fed a balanced ration,
in comparison with those which were fed an unbalanced ration of corn
with either timothy hay, millet or sorghum. The corn when fed with
either clover or cowpeas was more than twice as efficient as when com-
bined with any of the other materials named.
*Missouri| Experiment Station— Boardf of Agriculture Bulletins September and October.
158
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Fattening Steers. — Corn is conceded by all authorities to be the best
single grain ration for fattening animals — especially when its low cost is
considered. At the same time the combination of corn with such food
stuffs as will increase the proportion of protein in a ration, will result in a
more rapid gain, as is clearly shown in the following experiments by the
writer :*
COMPARISON OF BALANCED AND UNBALANCED RATIONS FOR FATTENING
STEERS.
First trial— 1899-1900— 119 days— 4 two-year old steers In each lot— full fed on shelled corn.
9
-S'
H
^>
-:?
r^^
2
3'?
o
%^
p'§
O K
B '
. CR
P
H
/-s P
OB
Kind of feed.
: p
, (0
(K5
99
dall
stee
O
P o
d
. go
P
•«
►— '
C
en
y gal
ir, lbs.
p2.
: p
r bush
lbs. . .
a
: p
•
: p
• 2-
Oorn Rnd tlmothv hSiV •
166 2
1,813
1,662
802
1 69
11 51
4 87
Corn H.nd RnwrM^a hav
188 £
1,257
2.64
8.31
A 74
Second trial- 1900— 01— 105 days— 4 two year old steers in each lot— full fed on shelled corn.
Kind of feed.
on D
89
P
OR
<D
S3
- P*
CA CD
: on
• (n
)— <
99
P
i-fcP
a?
oP
(-I'd
Corn and timothy hay,
Oorn and clover hay.. .
Oorn and cowpea hay..
157.5
2,540
789
1.97
n.i9
176.2
4,768
1,135
2.84
8.69
175.3
4,783
1,134
2.84
8.65
5.00
6.44
6.47
These results are worthy of the most careful consideration. Taken
in connection with those reported for yearlings, they indicate that the
combination of clover or cowpeas with corn exerts a profound influence
upon the efficiency of the ration as compared with corn and timothy
hay. It will be noted that with the unbalanced ration of com and tim-
othy, each bushel of corn produced in one trial 4.87 pounds of gain
and 5 pounds in the other, or an average of 4.93 pounds for the two
trials. When, however clover or cowpea hay was substituted for the
timothy, each bushel of corn produced from 6.44 to 6.74 pounds of
gain, or an average of 6.58 pounds — an increase of 1.65 pounds of beef
from each bushel of corn fed. With steers selling at five cents per
pound, this means that the feeder is getting 834 cents a bushel more
for his corn by balancing his ration with some such cheap material as
* ftllssQurl EjKporlment 3 Station— Bo^rd ofj Agriculture Bulletins September and Octobe
1901.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
159
clover or cowpeas. With com at 25 cents or 30 cents a bushel, this
is equivalent to an increase of 25 per cent, to 33 per cent, in the returns
from his feeding operations. On the assumption that one-fifth of the
corn produced in the State is fed to cattle of this class, the increased
profits from balancing the corn would amount to about two and a half
million dollars each year.
Not only is this true, but the steers will command a higher price
on the market by reason of having gotten fatter, of finishing up smoother,
and carrying more bloom. In the case of young cattle the advantage is
not all expressed in increased gain in weight, since the animal, when
v^intered on a balanced ration is in condition to make better growth on
grass or to go into the feed lot and make rapid and economical gains.
Hogs. — ^Plumb* reports the results of a feeding trial with pigs, in
which corn meal was compared with equal parts corn meal and wheat
middlings with the following result:
Kind of feed.
•
Av. daily
gain, lbs.....
Grain per 100
pounds of
gain, lbs
Corn meal
1.55
1.68
4.32
Oorn meal and wheat middlings
4.06
Cottrellf reports the results of a number of experiments in which
Soy Bean meal was used to balance the corn. A summary of these trials
is presented:
•COMPARISON OF BALANCED AND UNBALANCED RATIONS FOR HOGS — SIX
TRIALS.
Kind of feed.
ol
as ^
Cf*
P •
. t
<m
: B*
' P
: o
M.
is
P
- N
§■§.
First trial:
Kafir corn meal, wet
Kafir corn meal four-fifths, Soy Bean meal one-fifth, wet
Second trial:
Kafir corn meal, wet
Kafir com meal four-fifths, Soy Bean meal one-fifth, wet
Third trial:
Kafir corn meal, soaked 48 hours
Kafir com meal two-thirds, Soy Bean meal one-third, soaked 48 hrs
Oorn meal, soaked 48 hours
Oorn meal two- thirds. Soy Bean meal one-third soaked 48 hours.
Fourth trial:
Kafir corn meal, dry
Kafir com meal four-fifths. Soy Bean meal one-fifth, dry
Fifth trial, 50 days:
Kafir com meal, dry
Kafir corn meal four-fifths, Soy Bean meal one-fifth, dry
5
5
1.85
2,12
3
3
1.21
1.73
5
6
5
5
.66
1.15
.74
1.08
10
10
.83
1.55
10
10
.88
1.73
471
409
55fl
408
542
374
484
369
749
468
tsa
435
^Indiana Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 71.
tKansas ExperimentiStation, Bulletin No. 96.
160 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
From the above it is seen that in every case the Soy Bean meal
had the effect of increasing the rate of gain per day and cheapening the
cost of production. Averaging all the work at the Kansas Station, it
was found that the six lots of hogs having Soy Bean meal as a part of
the ration required 411 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain, while
the nineteen lots not having Soy Beans and fed either Kafir com or corn,
required 564 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain.
CORN AS A FEED FOR HORSES.
So much has been said against the feeding of work horses on an
exclusive grain ration of corn that much unreasonable prejudice has
been aroused against its use for all classes of horses. This is especially
true of horse owners of the eastern states and of Europe. While it is
not contended that corn alone should be fed for any great length of time
to horses at work or young growing animals, at the same time it is fun-
damentally true that all things considered it is the most efficient and best
single grain for idle horses and for those performing all classes of
work, and that it must form the basis of the ration for this class of stock
as it does for all others, if due consideration is to be given to the economy
of production. Perhaps the most elaborate experiments on record in
point of number of horses involved and the length of time over which
the observations have extended, are those recently reported by
M. Lavalard* of France. His investigations were begun for
the Paris Omnibus Company with the view of establishing
a rational basis for the feeding of the large number of
horses controlled by them under the different conditions of
work, and have already extended over a period of 25 years,
and later involved saddle horses and light draft horses travelling at a
rapid gait ; horses handling light loads, and heavy draft horses hauling
heavy loads at a slow pace. Altogether the observations have covered
some 16,000 horses belonging to the Omnibus Company, about 17,000
army horses, and 1,000 horses used for heavy freighting. In summing
lip his conclusions with the use of corn, the following should have the
effect of dispelling whatever prejudice may exist against the use of
this feed for all classes of horses.
"Our first experiments were made with Indian corn. They were
undertaken with all kinds of horses and gave most satisfactory results.
The Campagnie generate des voitures and the Campagnie generate des
omnibus began about 1870 to feed Indian corn, and the results were
SQ satisfactory that since that time the first named company has almost
^entirely ceased to feed oats. The latter company has continued to feed
♦Experiment Stayoii Jtecor^, yoj., XII, p. 14,
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 161
both oats and corn, effecting a saving of from 1,000,000 to 1,500.000
francs ($200,000 to $300,000) per year. In view of these facts, the oppo-
nents of com have been forced to admit that it is suitable feed for draft
horses. They have insisted, however, that since it does not contain the so-
called stimulating principle "avenine'' it should not be used for saddle
horses and others where speed is required. Examples of the successful use
of com were cited in the author's earlier publications. The horses of the
French expedition in Mexico were fed exclusively on corn. Our recent
experiments on cavalry and artillery horses have shown that Indian corn
may generally replace oats without in any way causing the horses to
deteriorate. The horses fed a corn ration were used the same number
of hours in the military drill and in the same maneuvers, and were
ridden at the same gait as those fed exclusively on oats, and it was prac-
tically impossible to perceive the least difference between the two
classes. The army officers, prejudiced as they naturally were,
were forced to admit that all the horses showed the same energy
and vigor. A careful record showed that the sickness and mortality
were the same with horses on the two rations.
Corn and oats are quite similar in composition. In experiments
made at the laboratory of the Campagnie generate des omnibus in co-
operation with Muntz, the author found very high co-efficients of diges-
tibility for corn, as shown by the following results: Protein, 86.1; fat,
93.9 ; sugar and starch, 100 ; crude fiber, 82.8, saccharif riable fiber, 86*.9 ;
undetermined substances, 85.2 per cent. These co-efficients show that
the nutritive ingredients of corn are much more assimilable than has
been generally believed in Europe. As regards physical character, oats
contain on an average 70 to 75 per cent, of kernel and 25 to 30 per cent,
of indigestible hull, which resembles straw in composition. The skin
or hull of maize amounts to practically nothing. These facts show why
horses thrive better and are more apt to maintain their weight on corn
than on oats. Our recent experiments have demonstrated that corn can
replace oats in the ration of both cavalry and artillery horses, and if
substituted weight for weight it increases the nutritive value of the
ration. This is the same deduction which was drawn from experiment?,
now more than 25 years old, made for the two great cab companies of
Paris."
Shepperd* compared a ration consisting of equal parts com and
oats, with oats alone, for mules at hard work with the result that the
animals on corn and oats made an average daily gain of seven-tenths
♦North Dale Ota Experiment Statloa, Bulletia No. 45._
162 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
of a pound, while those on oats alone lost six-tenths of a pound. He
estimates that 77.5 pounds of com is worth 100 pounds of oats for
horses at work.
CORN AS A FOOD FOR POULTRY.
For the fattening of all classes of fowls, corn is conceded to be un-
surpassed, but the almost universal advice of poultrymen to eliminate
this material entirely from the ration of laying fowls is perhaps based,
first, upon the notion that the egg contains a large proportion of protein
and, therefore only food stuffs rich in this group of substances can be
used to advantage, and second, doubtless upon the unfavorable results ob-
tained in practice from the exclusive use of corn for this purpose.
Some recent experiments by Brooks and Thompsonf with several
different breeds, in which complete laying records were kept for the
two years covered by the experiment clearly indicate that this prejudice
against corn, when properly combined with other food stuffs, is un-
founded and that by adding a reasonable amount of corn to the ration
a large increase in egg production at a decreased cost will result.
In one trial wheat, oats, bran middlings, animal meal, corn and
corn meal were fed to one lot of 19 pullets, and to another lot of similar
pullets the same ration was given except that the middlings and gluten
feed in the morning mash were replaced by corn meal, and the substitu-
tion of shelled corn was made for about half of the wheat and oats in the
evening feed. The experiments were conducted in both winter and
summer. The results showed that the hens having the larger amount of
corn instead of so much high-priced material, like wheat, middlings,
oats, gluten feed, etc. :
1. Produced from one-fourth to one-third more eggs.
2. At materially less expense for food.
3. That the eggs from the corn fed fowls were of milder flavor and
had a yolk of deeper yellow color.
4. That the fowls thus fed gained in weight despite the increased num-
ber of eggs produced.
5. That on slaughter at the close of the experiment, the fowls fed com
dressed more and were pronounced by an experienced market judge
to be superior to those fed on the higher priced ration.
In another experiment where the corn displaced the wheat and
oats entirely as a night feed, but the ration in other respects was the
same as in the previous trial, the results were even more strikingly
favorable to the use of corn.
tMassachusetts ExperimentlStation, Reports 1899-lUOO.
CORN AS A Stock FOOD. 165
It is not to be concluded from these results that an exclusive
ration of corn would prove satisfactory for this purpose, but that in
the case of laying fowls, as with all other stock, corn, judiciously used,
is the most economical and profitable food stuff available. For the
greatest profit in any feeding operation, it must form the basis of the
ration.
THE MORE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF THE CORN STOVER.*
The second most important way in which the value of the com crop
may be increased to the farmer is in the more complete utilization
of the corn stover.
It is estimated that between 80 and 90 million tons of stover are
produced on the 80,000,000 acres normally planted to corn in the United
States each year. The magnitude of this annual crop of roughness will
be more fully appreciated when we consider that the annual hay crop
of the. United States is between 60 and 70 million tons, and is estimated
to have a money value on the farm of something like $500,000,000.
While the stover is carefully harvested and fed in the more densely
populated states of the East, it is nevertheless true that in the great corn
belt of the Middle West, where more than half of the com of the nation
is produced, there is a prodigious and profligate waste of this valuable
material. In this section valuable land is used for the production of
timothy hay upon every farm to be used for roughness, and acres' of
corn stover are allowed to go almost entirely to waste.
It is safe to estimate that something like seven million tons of corn
stover are produced in Missouri in the average year. Certainly three and
a half million tons or one-half of all that is produced is allowed to go
to waste. A better idea of the meaning of this waste may be formed
when it is realized that the average hay crop of the State is very little
more than three million tons and is estimated to have a value on the farm
of over twenty million dollars.- It is safe to estimate that half of this
hay crop is timothy — a material that supplies the same class of nutrients
found in corn stover, as is clearly shown a little later.
*The corn plant after the ear Is removed.
166
MiSSOtjRi AGRICULTURAL REFOkt.
COMPARISON OF NUTRIENTS IN EAR AND STOVER.
According to the investigation of Armsby* and others, the digesti-
ble nutrients of the entire com plant are distributed between the ear
and the stover about as follows :
en
s
Protein
Carbohydrates .
Fat
Total.
Per cent.
327
244
3.774
2.301
147
125
4,248
2,670
100
63
83
1,473
22
1,578
37
*Pennsylvania Experiment Station. Report 1887.
These results indicate that approximately 63 per cent, or practi-
cally two-thirds of the digestible material of the entire crop is lodged
in the ear, and about 37 per cent, or a little more than one-third, is
found in the stover.
The corn grower, perhaps, does not realize when he harvests and
utilizes only the ears, that he wilfully wastes more than one-third of
the crop that he has been at the pains of growing.
COMPOSITION OF CORN STOVER COMPARED WITH TIMOTHY HAY.*
I IP
• M a:
: &0
: * <
••15
Water free substance.
«3
: ®
OB
D Be
09
op t-*ti
o OS-
es ►aB
• oo
■ooji
Water '. 1 40.1
Ash 3.4 I
Fiber 19.1 '
Fat * 1.1 i
Protein 3.8
Nitrogen free extract ' 31.9
5.7
33.0
1.7
64
53.2
7.9
30.6
1.9
8.6
51.0
3.6
34.8
1.6
5.9
54.1
3.5
3S.2
1.4
5.0
57.9
5.1
33.5
2.9
6.8
51.7
* Lindsey, U. S. Year Book. 1896.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 169
AMOUNT OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN A TON OF STOVER* AND A TON OF
TIMOTHY, COMPARED. t
i
t
1
1
Op '
; o :
: < ;
; CD
w
1 •«
Fiber l
153.7 2(
13 6 S
53.1 f
>44.6 5e
Mt.l
Fat
».1
*
Protein
^5.4
Nitrofiren free extract • t
)H 6
Total J
164.9 9^
t8,2
* Stover computed on basis of 20 per cent moisture.
It is safe to discount these figures for the coarse rank growing
stover of Missouri, for experience teaches that this material is not so
palatable and probably not so digestible as the smaller and finer
stover produced in the north.
At the same time, the results of all experiments and of experience
abundantly prove that even this coarse stover has a feeding value that
would fully justify the labor, pains and expense of harvesting and
feeding it. The waste of this food that occurs in many sections from
merely topping the stalk, leaving the blades below the ear and the
husks to waste, is not from any point of view justifiable or economical,
much less the more common practice all through the corn belt, which
includes Missouri, of allowing most of the corn to stand in the field
until harvested, and of allowing all of the stover to waste except the
little that the stock may eat in gleaning the stalk fields late in the sea-
son.
THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN STOVER.
The results of experiments by the Missouri Station extending
over six years, with yearling and two-year old steers, both with
and without grain, will enable us to form a fair estimate of the
feeding value of this material as compared with timothy hay, which
is accepted as the commercial standard of all rough fodders. In
all of these trials, large coarse stover from cqrn yielding 6o to
70 bushels of grain per acre was used. It was -allowed to stand
in the open field in what is commonly known as "sixteen hill
square shocks," until required for feeding, and was fed whole. The
timothy was harvested when the seed was in the dough state, and
the hay was either preserved in the mow or in large ricks. Un-
tLlndsey. U. S. Year Book, 1896.
170
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
doubtedly the smaller stover of the north or the finer material grown
especially for fodder, >yould show a higher palatability and feeding
value, but it is this coarse stover which is mainly wasted, and the
results of these experiments are therefore directly applicable to the
ordinary conditions of the State.
COMPARISON OF FEEDING VALUE OF STOVER AND TIMOTHY.
Yearling steers— no grain— results computed on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight-
three years' worlt:
OQ OD
p* ge
First trial :
Timothy hay
Whole corn stover.
Second trial :
Timothy hay
Whole corn stover.
Third trial:
Timothy hay
Whole corn stover.
Average :
Timothy hay
Whole corn stover.
16.5
26.5
23
35
14.1
19.5
22.3
22.9
18.6
44.7
18.7
17.5
2L7
28.9
12
42
17.8
82.6
dO.2
25.8
17.9
40.6
16.9
19.9
29
*2
21.7
*11.8
30.8
13.8
30.7
00.0
♦Denotes loss in weight.
From these results it appears that when corn stover alone was
fed, the animals neither gained nor lost in weight, averaging the
three years' work, while those having all the timothy hay they would
eat made a slight gain. More dry matter was uniformly consumed
per day by the steers on stover, and a considerably larger proportion
of the material fed was refused than in the case of the timothy. Tak-
ing all these facts into consideration, it is safe to estimate that ton
for ton, stover has approximately half the feeding value of timothy
hay when each is used as an exclusive ration. That it is not good
business policy, however, to winter cattle in this way in the ordinary
season, will be accepted without argument.
INCREASING THE VALUE OF STOVER.
That it is easy to so increase the value of stover by combining
it with some such material as clover, cowpea hay or alfalfa, that it will
even exceed timothy when the timothy is fed alone or in combination
with corn, will be perfectly clear from the results of further trials at
the Missouri Experiment Station.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD.
171
COMBINATION OF STOVER AND CLOVER COMPARED WITH TIMOTHY.
Yearling steers— no grain*— results computed on a basis of 1,000 pounds live weight:
Kind of feed.
Food eaten
daily per
head
Per cent re-
fused
Dry m a t-
ter eaten
daily, lbs..
Gain in
weight per
steer
Timothy hay
21.7
25.2
12
28
17.8
21.6
30.8
Eaual Darts whole corn stover and clover hav
58 4
In this case a ton of stover and a ton of clover hay when fed
together fully equalled two tons of timothy.
Other trials in which a small amount of shelled corn was added
to the ration, fully confirm these results as follows:
1899— yearling steers— 104 days— 4 steers in each lot— 4 pounds corn per head per day.
Kind of feed.
Q
o
p
»
CD
a
W M
p
n
CR
CD
a
I
I— '
>
CO
(W
Q
&»?
CD
O
n
Corn and timothy hay
Corn, clover hay and corn stover.
1,568
1,568
6,536
*3,f>fl3l
t3,63lf
260
356
.64
.88
6.00
4.40
1900— yearling steers— 80 days— 4 steers in each lot— 6 pounds corn per head per day.
Kind of feed.'
Q
O
a
CD
CD
Corn and timothy hay
Corn, clover and corn stover.
1,926
1,926
♦Clover hay».
tOorn stover.
p
n
CD
r*
CD
P
4,543
*3,619(.
t2.298f
o
SO
>—'
99
CD
318
443
en
1.00
1.35
SO tt
p p
i
?
p
p
p.
6.06
4.45
172
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
FATTENING STEERS.
COMPARISON OF TIMOTHY WITH EQUAL PARTS CORN STOVER AND CLOVER
HAY FOR STEERS ON FULL FEED.
ISW—t-wo year old steers— 119 days— 4 steers in each lot— full feed of shelled corn:
Kind of feed.
Q
o
B
5|
OB Ci
ts'
ts
I
»— '
8B
8D
tP
Q
8D8B
P p
GO »rt
P
P
OS*
OD
p S
hi
cr
P
P*
Oorn and timothy hay
Oorn, clover hay and corn stover.
166
186
3,813
1tl,889
80SS
917
1.69
1.94
11.51
U.S9
4.87
4.96
1900— two year old steers— 105 days— 4 steers in each lot— full feed of corn:
Kind of feed.
Q
S
P
»
p
C
P
oq
P-
P
o
3
p
o
I— '
oq
s
-5"
P
PP
Pp
» ►i
*a
o
P
p
OP
o
P (0
cr
Oorn and timothy
Oorn, clover and corn stover.
167
176
2,640
j*a,475j.
j+ 868f
789
1.140
1.97
2.85
11.19
8.30
5.00
6.74
Thus it appears in every case, whether fed without grain, with
a small allowance of grain, or on full feed ; whether with yearlings or
aged cattle; a combination of corn stover and clover hay proved
superior to timothy hay. In other words, the farmer is able by this
means to make the stover serve every purpose in cattle feeding at
least, for which timothy is now used. Under these circumstances it
is fair to say that timothy and stover have at least equal feeding
values. It is quite probable that where such hays as clover, alfalfa
and cowpeas are not available, a small quantity of cottonseed meal,
linseed meal, gluten meal, or bran may serve the same purpose and
a'ccomplish the same result, viz.: of enabling the feeder to use his
stover to the best possible advantage, and as a complete substitute
for timothy. It is needless to say that the accomplishment of this
♦Olover hay.
tOorn stover.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 173
result would be attended by an immense increase in the net returns
from the corn crop. The annual stover crop of the United States
would then represent a valuation to the farmer of something like
three quarters of a billion dollars. Missouri's stover crop would under
these circumstances bring the feeder something over forty million
dollars eyery year. No farmer would willfully permit the waste of
his timothy crop after it had been grown and required only to be
harvested to be available as a feed. There is in the light of the re-
sults of the foregoing experiments quite as little justification for the
waste of his stover.
SILOING vs. FIELD CURING.
The* practice of preserving the green corn plant in the gilo has
grown rapidly in favor, especially with the dairy farmer.
It commends itself on the ground that :
1. A large quantity of material may be stored in a comparatively
small space.
2. Green and succulent food is thereby provided for the winter
months.
3. The green plant is more palatable, the coarser parts of the
stalk being much more completely consumed when made
into silage.
4. The harvesting is done during the pleasant weather in the
early fall, and the drudgery of handling dry stover in
winter is obviated.
5. It is cheaper on the whole than to be at the expense of husk-
ing and grinding the ears and cutting and shredding the
stover. It does not appear to affect the digestibility of
the material favorably or unfavorably.
COMPARISON OF THE FEEDING VALUE OF SILAGE AND FIELD CURED CORN
FODDER.
Experiments have been made at the Vermont and Wisconsin
Stations, in which two rows of corn across the field were cut and
placed in shocks, while the next two were run through the feed
cutter and placed in the silo. By thus alternating until the silo was
filled, equal quantities of material cut at the same time and from the
same field were obtained. The field cured fodder was later run
through the feed cutter and fed in comparison with silage, to dairy
cows, with equal quantities of hay and grain,*
^Henry's Feeds and Feeding.
174 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
"The results at the Vermont Station were as follows :
14,262 pounds green fodder corn, when dried, fed with a uniform
daily allowance of hay and grain, produced 7,688 pounds of milk.
14,262 pounds green fodder corn converted into silage, and fed
with the same daily ration of hay and grain, produced 8,525 pounds
of milk.
At the Wisconsin Station the results were:
From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 24,440 pounds
of silage, which, fed with 1,648 pounds of hay and 2,884 pounds of
grain, produced 7,496 pounds of milk, containing 340.4 pounds of fat.
From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 7,330 pounds
of field cured fodder corn, which, fed with 1,567 pounds of hay and
2,743 pounds of grain, produced 7,119 pounds of milk, containing
318.2 pounds of fat.
At the Vermont Station the silage ration produced 837 pounds
01 II per cent more milk than was obtained from the dry fodder
ration.
At the Wisconsin Station the silage ration yielded 377 pounds
more milk and 22 pounds more fat — a difference in favor of silage
of 5 per cent in milk and 6 per cent in fat."
LOSSES IN THE SILOING AND FIELD CURING PROCESSES.
Whether the changes which occur in the silo be due to the activity
of certain ferments, as has been held for a long time, or whether the re-
sults of recent investigations, indicating that these changes are mainly
due to respiratory processes which continue as long as the plant cells
live, be accepted, the more important fact to the feeder remains un-
altered, that these changes are accompanied by a material loss of
organic matter, and that such loss is largely proportionate to the
amount of oxygen or air admitted to the mass. That the more per-
fectly the mass be compacted, and the more nearly air-tight the silo,
the less the loss. The necessary, or at least unavoidable loss under
practical conditions, seems to be approximately 15 per cent of dry
matter — that is the feeder takes out of the silo between one- seventh
and one-sixth less dry matter than he puts in. It is moreover true
that the loss falls most heavily on the sugars which are more or less
completely converted into acids. To some extent, changes occur in
the nitrogenous compounds, which affect adversely their feeding
value.
Attention has been sharply drawn to these losses in preserving
silage, with the result that many have been deterred from adopting
this system. Careful inquiries in a number of states into the losses
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 175
accompanying the field curing process, amply justify the conclusion
that under the most iavorable conditions they are quite as large as in
the siloing system, and under ordinary circumstances are considerably
larger. The loss in feeding the dry fodder — the uneaten portion of
the stalk — must be added to the unavoidable loss in field curing. In
the experiments already quoted with coarse stover, this loss
amounted to approximately 40 per cent of the total weight of fresh
substance fed, while in the same experiment less than 8 per cent of
the silage was refused. While this portion of the plant is not perhaps
as digestible, and certainly not as palatable as the portion eaten, yet
experiments by Jordan and Paterson show that a considerable amount '
of digestible matter is contained in the lower half of the stalk, which
is available to the animals if they can be induced by any practical
means to consume it. In overcoming this loss, or in inducing the ani-
mals to eat practically all of the plant, lies perhaps the greatest
single benefit to be derived from siloing.
Finally, the advantage of silage over field cured material to the
dairyman, has been proven by an abundance of practical experience.
Experiments at the Missouri Station clearly indicate that for winter-
ing stock cattle of all classes, it possesses decided advantages over the
field curing system. For cattle on full feed, the testimony is conflict-
ing, and there is yet some doubt as to whether it is feasible under or-
dinary circumstances to feed steers that are carrying considerable
flesh very much silage. For sheep, its value is already well recog-
nized.
SILAGE vs. ROOTS.
Many feeders concede the necessit)?^ of some succulent food dur-
ing the winter months, who, however, insist that some one of the
root crops is more satisfactory than silage, basing their opinion upon
the belief that a larger yield of dry, digestible matter may be produced
with roots than with corn, and that the roots have a materially
higher feeding value. It will not be contended that an acre of roots
can be grown, harvested and fed as cheaply as an equal area of corn.
On the contrary the results of careful experiments and the most re-
liable estimates from experienced and successful growers indicate that
an acre of roots will cost under the most favorable circumstances fully
three times as much as an acre of corn.
From an experiment extending over three years at the Pennsyl-
vania Station by the writer*, it was found that the yield of digestible
matter in mangels or suger beets was on the average about half that
• Pennsylvania State College, Annual Report 1898.
176
MISSOURI AGR1CUI.TURAL REPORT.
of corn. In other words, it required approximately two acres of
beets to be equivalent in this respect to one acre of corn. Attention
is invited to the following table showing the comparative yield of
corn and roots at a number of the stations:
YIELD OF DRY MATTEB FEB ACBE OF ROOTS AND GREEN FODDER CORN
FOUR STATIONS.!
Maine
Station.
g*
Q
*^
o
a
P
CO
C
B
*1
CO
PennsylvaniH
Station.
w
o
<t
P
on
C3*
on
P
P
fi
a
B
SB
c+
(t>
*1
on
Ohio
Station
^
O
'i
9
(t>
P
00
p
p
o
a
B
a*
CO
Ontario.
Q
p
QD
c
sr
P
ri
CO
B
p
<l>
'1
cr
OB
Rutabagas..
Mangels
Turnips
Sugar beets.
Fodder corn
31.605
15,375
28.500
17,645
39,615
3,415
1,613
2,559
2.590
5,580
42,780
55.320
46,120
32,663
41,172
16,177
•
2.382
31.5C0
3.000
11,436
18,591
2,010
5,522
6,000
4,877
5,034
4,382
4,737
8,135
In view of the fact, therefore, that beets are fully three fold more
expensive to grow, and yield only about half as much digestible mat-
ter, it would be necessary for them to possess approximately six times
the feeding value of com silage, per pound of digestible matter, in
order to establish even a parity between the two classes of feeds.
Careful experiments, however, in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Ver-
mont, show beyond question that there is little or no difference be-
tween the feeding value of the dry matter of the two feeds, and
the small difference was found to be uniformly in favor of the silage.
From every point of view, therefore, the great disadvantage of root
crops in competition with corn is perfectly apparent.
SOILING.
No plant now known to us equals corn in its adaptability
to the soiling system. Varieties may be selected which will yield a
continuous crop of succulent food, mature enough to have a high feed-
ing value, from the middle of June until the severe frosts of autumn.
The practice of relying upon corn almost exclusively from the tini^
+Henry's Feeds and Feeding.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 177
the earliest variety can be brought to a reasonable state of maturity,
until the close of the season, is well founded and fully justified by the
results of scientific research. Corn has the advantage of yielding a
larger quantity of digestible matter per acre at less cost than any
ether crop suited to soiling, and furthermore it may be harvested,
handled and fed more conveniently than any of the other crops used,
and has a higher feeding value.
The problem with those who follow this system is to find some
plant to cover the period of early spring before corn can be brought
to maturity. In the solution of this problem it has been found that
corn silage kept over from the preceding season will answer this pur-
pose more fully and more satisfactorily than any crop- that can be
grown at that season of the year. Thus the corn plant lends itself
to the farmer who by reason of limited area and high-priced land is
forced to produce the largest possible quantity per acre, quite as well
as to the farmer on the broad fertile prairies of the west where the
greatest possible number of acres must be managed by one man.
PREPARATION OF CORN FOR FEEDING.
Steaming, Cooking, Etc. — ^Upon this point Prof. Jordan has
summed up the results of the investigations and practical experience as
follows :*
"Much labor and expense have been expended by farmers in
giving to feeding stuffs special treatment, such as wetting, steaming,
cooking and fermenting, in order to secure a supposed increase in
nutritive value, an increase which must come chiefly, if at all, from
a more complete digestion. It is plainly noticeable that these methods
of feeding have lost in prevalence rather than gained. Practice does
not seem to have permanently ratified them, and, so far as digestibility
is concerned, this outcome is in accordance with the results of scien-
tific demonstration. The conclusions of German experimenters have
been that these special treatments have no favorable influence, their
effect being either imperceptible or unfavorable.
German and American experiments unite in condemning the cook-
ing of foods already palatable, because this causes a marked depres-
sion of the digestibility of the protein, with no compensating advan-
tages. Digestion trials with cooked or steamed hays, silage, lupine
seed, cornmeal and wheat bran, and roasted cotton seed, uniformly
♦Jordan. The Feeding of Animals.
A-ia
178 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
show their protein to be notably less digestible than that in the original
materials, a fact which may explain the lessened productive value of
cooked grains which has been observed in certain experiments. It
must be conceded, of course, that when cooking feeding stuflFs by
steaming or otherwise renders them more palatable, and thereby
makes possible the consumption of material otherwise wasted, the
influence upon digestibility is a minor consideration."
A large number of careful experiments have been made in this
country with corn on hogs with results unfavorable to cooking. Corn
was either shelled or ground and in some cases a mixture of corn meal
and middlings was used. In most cases the raw food was more effi-
cient than the same food carefully cooked. Averaging all the trials,
476 pounds of uncooked meal or grain were required for 100 pounds
gain while after it was cooked 505 pounds were required for the same
gain.
Grinding. — Experiments indicate that corn when ground into
meal or the grain and cob crushed together will be somewhat more diges-
tible than when fed whole. The difference, however, is so small that when
corn is very cheap the increased efficiency may not meet the expense of
grinding.
The following concise advice from Professor Henry is com-
mended :*
"This subject is a difficult one to discuss owing to the great va-
riety of conditions existing as to both grain and animals. Directions
are here given which may serve to guide the feeder in his practice. For
horses which are out of the stable during the day and worked hard,
all grain, with the possible excep.tion of oats should be ground. For
those at extremely hard work, all grain should be ground and mixed
with chaffed hay. For idle horses oats or corn should not be ground,
nor need the hay or straw be chaffed. A cow yielding a large flow of
milk should be regarded as a hard working animal and her feed pre-
pared accordingly. Fattening steers and pigs may be crowded more
rapidly witL meal than with whole grain, though there is more danger
attendant upon its use. Sheep worth feeding can always grind their
own grain. In general, idle animals and those having ample time for
mastication, rumination and digestion do not need their grain or
roughage prepared as carefully as do those with only limited time for
these essential operations. Ejcperiments quite generally show in-
creased gains from grinding grain, but in many cases -they are not
sufficient to pay the cost of grinding."
♦Henry. Feeds and Feeding.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 179
It is believed that it will pay to grind or crush corn for calves,
colts and all young cattle in the average season, particularly if they are
to be fed strong, and it will undoubtedly pay to prepare corn in this
v/ay for dairy cows in any season. It is not believed that the cob has
any considerable nutritive value, but it seems to have a very favorable
effect upon the mechanical condition of the grain in the stomach of the
animal. For steers .two years old and over, with hogs healthy and
bringing a good price it is very doubtful if any preparation, except
shelling toward the close of the feeding period in winter, or shelling
and soaking for 12 hours in summer on grass, will be profitable in
the average season. For hogs the value of the food may be increased
by soaking a few hours provided care is taken to feed it sweet. A
number of experiments on this point indicate that the soaked feed is
about 7 per cent, more efficient than the same material fed dry. This
appears to be about as much gain s^s will be derived from grinding.
Soaking in warm weather is much cheaper than grinding. It should
not under any circumstances be fed in a- thin slop, but should be thick
enough to cause the animals to chew the food rather than attempt to
drink it.
SHREDDING OR CUTTING STOVER.
The recent perfecting of machinery for husking the corn and
shredding and ricking the stover at one operation, and at a slight
advance in cost over the ordinary expense of husking shock corn by
hand has brought this method of preparing the stover into much
prominence.
The experiments intended to compare the feeding value of
shredded and whole fodder have yielded very conflicting results.
Shelton* experimented three years with cut and uncut stover for cows,
and found that instead of most of the cut fodder being eaten, an aver-
age of 31 per cent, was refused. In one experiment it was observed
that the finer it was cut the larger the proportion refused by the cows.
He summed^ up his experience as follows: "I am abundantly satis-
fied from accurate experiments made to test the point, and from a large
general experience, that the chief, almost only, value of cutting fodder
is found in the fact that such chopped fodder can be placed in the
manger and generally handled much more conveniently than the un-
chopped."
Experiments with shredded and whole stover at the Missourf
Experiment Station by the writer, extending over two years with
^Kansas Experiment|Station. Report 1889.
180
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
3'earling steers in which the stover was in each case the sole feed, showed
the following :
Method of preparation.
Eaten per head
per day, lbs ...
CD (S
^-
CD
o
a
••
Dry matter
eaten
Gain or loss in
weight
First trial:
Whole stover
Shredded stover
22.9
19.1
28.9
22.1
25.8
20.6
44.7
39.1
42.0
33.0
40.6
B6.0
17.5
17.8
22.6
18.5
19.9
18.1
♦11.8
*15.6
Second trial:
Whole stover
Shredded stover
13.8
*7.7
Average:
Whole stover
00.0
Shredded stover
*11.6
♦Denotes loss in weight. '^
These results show that almost as much of the shredded stover
was refused as of the whole stover, the percentage being 36 for the
shredded and 40 for the unshredded ,or 720 pounds per ton of shredded
and 800 pounds for the whole stover.
In no case did the steers do as well on the shredded as on the
whole stover, and in every instance the whole stover was more palat-
able. This appears to be accounted for by the fact that when the
material is offered in its natural condition the animals have an oppor-
tunity to select the portions they prefer and discard the coarser and
unpalatable parts, whereas in the case of the shredded stover the
blades, husks, etc., are so intermingled that no opportunity is offered
for selection. On the contrary, Henry* reports three trials with cows
in which the results were quite favorable to shredding in point of
yield of milk and the completeness with which the stover was eaten.
The cows were fed grain and hay in addition -to the stover. It is pos-
sible that the smaller stover of the north would be much more com-
pletely eaten in any case than will the coarse stalks of the south. The
reports by conservative farmers who have tried the shredding are like-
wise conflicting, many claiming that practically all of the shredded
material is consumed while others find no benefit in this direction.
It must be conceded that when the corn can be husked and the
stover shredded at practically the usual cost of husking the corn, the
practice must commend itself to every farmer on account of the greater
convenience with which the material may be fed, and the preservation
of the material in the mow or rick. But to be at the expense of shred-
* Wisconsin Experiment Station. Report 1886.
CORN AS A STOCK FOOD. 181
ding the stover after the corn is husked, would in all probability be
unprofitable.
Shredding fodder undoubtedly relieves the farmer of some very
disagreeable work in handling the coarse stalks in bad weather, over-
comes the necessity of digging the material out of the snow in winter
and makes it possible to feed the material in the barn and use the
portion refused by the stock for bedding. The manure may be handled
much more conveniently, and in short the greatest drudgery of winter
feeding is removed.
On the other hand, the farmer with the regular force he would
probably keep in any case can handle the fodder crop without addi-
tional cost or outlay if it be fed whole, whereas ijE it be shredded or
siloed the work is concentrated into a few days and much extra labor
must be hired for the purpose. This is the chief argument against
shredding, especially since the results of the experiments already
quoted fail to show an increased feeding value due to the process.
Finally it seems safe to say that corn fodder is too cheap in the
ordinary year and likely to be too cheap in the great corn belt for
many years to come to warrant the expenditure of much money in
increasing its feeding value. The investment of this extra money in
saving more fodder will likely pay better than putting it on the amount
that is now ordinarily cut.
182 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
SOME LESSONS FROM EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
By F. B. Mumford, Professor of Agriculture University of Missouri.
In comparing the systems and practices of agriculture of America
with those of Europe one must continually bear in mind some funda-
mental differences. In Europe the farmer is confronted by certain
conditions which determine his methods of farming. First, the high
price of products, second, nearness to market, third, cheap labor,
fourth, the small holdings, and fifth high priced lands. We find in
these conditions the explanation of many practices which to the aver-
age American farmer seem impracticable and possibly primitive. Thus
it happens that we find in all European countries hand labor is univer-
sally' employed, and moreover for the production of aH farm crops far
more labor is expended than is the case in the United States. It is
perfectly safe to say that the amount of hand labor expended in the
production of a bushel of wheat is at least twice and probably three
times that required for the production of the same quantity in this
country. It is, therefore, easy to understand how it is possible for
the cultivators of the soil to employ cheap labor for the production of
high priced products and secure profit therefrom. In America on the.
other hand, far removed from the great markets of the world and con-
fronted with the conditions of scarcity of labor, and dear labor at
that, we find practices and methods in vogue which seem to the Euro-
pean farmer wasteful and extravagant.
One of the first facts of importance observed by the American
farmer is the general absence of improved machinery. A very large
per cent, of the hay in Europe is still cut with the scythe and most of
this is raked by hand. The sickle is still a common instrument for
harvesting grain crops. On the smaller holdings many acres are still
spaded by hand, and the hoe is a more widely used implement than
the plow. The barn buildings and the whole equipment of the farm
leaves one with the impression that human labor is counted cheap
There are few conveniences. The American farmer has been com-
pelled to employ improved machinery. One man on a western farm,
supplied with the improved machinery in common use does the work
of at least five men on the small farms in Europe. If we keep con-
stantly in mind these widely different conditions it will be easier for us
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 183
to discuss intelligently the practices which we find prevailing in the
various countries of Europe.
HOIXAND.
Probably no country with equal area in the world supports so
many domestic animals per acre as Holland. In riding over the dairy
districts in Holland one is impressed with the fact that almost the
entire country is laid down to grass. The author saw very little grain
of any sort. The farms are low, flat and in some cases marshy ; but
generally the canals and ditches drain away all surplus water. The
farms, in many cases, are below the level of the sea, the sea being held
back by huge dikes. The land is drained by canals at regular inter-
vals and the water from these canals is pumped out by quaint wind
mills. Hundreds and thousands of wind mills meet the eye on every
hand. The land itself is very low sandy land and naturally almost
barren. The Dutch farmer has by constant attention to dairy farming
and the purchase of foods rich in nitrogen, succeeded in building up
this thin land to a point where its productiveness is not excelled by the
same area any where in the world. The water so near the surface
makes this ideal grassland and so we find magnificent pastures. One
is struck at the absence of fences, but here as elsewhere cheap labor
solves the problem. The older women and children tend the flocks
and herds while the able bodied men and women are employed in
heavy field labor.
In many cases the canals are the line fences. Groups of willow
trees ab<^ut the farmstead and the ever present wind mill tend to
relieve the otherwise dull monotony of a flat and featureless land-
scape. Many of the canals are lined on either side by rows of willow
trees. As a rule, the 'farmers live in small villages adjoining their
farms. These villages are made up of red tiled roofs, of quaint wind
mills and shady streets, and all of these combined presents to the eye
the choicest bit of rural scenery to be found in Europe.
The wagons used on the farms in Holland are very heavy and
rudely built affairs, often without poles. One can see how these
might be used for an absolutely flat meadow or other farm field, but
they certainly could not be used on the fine macadam roads one every
where sees in this country. Still it is hard to understand why farmers
persist in using an implement which must be inconvenient to guide
and impossible to back. I have seen on the streets in Holland some
very elaborate farm wagons, decorated with carved wood and very
neatly painted. These seemed to be reserved for holiday occasions.
A novel sight to most Americans is the large number of women
184 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
employed in the fields and generally bearing heavy burdens. Some
of the kinds of work which the author has seen performed by women
are: raking hay, pitching wheat, digging potatoes, hoeing, pulling
sugar beets and mangels and doing all the work connected with thresh-
ing grain. Many times I have noticed threshing machines at work and
all the workers, except, perhaps, the feeder, were women.
The hand implements in general use are large, rudely constructed
and very awkward. The scythes all have straight snathes and. require
much bending of the back to manipulate in an efficient manner. The
hoes especially are very heavy and are well calculated to produce
Millet's purely imaginative conception, "The Man With the Hoe."
American agriculture is indebted to Holland for that magnificent
breed of cattle, the Holstein Friesian. These cattle have been de-
veloped upon the rich productive lowlands above described, and there
is evidence on every hand to show that they have yielded to their
owners' comfort, prosperity and happiness.
GERMANY.
The farmers of Germany are unquestionably among the most success-
ful cultivators of the soil in the world. Whether we consider their intelli-
gent efforts directed toward the selection of varieties adapted to vary-
ing soils and peculiar climatic conditions of a particular locality, or
whether we measure his skill by the scientific accuracy with which he
saves and judiciously applies barnyard manure, we must accord him a
place well toward the front in the ranks of the progressive modern
farmer. In making this statement it is to be understood that it ap-
plies only to the production of farm and garden crops and not to the
breeding- and feeding of live stock. The farming lands of Germany
in many localities have been cultivated for centuries and for much
of that time undoubtedly they have been imperfectly cultivated and
their resources exhausted. But in more recent times the German far-
mer has learned what we in America have not yet learned with any de-
gree of definiteness, namely, that there are soils and districts espe-
cially adapted for the production of special crops and that these crops
and soils require special and peculiar treatment in order that their
fertility may be conserved and maximum crops be secured. Thus we
find on the sandy lands of the north potatoes and sugar beets to be
largely grown ; in the soils farther south, in Saxony,* we find more
diversified agriculture, wheat, rye, clover and also potatoes are the
chief crops." But here, as in Holland, we find on many of the
smaller holdings that much of the labor is still performed by hand,
and even on the larger estates they have not yet come to a point
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 185
where they fully appreciate the value of the many labor saving con-
trivances well known and used by the American farmer. For ex-
ample on examination of some of the larger and most noted estates
ill Saxony the author did not find a single hay rigging for unloading
hay into the barn.
In Saxony, as in most other portions of the German Empire, we
find that the picturesque villages with their plastered houses and tiled
covered roofs mark the earthly abiding place of tJic German peasant.
The isolation of American country life is here unknown, either in
. Northern or in Southern Germany. In the Province of Bavaria the far-
mers do not live in houses upon the land which they cultivate, but al-
ways in villages. In every village the most conspicious building is
the "Gasthof" or country inn, and here the country people gather
nightly to discuss the events of the day. Generally these public
houses are the scene of the feast day frolics so common in rural Ger-
many, and the measured tread of the country lads and lassies, the
A Holat«1n Frieslun dairy berd In Saxony.
sweet music and the gay shouts and laughter, all combine to drive
dull care away. The front doors of the farm house , of the barn, and
of all other farm buildings open into the general court yard which
corresponds clo'sely in character, use and odor to the average Amer-
ican barnyard. Here the ambitious German goose marches in stately
grandeur or peers with ludicrous curiosity at the unwelcome intruder.
The manure pile is generally in the middle of this barnyard and
enclocsed with a pole fence and in this enclosure cows and young
186 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
cattle are turned daily for what little exercise they get. Pasturing is
little practiced in Germany. The soiling system is every where
the custom. The grain crops are cut and carried to the cattle and
often also to the sheep throughout the year.
But the farmer ol Saxony, however successful he may be as a cul-
tivator of the soil, is not an unalloyed success as .a feeder and breeder
of live stock, A careful study of the fat cattle slaughtered at some
of the greater slaughter houses revealed the fact that most of the
prime beef consumed in this region comes from oxen that have
served an apprenticeship at the plow, and half fat cattle of the beef,
milk ajid work type. I saw no where fat cattle that could hope to
"Onmauy of the smaller estates the only dmft aolmals fmployea are milking cows."
win a prize at a county fair in this country in the fat stock class.
With two notable exceptions, the character of the farm live stock of
this region is decidedly common. The exceptions are swine and the
mutton wool type of the Merino sheep. The swine, particularly those
bred by the larger farmers, are of unquestionable merit. They combine
the early maturing and rapid fattening qualities of some of our best
American breeds with the characters which are most desirable in the
bacon hog, as nearly as such a combination is possible, and to a
greater extent than any breed known to the writer. The large York-
shire variety has been quite extensively imported from England
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 187
and is very popular. The .American Poland China has been tried to a
limited extent, but has not found much favor. The mutton wool
type of Merino is the most popular sheep and after a personal exami-
nation of several breeding flocks numbering from one hundred to four
hundred I am convinced that the sheep breeders have succeeded in de-
veloping a most useful type of sheep for the general farmer.
The dual purpose cow in Germany becomes a triple purpose ani-
mal, so constituted as to produce milk, beef or labor as demanded by
the special requirements of the individual owner. On many of the
smaller estates the only draft animals employed are milking cows.
In one place the writer saw a cow, evidently in full milk, drawing
" Work Is aecompllshsd on cha larger estates almost eotlrely b; oxen. "
feed for her own nutrition and later saw her drawing her own milk
to market. The cow becomes a very useful animal to the smaller
peasant, when she not only furnishes food to the family, but is com-
pelled to help produce the food she herself eats and then transport her
own product to market.
Work is accomplished on the larger estates almost entirely by
oxen, and .these, on the best estates, are almost invariably of. the hardy
and powerful Simmenthalcr breed. The yokes are applied as shown
in the illustration to the foreheads of the animals and generally con-
sist of a band of iron three or four inches wide, under which and be-
tween it and the forehead is placed a padded cushion. These yokes
appear to be entirely comfortable and seem capable of permitting the
animal to exert his full power. They are usually driven in pairs, but
188 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
as shown in this illustration they may sometimes be driven three
attreast.
On the larger estates in Germany the managers have solved the
problem of utiHzing waste products more successfully than is tlie
case in this country. A large, modern farm in Germany is an en-
terprise, including many divisions and departments. During the
month of November, 1900, the writer visited a farm of some distinc-
tion in Saxony under the control of Mr. Schirmer of Neuhaus. This
^^ ft
estate is not far from Delitzsch. A description of some of the de-
partments found here and some of the activities will be interesting
as indicating what one may find on many others. Among the agri-
cultural operations on this larm we found horse breeding, cattle
breeding, sheep breeding, swine breeding and feeding, and the growing
of potatoes for the manufacture of starch and alcohol, the growing
of sugar beets and a fish breeding establishment. The horses were
English shires, and were a very inferior lot. The sheep were splen-
did specimens of the Rambouillet breed. The potatoes were grown
upon the estate, harvested and placed in a large under ground cellar,
and later manufactured into starch and alcohol. The fish were pro-
duced in a large artificial lake and were regularly caught out with
a net, the larger ones sold and the smaller ones returned to the
water. We saw here several silos. The silos, however, were mere
holes in the ground cemented up and were used for storing the leaves
of rape and sugar beet leaves. These materials were packed into the
silo and piled up four or five feet above the top and then covered
with straw, and over all a two-foot layer of earth. We saw upon
this estate two American self binders. We were shown with a great
deal of pride on the part of the owner a new hay barn, but there was
no atterript made to introduce any labor saving contrivances what-
soever. A great part of the hay must necessarily be pitched over a
very high beam. On many of the larger farms small breweries are
maintained for the malting of the grain produced upon the farm.
The roads throughout the country in Europe are thoroughly well
built, generally of broken stones and are carefully maintained. One
sees at intervals on all country roads piles of stones, and will invari-
ably find fiearby a workman, who is continually employed in maintain-
ing the public highway. These roads are laid out with skill and in
accordance with the best knowledge of road building. In Saxony the
sides of the road are planted to fruit trees. These are generally plum
trees, and when the writer visited this region, in September, the trees
were loaded with luscious plums. In many cases school houses attended
by two or three hundred pupils, were near these roads, but in no case
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 189
did I ever see school children attempting to knock off the fruit. The
fruit of these trees is the property of the adjoining land owners, and
the fact that fruit is grown unmolested along the public highway in-
dicates the respect of the average German boy for the property of
others. This is in marked contrast to the American custom of con-
sidering all fruit public property, even though it may be on the other
side of the fence.
Another thing that impresses the ordinary traveler is the great
care exercised by the German citizen in the protection of game of
all sorts. It is a crime to shoot hares out of season or in fact at any
time without a license, and the killing of deer is a very serious of-
fense indeed. As a result of this one sees frequentlv numbers of
hares feeding upon the wheat or cabbage fields. In the forests deer
are plentiful. I saw one day within one mile of the large city of
Leipsic, twelve deer, and another day a deer actually found his way
to the public park within the city, and was seen by many people. In
the winter these deer are fed and sometimes attempts are made to
provide shelter for them. It is said, however, that they will not
voluntarily enter any shelter provided for them. The hares are also
carefully protected and passing through the country in the winter,
one may often see structures especially for the protection and shelter
of these animals. As a result of this protection, the hares are in
some localities a great menace to young trees. The most common
method of protection seems to be a rope of twisted hay carefully
wound about the tree.
The condition of the average German workman is not "an enviable
one; his hours are long, his work is hard and his rewards are small.
Women perform a very large part of the heaviest and most menial
work. The absence of labor saving machinery makes their work
doubly hard, and it is not to be wondered at that we find at least two
very distinct classes of people in the German Empire. A careful
study of the conditions existing has lead the writer to believe that
the average German workingman and his family have little ambition
or desire to rise to higher things. In Germany once a farm laborer,
always a farm laborer, is the rule. A popular professor in the Uni-
versity of Leipsic lecturing to students, said : "The university and
educational institutions in Germany are for the rich, the poor do not
and cannot attend them. There is no hope for the poor classes of
Germany under present conditions to rise to better and higher things."
Much has been said about the advancement of Germany in the
sciences, in the arts and the professions, but it must always be re-
membered that only the few can hope to be numbered among this
190 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
progressive class, and that the majority of the inhabitants of the
German Empire are and must always be, if the present conditions
prevail, merely hopeless laborers.
The term peasant, as applied to the German farmer, has very dif-
ferent significance in the different provinces. For example, in earlier
times the word peasant referred to well to do land owners. At the
present time it is applied to renters in Austria under certain circum-
stances, in Westphalia and the Black Forest, it is a name of honor,
and is applied to farmers with large holdings, and who own at least
six horses. Farm laborers are not properly called peasants, but are
always spoken of in Germany as "Landarbeitern."
In passing through the country, one is everywhere struck with
the large number of signs forbidding the passer-by to trespass, to
traverse private roads, to pick the fruit along the way, to walk on
the grass and hundreds of other prohibitions greet the eye at every
turn. These prohibitions are not merely signs that are not to be
obeyed, but one finds, sometimes to his sorrow, that the least infrac-
tion of these suggestions will 5e met, sometimes immediately by the
skill and vigilance of the police officers. It may for example some-
times happen that as the weary traveler wends his way over the dusty
roads, he sees in the cool shade of a spreading tree an inviting seat
and he hastens his steps to refresh himself for a brief time in the
shade, only to find upon reaching the seat, that it is reserved for chil-
dren, and if he should disregard this reservation, he will nine times
out of ten be somewhat roughly informed by the policeman in the
vicinity that the seat is reserved for children.
Most of the animals in Germany are slaughtered at the municipal
slaughter houses. These slaughter houses are very carefully con-
ducted, and the meat of all animals is subjected to very jigid exami-
nation on the part of experts. Everything is wonderfully clean. The
live stock is shipped to these slaughter houses from various sections
of the country, and here the dealers go, generally on Mondays, to se-
lect the animals that they wish to kill. When they have selected
the animals suitable for their trade, they are killed at a fixed rate, in-
spected and labeled. There is a peculiar scEeme of live stock in-
surance in connection with these slaughter houses, which insures the
owner against the possible detection of disease in the carcass of the
slaughtered animal. For example, an animal sent to the stock yards,
if found diseased, is confiscated by the State, but if insured and the
premium paid, full value is returned to the owner. In the slaughter
house at Leipsic the meat of tuberculous or otherwise diseased ani-
mals is boiled for a given time in huge vats and is then pronounced
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 191
safe for food consumption, and is sold at a somewhat reduced price.
In passing through the cooling rooms of the Leipsic slaughter house
I was struck by a very large carcass that presented a peculiar yellowish
color, which to the unexpert eye appeared to be badly diseased, and
upon inquiry we were informed, as a closer examination proved evi-
dent, that the carcass was the carcass of a horse, and that horses are
killed and sold regularly in all of the large cities of Germany. There
is one market devoted exclusively to the sale of horse meat in the
city of Leipsic. Goat carcasses were also seen and it may not be
improbable that certain of the cheap hotels serve mutton chops from
the carcasses of the goats that are being continually slaughtered. In
no case were the animals in these slaughter houses fat, but would be
classified in our markets as half fat animals.
The writer had been frequently informed that it was common
for cattle and folks to live together in South Germany. A somewhat
extended experience among the agricultural districts and frequent
visit to the smaller towns of South Germany revealed the fact that
there might be some truth in this statement. The author found in
one place at least a building in which the animals and the family were
separated only by a thin partition, and a history of German agricul-
ture records the fact that some hundred years ago the peasants ol
South Germany lived, dined and slept in one end of the common
house and the cows and pigs occupied the other end of the samts
room. It is common among the poorer as well as the more thrifty
farmers in this region for the families to live in the same building with
the live stock. As a rule the barn portion of the house is separated
from the living rooms by a hall way. In this hall way is stored
much of the feed fed to the animals and leading out of the hall way
is a stair way, whicli leads to the second floor. When it is rerpem-
bered that the cows are stabled throughout the entire year, it will be
seen that this sort of arrangement is not altogether desirable. How-
ever, it has the advantage of convenience. ^
In South Germany one sees hundreds of cow teams, and cows are
everywhere used for draft purposes, for plowing, harrowing and for
drawing wood and stone upon the public streets of the smaller towns.
It is interesting in this connection to note that the cows used for
draft purposes do not at all resemble the highly specialized dairy
cows of our modern breeds. In many of the German descriptions of
these working breeds of cattle we find frequent reference to their
adaptability for the production of milk, labor and beef. Many good
authorities in America believe that it is not possible that the same indi-
vidual can successfully combine beef and dairy qualities, But here we find
192 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
numerous examples, not only of dual purpose cattle, but triple purpose
ones. These cows are hardy, rugged looking animals, with powerful mus-
cles and deep, broad chests, they are low down, but can scarcely be called
blocky. The joints seem to be somewhat coarse. Whatever else may be said
of them they are certainly successful work animals. The question nat-
urally arises, how it is possible for an animal to perform any great
amount of labor and at the same time be expected to yield any con-
siderable amount of milk and butter. Experiments of this kind have
been conducted and the results seem to indicate that a moderate
amount of labor is not incompatible with the maximum production of
the animal, but whenevei excessive amounts of labor are required
of the animal, the milk and butter yield is invariably diminished.
The quality of the beef produced from these triple purpose animals
is decidedly inferior an3 in no case has the writer been able to find a
prime bullock descended from these breeds.
' On all of the smaller farms in Europe, Holland, Belgium, Ger-
many and Switzerland, one finds numerous household industries as
a regular part of the work of the peasant family. In South Germany,
in the region of upper Bavaria, basket making occupies a large* per
cent of the population. This work is carried on by the younger mem-
bers of the family and the women, when the men are engaged in
farming operations, Sut in the winter the men are also engaged in
basket making.
The question of fuel is a serious one. The middle class purc)iase
some wood, but mostly pressed bricks made from dust coal. These
are called brickets. These brickets are, all things considered, the
cheapest commercial fuel used throughout the larger portion of the
German Empire. The poorer people resort to many curious expe-
dients to secure fuel for their simple needs. It is customary to al-
low the poorer people to pick up sticks or fagots in all the public
forests, and they are also permitted to trim the trunks of trees to a
certain height and use the sprouts thus secured for fuel. These are
bound in bundles and carried upon their backs to their homes.
Fall plowing seems to be quite common in Southern Germany.
The plow used seems to be a very short stubby plow with a very ab-
rupt mould board. In many places the ground was plowed in ridges,
that is, what is here called simply cutting and covering, the furrow
turned upon an unplowed ridge so that the land is left in ridges.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
The system of agricultural education in Germany is well planned
and executed. Not only are there institutions for higher learning
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 193
in which advanced students may work for the higher degrees, but
many schools of secondary grade make it possible for even the poorer
peasants to secure technical education in agriculture. The scheme
of agricultural education is not widely different from that in vogue
in the United States. They have, as do we, university courses in
agriculture, and their secondary schools correspond in many cases
very closely with our so called short courses in agriculture. They
have carried specialization to a still greater point than have the edu-
cators in this country, and we find therefore schools for instruction
in dairying, forestry, brewing, fruit growing, vegetable growing,
production of farm crops and of animals. Their short courses are
far more numerous than in this country so that technical . education
in agriculture is more accessible to the German farmer, than is yet
the case in our own country. These schools are all supported by the
government.
In addition to the regular established schools for agricultural
instruction, we find in certain portions of the German Empire, and
in Austria what are Jinown as traveling teachers, who go from locality
to locality teaching agriculture wherever they may find classes to
teach. This system is especially employed in Austria. The agri-
cultural schools in Germany are not overrun with students. There
are, however, several conditions which tend to make some of the
higher institutions fairly well attended. On many of the larger es-
tates owned by the nobility, the lands are in some special sense under
the general control of the central government, and individual owners
are required by law to employ specially trained managers that have
passed a government examination. These managers or inspectors
secure their training exclusively m the agricultural universities. As
there is considerable demand for these specially trained men ,there
is always likely to be a certain number of students in the German
universities. The agricultural training in the German University is
largely theoretical and based principally upon the science of chem-
istry. We find little effort in most institutions to harmonize the re-
sults of science with those of actual practice.
SWITZERLAND.
The life of the Swiss farmer is closely bound up in and dependent
upon the industry of dairying, first, last and all the time. The en-
tire work of the average Swiss farmer is the production of food for
the cow and the manufacture of her product. As a natural result of
the great importance of the cow to the Swiss agriculturist, we find
that the Swiss are very .skillful breeders. No country on the conti-
A-13
194 MISSOURI AGIUCULTUHAL KblPORT.
nent can lay claim to greater skill than the Swiss breeders in the
development and improvement of the cow. In no other country in
the world does there exist cattle that so closely accomplish the dual
purpose — beef and milk type — as do the three leading breeds of
Switzerland. The most noted, and perhaps highest developed breed
is the so called Brown Swiss. These cattle are, and have been,
chiefly developed north of the Lake of Lucerne, and are here found in
tlieir. greatest perfection. As a breed, they are very uniform in color,
type and productive capacity. They are hardy, vigorous and powerful
animals, well suited to the mountainous country in which they live.
The pure air and exercise which they secure in grazing upon the high
altitudes has developed in them these peculiarly valuable qualitiesl
The principal feed of the cows in full milk is grass, cut and carried
to them. They receive no grain feed, whatever, with this. In win-
A Snlss farmatead od a rock road.
ter they receive hay, with very little grain. The owner of a large and
successful dairy herd told the writer that his cows averaged six
thousand pounds of milk a year, and that their daily grain ration in
winter was four pounds of grain. It must be remembered, however,
that the iiay fed these animals is a mixture of many nutritious plants.
Nowhere have I seen such bright, fragrant and well cured hay. The
results secured from feeding hay in Switzerland could never result from
the feeding of timothy or similar hay, such as is grown in this country.
The manual labor necessary on the average Swiss farm is ex-
ceedingly arduous. The steep mountain sides are too steep for the
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. '195
use of improved machinery and often too steep for the use of the
horse or beast of burden of any kind. The hay is cut by hand, it is
raked by hand and frequently the members of the farmer's family
carry it upon their backs to the barns. All manure is very carefully '
saved and applied to the grass land, but this too must be carried in
large baskets upon the backs of the workmen. In some places one
finds the mountain sides terraced, walls being built and filled in with
earth and then above it on the mountain side another wall and so on
toward the top of the mountain. The milk is sold in the towns or
made into butter or carried to the cheese factory, where it is made
into the famous Swiss cheese?, chief of these is the Emmenthaler.
The Emmenthaler cheese, wherever one finds it, is qf very uni-
form quality. One would suppose that a product of such general
uniformity would be made under the same conditions, presumably by
some large establishment. The reverse seems to be the case, because .
all the Emmenthaler cheese made in Switzerland is made in very
small quantities, where but a small amount of milk is received daily.
The author visited five or six cheese factories in one-half day, walk-
ing all the way. The smaller farmers, here, as in Germany, oise the
cows for draft purposes. The yokes are applied to the neck, rather than to
the foreheads. The houses are very substantially built. Many of
them of squared logs, but well lighted, large and convenient. The
barns are also very commodious and comfortable.
Each district seems to have its own peculiar dress. In many of
the country districts the costume of the peasants, both men and
women, is exceedingly picturesque. These costumes are the same
that have been worn for a great many years, and they have come to
be permanent uniforms, which indicate the district from which the
peasants have come. In many of the districts bordering the larger
lakes grape growing for the manufacture of wines is common. In
Southern Switzerland, in the side valleys, opening into the larger
Rhone valley, very elaborate systems of irrigation have been supplied.
These irrigating systems frequently bring water from high up in the
mountains, at the head of Some great glacier, carry it through tunnels,
over deep chasms and eventually distribute it over the lands farther
down the valley. These irrigating systems have in almost every
case been constructed and planned by the owners themselves, and
are maintained and repaired from time to time by the same parties,
and without the aid of skilled engineers. In these mountain towns
one sees all stables and granaries built upon posts with a broad flat
stone between the post and the granary. This is similar to our prac-
tice of placing large tin pans under the supports of granaries for the
196 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI^ REPORT.
purpose of keeping out mice and rats. The mice are very numerous
and very destructive in the higher altitudes, so much so that no far-
mer thinks of building unless using this protection against them.
In Southern Switzerland also one finds a large number of mules used
as draft animals. These hardy sure footed animals are peculiarly
adapted for burden bearing upon the steep jpountain sides. They
carry, of course, all burdens upon their backs. Hay is balanced in
great baskets on either side, and carefully carried down the moun-
tain. The grain is harvested in the same way and the manure is
carried out upon the fields. Many of the localities are communistic
to a certain extent, certain work is performed in common for the
benefit of th& community. For example, as the sun melts the snow
upon the higher ajtitudes and the grass starts, all of the cows be-
longing to the community are brought together in one large herd and
these are driven to the pastures high up on the mountain. To watch
these cows, to milk them and manufacture the butter or cheese a cer-
tain number of families are delegated. A curious sport has arisen in
connection with this time of turning the cows out to pasture. It is
always a holiday. All the inhabitants gather around the great herd
of cows that have been collected. The cows naturally enjoying free-
dom for the first time in many months, engage in battles and soon a
fierce contest is on for the leadership of the herd. It is now that
the inhabitants begin to gamble upon the final results, and many
small amounts change hands before the final victor of the herd is
determined. She is called the "queen of the herd" and her owner is
for many days thereafter a notable man in the community.
Another very interesting custom among these people is the mi-
gratory character of their agricultural operations. In the early days
of spring their labors are confined to their vineyards along the Rhone ;
as spring advances and the grass begins to sprout at the foot of the
mountain, they move to their second location. As the snow gradu-
ally melts they push up the mountain side sowing their oats, rye and
vegetables and finally as the early fall comes with its frequent snow
storms and icy cold they are driven down again to the valley. It thus
happens that the wealthier farmers have four or five different resi-
dences which they occupy sometime during the year. Their jour-
neyings from one place to another are often accomplished in the night
in order that they may not lose time for labor during the day. These
people are very hardy, independent and religious. At one time a few
years ago, in the district known as the Eifischthal, the country was
almost completely destroyed by a fearful avalanche. The cattle and
all the crops of the industrious people were destroyed and many of
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 197
the houses were completely wrecked. People of other parts of the
Swiss nation immediately came to their rescue, subscribing money
for the relief of these people, but these independent, liberty loving
mountaineers refused to accept any alms and courageously went to
work to repair the damaged condition.
The writer saw more American agricultural tools and machinery
in Switzerland than in any other country visited, particularly hand
tools, but also mowers, hay rakes, etc.
GREAT BRITAIN.
If one can judge from outward appearances the English farmers
are the most prosperous, progressive and intelligent farmers in the
world. The natural beauty of the rural districts in England is un-
surpassed ; the picturesque rivers winding through fertile valleys and
plains; the magnificient specimens of improved breeds of live stock
and the comfortable country homes all conspire to make the rural
scenery of England and Scotland the most delightful to be seen any-
where in the old world. The first thing that impressed the writer,
was the great area of farming land laid down to grass. There is a
growing tendency among all the farmers of Great Britain to super-
cede grain growing by grazing. Lands that were chiefly cultivated
in rotatiqns, formerly producing barley, wheat, clover, turnips, etc.,
are now laid down to grass and the luxuriant pastures have not a little
to do with the excellence of their live stock. The pastures are fenced
either with stone walls, or more commonly with hedges. These
hedges also extend on either side of the roads so that it is almost un-
possible to secure a good view of the adjacent farming lands while
walking or driving along the highway. One of the principal grain
crops is wheat, and oil many farms the rotation centers around this
crop. The soils of England are naturally adapted for the growing of
wheat. Large quantities of commercial fertilizers are used through-
out the United Kingdom and these in connection with judicious rota-
tion and the growing of clover and turnips, maintains the land in
good condition. In most sections, however, and on most of the bet-
ter farms, the crops produced are all hinged upon the production of
live stock ard those crops only grown which contribute directly to the
profitable production of the domestic animals.
LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Great Britain is more famous, agriculturally speaking, for the im-
proved breeds of live stock which have been developed within its
borders than for any other phase of its agriculture. lit the better dis-
198 MISSOURI AGBTCULTURAI. REPORT.
tricts one is continually impressed with the fact that the average stan-
dard of excellence among breeders is far higher than the average stan-
dard in this country. If we devote our attention to horses, for ex-
ample,, we find that among draft horses the magnificent English Shire
and Clydsdale are common in all of the localities and much attention
is paid to their improvement and development. One of the most aris-
tocratic bodies of live stock breeders in the world is the English Shire
Horse Breeders' Association oi Great Britain. This association con-
tinually encourages the breeding of these animals by securing prizes
at agricultural shows and by encouraging their exportation to other
countries. Other breeds of horses that find many admirers and that
have been greatly improved, are the Hackney, the Hunter and the
Cleveland Bay. Unlike the practice in this country in many locali-
ties, the farmers an3 breeders thoroughly recognize the importance
of line breeding or pure breeding, and one therefore sees distinct
Bootb Shorthorns at humH. Hr. lilehurd Boach la tbo toregroand.
types and never evidences of indiscriminate mixing of draft horses and
roadsters as frequently happens in this country.
The renowned breeds of cattle that have originated in Great
Britain need scarce be mentioned in this connection, but the magnif-
icant Shorthorns, Herefords and Aberdeen Angus that one Bnds are
sufficient testimony to the skill, patience and perservering labor of
the English breeders. The climate has undoubtedly aided in the de-
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 199
velopment of the improved characters that are so popular in these
breeds. The English breeder is firm in his belief that other countries
must ever come to Great Britain for the best specimens of these
breeds. He believes that this must be so because of the peculiar
adaptation of climate and he is also as firm in his beHef that the English
farmer is a far more skillful breeder than are the breeders in any other
country. We might be inclined to take issue with these gentlemen
and point with pricle to the results already secured in our own
country. But it must be. admitted that there are more good breeders
in proportion to the number engaged in the business in England than
in this country and that we have not yet reached a point where we can
consider ourselves as a nation equal to our English cousins in the
matter of breeding live stock. It is perfectly safe to say,- however,
that there are many breeders in America -that are .unexcelled, even by
the best in the United Kingdom. The specialization of breeds of
cattle is also as distinct as among horses. Crossing and mixing for
improvement is not generally followed, and only in a few special cases
do we find crossing practiced for the production of animals for the
butchers' block. It must be said, however, that specialization of
breeds of cattle is not interpreted in exactly the same way as in this
country. It is firmly believed by most English breeders, for ex-
ample, that the best dairy animals are to be found among the Short-
horn breed and at the Royal Agricultural Show this year the writer
saw a large Shorthorn dairy cow that wpn sweepstakes for the best
dairy cOw at the show. This cow did not possess the ideal wedge-
shape desired in this country in dairy animals. She did show a de-
cided tendency to beefiness. There are some peculiar breeds of cattle
in Great Britain that are of more than passing interest to the aver-
age foreigner. The Dexter and Kerry cattle in Ireland are miniature
pony-built animals, weighing not more than five or six hundred
pounds. These seem to be peculiarly adapted to certain conditions
prevalent in Ireland and are of sufficient commercial value to -be bred
pure. Many of these little cows are exceptionally good dairy ani-
mals. It must be said, however, that their breeding is largely carried
on by wealthy land owners more because of their diminutive size,
than because of any economical value which they may possess. The
West Highland cattle possessing rather long horns, long furry coat
and rugged, vigourous constitution have proven themselves unex-
celled upon the semi-barren districts of the western coast.
It is interesting to note in this connection that the breeds of
cattle from England have influenced the cattle stock of more coun-
tries and have been influential in fixing certain characteristics upon
200 MISSOURI ACIRICULTURAI. REPORT.
the domestic animals of the world to a greater extent than the breeds
0/ any other district in the world. In studying the history of de-
velopment and improvement of the breeds of live stock on the conti-
nent, one frequently finds reference to the importation of the Short-
horns used in the improvement, of these Continental breeds. The
Holstein cattle for example undoubtedly owe much of their beef ex-
cellence to the early use of the Shorthorn bulls. It is probably the
case that many of the other breeds in other portions of the German
Empire have been influenced in the same way.
Itiiianey Mirsh sheep in an English pasture.
While America can lay claim to having developed the most re-
markable breed of wool sheep that the world has ever known, we
must yield the palm to England for having produced the most profit-
able types of mutton sheep. The -Englishman is a natural born
shepherd, he loves his flock and no amount of discouragement of low
prices, of disease or death can destroy his preference for his flocks.
The history of the development of these English breeds of mutton
sheep shows plainly that sheep require especial and continuous per-
severing care to secure from them high class mutton. Sheep require
not only special care, but the dififerent breeds of sheep require care
that is peculiar to each type of animals and we find the English shep-
herd specially efficient in giving to these particular types of sheep the
attention required. Among the long wools we find the Cotswold,
the Lincoln and the Leic.ester, large vigorous an3 profitable food con-
sumers. Among the medium wools are the Downs, the Shropshire,
EUROrKAN AGRICULTURE. 201
Hampshire, Oxford and the Southdowns. All these have contributed
to the improvement of the sheep stock of the old world. More
mutton is consumed per capita in England than elsewhere, and the
chief profit from skeep husbandry arises from the sale of mutton.
We find therefore the English breeder to have succeeded in develop-
ing the mutton type of sheep to the greatest perfection and compara-
tively little attention has been paid to wool.
Judging the King's Shortborns at Che Royal Agricultural Show.
One feature of English agriculture that undoubtedly has much
to do with promoting its advancement and continued growth is the
large number of agricultural shows that are held in different agricul-
tural centers at various times during the year. The premiums
awarded at these shows are the results of careful work on the part of
experienced judges and the experienced judgment of these men has
undoubtedly done much to bring about a uniform type among the
various breeders. The encouragement of the breeding interest which
these shows have brought about cannot be overestimated. The cul-
minating event • of the year is the Royal Agricultural Show, which
will hereafter be held at London. At this show the finest and
most highly improved stock is exhibited, society encourages this
event by ifs presence, royalty approves by the exhibition of animals
from the royal flocks and herds and frequently the King sends a per-
sonal representative. This show attracts visitors from all parts of
202 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
the world and it is here that the breeders make the acquaintance of
future buyers.
Not only do the agricultural shows contribute to the social inter-
course of breeders and the uniformity of standards in breeding ani-
mals, but the market days that are so common in all of the leading
agricultural districts have from time immemorial been the monitors
of the development of live stock in England. Auction sales are fre-
quently held in connection with the show and on the market days, and
in many ways, the social intercourse of farmers is encouraged and al-
ways, it would seem, with beneficial results.
It is fashionable for people to live in the country in England
and as a result we find some magnificent country homes in every sec-
tion of Great Britain. Interest in country life is everywhere observ-
able. The country roads are better, the country towns more prosper-
ous and country life more delightful because of this interest and sym-
pathy upon the part of the rich.
There are few agricultural colleges in England and still fewer
experiment stations. It is interesting to note, however, that the
oldest station and one of the most renowned is located north of Lon-
don, at Rothamstead, near St. Albans. There are two agricultural
societies in England that have done much to promote and encourage
the agricultural community; the Royal Agricultural Society with of-
fices in London and the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland.
Each of these societies publishes frequent reports, many of them of
very great scientific and agricultural value.
CONCLUSION.
It is not always easy to select those methods and practices which
ace found to be of economic value under one set of conditions and ap-
ply them to radically different conditions in an entirely different loca-
tion. We must always therefore proceed with caution in attempting
to apply any of the intensive methods of agriculture so common in
Europe to the conditions which obtain in America. In America
cheap land, expensive labor and improved machinery have made it
profitable to work large areas. As a consequence of extensive methr
ods far less labor is required in the production* of any given quantity
of agricultural product. The result is that a bushel of wheat, a pound
of wool and a pound of beef cost far less to produce in our country
than under the conditions present in the older countries, and so long
as our farmers continue to find these methods profitable it is not the
part of wisdom for us to encourage them to adopt the intensive
methods which Ynay have been found profitable under entirely differ-
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE. 203
ent conditions. However, it i^unquestionably true that many of the
methods commonly practiced in more settled communities, and that
have been learned as the result of hard experience can be and should
be practiced in many cases under our own conditions. One thing is
certain that the care and labor bestowed upon conserving, handling
and the application of farm manures are worthy of emulation in our
country. Millions of dollars yearly are lost because of the careless,
wasteful handlinig of farmyard manures in this country. It is not a
question of more labor and more expense, but it is purely a question of
better knowledge and timely care. It costs less to apply farmyard
manure right before it has wasted away by lying under the eaves for
many months.
In methods of feeding it is also unquestionably true that we are
wasteful and extravagant. We feed heavily and not always wisely.
The European farmer has learned that it is economy to vary the
feed of the domestic animals and that judicious mixtures will un-
questionably accomplish better results that a continuous ration of one
or two kinds of food stuffs.
The European farmer has learned to make use and profitably dis-
pose of all the products of the farm, products that with us are called,
and properly called, waste products, are all used by the old world far-
mers to help increase the revenues of the farm.
It is possible that we may also learn what not to do by studying
conditions that do actually exist in many of these countries. In the
first place it seems to the writer that human labor is counted too
cheap in Europe. A great portion of the heavy menial'labor that
now falls to the lot of the poor laboring men and women could be as
well and better done by the use of improved machinery. Much of
this hand labor is undoubtedly due to the small holdings of the
peasants, and it may be that the tendency in certain sections of our
country may lead eventually to a similar result. It seems to me that,
other things being equal, it is more desirable on the whole for the
farming class to own a certain minimum of acres, which shall not be
too small, in order that the cultivator of the soil may take advantage
of all the help that improved machinery and draft animals may
yield. This will tend to a higher intellectual, material and social
life for the farming class.
It is also frequently suggested by writers upon the social condi-
tions surrounding country life that a gradual movement of farmers
toward centralization in small villages, like that found in Germany,
will do much to alleviate the isolation which now prevails in certain
localities. In the writer's opinion this would be for many reasons .a
«
204 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAIv REPORT.
retrograde movement and not conducive to the social betterment of
tl^e rural community. Material advancement and higher intellectual
ideals will do more to promote the social life of farmers as a class than
will mere segregation in gossiping villages. There* is no occasion for
alarm that there will ever develop in .this country a landed aristoc-
racy, because a landed aristocracy can only exist as a result of gov-
ernment favor and so long as it is possible for every man by business
sagacity and persevering toil to accumulate landed property so long
will it be impossible for a landed aristocracy like that of Europe to
exist here.
The present tendency in the United States of wealthy people to-
ward country life should be encouraged in every possible way. This
movement will tend to increase the esteem in which agriculture as
a vocation is held and to dignify the calling of people so engaged.
The American farmer is particularly fortunate in possessing un-
bounded resources, opportunities for continued improvement and a
rapidly increasing population, all of which will conspire to bring to the
American farmer increased prosperity, and it is only necessary that
we should learn to properly use all tTiese resources and possibilities,
and fruitful opportunities which surround us. The educational sys-
tem now existing and the increasing tendency toward pushing high
schools farther into the country with free rural delivery and country
libraries, all are bringing about a condition which will make country
life by far the most desirable and most attractive in America.
FARMERS' INSTITUTES.
ABSTRACT OF LECTURES.
PROPAGATION AND PLANTING OF FRUIT TREES.
By W. L. Howard, Assistant in Horticulture, Missouri Experiment Sta-
tion, Columbia, Mo.
It is not generally understood among the farmers that they can prop-
agate and grow their own fruit trees at little or no expense. To start a
small home orchard a man need make no cash outlay at all. For apples
he can save some seeds, plant them, grow seedlings, and on them graft
any and all of the varieties of the fruit he wishes to have. Peach, plum
and cherry seeds may be planted in the same way and the desired vari-
eties of each budded on the seedlings. All of this is easy to do if one
only knows how. The process of grafting and budding is regarded by
many as a mysterious art which only a favored few may understand.
How this impression came to be abroad, it is hard to say, but ft exists
-nevertheless, and it is the purpose of this article to show how easy it is,
and that th^re is no magic at all connected with the process of making
^'budded" and "grafted" trees. Nor need any one be deterred any longer,
from owning a small orchard on account of the expense usually involved
in purchasing the trees.
In describing how to propagate fruit trees it is necessary to begin at
the beginning — that is, with the seeds. In the fall or early winter save
the seeds *from the apples used about the home. If it is convenient to
get apple pomace (the ground up and squeezed out refuse of apples)
from some place where cider is being made, the seeds can be collected
rapidly. Pour the pomace into a barrel two-thirds full of water, and
stir the mass with a stick. The seeds will settle to the bottom as they
are separated from the flesh of the apples, and the heavier pomace can
be skimmed off. The fine particles of pulp will settle down with the
seeds and unless one has a wheat sieve at hand to help, it is a tedious
matter to wash all of the seeds clear of the pomace. It is nicer, of course,
to have all of the seeds separated from the pomace, but it is not at all
206 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
necessary. When apples are being dried or canned it is a good job for
children to cut the seeds from the cores. A surprisingly large number
may be secured in this way in a very short time. To get best results
the seeds should not be allowed to dry out, but should be stored in sand
for the winter. This is done by. putting a layer of common sand in a
box, spreading over it a layer of seeds, then more sand, and so on, until
the seeds are all used up. Place this box on the north side of a building,
sinking it in the earth until it is level with the top of the ground, in order
to keep the sand moist. Do not cover the box, but leave it exposed so
that rain may get in and help to keep the sand from drying out. This
is called "stratifying" the seeds and it does not matter if there is some
pomace left with them when they are put in the sand.
The seeds are to remain stratified until they are ready to plant,
which will be in the spring at gardening time. Select a place where the
soil is deep and fairly rich. It is very important that the soil be deep so
that the roots can go straight down, for it is roots we are after, and
the longer they can be made to grow, the better. Plow the land deeply
and prepare as for garden truck. Lay off rows four feet apart and sow
the seeds not too thickly in the rows. Instead of using soil it is a good
idea to cover the seeds with thoroughly rotted chip dirt, straw or
manure, but whatever is used should be free from weed seetls. Give
the seeds only a shallow covering. Give the little seedlings good culti-
vation throughout the summer and keep" them growing vigorously. Late
in the fall after the leaves have been shed, the plants are to be dug up
and stored in the cellar. Cut off the tops, tie the roots in bundles and
pack them in green saw dust. Sand that is slightly moist may be used,
but it is not as good as fresh saw dust.
The scions for grafting on the roots may be taken from the trees
at any time after the leaves have fallen, but it is well to cut them before
the first hard freeze. Never cut scions while they are frozen ; if cold
weather comes on suddenly, before the scions are taken, wait urttil they
are thawed out. In the first place, decide what varieties are wanted,
then go to a healthy tree that is known to produce good crops of the
desired sort, and cut from it the best twigs of the last season's growth.
Wood that is two years old is not suitable for grafting. Get the switches
as long as possible, but they can be used if the growth has not been
more than four or five inches. Water sprouts, when they have sprung
out well above ground, may be used if they are well matured. Never
use soft, spongy, immature wood, or any which refused to shed its
leaves. If the scions are taken from the trees early, they should be
packed in green saw dust like the roots. Grafting may be done almost
any time in January or February, or even in March in the northern half
farmers' institutes, 207
of the State, but February is perhaps the best time to do the work. The
grafting is best done in a cellar or basement room, but may be done in
a moderately warm living room. Do not do the work about an open
fire or near a hot stove as the roots may be dried out anH seriously
injured.
GRAFTING.
If the twigs have made a sufficient growth, make the scions six
or seven inches long, but they may be shorter if necessary. On the butt
end of the scion make a sloping cut about an inch to an inch and a
half long, as shown in Fig. i, a. Use a sharp knife and make the cut
smooth and uniform. On the
sloping surface about one-
third of the way from the end
of the twig, make a "tongue'"
by a downward cut from one-
half to an inch deep, along the
grain of the wood. With nur-
serymen it is customary to
form the sloping cut, make
the "tongue" and then cut off
the scion of the desired length.
Follow the same process with
the root. Begin at the crown
(the part of the root that was
just at the surface of the
ground), and form a sloping
cut, taking care that it is of
the same slope as that of the
scion, and making also a
"tongue" in the same way and
at the same distance from the
b end of the root as in the scion.
See Fig. i, b. This done, cut
the root off, having the piece
pj -J about four inches long, and
How.^D.ake"wbip"Jr"«,u.g«"Bran. asbo-s repeat the process until the
!!ZBu«Tn^^e''^li?''!.;^^ow.\h'Ef'^rV'^^!,^^?g root is all used. If the seed-
f'ru«rat"th'"pro^?manul'?VuniI^gand'tjtog lings have made a good
the scion and root, formlDg the Hnlshed Bi^ft. „„^ ., , ., ., , ,
growth and the sod has been
porous enough to let them go down, the roots will usually make two,
and sometimes three pieces.
208 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
Join the root and scion by pressing the two sloping surfaces to-
gether and forcing the tongues to interlock. At this point, the main
thing to be observed is, to see that the bark line of one side of the scion
comes exactly in contact with the bark line of the corresponding side
of the root. This is highly important for this is where the two are to
grow together. The scion and root may not be of the same thickness —
in fact, seldom are, but this makes no difference at all if the above in-
structions are followed.
Figure i, c and rf, shows the scion and root properly united. After
pressing the two pieces together it will be necessary to wrap the graft
with No. 1 8 or 20 cotton knitting thread. Lay the end of the thread on
the wood near the end of the cut, wind two or three rounds on top of it,
at the same time pressing scion and root together with the thumb and
finger; then work the thread up to the other end of the cut by winding
it two or three times around the graft during the distance, then two or
three times around the other end of the cut as in the beginning, and
fasten the end of the thread by drawing it down in the cut and, by a
sharp jerk, break it off as shown near c, in Fig. i. This completes the
graft, as it is not at all necessary to wax the place of union. This
process is known as "whip-grafting." Pack the grafts in bundles, each
bundle being tied up, in green saw dust, where they are to remain until
planting time. The wound at the point of union will actually begin to
heal over and partially grow together while the grafts are in tlie saw
dust and on this account they should not be disturbed until they are
taken out to plant. Keep the box of grafts in a cellar or moderately
cool room. They must not be allowed to freeze nor neither must they
be permitted to dry out.
As soon as the ground will do to ^york in spring, select a place
where the soil is deep and moderately rich, on which to plant the grafts.
Do not plant them on the site of an old strawstack as that would be
entirely too rich. Plow the land deeply and otherwise prepare ^s for a
garden spot. The rows need not be long, but should be perfectly
straight. To get them straight, stretch a line or wire across the plot.
The rows should be four feet apart but are not to be laid off with a
plow. After lining up the row go along with a sharpened pole and
punch holes in the ground along the line, about eight inches apart, with-
drawing the pole carefully so as not to allow the soil to tumble in.
Plant the grafts by placing them down in these holes so that but one
or two buds of the scion will be above ground. This will necessitate
the groimd being plowed deeply. Be sure to press the soil up zvell against
the roots of the grafts; this is best done by means of a dibble or short.
farmers' institutes. 209
sharp stick which is forced into the ground beside the grafts and crowds
the soil against them. The grafts can not grow if hollow air spaces
are left around the roots. Here is where more people fail than at any
other point. Give the little trees good culture, including ' two or three
hoeings, during the summer, and, with a reasonably favorable season,
they will reward their owner with a vigorous growth. ,
There is another form of grafting often of use to the farmer, that
will be considered briefly. This is what is known as "cleft-grafting."
If an apple tree reaches bearing age and is found to be an undesirable
variety, the kind that is wanted may be worked on the tree by this
method of grafting. The method is also sometimes called "top graft-
ing." As many varieties as there are branches to put them upon may
be top-grafted upon a single tree. New varieties may be hurried into
bearing by being worked on the branches of an old tree.
To do the grafting, saw off the old branch, or even the body of the
tree if it is not more than three or four inches thick, and split the stump
210 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
down through the center with a knife or hatchet. This work is to be
done in spring just as the buds are beginning to swell, but the scions to
be used must have been collected some time previously when the wood
was perfectly dormant. The scion should be four or five inches long"
and at the butt end whittled to a wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 2, a. In
making the wedge, the slope must be long and uniform, the wood being*
whittled from both sides of the scion. Pry open the split in the trunk or
branch to be grafted, and carefully insert the scion so that its bark will
be exactly in contact with the inner growing bark of the old stub or
^tump. See Fig. 2, b. This is very important, for here is the place
where they are to grow together, and they can not do so unless the bark
of one piece is in line with the bark of the other. If the old branch or
trunk of the tree to be grafted is large enough — that is, thick enough,
it is advisable to use two scions, as this will double the chances for
success, in case one of them does not grow. If both scions grow, by
all means cut one of them out. If both are allowed to stand a forked
tree will be formed, which is always to be avoided. When the scions
are in place, it will be necessary to cover over all of the cut surfaces
with grafting wax. The wax may be melted in a tin can at the house
and carried to the orchard, if not too far away. It is best to have a
little paddle with which to dip up the molten wax and spread it over and
around the scions in such a manner as to exclude the air and thus keep
them from drying out until they unite with the old wood. This wax is
never to be disturbed afterwards as it will not injure the tree. Make
grafting wax as follows : Common rosin, 7 lbs, beeswax, 2 lbs, and *
tallow, I lb. If so much is not desired, divide each of the above items
by 2, 3 or 4, as may be needed. Melt all of the ingredients together in
a vessel over a slow fire, and stir thoroughly. When well mixed, pour
a part of the mass in a small tub of water until partially cooled, then ,
take it out and pull like taffy candy until it becomes too stiff to work.
To propagate pears, the seedlings may be grown and cared for like
apples, but when it comes to grafting, the roots must be left whole and
the place where scion and root are united covered over entirely with
grafting wax. Plant and cultivate like for apple grafts.
BUDDING.
Peaches, plums and cherries are propagated almost wholly by bud-
ding, the work usually being done in summer or early fall. The pro-
cess — including the growing of the stock, is practically the same for all
of the above named fruits, so that a description for peaches will answer
for the whole.
farmers' institutes. 211 ,
Peach seeds may be planted in the fall, or stratified during the win-
ter as described for apple seeds, and planted in the spring. They should
not be allowed to lie in the sun and dry out during late summer and
fall. The seedlings will make a vigorous gtowth with a reasonably
favorable season, and may be budded in August or early in September.
In general, the budding should be done when the bark peels best.
The buds are to be selected
from the desired varieties wheit
the work is ready to be done.
Take a young branch that has
grown during the current season
and cut away that part of tt
which is soft and immature. The
best wood buds are usually found
toward the middle of the twigs
and may be distinguished from
the fruit buds by remembering
that they are smaller, flatter, and
never so plump. A fruit bud
can do no particular harm if
there is also a wood bud. The
wood bud is what makes the
wood growth that wc desire,
while a fruit bud will simply
■*• bloom out and die, and that is
the end of it. A wood bud will
often have a dower bud on each
side of it as is the case above
the knife blade in Fig. 3. When
this occurs, the outside ones may
be broken off as they are of no
use. After a little observation
and practice it will be easy to se-
a a lect the proper kind of buds.
The weather is usually very
' warm at budding time so that it
will be necessary to wrap the
sticks from which buds are to be taken, in a damp cloth or heavy piece
of paper to prevent their drying out. Trim off the leaves, leaving a
piece of stem about half an inch long to hold to when the buds are being
inserted. The manner of cutting the buds from the twig — known as a
"budding stick," is shown in Fig. 3. Hold the budding stick in the left
218 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT
hand, upside down, and with the other hand force the knife through the
bark and into the wood and make a slice down to the dotted line shown
at the bottom of the blade. Now withdraw the knife and, at a point
shown at the dotted line, make a cut cross-wise just through tlie bark,
and no deeper. If the bark peels easily— -and it should at budding time,
the bud may now be lifted up and the bark will part from the wood as
smootlily as a peeled onion. We prefer to have no wood adhering to the
buds.
The little seedling peach trees should be budded as near the ground
as it is convenient to work, which will be two or three inches from the
surface of the soil. The iirst thing is to make a slit in the bark, length-
FIG. 4. KIQ.^S.
PIG. 4.— T-shaped cut made in the bark o( the Beedllng or other
FIG. 6.— Same aa Fig. 4, with the bark partially raised (or
FIG. 6.— The bud In place.
wise, and at the upper end of this slit a cross cut, thus forming a T-
shapcd figure on the bark of the sprout, illustrated in Fig. 4. Tlie bark
should peel readily, and in Fig. 5 may be seen how it has been gently
farmers' institutes. 213
liaised tvitli the point of the knife, and the flaps slightly rolled back. At
this point the bud should be cut from the budding stick, as directed, and
inserted beneath the bark of the sprout by holding to the short stem left
for the purpose, and forcing it gently downward, sharp end first, until
the square cut end of the bud gets down to where it will fit against the
cross cut in the bark of the stock. In Fig. 6 the bud is seen to be in
position and ready for wrapping. In order tliat the bud may form a
union with the growing bark of the stock, it is necessary to pres's it
closely against the tree by binding with some sort of a string. Nui'sery-
men usually use a kind of grass, called "raffia," which is wet before
applying and adjusts itself to the parts to be covered, and makes an ex-
cellent wrapper. A good substitute for raffia, within reach of every
farmer, is strips of some kind of old, thin, cotton goods. Whatever is
used is to be bound around the newly inserted bud as indicated in Fig. 7,
FIG. 7.— Inaertea bud properly wrapped with a piece of raffia grasa or strip of
cotton oloth.
FIG. 8.— Where to cut oft the seedling; the next spring after budding.
in such a manner as to leave only the stem of the leaf left on the bud,
sticking out. This leaf stem will serve as an index to show whether the
bud has tinited or not. If the stem remains green, we may know that
214 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
\
the bud is living, otherwise it will turn brown in a day or two. J)o not
wait longer than a week before examining the buds to see if they are
living. If they have united with the tree, release the string by cutting
it on the opposite side from the bud, in order not to disturb the healing
wound. This early examination and cutting of the string must not be
forgotten as it is very important. At this time the little trees are making
a very rapid growth in thickness, and in a remarlcably short time will
grow over the strings and literally choke the trees to death, or, what is
more to the point, will make a deep ring in the tree and cause it to break
off where the bud is inserted.
During the season the bud is inserted in the tree, it will do no more
than make a firm union with the stock, the bud itself remaining dor-
mant. The following spring our bud will begin to grow along with the
other buds of the tree, and now the little tree must be cut off from one-
half to an inch above the bud. See Fig. 8. This will throw all of the
growth into the new bud and 'it should shoot upward rapidly. A large
number of little sprouts will be sure to spring up around the stump and
it will be necessary to examine them about twice and rub them off, so
as to keep the growth where it is wanted.
After the buds that were inserted have made one season's growth,
the trees are ready to be planted out in the orchard. In average soil,
peach trees may be planted a rod apart each way, which gives i6o trees
to the acre. At the time of planting, prune the peach trees by cutting all
branches back to stubs an inch or so long, thus leaving about two buds
to each stub. The top should also be cut back into firm wood. The
roots may be cut back to a length of six inches and the tree is ready for
planting.
A few good varieties of peaches are: Mt. Rose, Family Favorite,
Elberta, Champion, Old Mixon, Pickette's Late and Salway. This is
by no means all of the good ones, but includes some of the leading sorts.
For clingstones. Old Mixon Cling and Heath Cling are the best. Others
may be added at the pleasure of the planter. »
Apple trees may be planted in the orchard when one year old from
the graft but most people prefer to have them two years old. When
planting, prune the trees to a cone-shape, that is, leaving the lowest
branches the longest and gradually tapering in toward the top, and leav-
ing a central stem as a leader, untouched, to continue the upward growth.
Prune the roots the same as the peach, and plant in rows 25 to 30 feet
apart each way. Where the soil is thin and the trees are not apt to make
a vigorous growth, 25 feet apart is sufficient. Give the trees clean cul-
ture or sow in cow peas. Do not seed the orchard to either clover or
timothy. At the time of planting, wrap the trees with wooden wrap-
farmers' institutes. 215
per 8 — a special kind of thin shingle made for this purpose, and sold by
all box and basket companies, to protect the trees from the hot sun, to
prevent the borers from getting in, and in winter to protect them from
rabbits. Put the wrappers on loosely, so that the trees can continue to
grow, and let them stay there until they rot off,' going through the or-
chard each spring and sticking them down in the ground again, where
the ends have rotted off.
. Varieties Jp plant depend on what they are wanted for; if for com-
mercial purposes, that is, to place them on the market, then B^n Davis,
Gano, Jonathans, and Grimes .Golden would probably be the best short
list for all localities. A home orchard should include the above, and, in
addition, some early summer varieties so as to have a succession of
fruit. Red June, Keswick Codlin, Early Harvest, Maiden Blush,
Lowell, Rambo, Rome Beauty and Winesap, are desirable varieties
for early and late summer use.
The principal insects of the apple which we are concerned with,
are the borers, codling moth and canker worm. For borers, use wooden
wrappers as directed ; for the codling moth, do not use trap lanterns, for
they are humbugs, but fight the insect by sprjiying early in the season
with Pfiris green at the rate of one pound to 175 gallons of water, also
adding three pounds of fresh lime. Spray first a week after flowers fall,
then make three more applications at intervals of about ten days. Keep
canker worms off of the trees by placing bands of cotton around the
trunks ; if they get on the trees, spray wi'th Paris green when they ap-
pear, using the same amount of the poison as for codling moth.
The most important fungous diseases are the scab and bitter rot.
For these, spray with Bordeaux mixture, which consists of four pounds
of bluestone (also called copper sulphate or blue vitriol), and four pounds
of fresh lime to fifty gallons of water. Spray the first time as buds are
swelling, again after the flowers have fallen, and twice more at in-
tervals of two weeks. If bitter rot appears later in the summer, begin
spraying again, giving two or three applications, at intervals of eight
or ten days. Keep the orchard clean and diseases will not be so likely
to appear.
216 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL RE^Otit.
BERRY GROWING.
By Geo. W. Williams, Humansville, Mo.
The first requirement in berry culture is a good supply of common
sense coupled with energy enough to push the business to success. The
man who embarks in the berry growing business with the idea that when
his plants are once set the work is done, is certainly doomed to disap-
pointment for it takes lots of hard work to grow berries ; but what farm
crop does not require lots- of work?
To be successful we must make fruit growing something of a study.
There is hardly a farm in Missouri but what will grow some kind of
fruit, but the owner must not go at it with his eyes shut. Often an or-
chard or berry patch is planted where it would not have been had the
work been done intelligently. The land for berries ought to be well
drained. The majority of people know this, yet how many times have
we seen blackberries, raspberries and strawberries set in low marshy
land with no attempt at drainage?
It is possible that a farm has no suitable site for a berry patch, or at
least one not naturally suited, and if not naturally suited and it cannot be
made so by artificial means, you had better not embark in that industry,
but let your more fortunate neighbor grow berries while you devotfi your
time to grain and stock.
How does fruit growing compare with other farm products for
profit is a question that is often asked. Before this question can be
intelligently answered there are several things to take into consideration ;
the distance from market, convenient shipping point and character of the
wagon road, if it must be hauled any distance in wagons. If the roads
are very rough it would not be as profitable to grow them even within
a few miles of market as a more distant. location with smoother roads
to haul over, and after hauling if they must still be shipped to market,
the time of day that you can get them into the hands of the commission
merchant or on the market, is an important factor in obtaining good
prices ; especially is this so if sent in open cars — that is by express — for
if berries must lay over one night (twelve hours) they are at a disadvan-
tage with those put on the market fresh. Where these conditions are
favorable, fruit growing pays much better than grain and stock raising,
for the amount invested.
The growing of small fruits requires more labor to cultivate and
take care of than any of the cereal crops and also requires a richer soil,
FARMERS^ INSTITUTES. 217
either naturally rich or made so artificially. It is therefore better suited
to the small than the large farmer; with the small farmer it will come
distinctly under his supervision, while with the man of large estate it
must be done by proxy, and as much of the success in berry growing
depends upon looking after the small details, a thing that few proxies
understand or care to take the trouble to do, it is better for the grower
to be his own supervisor. There are some sections where it is possible
for one. man to control large berry fields and make good profits, but
they are the exception and not the rule.
In selecting a location for berries or any other fruit, select a site
reasonably safe from late killing frosts in spring. Usually such a site
can be found on a gentle slope that terminates in an abrupt break or
ravine. In these abrupt valleys or ravines, we find the cold air drainage
which is as essential to the air as water drainage is to the soil. Bottom
land usually would be an admirable soil for small fruit, if it was not
too uncertain in its fruit production on account of injury by frost.
Any good, well drained corn land will be suitable for blackberries
and the red raspberry, while for strawberries and the black-cap raspberry
it is more difficult to find a suitable place. In fact, about the only way
to find out if a certain location or soil is adapted to strawberry growing
is to test it. The habits of the different varieties vary so much that one
variety that does well on one part of the farm may be a failure not
twenty rods away.
The preparation of the soil for berries should be thorough, that is,
eradicate all weeds before planting, that no seed will be left to come up
among the plants.
For blackberries anywhere in Missouri they can be set in the fall.
Do not try planting root cuttings, they are not satisfactory. Especially
is thi^ true to the novice. If intended for close, one way cultivation, set
them in rows eight feet apart and- thirty inches in the row. Any hoed
crop, like potatoes, can be planted between the rows, thus getting a
half crop off -the land the first year. After the first year the blackber-
ries will require all the ground. If set in what is called the hill system,
set in rows six feet apart and five feet in the row, running rows each
way. This enables nearly all the cultivation to be done by horse and
cultivator.
Run all berry rows north and south. This is necessary that all the
berries ripen uniformly. Rows running north and south get equal ben-
efits from the sun, the east side in the morning, the west side in the
evening. If the rows run east and west, the north side gets no sunshine
and the berries on that side ripen slowly and are not so bright colored,
while those on the south side ripen too fast.
218 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The blackberry will need but little attention the first year, only good
cultivation, but after that it will need its annual pruning. Starting with
the second year, cultivate the same as first year. When the canes get
about thirty inches high, pinch the top out ; this stops the upward groAvth
and causes lateral canes to start out at each leaf on the cane, and instead
of a single long cane like a fishing pole, we have a bush of many
branches. Early the next spring, before the sap starts, go over the field
with pruning shears and clip off about one-third of each branch ; this in-
sures a uniform size of berries and much larger than if not primed and
it is more convenient to cultivate and pick the berries. There is no
mulching so good for blackberries as a dirt mulch. The cultivation
can and should be kept up until the picking is finished.
As to varieties, after testing nearly all of the new kinds introduced,
the writer finds that for commercial purposes there is none better than
the Early Harvest or Early Cluster, for early, and the Snyder and Kitt-
atinna for the late, or main crop. The Kittatinna would be the leading
variety if it were not so subject to rust.
Strawberries require a higher, dryer location than the blackberry.
They will not live on wet land. While there can be no ironclad rules
to cultivate strawberries by, there are a few general rules that will hold
good in nearly all soils. The preparation of the field should begin in the
fall before setting in the spring. Never set strawberry plants in the
fall. If the land is not well drained, it can be aided very much by a sys-
tem of subsoiling, breaking with an ordinary two-horse turning plow,
following each furrow with another team hitched to a slim, strong "bull
tongue," running the "bull tongue" in the bottom of the furrow, which
breaks up the soil very deep but does not throw it out on top. This
manner of breaking has a two-fold object, one is it forms an under drain-
•
age that carries off the surplus water, the other, it forms a reservoir that
holds moisture and furnishes the plants with "drinking water" during a
drouth. When ground is plowed, cover with barnyard manure, putting
on from ten to twenty tons per acre. Next spring at the proper time to
set plants, which is when the earliest blooms have opened, disc or culti-
vate the ground over until it is thoroughly pulverized. Mark off the
rows north and south four feet apart — a light wheelbarrow makes a good
marker. In setting, follow the track made by the wheel, as a guide is
all that is needed. Set plants from eighteen to twenty-four inches apart,
setting with a narrow spade. In selecting plants, they should be taken
from beds that have never borne fruit, that is from teds set the spring
before. By following this plan year after year, and the proper selection
of plants, the strawberry can be improved.
farmers' institutes. 219
Wait until the fruit stem has grown up and the bloom buds ready to
open. By waiting until this time, it enables us to select only such plants
as show a strong tendency to be prolific. By earlier setting, we are apt
to set many barren plants and many more that make a weak fruit growth.
Another and labor-saving advantage is that as the plants are taken up,
the bloom buds can be pinched out, a thing that must be done some time,
no matter when the plants are set, and if the plants are set early this
pinching out comes some weeks after they are set, and it iS a back-break-
ing- job, besides the danger of loosening the plant, unless done by careful
hands. Plants set after the fruit stems have run up and the bloom buds
formed, are more likely to grow, as they are in a thriving condition and
will make more plants during the season than earlier set plants. It will
also save one hoeing and much after work, for the seeds of weeds have
come up and can be killed by thorough harrowing before the plants are
set. These savings are quite an item in the cultivation of a large field.
Cultivation should commence a few days after setting and be thor-
ough through the entire season. It can be done shallow unless there are
heavy rains that pack the ground and in that case it should be stirred
five or six inches deep; but never stir the ground wet. When you can
pick up a handful of dirt and squeeze it and make a mud ball, it is too wetj
let it get dry or the cultivation will do more harm than good. When the
runners start out, they should be kept turned with the row. This can
he done by getting up close to the plants with the harrow — (one-horse
harrow with handle to it and only about three feet wide at the wide end)
or cultivator always going the same way. When the runners have met
between the hills begin to "shy" off a little from the plants, giving them
a wide berth that they may spread sideways. By the time the plant
making season is over, there should be a matted row ten or twelve inches
wide. They should never be allowed to get over twelve inches wide.
If the season is an extra good one for plant making, and the rows are
becoming too wide, reverse the cultivation, that is, run the cultivator
against the ends of the runners. This will keep them torn loose and the
late plants cannot root.
When the ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a wagon, mulch.
Perhaps there is nothing better for this than straw, and it should be
straw that had stood in the weather for over a year, as by this exposure
to the rain and sun it has become partly rotted and the wheat and cheat
left in by the thresher has either germinated or heated until their germs
are killed. Leave the mulching on until after all reasonable danger of
frost is passed, then rake it off lightly, pulling it between the rows, leav-
ing it there for the pickers to walk over, who will have it about all worn
out by the time the picking is over.
220 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT*
After the picking, run a mower over at once, and when it gets dry
and there is a brisk wind blowing, burn it off. Wait a few days after
the burning and begin cultivating again ; do this by first running a double
shovel plow, letting it down deep between the rows, going up and down
one row two or three times or until the center of the row is well mellow-
ed. Then with a one-horse turning plow, well sharpened, cut the row
down to four or six inches, throwing the dirt on this mellowed dirt be^
tween the rows. With a hoe cut out in the row, leaving a square of
plants every twenty-four inches. With the one-horse cultivator, pull the
ridge between the rows down and the after cultivation should be similar
to the first season. Get two crops and then plow under as soon as the
second crop is picked, sowing cow peas, buckwheat or any quick grow-
ing crop on the land. In the cultivation of the strawberry it must be
borne in mind that it is a hard plant on the land and soon exhausts the
fertility, and this must be kept supplied if good results are obtained.
There is nothing much better for this purpose than well rotted barnyard
manure.
In selecting varieties, the pistillates are the most prolific if properly
fertilized. Set every sixth row staminates, leaving the outside row on
the west side a staminate ; the prevailing wind during the blooming sea-
son is from the south and west, this pollen row on the west gives us the
advantage of the wind.
SOME ORCHARD PESTS.
By Prof. J. M. Stedman, Entomologist to the Experiment Station,
Columbia, Missouri.
I wish to say a word in reference to the plum curculio, about
which Mr. Murray told you the value of chickens to rid one of this
pest. This plum curculio is the great bugbear in the raising of plums,
and also does a great deal of mischief in peaches and apples. I see
here on the table some of Mr. Murray's apples, one of which I hold
up, and it would be a number one apple were it not for the blemish
made by that plum curculio. This apple contains no codling moth,
apple scab or anything of that kind. The curculio stings the apple as
well as the plum although in a different way ; and that sting, whether
the egg hatches or not, reduces the apple to a number two grade, right
away, and your profits are gone. We can not spray for the plum
curculio and reach any successful results. The best thing you can
do for your apples as well as your plums is to have plenty of poultry
farmers' institutes. 221
in your orchard, and let them not only catch and devour the adults,
but the larvae and the pupae also. They will scratch up the larvae
or grubs that are crawling about seeking a place to crawl into the
ground and pupate. Pick up the apples that fall to the ground or
turn live stock into the orchard that will eat these apples when they
fall ; because the fall is the result of the sting from the plum curculio
or codling moth and these apples contain the larvae which have prac-
tically reached the mature grub stage and your stock will pick the
apples up and devour them before the grubs have changed to pupae.
There is another insect that you can fight more successfully by
another method than spraying, and that is the canker worm, the larva
of which hatches out about the time the blossoms appear on the trees.
The worm is of a dark brown, sometimes almost black color, and
moves with a measuring motion, hence the name sometimes given to
it of measuring worm. When you jar a limb the larvae of these in-
sects will drop and stay suspended by a silken thread until after the
disturbance is over, when they will crawl up again and go to work
defoliating the leaves of the trees. They are the larvae of a beautiful
moth. Bear in mind that in this locality we have two species of
canker worms. They hatch out in the fall of the year and throughout
the winter, clear on until spring. The males have well developed
wings and can fly like any other moth, while the females have no
wings and can not fly at all. They hatch out in rubbish of all kinds
about your orchard. The females crawl up the bodies of your apple
trees and lay their eggs in the limbs, usually in a mass, consisting
some times of a hundred or more. If the female for any reason could
not crawl up the tree, she would not be able to lay her eggs there,
and you would have no canker worm infesting your tree. Bear that
in mind. No matter whether the moth hatches in the fall, spring or
winter, its eggs do not hatch out until the proper time in the spring,
which is about the time of the appearance of the blossoms. What
can we do to prevent the female canker worm climbing up into the
tree ? This insect works not only in apple trees, but other fruit trees,
such as the cherry and plum, as well as forest and shade trees such
as the elm. You can fight this insect successfully in this way : Take
some ordinary wire mosquito netting, such as you use in the windows
to keep out flies, and cut it into strips four inches wide and long
enough to go around the body oiyour trees and overlap about nine
inches. Having done that, cut one side of this band by means of scis-
sors at intervals of every three inches about an inch and a half in
depth. Go into the orchard and scrape off the loose bark from around
the trunks of the trees at a convenient height from the ground and
222 ^ MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
about four inches in width. Apply the band to this place and by
means of a common tack overlap a cut edge and tack it ; do so at every
lap cut, and when all around fasten the ends by means of a wire pin.
The cutting and overlapping of the cut edge will cause the wire net-
ting to flare out at the bottom, and if there are no crevices between
the wire and the bark, the canker worm females will never get around
this band. Put this around your tree early in the fall. You will find
that not a single female canker worm will ever pass one of these
bands, and they will last about two years and are inexpensive.
Mr. Schoppenhorst. — Does the canker worm affect the foliage
only or the fruit also?
Prof. Stedman. — Usually only the foliage, but sometimes they
will attack the fruit also.
Now, gentlemen, this remedy beats spraying for this pest; it is
done much quicker, it is more effectual and it costs much less, and
you can do it at a time when you are^not so busy as you are in the sea-
son when the canker worm larvae appear. If you are going to spray
for other insects of the leaf feeding kind, you will kill the canker
worms all right. If you have not put on these bands and the worms
appear in your trees, then go to work and spray thoroughly and one
spraying will be sufficient, especially if done when the larvae are
young.
Mr. King. — I want a little more information about these insects.
I am not right sure about the worm of which you speak. I find a few
worms in my apple trees and a great many in my walnut trees, but
they have not that peculiarity of dropping of which you spoke. They
hatch on the under side of the leaf and after the worms attain a cer-
tain growth they cluster on the tree and shed their skins.
Prof. Stedman. — That is the Forest Tent Caterpillar. It is not
the canker worm. It does not make any tent and that is one objection
to its name. There is a group of web worms; some make webs and
some do not. You can kill them with any arsenical poison spray, or when
you find them in clusters, you can kill all of them readily by a spray of
kerosene.
Mr. King. — I have had trouble with ash trees on account of a
black worm that eats the tender tips of the shoots of the ash trees.
One of their peculiarities is that they drop to the ground when the
trees are jarred. They are very numerous, so much so that they stop
the growth of the large trees. They bite into the tip top of the tree.
Prof. Stedman. — That is the ash saw fly. Spray with any of the
arsenical poisons.
Mr. King. — Do you usually use torches for those that make webs?
farmers' institutes. 223
Prof. Stedman. — We usually ^o and burn them late in the even-
ing". The insects that attack your fruit trees should be divided into
two classes, when it comes to fighting them. The first class are the
biting insects, or those which eat the leaves, fruit or tender shoots,
biting away portions of them and swallowing it. You can call them
chewing insects if you like that term better. The second class get
into orchards and do a great deal of damage, but instead of eating
away the tissues of tlie plant, they stick their beaks right through the
tissues and suck the sap only; these we speak of as sucking insects.
In fighting insects, no matter where, (except on live stock) you should .
observe first whether it is a biting or a sucking insect, as upon that
depends your method of fighting them ; and right here is where most
people make mistakes in trying to rid themselves of these pests. They
do not observe carefully these two classes of insects. You do not
have to find the insect and look at its mouthpart in order to tell to
which class it belongs but look at the damage the insect is doing on
your plants and you can tell the kind of an insect you have to deal '
with. If you have a biting insect, put some kind of arsenical poison
on the plant and just so long as the poison remains there these insects
may come al6ng, and in eating the tissues of the plant, will eat some
of that poison and be killed, and you will be surprised what a small
amount of poison it takes t6 kill them. But if you have a sucking in-
sect, though the plant be covered .with arsenical poison, it will not
hurt the insect at all, since it will stick its beak right through the
poison and into the tissues of the plant and suck its sap ; hence you can
not kill a sucking insect by arsenical or internal poisons, and that is the
secret of many failures. For sucking insects we use some form of
kerosene, as a rule. Now, I am not going to the trouble to tell you
how-to make kerosene emulsion, nor ask you to go to that trouble; it
is a nuisance, and takes time, and nine people out of every ten will not
do it. Buy a modern spray pump from some of the best manufac-
turers, and get one that has what is called a kerosene attachment.
That is a new patent device which consists of a tank connection with
the pump into which you place common pure kerosene ; then there is
an indicator that will cut off the kerosene or allow it to run in up to
fifty per cent. Set the indicator at ten per cent., fill the tank with
pure kerosene and put common water in your barrel and go out and
spray. It is done quickly and saves the trouble of making kerosene
emulsion. That pump has another advantage. When you are spray-
. ing insects it frequently happens that you want to spray for fungous
diseases like apple scab, bitter rot and the like. When you make
your Bordeaux mixture, place it ''in the barrel, putting in some arsen-
224 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ical poison regarding the Bordeaux mixture as 'pure water and using*
the proper amount of lime, as the case may be ; then fill the kerosene
tank and set it at ten per cent., and you can go out and spray your
trees for fungous diseases, biting insects and sucking insects all at one
time, and save yourself the labor and expense of three sprayings.
You can not combine all of these three sprayings unless you get that
pump, and it costs very little more than the pumps without it.
I want to say a word in regard to poisons. I advise you not to use
London purple at all. Do not use it if you can get anything else.
.You can not depend upon it; it is refuse matter from the manufacture
of aniline dyes, was not made for London purple at all, and hence its
chemical composition varies.
Use Paris green if you can get it gopd and pure. Paris green
is adulterated largely, and so is London purple. Some states have
laws requiring Paris green to contain fifty per cent, arsenic. While
this is done in good faith, so as to bring up the poison to the proper
standard, it is liable now to be more dangerous than the want of the
proper amount of poison, for some now add pure arsenic, and that
substance being soluble in water will injure your plants.
I think the best poison to use is arsenate of soda (lor biting in-
sects only) . You make it by adding two pounds of powdered white
arsenic and eight pounds of sal soda to two gallons of water. Indicate
on the vessel where the water comes to ; put this on the fire, note the
time when it begins to boil and keep it boiling for fifteen minutes.
Remove it from the fire and add water to bring it up to the original
two gallons, which you can easily do by the mark you made on the
side of the vessel. If you do not wish to use this substance right
away, you can put it in a jug and label it. When you desire to spray,
slack eight pounds of fresh stone lime in a little water to form a lime
putty or thick lime ; place this slacked lime in one hundred gallons of
water and then add your two quarts of arsenate of soda from the bottle,
and after thoroughly mixing it is ready for use.
You are troubled, perhaps, as much with the codling moth as any
other insect unless it be the canker worm. You can rid yourself of the
pest to a great extent by the use of poultry in the orchard and bands
of brown paper or burlap around the trees.; and examine these trees
every week during spring and summer in order to take away the
cocoons or pupae which will collect under them.
But we have to spray our orchards if we wish to fight the codling
rtioth to the best advantage. Bear in mind that this moth hatches out
early in the spring and commences to lay her eggs soon after the
blossoms fall from the apple trees. These moths are continually
farmers' institutes. 225
hatching out throughout the summer and laying their eggs in your
apples. They have three broods in this country ; these broods overlap
completely, and hence the continual laying of eggs. The second and
third broods come from the first brood, hence we try to kill the first
brood and let the second and third broods take care of themselves.
Take this arsenate of soda in the proportion that I have given you
(or one pound of Paris green, three pounds of stone lime, one hun-
dred and seventy-five gallons of water,) and spray your trees thor-
oughly one week after the blossoms fall. Repeat the spraying eight
or ten days after that and keep this up for four .successive sprayings.
If it rains, spray again and do not count that spraying. If you do not
propose to spray four times do not spray at all ; it is an absolute waste
of time and money. You must regard the fighting of this inject like
fighting an illness. You can not cure yourself with one dose of medi-
cine, you must keep it up, and it is the keeping up of the treatment
persistently and thoroughly that means success. Hence in fighting
the codling moth, if you do not intend to keep up the spraying do
not spray at all for this pest. If you follow these directions in your
home orchard, you will have fifty per cent, better apples and more
of them to bring to your local markets as well as fewer wormy apples
to eat at home. In a commercial orchard it is absolutely necessary to
spray.
Mr. We had quite a lot of moths this fall, were they
codling moths ?
Prof. Stedman. — ^The codling moth hatches all the time during the
summer and you can find the larvae right now in your cellar apples.
They keep on hatching until cold weather checks them. These in-
sects take nearly a month in coming out in the spring and a month to
•lay their eggs. If your neighbors have a great number of codling
moths, you can fight them in your orchard and not do much good by
your killing the first brood, because the codling moth will fly from his
orchard and lay eggs in your orchard after the spraying season has
passed.
Mr. Goodman. — Then you would not advise any one to spray for
the codling moth unless his neighbor does ?
Prof. Stedman. — If you have a neighbor within a quarter of a mile
of you and he has a good sized orchard full of codling moths paying no
attention to it at all, I would hesitate to spray my orchard under these
conditions, unless I went to the expense of keeping the spraying up all
summer, which no one can aflford to do and expect to make money.
A-15
226 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Mr. Goodman. — How then can we get a check on these insects by
spraying one row in an orchard?
Prof. Stedman. — In that case we get nothing like the results we
could get if we could rid the neighborhood of codling moths. Of
course, we can see some benefit if we do not wait too long, but I am
speaking now to these gentlemen of the dollars and cents saved.
Your orchard will be benefited by spraying, of course, but the ques-
tion is if your neighbors' orchards are neglected and badly infested
with moths will it pay you for your trouble. I do not believe it will.
If I had a small orchai*d and my neighbor's orchard had codling moths
I would not fight them if I were in the business for the money. If you
have a commercial orchard, that is an entirely different thing; then
you must go ahead and fight the moths though it is an uphill business
if you have a near neighbor to contend with who does not ; but the
home orchardist can not afford to fight the codling moth if he has an
immediate neighbor who is paying no attention to it whatever.
Mr. King. — Is it not true that the logic of your discourse as
stated here, would stop all spraying except in commercial orchards?
Prof. Stedman. — For the codling moth under the above conditions,
yes ; but if you could only cause the people of your neighborhood to
take up spraying, it would all tend to increase spraying. Work up a
sentiment to get the people with home orchards to spraying. A man
with a home orchard may afford to spray when a man with a commer-
cial orchard can not. You would rather give more per half acre for
your little home orchard than you would give for hundreds of acres ;
that would mean something ; but when you take into consideration that
within a quarter of a mile or less is a large orchard, not sprayed, you
must figure out whether you can afford to spray or not. If you are,
however, depending upon that orchard for your living you are bound
to spray it. Four sprayings are effectual if you can control a very
large orchard and have your neighbors spray, especially your imme-
diate neighbors. You will find not one wormy apple in five hundred
if you keep up the spraying. It is a perfect success where you can con-
trol enough territory.
I wish to call your attention to a little brown beetle, known as the
shot or pin-hole beetle. I speak of this because of the fact that many
of your trees are going to die from the effects of last summer's drouth.
The drouth last summer, while it did not kill many trees outright, in-
jured a great many trees. If you go into your orchards in neighbor-
hoods where the drouth was worst you will probably notice that limbs
of the trees are dead, although the tree went into winter conditions
apparently all right. That weakening of the tree due to the drouth
farmers' institutes. 227
has attracted this bark beetle, and I noticed while traveling last month
that many orchards are seriously damaged by this bark beetle, which
would not have attracted particular attention at all, had it not been for
the excessive drouth. In an orchard where I have been making obser-
vations, I find the trees went into winter conditions all right, but to-
day they are almost half dead, having dead limbs as large as my wrist;
and the immediate cause has been the bark beetle. You will find they
have infested the trees in immense iiumbers. I would advise you to
go through your orchards and cut into the bark with a knife ; you can
tell by shaving the bark whether the limb is dead. Cut oflf these dead
limbs and burn them right away. Do not wait until spring for the
beetles to hatch and infest other parts of the tree that are now healthy.
I wish to say a word in regard to the aid birds render in ridding
you of the^e insects. Birds do more good than you may suppose,
they are not only a remedy, they are a preventive. The woodpeckers,
the sap-suckers, the yellow hammers and the like are working away,
pecking holes through the bark of your trees hunting for grubs which
are there. I was talking recently with a gentleman who had been
shooting his sap-suckers and woodpeckers because they had pecked
holes in the bark of his trees. He did not know that these birds were
hunting for the grubs. Do not shoot the birds.
Mr. Maitland. — Do they find grubs in the telegraph poles?
Prof. Stedman. — I have reference to the slate pencil holes. The
woodpecker never takes a healthy tree in which to make his nest, he
always takes a dead limb and that is what he is doing in the telegraph
pole.
There are other insects likely to cause you trouble that I have not
yet mentioned. In fact I have mentioned very few. I want to say a
word in regard to the flat-headed apple tree borers. Mr. Murray has
advised you to use wooden tree protectors and that is all right. In
addition to that, I would advise you to let the birds pick out the borers
because the larvae work in the tree three years and if you do not get
rid of them the first year, they will do more damage the second year
than the first. Do not put wrappers around peach trees. You can
whitewash them,, but the wrappers will tend to collect more of the
borers than if they were not there ; but it is a good plan to allow the
woodpeckers, and the sap-suckers to get down around the roots and
pick out the grubs.
Mr. Do blue jays do any good?
Prof. Stedman. — The blue jays do a great deal of good in killing
insects.
Mr. The blue jays destroy apples.
228 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Prof. Stedman. — Did you ever see them do it? I did not know
that the blue jay would injure fruit, but I would not kill them for what
little fruit they may eat.
Mr. I saw this spring in my own orchard, places on the
trees that looked as though some one had inserted a pen knife for a
quarter of an inch. The bark had been cut and caused an outward
growth from the inside.
Prof. Stedman. — Two insects do that work. The seventeen year
locust does that whenever it hatches out in sufficient numbers, but
that insect only comes at certain times. Another insect which is with
us all the time, which does the same damage, and sometimes it is
quite serious, is the Buffalo tree-hopper. It lays its eggs in the
small limbs of apple trees and these places are caused by the female
pushing her ovipositor through the bark and wood itself. The bark
settles down and you see the fibers sticking out. These insects will
injure the twig greatly by depositing their eggs. When the eggs
hatch the young insects leave the tree and feed on various kinds of
weeds and uncultivated plants. Then the adult goes into the orchard
and lays its eggs. Keep your weeds down and you will do away with
the plants the insects feed upon. It is the orchardist who allows weeds
and grass to grow in his orchard or a near field that has this trouble.
Mr. I keep my orchard plowed good in the fall of the year
and cultivate it thoroughly.
Prof. Stedman. — Are there weeds growing in some adjoining-
field?
Mr. No, there are pastures on two sides and a pike road on
the third and a garden on the fourth.
Prof. Stedman. — Then they are not numerous enough to do any
damage.
Mr. I do not think they do any damage to the trees. I have
taken my knife and gone over the trees and cut the places out to see
if I could find any larvae. I could not find anything with the naked
eye and failed to put it under a microscope.
Prof. Stedman. — It is the work of the Buffalo tree-hopper, but I
have never known them to do any serious damage where a man kept
his orchard and the surrounding fields clean.
Mr. Would it be safe to plow an orchard now?
Prof. Stedman. — I am not a horticulturist, but an entomologist. If
I should advise plowing, it might be just the opposite to what you
ought to do.
Mr. Does not clean culture keep down the canker worm ?
FAltMERS' INSTITUTES. 229
Prof. Stedman. — Yes, clean culture is the best thing in the world
for ridding one of insects.
Mr. Is the worm found in the hickory pole the same as the
apple tree borer?
Prof. Stedman. — ^The twig girdler in the living hickory tree is ex-
actly the same; that in the post is an entirely different worm. The
apple tree borer will work in the pear and plum tree as well as in the
apple tree.
Mr. King. — Would you advise spraying for the ash tree worm ?
Prof. Stedman. — If you find the larvae there and spray with ar-
senical poison, you can kill them. But the adults will fly over there
and lay their eggs there the next season. They only raise one brood
a year.
Mr. King. — Do you advise not to kill the jay birds?
Prof. Stedman. — I do not believe we should kill a single bird.
Some birds do a good deal of mischief; I have known persons who
said they could not grow cherries on account of robins, but the robins
get as many worms as cherries.
Mr. Did not the jay birds eat apples this year?
Prof. Stedman. — Many people confuse the injury done to apples
by birds with that of the climbing cut worm or leaf tree roller. You
can always tell the difference. The latter will make a more or less
circular or irregular place where it has gouged the apple while the
bird will make a V-shaped mark where the beak was inserted, ex-
actly like a chicken.
Mr. Goodman. — The birds ate a good many apples last year.
Mr. King. — ^The jay bird has been a problem at our house for two
years because it injures the smaller birds and this year it carried off
the chickens. I want to know if they are of any special service that
would make it wise to protect the chickens and not kill the jay birds.
Prof. Stedman. — I cannot answer that from personal experience
or anything I have read. I do not know that I ever examined a jay
bird's stomach. I have examined thousands of crows', hawks' and
blackbirds' stomachs and I recall now the fact that every single bird
that has been studied thoroughly by the United States Department of
Agriculture, heretofore considered a rascal, has turned out to do more
good than harm. Such is the case with the crow, the hawk and the
owl. You remember as a boy you thought it great sport to chase
down a hawk or crow, but they really do more good than harm even
though they do catch some of our chickens. Where they get one
chicken, they get hundreds of moles and mice.
230 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Mr. Goodman. — The jay bird kills a thousand insects where it at-
tacks one apple.
Mr. Is there more than one species of leaf tree rollers ?
Prof. Stedman. — Yes, a great many species. The leaf tree roller
of the hickory tree and fruit tree is very different.
]\/Ir. Will trees infested with the leaf roller bear nuts ?
Prof. Stedman. — Yes, on limbs not infested with them. The leaf
roller will eat the young fruit when it is tender.
Mr. I am sorry to hear that you think cedars are injurious
to fruit. All of my trees died except the cedars this year.
Prof. Stedman. — Are there cedar apples on them? As long- as
they are free from cedar apples they are all right. You can easily
pick them off if you will take the trouble to do that.
^ THE FRUIT INDUSTRY OF MISSOURI.
By N. F. Murray, Oregon, Missouri.
We have in Missouri ten millions of acres of the finest fruit lands
in the world. They are to be found along our great rivers and their
tributaries and all over South Missouri. Counting all the orchards,
vineyards and fruit gardens of the State, both farm and commercial,
we have one million acres in fruit, which annually sells for from
ten to twenty millions of dollars.
This fruit is of the highest quality, superior to that of the Eastern
States or of California; in evidence of which we call attention to
scores of gold medals and diplomas awarded to and now in possession
of the Missouri State Horticultural Society, and individual members
of the same, at the great expositions of the world, over the fruit from
all other states and foreign countries.
Some of our home people, finding imperfect, wormy Missouri
fruit in our home markets, and more perfect specimens from different
states, are inclined to doubt the truthfulness of this statement. This
is simply because they overlook the very important fact that all fruit
growers from Maine to California carefully select and pack the best
and most perfect of all theif fruit for distant markets. No other
kind will pay a profit over transportation. The culls and wormy trash
are kept for home consumption. Many people, of late years, are ask-
ing why they cannot buy Missouri apples that will keep ; it is for the
farmers' institutes. 231
-reason that our perfect apples are sold to large buyers and they go to
our large cities and to Europe.
In going out to California last year we noticed many train loads
of fruit from the Pacific Coast consigned to the large cities of Mis-
souri and the East. Of course California has the advantage of us in
being able to produce semi-tropical fruits, oranges, lemons, foreign
grapes, figs and English walnuts and we naturally expect her to furnish
these to our markets ; but why should we expect her to furnish Missouri
with apples, pears, peaches, plums and cherries in a fresh state, and
then stock up all the grocery stores in every city and village in our
State with canned and evaporated fruits? And yet this is just what
they have done, are doing, and will continue to do, so long as we are
willing to let them. They grow these fruits on land worth from
two to five hundred dollars per acre, pay heavy freights and sell it
at a good profit in our cities. Is it not time that Missouri should
awaken to her wonderful possibilities in fruit growing?
But some one will say, if these statements are true, and fruit
growing in Missouri is successful and profitable, why is it that she is
so slow developing her fine fruit lands ? For the reason that Missouri
is a State of diversified industries. She is not under the necessity of
going to market with her eggs all in one basket ; she has always been
noted for her live stock, agricultural and mining interests. As Mis-
souri has excelled in these interests for a generation, it is but natural
for the son, as a rule, to follow in the footsteps of his father and as he
did well in these industries, it has been but natural to adhere to the
old adage, let well enough alone; hence our people have refrained
from entering into what, to many of them, would have proved a more
profitable industry, commercial fruit growing.
OVERPRODUCTION OF FRUIT.
Some fear an over-production of fruit ; I do not. I have heard the
warning cry from timorous souls for forty years that we were sure
to have an over-production of fruit! What is the actual condition?
What are the facts as to an over-supply of fruit? What about the
increased population of the country as compared with the increasing
supply of fruit? In the time that it has taken the populatioA of the
United States to double, her fruit supply has increased five-fold. In
the face of this, we would naturally expect fruit to decline in price.
Has it? No indeed; but on the other hand it has gone up and up in
price, till it is now beyond the reach of the common people, and only
the rich may indulge in the use of ordinary fruit. At the present time
one bushel of good apples is worth two bushels of wheat or corn!
232 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
We know of apple orchards this past season that sold for two hundred
dollars per acre, peach orchards that sold for as much and in some
places more, and strawberry beds that sold for from one to three hun-
dred dollars per acre !
In the face of all this, with our millions of acres of superior fruit
lands that can be bought at from five to fifty dollars per acre, with sl
splendid home market and an ever and rapidly increasing foreign de-
mand for all our fruit, shall we continue to let the masses go hungry
for fruit and the tables of the rich be supplied with inferior fruits from
distant states at extortionary prices ?
ALFALFA.
By R. W. Clothier, Cape Girardeau Normal.
Ladies and Gentlemen — You have asked me to talk to you about
alfalfa, but I will say that in the brief time allotted to me I cannot be-
gin to tell you all that you ought to know about this valuable plant.
It has been justly called the "wonder plant of the 19th century."
It will yield annually several tons per acre of the most valuable
stock feed, while at the same time the soil upon which it grows is
continually becoming richer. As a stock food it has no equal among"
hay crops and there are few grains that excel it. It is richer pound
for pound in muscle and milk forming elements than wheat bran.
When substituted for corn fodder in rations for fattening steers, one-
tbird less than the usual amount of corn is required to put them on the
market. Experiments to determine its feeding value have been per-
formed at the Experimental Stations of New Jersey, Michigan, Ne-
braska, Kansas and Colorado and their results place its value at from
$12 to $34 per ton, depending upon the kind and age of the stock to
which it was fed. The fertilizing elements contained in it alone
figured at their commercial prices are worth $9.50 per ton of hay. All
animals eat it and thrive upon it — even chickens. I know of a herd
of sixty brood sows that were wintered upon one peck of corn per day
and all the alfalfa hay they would eat, and they came out in excellent
condition.
But you are waiting for me to tell you how to grow it. I will give
you directions in accordance with the experience of the most success-
ful growers.
t-ARMERS^ INSTITUTES. 233
THE SOIL.
Alfalfa will grow and yield good crops upon any soil that will pro-
duce good yields of corn, oats or wheat, and upon some soils that
will produce meager yields of these crops. It responds readily, how-
ever, to rich soils and manures and is valuable enough to be given
the best soil you have upon your farm. Being a tap-rooted plant, the
soil upon which it grows should not be underlaid with solid rock, un-
less it is several feet below the surface. This is even more true
in the case of impenetrable clay. The plant does not do well where
water stands upon the surface, or where the ground water stands
within two feet of the surface for any great length of time, though it
is said to be doing nicely in the neighborhood of Caruthersville, Mis-
souri, where the underflow of the Mississippi comes close to the sur-
face for some time each spring. From what I have seen of the soils
of Southeast Missouri, I believe alfalfa will be at home here if you
once get it started.
PREPARATION OF THE SOU..
The young alfalfa plant is tender and every means possible
should be taken to make its early home comfortable. The soil should
contain plenty of available plant food and be in good tilth. Some
well rotted manure, thoroughly incorporated with the soil, or a good
nitrogen fertilizer, would not come amiss, especially if the soil has be-
come somewhat depleted of its fertility. Plow deeply, harrow and
allow two or three rains to fall upon the plowed land before seeding.
The subsurface soil should be well packed and if there is not sufficient
rain to accomplish this result the same thing can be secured by harrow-
ing several times at intervals of from five to ten days. From four to
six weeks is not too long to wait after plowing before seeding. Ob-
serve this point well, for it is vital to your success. One of the
greatest causes of failure is seeding too soon after plowing. In no
case should the seed be sown with any other crop. A gentleman just
told me he had drilled his alfalfa in with his wheat and complained
that he had not yet seen any plants. He never will see any.
TIME OF SEEDING.
The time of seeding depends upon the condition of the soil and
the amount of moisture in it. If these conditions are right it may
be sown any time between April ist and September iSth. Do not
sow too early. Wait until the soil is warm enough to bring up the
young plant quickly and start it out upon a rapid growth. When you
234 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
get ready to seed, if there is not plenty of moisture in the soil, wait
until there is, if you have to wait a year.
The few alfalfa growers whom I have met in Southeast Mis-
souri have been successful with spring seeding. Spring seeding gives
the best results where the land is not too foul with weeds, because
the risk of loss from dry weather is less at this time than at any other
part of the, season. Occasionally a good stand from spring seeding"
is killed by cold, wet weather, or by heavy beating rains occurring*
soon after the young plants emerge from the ground. Weeds are the
worst enemies to spring seeding. Unless you can entirely control
them, you will be obliged to resort to fall seeding. Foul land may
be cleaned by cultivating a crop of cow peas upon it during the sum-
mer and when this crop is removed the land is in excellent condition
for seeding to alfalfa. If there is enough moisture in the fall, I see
no reason why fall seeding should not give excellent results in South-,
east Missouri.
AMOUNT OF SEED AND MANNER OF SOWING.
The most successful alfalfa growers recommend from 20 to 30
pounds of seed per acre. If every seed should produce a plant this
would be much more than is needed, but since this is never the case,
I would not recommend less than 20 pounds. The seed should have a
high percentage of vitality. There is no way of judging of its quality
in this respect except by testing it. This may be done in the follow-
ing manner : Fold a piece of flannel cloth and cut it so it will fit into
a common dinner plate. Put one hundred average seeds between the
folds of cloth. Keep the cloth moist, but do not cover it with water.
Put a pane of glass over the plate to prevent too rapid evaporation of
moisture and set it away in a warm place. In a few days the seeds
will begin to sprout and the germinated seeds may be counted and
removed each day. The percentage of seeds that will germinate
within eight or nine days by this treatment will be about equal to the
percentage that may be expected to germinate in the soil. Poor seed
should either be rejected or the amount per acre proportionally in-
creased.
The seed may be sown broadcast and harrowed in, or it may be
drilled with a press drill set so as to run not more than two inches
deep. If drilled the seed should be mixed with corn chop or wheat
bran to insure even distribution and should be drilled both ways.
farmers' institutes. 235
• CUI.TURE.
If the land is seeded in the spring, the weeds must be kept down
during the first year by frequent use of the mowing machine, the bar
being set so as to run not closer than to within two inches of the
ground. Do not let the weeds grow higher than six inches, for they
will shade the plants, causing a spindling growth and when the weeds
are finally cut the hot sun burns the tender plant and kills it. If
your land is foul with crab grass or similar grasses, you cannot succeed
with spring seeding.
Do not pasture it the first year. Give the plant a whole year in
which to get started, and it will produce bountiful crops every year
thereafter for a life time. I know a field that was seeded in 1884,
w^hich has produced a minimum of three crops every season since
the first year, and it is still at work.
After the second season the plants are greatly benefited by disc-
ing after each cutting. This splits the crowns and causes them to
send up new plants. Ten average roots from a field not disced pro-
duce an average of 16 plants per root, while ten average roots from a
field that had been disced produced 35 plants per root. Discing also
conserves moisture in the soil. At the close of our hundred days
drouth last season I found fourteen per cent of moisture in the first
fifteen inches of soil in an alfalfa field that had been disced, while ad-
joining corn fields contained but nine per cent. The alfalfa was
fifteen inches high and this was the third crop of the season.
INOCULATION OF SOIL.
Like clover, alfalfa possesses the power of utilizing nitrogen from
the air and it is this fact that makes it one of our best fertilizing plants.
As in the case of clover, this power is due to bacteria that live in the
nodules or tubercules found on the roots of the plant. The germs
of these bacteria seem to be in many cases indigenous to the soil, but
in other cases they are not. It would be safer to inoculate the soil
by securing a little soil from a field known to contain the.bacteria and
sow it with the seed or upon the roots of the young plants. Soils de-
ficient in lime are not apt to contain the bacteria. There have been
cases reported where alfalfa could not be grown until the soil was
inoculated in the manner described. If a portion of the field is inocu-
lated the bacteria will spread rapidly to all other parts of the field.
HARVESTING.
The best quality of hay is produced by cutting just as the plants
are beginning to bloom. If cut always at this time, an extra cropjcan
236 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
be secured at the end of the season, which compensates for the in-
creased yield per crop secured by cutting at a more mature stage of
growth. Let the hay wilt in the swath and them rake into the wind-
row, where the process of curing is completed. Stack with as little
handling as possible since the dry leaves drop off easily and they are
by far the most nutritive portion of the plant. Do not let the hay
get rained upon before stacking, as one heavy rain will completely
ruin it. It may be stacked in the open or under a roof built for the pur-
pose, but is apt to mold some when stored in a hay mow. If stacked
in the open the stacks should be covered with a tarpaulin or with some
grass that turns rain easily.
FEEDING.
Alfalfa hay may be fed to horses, cattle, calves, steers, sheep,
lambs, hogs, pigs, etc. In feeding to horses it would probably give
better results if mixed with some other kind of hay, such as timothy
or prairie hay. It should not be fed to a horse immediately preced-
ing a long rapid drive. With a few pounds of corn alfalfa hay makes
a perfect ration for dairy cows. No better ration than equal portions
of corn and alfalfa hay has even been discovered for fattening steers.
In feeding remember that it is worth as much, pound for pound, as
wheat bran and govern yourself accordingly.
PASTURING.
Alfalfa makes excellent hog and pig pasture, but in some cases
the swine will root down and bite off the crowns of the plant, thus
greatly damaging the stand. It would probably give better results
to cut the plant green and feed it to the hogs in the pen or hog corral.
Alfalfa causes bloat in cattle and sheep, and pasturing with these
animals is always attended with considerable danger. There are two
or three men who report having mixed alfalfa with Kentucky blue
grass and they claim that such a pasture never produces bloat. I be-
lieve the experiment is worthy of an extended trial. .
In conclusion, let me express the hopes that the farmers of Mis-
souri will soon give alfalfa an extensive trial, and if they do so, I feel
certain that their efforts will be crowned with success.
FARMERS INSTITUTES.
237
KEEPING UP THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL.
By C. D. Lyon, Higginsport, Ohio.
Every farmer must recognize the fact that the continuous growth
of any grain or grass crop upon the same land must sooner or later
reduce the fertility of that land until there is no longer a profit in
crop growing.
There are three ways of keeping up the fertility; first, by the pur-
chase of manures, second by the rotation of crops and third by growing
some crop which adds fertility to the soil instead of taking it out.
Excepting in very rare cases the first method is neither practical
nor profitable, but it may in a measure be combined with the third
method with good results.
Before we go into the question of keeping up the productive
power of our farms, we will look for a moment at this point ; what
constitutes fertility or plant food? There are three elements of plant
food that we will speak of, as they are the most important, and the
ones most apt to be exhausted; they are Phosphoric acid, Nitrogen
and Potash.
Taking what may be called an average yield per acre of the
usual farm crops, they take from the soil plant food in pounds as
follows.
Crop.
Hi
I— •
a
V3
o
E3
gar
h3
o
SO
09
<
Wheat.
Straw
Oorn
Fodder
Oats
Oat straw.....
Timothy hay.
20 bu.
2,000 lbs.
36 bu.
2,000 lbs.
35 bu.
1,600 lbs.
3,000 lbs.
28.
12.
35.5
21.
22.
10.
38.
0.5
6
2.5
10
13.5
8
6.
28
9.
7
3.
20
16.
27
14.88
2.40
6.25
4.80
4.00
2.60
7.70
Nitrogen 15 cts. Phosphoric acid 4 cts. Potash 5 cts per pound.
Now when a farmer sells the twenty bushels of wheat from that
acre for Seventy cents per bushel and burns the straw, he has been in
partnership with nature, share and share alike, for he has sold $7.28
worth of fertility and has received $14, a profit of $6.72. With the
corn crop at forty cents oer bushel he has not done so well, ^s his
238
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
profit is only $2.95; and with the timothy hay at $7 per ton, a little
more. So it may be seen that the real profit in selling such crops is
very small when the depleted condition of the land is taken into ac-
count, as it must be remembered that each succeeding crop must be
smaller, as the drain upon the soil goes on year after year, with no at-
tempt at keeping up the fertility by manures or rotation.
There are other crops that may be grown which are not so ex-
hausting to the soil, as nature has given them the power to take the
nitrogen necessary for their growth from the air, and to store it in their
»
substance. Let us look at this table. No. 2 :
Crop.
Olover hay
Cow pea hay
Alfalfa
Bran
Cotton seed meal
Kj
55
-^3
5
<
Qi
•
1—
%
CD
P
•
•
•
hosphoric
a,cia
SB
OD
cr
£9
3.000 lbs.
62
12
66
4,000 *•
78
20
59
4,000 *'
88
20
•
67
2,000 "
53
58
32
2,000 •*
136
59
17
$13 10
15 45
17 35
11 90
23 55
The bran and cotton seed meal are mentioned to show their value
as fertilizers, as they are standard feeding stuffs and are often pur-
chased with reference to their food value alone.
On our clay loam soils of Southern Ohio we depend upon rota-
tion of crops, using clover in the rotation, as a means of keeping up
our lands, and this where we grow large crops of tobacco, which is
usually considered to be an exhaustive crop. Where we break a
twenty-acre field, the usual plan is fourteen acres of corn and six
acres of tobacco, all the manure from the farm being used upon the to-
bacco crop, and sometimes we use a fertilizer carrying twelve per
cent phosphoric acid, three per cent nitrogen and three per cent potash,
at the rate of two hundred pounds per acre, in the hill as "a starter"
for the tobacco crop.
The corn is cut and shocked in the fall and the entire field sown
to wheat, using 125 to 160 pounds of 15 per cent phosphoric acid ferti-
lizer, per acre, applying with the grain drill. The fodder is fed un-
der cover to our stock and all the manure saved. Two or three days
after seeding to wheat we sow broadcast a gallon of timothy seed per
acre, and the following spring, between February isth and April lOth
we again seed to clover and timothy seed, two-thirds clover to one-
third timothy, at the rate of a bushel to 8 acres.
As soon as the wheat will do to haul in, it is stacked or put away
farmers' institutes. 239
in the barns, as we do not like to see the spring grass killed out by
the shocks standing too long. The grass and clover is clipped with
the mowing machine in August and sometimes again in September,
as this tends to thicken the seeding and to keep down the weeds.
We pasture but little the first fall and do not turn in stock the next
spring until the ground is well dried out and the grass has made a
good start. This field lies in clover and timothy two years, when it
is again broken for a crop ; there is seldom any hay cut even for home
use, and the land is not often pastured closely. As for crops, let me
say that on land that has been cleared from the original forest, more
than one hundred years, we often grow 1,500 pounds of tobacco, 50 to
75 bushels of corn or 35 to 50 bushels of wheat per acre, and the land
has been treated as I have indicated, as far back as the memory of
man extends; land really seems to be getting better in the past 25
years, or at least it now produces better crops than when I was a
boy, forty years ago.
Few farms, and even few fields are of uniform fertility all over as
there is often ridge land, thin by nature or "points," where the soil
washes away. We have made great progress in renovating such
places in the past ten years with the cow pea, planting them on thin
spots in the regular crop years, and allowing them to rot down where
they grew. The most rapid improvement of a thin point I ever saw
was on an almost barren clay knob, where a crop of cow peas was
"hogged down." This land without the cow peas would not have
grown oats six inches high, yet after the cow pea crop it made a full
average crop, and what was better, gave a good stand of grass, some-
thing unknown on that point in more than thirty years.
It is to the cow pea that we must look for the cheapest and best
method of bringing up soils which have been robbed of their nitrogen
and humus by years of continuous cultivation in one crop, without
manuring. Perhaps the best known plan is a rotation of cow peas
and wheat, with the addition of 150 to 200 pounds of fertilizers, carry-
ing 15 per cent of phosphoric acid per acre, used in the drill with the
wheat. As soon as the wheat is harvested the land may be plowed or
even disked and cqw peas sown at the rate of about a bushel per
acre. If one wants to get the greatest possible good from the peas,
they should be mown for hay or hogged down, the land disked or
otherwise well prepared, and again put in wheat, as with the disk
drill, the vines and stubble will not be in the way. By pursuing
this method, I have known land brought up in four years from a yield
of three bushels of \vheat per acre to a yield of twenty-four bushels,
the respective crops being 3, 8, 15 and 24 bushels per acre. The
240 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
first two crops of wheat had the peas turned under and had 150 pounds
of acid phosphate .per acre; the second two years the peas were cut
for hay and only a hundred pounds of fertiHzers per acre used. Before
the peas were grown the soil was hard, tough and sterile ; now it is dark,
mellow and fertile.
There are several standard varieties, New Era and Warrens
Extra Earley being the earliest. I have grown the latter, it having
matured seed with me in 54 days from planting. It is perhaps the
best variety for hay as it is very upright, has a good stalk, is hard to
shell out and retains its leaves better than any other. Large Early-
Black is the best variety to grow in drills for hogs, it stands upright
fairly well, is an enormous yielder of large, well filled pods and it does
not shatter badly. It has matured pods for me in from 60 to 65 days.
The Whippoorwill sprawls somewhat, loses its leav.es when nearing
maturity, but yields well and is a favorite in southern states. It
matures in from 65 to 70 days, or less. Most of the other varie-
ties are later, the Renovator, Clay and some others seldom maturing
seed north of the cotton belt.
Cow peas should not be planted until the ground is thoroughly
warmed up in spring; about two weeks after corn planting is early
enough, as they will not grow well until the weather gets warm. The
. earlier varieties may be planted as late as July 25th, and I have had
Warrens planted as late as August loth, to mature a good drop of seed,
but it was a favorable season with late frost.
Grow your own cow pea seed, plant on land of medium fertility,
never on very rich land ; in drills 28 to 30 inches apart, 10 or 12 seeds
to the foot ; cultivate them well and gather the pods as they ripen ;
thresh them with a flail or even a stick in a tight wagon box or on a
floor in tne barn. All will agree that picking seed in this way is hard
and tedious, but in this way alone can we secure reliable seed that is
sure to grow and which is adapted to our climate. A sixteen-year
old boy can pick from two to three bushels of clean seed per day,
and it will be several years before such seed will be worth much less
than $2 per bushel.
Get your stock of seed of some reliable seedsman remembering
that seed grown east and north is much better than that grown
south. I have known complete failures to result from southern seed,
where seed of the same variety grown in Ohio two years made a full
crop.
In talking with farmers from Lake Erie on the north to the
southern limits of Missouri and Chattanooga, Tennessee, on the
south, I have found but very few men who have ever tried the cow pea
farmers' institutes. 241
as a soil renovator, who did not recognize in it the best means of
keeping up and restoring the fertility of the soil, and I regard it as the
most valuable addition to our farm crops made in the past fifty years.
NATURE STUDY IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
jrfy S. A. Hoover, Professor of Agriculture, Warrensburg Normal.
EDUCATIONAI, VALUE OF NATURE STUDY.
Mankind has many things in common with other animals. The
mother love is one of these. In all of the higher animals with few excep-
tions, the mother will risk her own life to save her young. Another com-
mon trait among animals is faithfulness. The dog will follow his master
into any danger. Even cruelty will not drive him away. He has been
known to remain with the dead body of the loved one until death ended
his vigil. Animals, like man, have their friendships. A horse becomes
so attached to his mate that he becomes almost frantic when separated
from that mate. Other characteristics they have which show their close
relationship with human beings.
Some of these are love of power. Among animals which herd to-
gether there is one master. As among savage peoples, there is frequent-
ly a battle royal to settle, by strength of body, the leadership of the herd.
The peacock when strutting about, admiring his own beauty, or hiding
in shame when that beauty is gone, is strangely like his relative, man.
While brute beasts have certain traits in common with humanitv,
there are others which they do not have. Man is the only animal capable
of self improvement. Domestic animals are trained to do certain things,
yet these animals have no power to train themselves. Even the highest
man-like apes are no further advanced than they were thousands of years
ago. They warm themselves at the fires left by savages in the forests,
but they have never learned to renew the fire by putting wood upon it.
Although they have seen the rude hut of the Bushman, yet they have
never tried to imitate man by building a hut for themselves.
Man has risen by degrees from the most primitive state to his present
exalted place through successive steps.
A recent German writer supposes that all improvements made have
been the result of observations. When in stress of weather man sought
the protection of a hollow tree or of a cave, he received the idea of
making a protection for himself when neither tree nor cave was to be
A-ie
242 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
had. Again as an improvement on nature he twisted together two or
more branches of thfe friendly tree which gave him shade or protection
from the storm. The floating log was probably the forerunner of the
raft, and finally of the great ocean steamer. The war club was sug-
gested by the arm and the fist ; the chisel and the saw by the teeth and the
rows of teeth ; and, finally, the awl and the scraper by the finger and its
nails.
All the culture of the race has come through observing how Nature
does things. Through these observations man has come up to his pres-
ent high state of civilization. From a naked savage, with naught but his
own hands to fight his battles, with savage monsters around him, with no
shelter except what Nature gave, he has arisen to be the monarch of all
the earth. In the fierce battle he has come off victor. Not only has he
subdued the animal life of the earth, and made it minister to his wants,
but wind and water are made to do his bidding. From the floating log
has come the mighty steamer, which sets at defiance the wildest storm.
The home and the palace have taken the place of hollow tree and the
cave. Instead of the arm and the fist is the great rifled gun throwing a
shot twenty miles. Every step in this progress of the human race was
the result of Nature Study.
Man has now become so highly civilized that he is losing his touch
with Nature. It seems as though there are no more worlds to conquer,
and all one has to do is to step in and enjoy the rich heritage for which
others watched and labored. We do not need to watch the boiling tea-
kettle, as did a Watts, or the falling apple, as a Newton, but the Universe
holds many secrets which it has never yielded up to man. If these un-
solved problems are ever solved the solution must come through the
same methods which have been used in the past. If Nature reveals to
us any of Her hidden mysteries, these must be sought in the way she
points out.
If for no other reason than the foregoing, children should be brought
in close touch with this kindly mistress who has done so much in the
past to bless the race.
Man is a very complex being. He has at least three natures. First
is his body, and this is the home of the real man, the mind. When the
man moves out of this house it falls into ruins. While he lives in it
though, it should be strong as possible, lest the tenant be uncomfortable.
Of prehistoric man we know but little, but what little we know, shows us
that our savage ancestor had a superb body. Without weapons except
the rudest, he fought with and conquered the cave bear and the cave
lion. As he emerged from the darkness of primitive times into the dawn
farmers' institutes. 243
of the historic, every well ascertained fact shows that he was strong of
body, keen of sight and fleet of foot. He was compelled to fight for the
privilege of living. Not only was this fight with savage beasts, but with
equally savage -men. Nature compelled him to stay much in tfie open air
and to live upon the plainest food. Of the modern contrivances which
weaken the body he knew nothing. When he walked or ran, so far as we
can g-et glimpses of him, his body was erect.
While we do not want to go back to a state of savagery, we do want
the strong body and splendid physique of this child of Nature who lived
in the forests so long ago. Nature Study should include the care and
training of the human body. To -do this requires no expensive apparatus,
no well equipped gymnasium. We only lieed what Nature has placed in
easy reach of every one, exercise in the open air. In all our pictures of
early man he is shown with a wide chest and an erect body. All of his
muscles had been trained and his exercise caused him to breathe deeply.
Nature teaches us now the same thing. Instead of bending over we must
make ourselves as tall as possible, in standing or in walking. This one
little item in Nature ^vill do more to give an erect carriage than all the
elaborate training in physical culture. It brings into place and strengthens
every muscle of the trunk. It gives one self-respect and causes him to
look his fellow-men in the eye. No one who slouches has much self-re-
spect.
Again Nature Study takes us into the open air, into the pure sun-
shine. The best tonic in the world is a sun bath. The change from the.
school room to the woods and the fields is itself a tonic. To see the green
trees, to listen to the songs of Nature's sweetest singers, to watch the in-
sect build its home, to get glimpses of color such as no painter can ever
make, all these send the blood in quickened pulse beats through the
frame and make it a joy to live.
If the study did nothing but this it would have an educational value
far beyond the power of mathematics to compute. What are intellectual
achievements worth in a weakened body ? Good health and strong vigor-
ous bodv fit one to win in the battle of life. Without them defeat is al-
most certain.
MENTAL VALUE.
True culture developes the whole mind. Pupils are not expected to
become specialists until after they have a good general education. They
are certainly not prepared to become specialists either in the primary or
secondary schools. Nothing tends to widen the intellectual view more
than Nature Study.
The pupil comes in close touch with living things. He sees the con*
244 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
nection between the inert soil and the live plant, and between the plant
and the animal. He learns that no two things are alike, yet that some
things are closely related. He also learns that all living things have
certain characteristics in common.
This cultivates the power of observation and makes the difference
between success and failure in any calling.
1. Close observation is needed by the farmer. He must know the
strong and the weak points in a horse. The mark of a good milch cow
must be familiar to him. His knowledge of a steer which will feed out
well must be accurate. His observations have taught him the difference
between a fertile and an unfertile soil, and why a certain crop fails on one
kind of soil and succeeds on another. Also why some fields are overrun
with weeds while others are free from them.
The young man who takes up farming now meets different condi-
tions from those of a generation ago. Then competition was not so fierce
as now and the soil in the Middle West was unexhausted by crops.
Where formerly fifty bushels of corn was the yield, now hardly more
than twenty-five may be raised. Weeds abound in many cases simply
because the soil has become too poor for grain or cultivated grasses. Such
being the condition of things, the young man who chooses farming as an
occupation must be able to see and to understand things.
2. Nature Study trains the boy so that he will be a better merchant.
He will have a finer sense of tne things he deals in, and will give his cus-
tomers a better class of goods.
3. It will give him a keener insieht into the details of professional
life. Indeed, whatever the calling in life the young man whose powers
of observation are trained will be better fitted to meet its demands than
the one who has no such training.
4. Not only is it profitable for boys, but for girls- as well. They
are better equipped to demand of the world a place by man's side and to
achieve victory in the crowded thoroughfare of life. It makes them bet-
ter housekeepers and better mothers.
5. It teaches drawing and composition. The pupil draws better if
he has something to draw. He will compose better if he has something
to write about.
6. Nature Study has an educational value in that it cultivates the
aesthetic taste. When Turner painted his splendid landscapes he only
imitated nature. Any clear day one may see in Missouri a more beautiful
scene than ever was put upon canvas by painter's brush. It is more
beautiful because real. The one upon canvas is only an imitation.
In the Louvre, that great treasury of art belonging to the city of
FARMERS* INSTITUTES. 245
Paris, is a wonderful statue, called the Venus de Milo. This statute' was
dug out of some ruins on the Island of Milos. Although the ^arms are
gone, yet it is regarded as such a great masterpiece that a whole room is
set apart for its proper display. The only thing which makes it one of
the world's greatest pieces of art is that from the solid marble has been
cut a very perfect copy of the human form divine.
NATURE STUDY CULTIVATES THE MORAL MAN.
1. It is said that a fine mechanic is always truthful. The same may
be said of the boy or the girl who has learned the great lesson of truth
from nature. She is so true and accurate that the pupil wKo has sat at
her feet and imbibed her spirit can never in after life be anything but
truthful. We become like that which we admire.
2. It makes the pupil merciful. No boy who has engaged in this
elevating work can be cruel to God's creatures. He looks upon life as
something sacred. We mean now where pupils have been taught in the
proper way and this way is to study living things. The teaching which
permits pupils in the primary grades to dissect animals is not true Nature
Study. They may within certain limits make collections, but these collec-
tions should never include birds or their eggs. The writer was shocked
in reading an article about a year ago in a leading educational journal
recommending pupils in the public schools to collect birds and their eggs.
A teacher who recommends such things has no place as an instructor of
youth. There may be collections of insects, provided they are killed in a
painless way. Even insects should never be tortured or starved to death.
Any line of study which has lifted humanity from the lowest depths
of savagery to its marvelous heights of the present, which strengthens
both body and mind and which makes beautiful and happy homes, surely
has an educational value beyond the power of words to tell.
NO TIME FOR TEACHING NATURE STUDY.
Almost everything in the way of an educational advance' has met
with opposition. Twelve years ago people laughed at the idea of manual
training in the public schools. They thought that such things as sewing,
cooking, or working in wood by pupils was foolishness, and that it never
would be taught.
Scarcely a teacher who opposes it can now be found. The teacher of
elementary science in primary grades has met with the same opposition.
The objectors say that if this is taught, it will leave no time for reading,
spelling, grammar and arithmetic. No advocate of this science teaching,
believes in doing away with any of these studies. We cannot do without
them, but this does not mean that years of time shall be wasted in the
246 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
solution of puzzles which never did and never will have any practical
bearing on the business affairs of life. To solve them is not only a waste
of time, but it is a sinful waste of the pupil's nervous energy. The same
is true, though perhaps in a less degree, of technical grammar. What is
the benefit of the immense amount of parsing and diagramming which is
done by the pupil ?
Spelling may also be taught in such a way as to be of little benefit
to pupils. One never needs to spell a word except when he wishes to
write it.
Just here is where Nature Study may be combined with other les-
sons. Instead of losing on this, the teacher actually gains time, because
in the writing up 'of the Nature Study work, she teaches composition, the
correct use of language, spelling and penmanship, as well as the work in
science. The teacher who pursues this course will find her pupils doing
much better work in all the lines mentioned than if she separated these
studies from the practical. After the work is written up it becomes a
reading lesson, and when a boy reads something in which he has an in-
terest, he reads it much better than if a lesson had been assigned him in a
reading book.
•For oral instruction in science, not over twenty to forty minutes a
week need be devoted. If properly directed, the pupils will make ob-
servations on the way to and from school, evenings and mornings, and
when about their work on Saturdays. The teacher may, if she wishes,
make short excursions with the pupils at the noon hour. A mere hint
from her, that she wants material for this fascinating work will be suffi-
cient to make every boy her willing servant. Rocks, clay, mosses, lichens,
ferns, grasses, sedges, toad-stools, puff-balls, insects and reptiles will
pour in upon her until she has more material than she can use.
SHOULD BE DIRECTED ALONG ECONOMIC LINES.
While studying Nature the boy should learn some lessons about the
farm, and the things which will be of practical benefit to him as a farmer.
Especially should he be acquainted with the soil.
Upon the soil and its intelligent cultivation depends, the prosperity
of our country. In the wonderful variety of its resources, the products
of the soil in the United States hold first place. No other country equals
it. Secretary Wilson, chief of the Department of Agriculture in a letter
dated August i8th, 1899, says: "Our young people should know more
about the soil they walk on and its relation to plants, as well as about the
plants themselves and their relation to domestic animals and man. * *
* * * Half of the people of the United States are employed in pro-
ducing from the soil, and all the people of the country prosper because
farmers' institutes. 247
our soil is intelligently cultivated. We sold over twelve hundred million
dollars' worth of products last year, mostly from the soil, and we have a
balance of trade of six hundred million dollars, because of the produc-
tions of our soil ; yet scarcely any one has more than a superficial knowl-
edge of the soil."
In most parts of the Middle West the soil is very rich and people
seem to get the impression that it will never become exhausted. Every
crop, however, takes something from it, and, hence, leaves it poorer.
Continually taking out and putting nothing in will surely impoverish the
richest soil in America. It would certainly be better for our children to
know the soil of their own neighborhood and its capabilities than to
know the height and trend of the mountains of Asia. Of the first im-
portance is the knowing how to care for the soil, in order that it may be
handed down unimpaired to future generations.
After soils may follow plants and plant enemies.
The enemies which attack the crops belong to both the animal and
the vegetable kingdoms.
Rusts, smuts, mildews, blights, rots, etc., are all plants. They be-
long to a great class of plants called fungi.
Along with plant life can be studied animal life. The pupils in the
public schools should know that some animals are friends of th^ farmer,
and that others are his enemies. Among the best friends of Agriculture
are the birds. Every boy in Missouri should be taught to protect the
birds.
He should also learn that while many insects injure crops yet there
are many others which are beneficial, because they destroy injurious in-
sects.
In Nature Study he also learns that toads, lizards, and most snakes
are among the best friends of the farmer. Many of them work at night
and devour immense numbers of insects.
Learning all this, he is prepared to fight his enemies and to protect
his friends. A late Agricultural report says when in reference to ele-
mentary agriculture as taught in some of the country schools in New
York: "Is it not likely that a child who is thus taught will soon begin
to see a new value and dignity in farm life and be less envious of the boy
or girl who is shut up within the narrow confines of city streets most of
the year ? And if the farmer's boy learns how to observe accurately the
processes of nature with which farm practice deals and the foes with
which Agriculture has to contend, are not the chances vastly increased
that he will be successful in managing nature so as to get "the greatest
favors from this coy mistress of his life and fortune?"
248 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REl>ORt.
A boy who has become interested in farm life is not Hkely to give up
its independence for the struggles of a city life with its bitter disappoint-
ments. Perhaps it is because of a lack of this kind of teaching that has
led many a young man to forsake the farm for a cheap clerkship in some
city, where he is liable, at any time, to lose his place, and where he is
barely able to eke out an existence. He has never been able to see any
beauty in farming and he longs for the glare and stir of the city. He
learns, when too late, that the castles which he erected in air lie about
him in ruins. Would it not be better for the teacher to show boys and
girls the beauty there is in country life, to teach them how they may
beautify their homes by planting trees and flowers rather than to urg-e
them to enter the already over-crowded ranks of clerks, doctors or law-
yers?
THE SELECTION OF THE DAIRY COW.
By C. H. Eckles, Dairy Department Missouri Agricultural College.
Success in dairying depends upon several factors. It can hardly be
said that one of these is of more importance than another any more than
one horse is more important in pulling a load than his mate.
We must have a cow adapted for milk production.
That cow must be well fed and cared for.
The product sold must be cared for and manufactured in the best
manner.
The proper marketing of the product must not be overlooked.
To reach the point where dairying becomes profitable, we must give
all these points attention, and not confine ourselves to one. Proper care
and feeding go a long way towards getting the largest and most eco-
nomical production of milk, but if the cow that receives these attentions
is not adapted by nature for producing milk, the result may be far from
satisfactory. The cow is a machine operated on the farm for the purpose
of converting farm crops into a more valuable form. Some of these
cow machines are best adapted for converting this raw material into beef,
while others produce milk from the same feeds. Too many who under-
take to carry on dairying fail to select the cows suited by nature for the
purpose. Too many times a cow is thought to be about the same as every
other cow as far as producing dairy products is concerned, while, as a
matter of fact, the difference is very extreme and the nature of the cow
may mean success or failure. It has been estimated that at least one-
FARMERS* INSTITUTES.
249
third of the cows used for dairy purposes in the State do not more than
pay for their feed, while the profit is made by the other two-thirds. I
believe if we could, by a single act, remove every unprofitable cow from
the dairy herds of the country the benefit to the industry would be greater
than any one other thing that could be done. In discussing the selection
of a dairy cow, the question of breed always comes up sooner or later.
I am not here as an advocate of any particular breed, as I believe all have
their strong points and their vaiue. I do insist that the animal be a good
one, whatever the breed may be.
There are a few things worth mentioning regarding the breed ques-
tion. If the object is to produce dairy products in the largest quantities
and at the lowest cost, the breed selected should be one of the special
dairy breeds, as the Holstein, Jersey or Guernsey. It is to be expected
that these breeds would have this advantage, as they have been bred for
generations for this one purpose. However, I am aware that under our
present conditions in Missouri, the dairy breeds will not be very largely
adopted for some time. I believe the Missouri farmer should make use
of what he already has and then improve as rapidly as possible. It is
possible to select very good milk cows from the Shorthorns and' the
Red Polls, and for many these will continue to be the favorite breeds.
The following figures give the result of four years' work in an Iowa
herd in charge of the writer :
Number
of
Cows.
Breed.
Av. yield of
Milk per
year.
Av. yield of
butter per
year
Oost feed
per pound
butter.
18
5
10
12
Shorthorns
Red Polls. .
Jerseys —
Holsteins..
5,040 lbs.
6.052 lbs.
6,277 lbs.
8.338 lbs.
270 lbs.
280 lbs.
340 lbs.
323 lbs.
8.5 cents
8.4 cents
6.6 cents
7.6 cents
The figures go to show that a fair return can be secured for the
milk of animals not of the special dairy breeds, but that the latter make
the best showing. In figuring the cost of feed, the actual value in the
local market was calculated for all feed used, with $i.oo per month
allowed for pasture value. The feed was weighed out to the animals in
every case.
Among these records we found, as in every herd, some great ex-
tremes in amount of production where all conditions are the same, except
the individuality of the cows.
The following figures show the difference in production of the best
and poorest of each breed in that herd :
250 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
RECORD 1 YEAR, BEST THREE SHORTHORNS.
9,896 lbs. milk 474 lbs. butter cost feed, $27 38
9,336 lbs. milk 449 lbs. butter costfeed, 23 52
8,046 lbs. milk 381 lbs. butter costfeed, 34 82
BBGORD OF POOREST THBBB SHORTHORNS.
3,059 lbs. milk 129 lbs. butter cost feed, $23 83
2,833 lbs. milk... 134 lbs. butter costfeed, 2130
2,796 lbs. milk... 125 lbs. butter costfeed. 18 84
BEST RED POLL.
7.2351bs. milk 361 lbs. butter. . .. ...cost feed, $26 32
POOREST RED POLL.
5,2491bs. milk 236 lbs. butter cost feed, $35 24
BEST JERSEY.
6,5231bs. milk 532 lbs. butter cost feed, $26 26
POOREST JERSEY.
4,0871bs. milk .236 lbs. butter costfeed, $18 54
BEST HOLSTEIN.
12,111 lbs. milk 538 lbs. butter cost feed, $29 89
»
POOREST HOLSTEIN.
6.6571bs. milk . .' 246 lbs. butter cost feed, $21 71
The most striking point brought out in the Shorthorn record is
that the cost of feeding the poorer cows was but little less than the cost
of feeding the three good ones, which made over 300 lbs. of butter more
per cow, a difference in income of over $60 between one of the good and
one of the poor cows at the market price for butter. It is very evident
that if a farmer is keeping a number of cows coming in the class with
the poorer ones, he will find dairying unprofitable, because the more,
cows he has the worse off he finds himself. The poorer Shorthorns in
the case referred to did not pay for their feed.
By comparing the figures for the best and poorest cows in the Jersey
and Holstein records it will be seen that the question of selection does
not apply to any one breed, but to all. The income from the best. Jersey
and Holstein was about $60 more than that from the poorest. These
great variations here noted are not exceptional. I fully believe if any
herd of the same number of cows be fed to their full capacity as great
differences will be found. In judging of the value of a cow for dairy
purposes, two things must be kept in mind : the amount of milk and
richness. Too often a cow is judged by the amount of milk she gives,
and in other cases especially among the patrons of creameries, the rich-
ness of the milk is the criterion by which she is selected. Either one
of th^se methods may lead to making a mistake.
farmers' institutes. 251
In the records previously given the Jersey and Holstein produced
about equal amounts of butter, but the Holstein gave about twice as much
milk in doing it. Her milk tested about half as high in butter fat as did
the Jersey's.
There is only one certain way to select a cow, and that is by the use
of the scales and the Babcock test. The most progressive dairymen are
finding this their greatest help in weeding out the unprofitable cows.
Some weigh the cow's milk each milking and test at intervals of a
week or month. Possibly the most satisfactory way is to weigh the milk
three days in the middle of the month and take the average yield per day
for these days as the average for the month. A sample is taken from
each of the six weighings mixed together and tested to give the per cent.
of butter fat contained. If a man does this, at the end of a year he
knows for certain which are his profitable cows and which are the ones
to dispose of as soon as possible.
Patrons of creameries can usually get their milk tested by the cream-
eryman with no expense and but little trouble.
The question of selecting cows by their form and indications of
dairy qualities is an important one. There is no question but there is a
dairy type which most good milkers show more or less, no matter to
what breed they belong. The extreme development of this type we see
in the finely developed animals of the special dairy breeds.
The typical beef animal is square and blocky, with nearly parallel
lines on all sides, while the dairy type has a general wedge-shaped form.
The shoulder of the beef animal is broad across the top, while that of a
dairy cow is rather sharp with the backbone strong and standing up
prominently back to the tail. The hips are broad and stand up strong,
making a much greater width than over the shoulder.
The stomach of a good dairy cow must be well developed as this
organ must be able to digest large quantities of feeds and coarse fodders.
This gives her a great depth just in front of the hind quarters and is one
of the most important points to be looked for.
The udder being the gland that secretes milk from blood, it must be
well developed also. A good udder is not necessarily an extremely large
one, but should show considerable size when distended with milk and
when milked out be much smaller with plenty of loose skin. The lower
surface of the udder should be almost flat with the quarters evenly devel-
oped and the teats of the same size. The farther the udder is developed
forward and backward the better we would consider it, as a short, bottle-
shaped udder is the characteristic of a poor cow.
My idea of breeding up a herd of dairy cows here in Missouri is to
252 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT,
start witli the best cows that are on hand or that can be purchased in the
neighborhood. Then put most of the money to be expended into a g^ood
bull, of good milking ancestry, of whatever breed is decided to be best
suited for the conditions. ' Then constantly weed out the inferior co^ws
and replace them with heifers from your best milkers. In a few years
a very good herd will be secured and with a small expenditure of cash.
Then the owner learns the business as he goes along, and by the time he
has a good profitable herd he will be informed of the methods to be fol-
lowed to reach the greatest profit.
BREEDING AND FEEDING CATTLE FOR THE SHOW RING.
By J. M. Douglass, Student in Agricultural College.
Real development in cattle breeding began about the middle of the
i8th century. Since that time there has been marked improvement in
the cattle breeding industry toward a higher standard of excellence. A
difference of opinion among breeders as to what the standard should be
has often been a drawback to improvement.
In cattle breeding the first thing to decide on is a standard or model
to breed to. This must be chosen with two main objects in view^ First,
you want an animal with qualities and characteristics that make a good
breeder. Second, the animal must also possess a good form and body
from the butcher's standpoint. A great deal depends upon the selection
of the model, for if it is not perfect the final results cannot be.
To determine what standard or type is nearest an ideal, there must
be a competitive contest where the best animals are brought together
with competent judges to decide the type containing in combination the
best points both for the breeder and for the butcher.
There are three reasons why a cattle breeder should prepare and
enter some of his animals in the show ring: First, for the encourage-
ment it gives to the "general improvement of all cattle. Second, for the
advertising of his own cattle. Third, for the money or premiums given
to the winners. The degree of success attained in any of these three divi-
sions depends almost entirely upon the ability of the breeder.
Having decided that a show ring is necessary and that the breeder
should enter some of his animals in it, the next thing to know is what
kind of an animal should be entered and how to get this animal.
The model should conform as nearly as possible to the following
general description: The general form should be rectangular, blocky^
farmers' institutes. 253
to
broad and smooth. Back and under line straight with lines uniformly
parallel. Fine silky hair with a mellow, pliable skin of medium thick-
ness. Flesh thick and well marbled, covering a fine bone. Action strong
and vigorous but of a mild temperament. Face short and wide, with
large, full, bright eyes, showing a quiet disposition. Neck short and
thick, with neck vein full, causing neck to blend well into a smooth, com-
pact and well covered shoulder. Chest wide, deep and full, with a mod-
erately projecting brisket coming well down between front legs giving
the proper squareness to the general form. Front legs should be short
and straight, set wide apart with a full arm and fine bone. Girth large
and well filled ; crops full and smooth giving a general smoothness to the
front quarters. Ribs long, well arched and deep, covered with firm
smooth flesh. Back broad, smooth and straight, carrying width of hips
forward to the shoulders. Loin should be full, thick and broad. Flank
low and well filled, making the underline straight. Hips wide apart,
smooth and well covered with firm flesh. Rump long, wide and smooth
carrying squareness of form well back to the pin bones, which should be
wide apart and smooth. Thigh full, well fleshed and thick, carrying full-
ness low down on hind leg. Twist deep, full and level with flank. Hind
legs straight with fine bone.
The following points are objectionable: Rough or angular form;
harsh coat or hard papery skin ; dull appearance ; long lean head or neck ;
bare or pointed shoulders ; contracted brisket ; narrow chest ; coarse legs ;
hollow crops or sloping ribs ; rough back or loin ; high cut flank ; promi-
nent or rough hip bones; narrow, bare or pointed rump; light thigh or
twist.
Having a correct model in mind the next thing is to select a breed
possessing these qualities. The principal beef breeds are: Hereford,
Shorthorns and Angus. Missouri's climate is well adapted to all of these,
so select the one that suits your fancy. To begin with buy pure bred an-
imals that are nearest the ideal typf .
In breeding for a model there are two great laws that influence re-
sults : Heredity and variation. Heredity is the tendency of the offspring
to resemble the parent. Variation, is the tendency of the offspring to vary
or differ from the parent. The former makes pedigrees valuable, the
latter makes improvement possible. Heredity is the result of the natural
prepotency of the breed. Variation results from change of climate, feed,
care or from change of surroundings.
Now by the use of these laws with crossing, care and selection, and
good judgment, knowing that the characteristics of the offspring are the
sum of the characteristics of the parents, the model in the breeder's mind
should soon become a reality.
254 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Now suppose that we have a calf that we want to prepare for the
show ring. It is best to allow the calf to draw the milk from the mother,
for in this way it is not so much trouble and few precautions are neces-
sary except to see that it does not get too much milk and cause indiges-
tion, for a backset at this time may cause it to be forever stunted in
growth. If the calf is getting too much milk the supply may be dimin«
ished by stripping the cow as soon as it has had sufficient for proper
nourishment. Also see that the calf gets enough to keep him in a healthy,
growing condition. He should become very mild in temperament and
easily handled.
At first allow the calf to be with the mother three or four times
daily, but this may soon be diminished to twice a day. As soon as old
enough teach it to eat a little solid food such as corn meal, bran, oats and
clover hay. A very critical period in the life of the young animal is at
weaning time, for if not properly cared for and previously taught to eat
grain and hay it is apt to shrink in weight and not keep up the growth
that is so necessary while the calf is young ; for a pound of gain is never
again made so cheaply as it is now.
After weaning a good growth is kept up by feeding oats, com meal,
a little oil meal, and plenty of bright clover hay. Fresh pasture is an
excellent feed for the young animal, as it keeps him in a good growing
condition. Unless the pasture is of the best quality, some grain had bet-
ter be fed with it.
The calf should at all times appear thrifty, fat and sleek. The an-
imal should soon be able to eat a good deal of bulky food, such as corn
stover and hay, which should be before him all the time. Grain may be
added in small amounts to keep him growing fast. Constantly keep the
end in view jnever letting the animal lose a pound of gain that has been
made, allow plenty of exercise and fresh air. See that the conditions and
general surroundings are comfortable, with these and plenty of feed he
should build up a large well proportioned body and a strong vigorous
constitution.
A change should be made in the feeding and care of the animal
from six to eight months before the show owing to the condition of the
animal. Now you want to fatten the animal, begin by gradually adding
more grain and decreasing the roughage.
It requires from four to six weeks to get the animal on a full feed
of grain. This requires a good deal of skill and should be done gradu-
ally, for any sudden change is very apt to get the animal off feed, which
is always more or less harmful, sometimes causing as much loss as is
gained in two or three weeks. The grain ration should consist of corn
FARMERS^ INSTITUTES. 255
meal, oats, bran, and enough nice hay to satisfy the appetite. At the be
ginning of the fattening period about one-fifth of the grain ration should
be corn meal, this to be increased the last two months to three-fifths or
four-fifths. It is best to have a box stall for each animal at night during
the last three months of preparation. The animal should be taught to
lead well, and to stand evenly on all four feet without being restless.
Blanket at night and curry and rub every morning during the last three
or four weeks. The horns and hoofs should be kept clean and even pol-
ished before entering the show ring. The animal should be washed oflf
with warm water and rubbed dry as often as necessary to keep the skin
clean. The hair may be oiled slightly to give it a more glossy appear-
ance, but this must be rubbed oflF before the animal enters the show ring,
as a good judge can easily detect it.
SPECIAL NOTES FOR THE BREEDER AND THE FEEDER.
An animal should be in good flesh when entering the show ring.
Although unless he already has a good form no amount of flesh can give
it to him ; yet if two animals of equally good form are shown together,
the judges always prefer the one in better flesh.
The question often arises as to whether it is advisable to fatten a
good breeding cow for showing or not. This question can be answered
only when the breeder's skill as a feeder is known. There are many ex-
amples which prove that this can be done successfully when great care
and skill are used in preparing and feeding the ration. The feeder should
begin in time to fatten the animal gradually — avoid forcing — thereby
greatly lessening the dangers of barrenness, also the tendency to patchi-
ness is greatly reduced.
Mangels are used a great deal in feeding a show animal. If they
are cheap they may be fed to good advantage, for they have a cooling
effect on the digestive system, also they act as an appetizer.
The substance of this article was obtained from various breeders
and feeders at the International Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, Illinois,
December, 1901,
\\*y . ^
- x*'
THE DRAFT HORSE.
By J. N. Price, Student in Agricultural College.
The diflferent breeds of draft horses, like the beef breeds of cattle,
have drifted toward the common type, until at the present time the essen-
tial characteristics of the draft horse are practically the same for all
256 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
breeds. The Percherons, Clyde, Shire, Belgian, all possess those charac-
teristics necessary in the make up of a perfect draft horse, and are dis-
tinguished only by less important characteristics peculiar to each breed.
This type of standard has been reached and fixed by careful selection of
those animals which conform most closely to the desired type, and by the
judicious mating of these animals to secure the desired characteristics in
the offspring.
The most popular breeds in America at present are the Percheron,
Clydesdale and English Shire.
THE PERCHERON.
The Percheron is a French bred horse and has been developed
through many years of careful breeding by the farmers of central and
southern France. Of all the draft breeds, the Percheron is probably the
most popular in America today. While he possesses a massive form,
weighing a ton or more, yet his conformation is such as to give him ex-
cellent action, making him extremely well fitted for use on heavy city
transfers, where great strength combined with reasonable speed is
needed. Neither is he less well fitted for farm work, since he possesses
strength which enables him- to do heavy work with ease, and his rapid
walk is very desirable, both on the road and to the plow. The modem
Percheron is short legged, closely and strongly built, with broad deep,
well rounded body, broad croup, and full quarters.
The typical Percheron has an active temperament, a trim, intelli-
gent head of medium size, a short, heavy, well arched neck, head and
neck carried well up, a broad body, deep-ribbed and well rounded, loins
broad, filling up hollow in front of hips, hips broad, "smooth and smooth-
ly coupled, with loins and croup broad. The shoulder slopes well back,
giving the horse a free, easy action and good speed. The legs are short,
with heavy, clean bone, the arm full and the forearm is prominent with
well developed muscles. The hoof is well formed, and of lasting material,
and the frog should be full and elastic, which has a great deal to do with
the durability of the foot, lessening the danger of bone diseases by break-
ing the shock when the foot strikes the ground. The hind legs are set
square under the body, are straight and have excellent bone. The
thighs are full and well muscled, the quarters full, making the legs stand
well apart. It is very important that the horse should be well developed
in these muscles, since it is upon them that he depends for his pulling
strength. The hock should be broad when viewed from the front or
side and should be clean and free from all excess of flesh. The leg
should be moderately straight at the hock. A hock that is either very
xrrooked or very straight shoyys weakness. The pasterns are sloping,
farmers' institutes. 257
lengthy and strong. The tendons should be strong, and set well back
from the canon bone, making the legs wide below the knee and hock.
The action should be rapid and showy.
Some of the leading Percherons are: Pourquoi Pas, the winner of
first prize as a three-year-old, and of the "grand championship" over
Percherons of all ages at the Chicago International Stock Show of 1901.
He is a heavy, black horse with a white star in face and white hind feet.
His form is broad, low down and smooth, and he has an excellent set
of legs which he carries with perfect action. He is indeed a true speci-
men of the extreme draft type.
Next comes Kruger, another big, black colt, which was the winner
of first prize as a two-year-old at the International. He is a massive
horse with excellent bone and well developed muscles. His form is
exceedingly broad and low down. He is extremely well developed in
the quarters, which are so full that he moves a little wide behind, but
that does not interfere with his excellent action. He weighs 2idb pounds.
Another excellent stallion is Chambellan, a gray horse of great size
and strength and shows good action. He was the winner of the first
prize in the class of aged stallions.
Another horse which should not be left without mention is Theudis,
a gray stallion with long, flowing mane. He has a good form and,
although he is well along in years, his most excellent action brought forth
a hearty applause from the spectators. He is probably the greatest sire
of Percherons in America, being the sire of a very great majority of
first prize winners and many of the winners of lower prizes.
And in company with Pourquoi Pas, Kruger, Cyprien and Roturido
won first prize for best group, the get of one sire. These four massive
black colts and their aged sire, with his flowing mane, were indeed a
grand group. Cyprien and Rotundo were winners of second prizes,
THE CLYDE.
Next to the Percheron in popularity comes the Clyde. He is
probably a little heavier than the Percheron, with rathen a large
but intelligent head. He has a heavy, well arched neck, broad, deep,
well-rounded body, short back, wide smooth hips and broad croup. His
legs are short, with heavy, clean bone, and a fringe of long, silky hair,
called the "feather,'' growing down back of legs below hock and knee.
The breeders of the Clyde have paid considerable attention to the devel-
opment of pastern, and as a result the Clyde possesses a very sloping but
strongly built pastern, making his rnotion easy and springy, yet giving
sufficient ..strength. The Clyde is well mviscled and well proportioned,
A-17
258 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
He is an excellent combination of weight, strength and good action.
The greatest objection which may be offered to the Clyde is the immense
growth of long hair on legs, which is a great disadvantage in muddy
weather. The color of the Clyde is dark brown or bay with a white
face and one or more white feet. He is a production of the careful
breeding of the Scotch breeders. He originated in Clydesdale, Scotland.
The Clyde has been bred in America for a number of years and has
won a well deserved popularity.
A few of the leading Clydes in America are: Prince William, a
black stallion with a white stripe in the face and four white feet and
has an excellent coat of fine hair. He has plenty of weight and shows
good style' and action. He was the winner of first prize in his class and
winner of the "sweepstakes" over all breeds at the International.
Royal Cairnton, winner of first prize in the three-year-old class,
is a bay horse with good form, trim head, heavy neck, a thick body,
well developed quarters and stands upon the right kind of legs, and
moves as a draft horse should.
Prince Punctual carried off the first prize in the two-year old
class. He is a bay colt, of the true draft type, and shows the correct
style and action.
Prince Handsome, a bay colt, with a thick form, and weighing
1,460 pounds, was declared winner of first prize as a yearling.
Cedric is a noted Clydesdale sire, being tde sire of a number of
the prize winners of 1901.
THE ENGLISH SHIRE.
The Shire very closely resembles the Clyde, so closely, in fact,
that it is very difficult to distinguish the two breeds unless one is
well acquainted with them. The Shire is an English breed, and
has been bred and carefully developed in England for many years.
He is a massive, well developed draft horse, of ^reat strength.
In general appearance he greatly resembles the Clyde, 'but is
probably a little heavier; the head is less intelligent in appearance,
he is less active than the other breeds, and is inclined to be sluggish,
yet he often shows excellent action for so large a horse. His shoulder
is somewhat straighter than the other breeds. This probably gives
him more strength in the collar, but at a sacrifice of the excellence
of action obtained by the more oblique shoulder of the Clyde and
Percheron. The color of the Shire is black, brown or bay, with white
face and one or more white feet.
Some of the best representatives of American Shires are : Blais-
don Pluto, a bay horse, he is well formed, and weighs 2,200 pounds;
farmers' institutes. 259
Gladstone, a brown horse, with good style, and Bumper, a black colt,
with good form and quality. These stallions are all first prize win-
ners of the International of 1901.
BELGIANS.
The Belgian is comparatively a new breed in the United Staters,
but has been bred for many years in Central Europe, and is the
prinicpal draft horse used in that section. He resembles the
Percheron to some extent, but is not so well proportioned. The
typical Belgian is a blocky horse with deep body and well developed
muscles. The belly hangs rather low, destroying to some extent the
rounded form. The color may be gray, roan or brown.
Some of the noted Belgian stallions of America are: Gaulois, a
bay, and Coriolan, also a bay, were both winners of first prizes, and
well formed horses, with good quality and flashy action.
THE SUFFOLK PUNCH.
The Suffolk Punch is not extensively bred in the United States. He
is of English origin, and is sometimes used, in his native country, for
heavy coaching purposes. The Suffolk is the smallest of draft breeds,
but has a very smooth form, and his extremely oblique shoulder gives
him excellent action.
THE FEEDING OF THE DRAFT HORSE.
The following is the plan of feeding practiced by some of the leading
breeders: For the morning feed, give about six quarts of oats. At ten
o'clock give a feed of carrots. At noon give a feed of ground oats and
chopped hay, with a little salt. Again in the afternoon give a feed of car-
rots, and at night feed the oats the same as in the morning. Very little
com should be given to the breeding stock, because it is inclined to make
them sluggish. The imported horse should not be given corn, because it
causes his blood to become impure and weakens his constitution.
The breeding of good dr-aft horses for market is a profitable
business, but do not breed draft mares to light stallions, or light
mares to draft stallions and expect to get a horse that will sell well.
Breed draft horses or bre^d roadsters.
260 MISSOURI AORICUI.TURAL REPORT.
PRIZE WINNING SHEEP.
By C. H. Hancock, Student in Agricultural College.
The preparation and breeding of successful show animals re-
quires a great deal of labor and expense. It is no easy matter to ob-
tain an animal which will win the blue ribbon. The man who re-
lies on chance producing a good animal is doomed to failure. The
man who turns his sheep out on the range with scarcely any care or
attention, need not expect them to compete successfully with those
which have received daily and individual attention.
One of the first things to consider is the breed. To be succe.ssful
financially as well as in competition with other breeds, the breeder
must select a breed suited to his locality and. climate. He must se-
lect thrifty animals, good breeders, which are capable of improve-
ment and which fill the demands of his market. In Missouri the
Shropshires have become very popular as a medium wooj and mutton
breed. The Merino holds the place of the best fine wool breed. A
few representatives of the long wool breeds, such as the Cotswolds
and Lincolns may be found in this section, but they are more ex-
tensively raised in the northern states and Canada.
When a breeder has selected a breed suited to his conditions, he
must know how to breed them. The breeding animals must be
selected as nearly true to the standard as possible. In the past,
breeders have made much ado about mysterious methods of breed-
ing, but with the modern breeder the password of success is selection.
Select and put animals at the head of the flock which are thrifty, vig-
orous, full of vitality and possess all the style and qualities of the
breed. In buying buy the best possible, and when a good animal is
raised do not part with it at any price. The theory that like begets
like sometimes seems to fail ; but if nothing but good animals are
selected for breeding, their offspring will generally be good, although
some will be better than others. On the other hand scrubs beget
scrubs with few exceptions. In grading up scrub flocks very good
results may be obtained by simply using a good ram each year.
It is necessary for all show animals to have a pedigree, but too much
stress should not be placed on fancy breeding. A good breeder re-
cognizes the value of merit as well as pedigree. It is not always pos-
sible with limited resources to have all the advantages needed, but
every available opportunity should be used. Under some conditions,
JTARMERS' INSTITUTES. 261
mating may be practiced to great advantage. Frequently some par-
ticular defect in one animal may be remedied by mating with another
^vhich has a tendency in the opposite direction. As, for example, a
sire which is rather fine-boned, but good in all the other points,_may
get a good progeny with this defect corrected if mated to a dam hav-
ing the good qualities of style and form, but coarse boned.
Most breeders urfderstand that breeding animals should not be
very fat to give the best results. During the summer months give
them plenty of fresh pasture. The best way is to have more than
one pasture and change from one to another as they become short.
Some keep their sheep continuously in one place. Their grandfathers
had a little sheep pasture off on one corner of the farm, and they
say that there is so little money in sheep they cannot afford to have
another. When kept in one place for too long a time there is a ten-
dency for the pasture to become foul and diseased; by giving your
sheep a change they will eat more and be less troubled with diseases.
Give them plenty of good wholesome food and they will pay you a
handsome profit. During the winter months feed plenty of clover hay
with only enough grain ration to keep them in good shape.
It is a fact, but to be deplored, that in judging breeding animals,
the judges favor those with the most flesh. This is one of the great
disadvantages of showing breeding animals. They must be made
very fat, which frequently injures their breeding qualities. But this
danger may be greatly lessened if the breeder understands how to fat-
ten his animals and then how to reduce their flesh when he so desires.
Injudicious feeding ruins many fine animals. If youf sheep are to be
^nade very fat, begin to feed them several months or a year before
you wish to show them. First feed oats and finish with corn, oil meal
and bran. Always feed plenty of clover hay and have good pasture
in summer. No fixed rules of feeding may be applied to all cases, but
the feed must be varied and changed to suit the animals and to pre-
vent them from getting off their feed. Do not stall feed, but fatten
gradually and give plenty of exercise so their flesh will be solid.
When sheep are fattened top rapidly there is a tendency for the flesh
to be soft and blubberly and to be put on in patches. It is very im-
portant to have the back well covered with solid flesh, so that the
backbone will not feel sharp.
Probably less is known about how to properly take the flesh off
than about how to put it on. When sheep, which are very fat, and
which have been accustomed to plenty of grain feed are turned out on
pasture without any feed, they are often injured. They have been
accustomed to high living, so to speak, and such a sudden change in-
262 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
jures their digestive organs. Then when the breeders again attempts
to fatten them he finds that they do not respond to high feeding as they
did before. Their feed should be gradually reduced, or, in the case of
breeding rams they may be placed with only a few of the flock at the
start. Another very good way is to place the ram in a large lot where
the flock can come up to the fence. In this way they will soon wear
off their flesh by pacing up and down the fence.
The judge of sheep could not give his decision without feeling- of
the animal, but the appearauce must not be overlooked. The form is
fixed, but the appearance to the eye can be easily changed by the
hamd of the skillful shearer.
Outside of the regular shearing, the wool of some, such as the
Merino, requires very little attention. Tl ey need to have shelter dur-
ing hard rains to prevent the oil being washed from the wool and the
wool free from trash. The long wool breeds, such as the Lincolns
and Cotswolds, need a little more attention. Their wool is long and
hard to keep free from trash and untangled. To prepare their wool
for showing requires very little or no shearing. Sometimes a few
shaggy places about the legs need to be clipped. But the wool should
be gone over by hand and pulled apart into small blocks, so that it
may be easily of)ened up anywhere. Then it should be well shaken
by taking the hands and raising up from underneath. Doing this
often will help give the wool the desired fluffy and curly appearance.
The medium wool and mutton breeds of which the Shropshire,
Hampshires and Southdowns are representatives, need more atten-
tion given their wool than any of the other classes. Animals of these
breeds, which are intended to enter the show ring should have their
wool slightly trimmed every few weeks, so as to keep it even and not
allow it to grow shaggy. Then shortly before they enter the show
ring, they need to be thoroughly gone over by an experienced man.
This should be done after they are shipped, if they have to be moved
any distance. The shearer needs a good sharp pair of shears, a
short fine wire toothed comb and a broad paddle. He first dampens
the wool slightly to make it comb. If there is a large number of
sheep around, it is a good precaution to use some disinfectant in dam-
pening the wool, as it will serve to prevent disease. When shearing
it is best not to cut very much off at a time. It is much better to re-
peat the process two or three times than to make a bad job. Some
places will need to be sheared deeper than others. The object in view
should be to obtain a rectangular, blocky and neat appearance. By
shearing rather deeply on top of back and on sides, the animal may be
made to have a better appearance of width of back and depth of body.
farmers' institutes. , 263
The neck should be arched underneath and thighs well rounded with a
neatly cut tail. Just before taking into the show ring the wool may
be lightly paddled with damp paddle, to give smooth finish. Some
use brown umber or some similar powder to give the wool a brown-
ish cast, but it is altogether a matter of taste whether it be used or not.
The breeder should understand that to distribute prizes is not the
only object of the stock show. They serve to advertise the breeder
and to encourage him to improve his animals. It is not possible for
all who show their stock to win prizes ; but with perseverance and the
knowledge of and love for animals, the breeder should be rewarded
with success.
THE MOST PROFITABLE METHOD OF HANDLING HOGS.
By E. W. Robinson, LaBelle, Missouri.
The first and most important thing is to have, good stock. The
thoroughbred is none too good, while high grades will do very well.
There is no excuse for any man in this great State of ours not having
a well bred herd. It is not enough to have the right kind of breeding
stock, but they must have the proper care and treatment. In our
Corn Belt farmers as a general thing feed too much corn to develop
a brood sow as she ought to be. She must have a variety of feed, such
as will make bone and muscle, ground oats, ship stuff, bran, oil meal
and plenty of range on clover and blue grass pasture. During the
winter months when they are deprived of any green food, clover hay
is an excellent substitute and hogs relish it very much.
If the proper attention is given to the individual make up of
the young gilts, that is so necessary to make a good brood sow, and if
they have been selected from the right kind of dams and treated as
stated above, success is sure. The next thing to consider is the mat-
ing and the kind of a male to use. By all means he should be a
thoroughbred of the breed you have chosen. The male is recognized
as half the herd, then if this be so no man is acting wisely to let a few
dollars stand between him and a good herd header. The difference
in the first crop of pigs would pay the price of a choice male two or
three times. A thoroughbred male, if individually all right, is cheap
at almost any price, while a scrub would be extremely dear as a gift
with three or four more like him thrown in for good count.
As to the time of mating every man should be his own judge as
to that matter. If one has good warm houses so that the young pigs
264 MISSptJRI AGRICULTURAL REPORf.
can be kept warm and dry, should the weather be cold and stormy
at farrowing time, it would be well to have a few litters of early pigs
from mature sow^s, but I would not advise early pigs from young
SOWS; t Would Want them to farrow not earlier than the middle or
last of April. The gestation period is one hundred and twelve days,
so a man can arrange matters to suit himself. A few words would
not come amiss as to how the sows should be fed and taken care of
during the period of gestation. They should not have an exclusive
corn diet, but more of a mixed ration of ground oats, ship stuff and
bran with an occasional addition of oil meal. The soft feed should
be increased and the corn decreased near the farrowing period. After
the sows begin to get heavy they should have separate sleeping quar-
ters, or not more than two should sleep together. If allowed to pile
up there is danger of some of them losing their pigs. A week before
farrowing a sow should be kept every night in her own stall. A week
after farrowing a sow should be fed on full feed of rich slop, with
corn enough to keep her in good condition. The pigs should be taught
to eat as soon as possible. Slop should be the principal feed. If yoii
have mil-k handy, put it in, and should you want to make an addition,
why just put in more milk.
They should be kept growing from start to finish. It is a won-
derful drawback to any young stock to allow them to get poor and
runty. In changing from one kind of feed to another the change
should not be too radical, especially changing to new corn. Great,
care should be taken to increase the feed gradually. The health of.'
tlie herd should be well guarded by giving them all the pure water-
they want ; see that they have plenty of ashes and salt at all times ;:
keep the feeding pen pure and clean by raking up all trash and filthi
and applying a good sprinkling of lime occasionally.
In the finish of the herd for market, no better feed for putting-
on fat can be given than corn, and when your hogs weigh from 225:
to 250 pounds, I think is the best time to sell. That weight is made
cheaper per pound than heavy weights, for there is more rapid growth
up to that weight than ever after. So, brother farmers, watch these
small things, and success is yours.
Farmers' institutes. "265
' LAYING OUT COUNTRY ROADS.
By J. L. Erwiii, Steedman, Mo.
The conception of the Roman 'engineer was the construction of a
road on the shortest lines for military purposes. In later years the
movement of freight from shipping points, either railroad, river,
ocean or lake on short lines has been the study of the engineer. The
development of the railroad has been such that nearly all freight is
moved from one point to another by rail. The problems which now
confront us are : how to get the products of the farm to the railroad ;
how to get to school; how to get to church; to market; how to
get the postman to bring our mail to our doors, and how to make our
homes attractive to ourselves as well as to the passer by. Straight
lines will not do this best. To make and maintain a road cheaply, it
must be a level surface. Cuts and fills must be avoided as much as
possible. Some day all our roads will be lined with homes, and no
one would like to live on top of a cut or at the bottom of a fill.
In all hill country, our roads should wind with the hill^ just as
an irrigating canal is laid out. The cow brute exhibits much engineer-
ing skill in laying out her path ; she will never go straight across a
gulch, but will bear up on a level or nearly so until the rise in the bot-
tom of- the hollow has reached the level of the point at which she
wishes to cross, and keeping nearly at a level she will follow the op-
posite bank or the point where she left the general course in which
she wished to travel, and resume her journey. She has followed the
line requiring the least exertion to reach a given point, one requiring
the least work to make it passable, and one that will be the easiest to
maintain, as it will be the least liable to wash. Water is the greatest
destroying agent of our roads.
The road being practically on the surface, every point of vantage
may some day be utilized for a building site.
It is only a little while till fences will not mar the beauty of our
cultivated fields; only the permanent pasture lands will be fenced.
266 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
MISSOURI AT BUFFALO.
By R. M. Yost, St. Louis.
The General Assembly of 1901 appropriated $50,000 for the ex-
pense of exhibits of Missouri's resources at the Pan-American Expo-
sition, at Buffalo, N. Y., and at the South Carolina Interstate and
West Indian Exposition, at Charleston, S. C. The appropriation bill
did not reach the Governor until the latter part of March, ^yhen it
was promptly approved. The act provided for the appointment of
five commissioners, who should proceed at once to collect the neces-
sary exhibits and arrange for the various displays. On March 25,
Governor Dockery appointed the following named gentlemen to serve
a& commissioners at both expositions :
Hon. E. S. Garver, Grant City; John F. Beal, Edina; Robert M.
Yost, St. Louis; Charles C. Bell, Boonville; Fayette P. Graves, Doe
Run.
This Commission organized immediately by the election of Mr.
Garver as president, Mr. Beal as vice-president, Mr. Yost as secre-
tary, and Mr. Bell as treasurer. On the first day of April they opened
a temporary office in St. Louis. It was an unusual and tremendous
task to prepare ,within four weeks, for the complete representation
of the State at a great exposition, but the Commission accomplished
it, and by the first of May were in Buffalo with interesting exhibits
of Missouri's agriculture, horticulture, mines, forestry, dair^ and edu-
cation. Thousands of Missourians who visited the Pan-American dur-
ing the summer of 1901 bear universal testimony to the fact that Misr
souri was surpassed by no other state in the several illustrations of
her resources, and the record of the Commission shows that in several
particulars our State proved to be superior to those states which had
heretofore been recognized as leaders in various lines of industry and
productiveness.
It was a matter of special gratification when Missouri was
awarded the only gold medal on corn and the highest gold medal on
wool. At the same time the splendid State of Illinois, which had here-
tofore ranked ahead of Missouri in the production of corn, was only
able to achieve a silver medal at the Pan-American Exposition. This
is cited as an illustration of the intelligent and energetic work done
by the Commission in securing the best State exhibits.
The official announcements by the management of the Pan-Ameri-
FARMERS^ INSTITUTES. 267
can Exposition show that the following medals and awards were at-
tained by Missouri at Buffalo, in competition with thirty-four states
and all the Latin-American republics:
Agriculture — Five gold medals, six silver medals and nineteen
certificates of honorable mention — the last named being to the con-
tributors to the gold medal exhibit of wool.
Horticulture — ^Ten gold medals, eighty-eight silver and bronze
medals and six certificates of honorable mention.
Mines and Mining — Eleven silver and bronze medals and eight
certificates of honorable mention.
Education — One gold medal and four silver and bronze medals.
Dairy — One silver medal and eighty-five diplomas of award.
Forestry — ^Three certificates of honorable mention.
Altogether Missouri won i6 gold medals, no silver and bronze
medals and 102 certificates of honorable mention — a total of 228
awards.
The achievements by the State in agriculture, horticulture and
dairy were so remarkable that they became subjects of newspaper
comment throughout the country. The "land of the big red apple"
has been advertised from Maine to Texas and from '^the northern
lakes to the sunlit waters of the southern sea." At butter-making the
Missourians demonstrated in Buffalo that this State has no superior.
At one exhibit Missouri received 82 awards out of 87 samples of dairy
products, the Exposition requiring the samples to show 94 per cent
and above. On several occasions the high point of 97 per cent was
reached, a percentage of perfection which was only exceeded by one-
half a point by the old dairy states of New York and New Hampshire.
Our lead and zinc mining was accorded unusual distinction and our
building stones equal to the best. Our public school system, placed in
direct comparison with the oldest public school systems of the East,
was given one of the only two gold medals tliat were bestowed.
Throughout the course of the Pan-American Exposition the ex-
hibits from Missouri created continuous and favorable comment and
when the exposition closed, on November 2, 1901, success had been
written across the work of our Commissioners.
268 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
MISSOURI AT CHARLESTON:
But our Commissioners had still another triemendous and un-
usual task to perform. They were required to take down and re-
move the Missouri exhibits from the Pan-American Exposition at
Buffalo, transport them to the South Carolina Exposition at Charles-
ton, procure fresh renewals of all perishable products and again install
the exhibits within three weeks. By the most active and earnest ef-
forts the Commissioners again met every expectation, and on the
first day of December, when the gates of the South Carolina Exposi-
tion were opened, Missouri was the only State found ready for the
inspection of visitors. This exposition will remain open until June
and at this writing it is impossible to present the details of a record
which is now only in prqcess of achievement. But in the meantime
we quote the following article from the Charleston Post to show
the estimation in which the preliminary work of the Missouri Com-
mission is already held: "Of the many interesting exhibits at the
Exposition, none surpass the display shown by the State of Missouri.
It can be said to the credit of the energetic commissioners of the State
who have the display in charge that they were the first to install their
exhibits in the different buildings and have them approximately ready
for the opening day. It was said that they accomplished the same re-
sult at Buffalo, which speaks well for their enterprise and administra-
tive ability. Not only were the Missouri exhibits ready for opening
day, but for variety of display and artistic neatness in the arrangement
and finish of their installation, there are none better on the grounds."
Indeed, many visitors declare that Missouri easily leads in every line
that she exhibits.
"Be that as it may, the fact remains that Missouri is one of the
most prolific states in the Union and outclasses most of them in the
great variety of her natural productions. It has been said by an emi-
nent writer and traveler that if each state were compelled to live
wholly upon her own resources, Missouri could come more nearly to
doing it than any other state of the Union. When one looks at the
resources of this wonderful State, as represented at the Exposition,
he must admit that the compliment passed upon it was worthily be-
stowed. And it should be borne in mind that what is seen of this State
at the Exposition is only a miniature picture of its actual greatness.
"Missouri has within her borders the greatest zinc and lead mines
farmers' institutes. 269
rin the United States. She has coal and iron in inexhaustable abun-
t dance, with good crappings of gold, silver and nickle. In the southern
1 part she has fine forests of hard pine and other varieties of timber that
\ have never yet been despoiled by the woodman's ax.
"In the production of the cereal crops she occupies a place side
1 by siffle ^ith the best states of the Union, and her famous blue grass,
itimotlhy, clover and other forage crops are the pride of her less fa-
vored ^competitors. In the production of live stock she is well up to
.th<; tead of the list. The Missouri mule is known and respected
• everywhere. It is the proud boast of the people of the State that the
ibray of the Missouri mule, like the English drum beat, is heard
.aroJErnd the world. As an horticultural State, she is now the envy of
■tli« older states that have enjoyed a monopoly along this line for many
years. And yet her horticultural interests are only in the early child-
hood of their development. When matured to the full line of their
possibilities these interests will be bewildering to contemplate. 'Alis-
souri, the home of the Big Red Apple,* is a saying that has traveled
from ocean to ocean and been repeated across the waters by thousands
who have tasted and eaten the ruddy king of all apples — ^The Ben
Davis. No visitor to the Exposition should fail to see the Missouri
exhibit."
STATE INDUSTRIAL MEETINGS.
FIFTH ANNUAL SESSION.
Convened in Chillicothe, Missouri, December lo to 13, 1901.
ABSTRACT OF ADDRESSES DEI^IVERED.
(Reported by Miss Snowdon Willis.)
OPENING SESSION.
House called to order by Hon. J. W. Hill.
. Mr. Hill : We have here the meeting of the different organizations
composing the State Industrial Association. The Swine Breeders, Horse
Breeders, Improved Live Stock Breeders, Sheep Breeders, Poultry
Breeders, Improved Roads Association and State Grange will hold a
meeting this week which ought to be of great interest, and we hope
you will all attend and take part in the meeting.
Prayer by Rev. E. C. McVoy of Chillicothe.
WELCOME ADDRESS.
Hon. W. D. Leeper ex-mayor of Chillicothe, was introduced, and
on behalf of the mayor, delivered the address of welcome as follows :
Mr. Chairman and Members of the Industrial Associations:
It IS my pleasure this morning, on behalf of the mayor, to extend
to this convention, the city's welcome. We value at its true and highest
worth the recognition which you have shown us by making this city the
place of your assembling and deliberations. Under the auspices of the
State Board of Agriculture there is here assembled today the fifth annual
meeting of the State Industrial Associations of Missouri — a common-
wealth that Senator Ingalls once declared possessed such a diversity of
natural resources that a stone wall could be built around her domain
and yet her people would live and thrive without outside assistance.
Better organization is the tendency of the day. Lawyers have their
bar associations; physicians their medical societies; capital its corpora-
STATE INDUSTRIAL MEETING. 271
tions and trusts ; labor its trades union, and it is but natural and right
that you, the original producers of all wealth, should band together for
mutual protection and advancement in your chosen field of activity.. The
farm has ever been, and ever will be the source of all wealth, and that
legislation which fails to recognize this fundamental principle of polit-
ical economy has nothing in it to commend itself to any government.
When our farmers prosper that prosperity is shared by all other branches
of industry; but when they do not prosper, that stagnation likewise is
felt in every department of human action. The old Greek philosopher
• was right, centuries ago, when he said to the youth who was admiring
the magnificience of the Grecian cities, that it is not the splender ot
the cities, but the prosperity of the fields that constitutes the true growth
and stability of every nation. As Missourians we are justly proud of our
great commercial centers; of the great metropolis on I he banks of the
monarch stream, that alone of all American cities withstood the financial
storm of 1893 without a single bank or mercantile failure ; we are proud*
too, of the great emporium at the mouth of the Kaw, which ranks as the
second greatest live stock market of the world; and of the city on to
the north that the census of 1900 declared, with one exception, to pos-
sess more per capita wealth than any other American city ; but prouder
still are we of the fact that behind all this municipal wealth, stability
and growth stands the Missouri farm which has made possible that pros-
perity, and a soil that has never yet refused to annually and abundantly
give forth some, if not all, of her diversified products. Missouri is
truly an agricultural state, and we trust that this may indeed ever be her
chief material distinction. The largest stock farm in the world is in
Atchison county, Missouri; the largest nursery in Pike county; the
largest orchard in Howell county. For several years past the Missouri
hen has annually produced almost as much wealth as have the gold
fields of the Klondike; while in regard to every kind of high-grade
stock, our herds are of the highest rank. The Missouri mule is not
only favorably known in every part of this country, but in all foreign
lands as well; and we dare say that England would long since have dis-
played her flag of truce in the Transvaal, had she not been backed up
by the persistent, irrepressible, "show me" disposition of the IMissouri
mule engaged in her service in that far-away clime.
We are glad to welcome you, the reprsentatives of these great indus-
tries, to our midst this morning, and not in the least do we also welcome
those assembled for the purpose of agitating good roads, the object of
which is, at all times, to bring the producers of wealth in direct contact
with the markets of the state. It is the marvelous growth and develop-
272 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ment of these industries that insures the stability of our commercial cen-
ters; and it is the continued growth of both farms and cities that will
make Missouri, in the near future, the Empire State of the American
Republic.
May your sojourn in our midst be pleasant, and may your delibera-
tions be profitable, is the message with which, on behalf of our mayor
and citizens, I gteet you this morning.
In the absence of the president of the Swine Breeders' Association,
Mr. G. W. Waters of Canton, Mo., responded as follows :
Ladies and Gentlemen: I am not sure that these Swine Breeders
have started out right in asking me to respond to the address of wel-
come ; maybe they have and maybe they have not ; however, not wishing
to cause any delay, I will indulge in a remark or two in response to the
gentleman's very cordial welcome. It was indeed a very refreshing and
pleasant address, and I dare say we all feel better by reason of it. It is
something more than a salutatory, it is bristling with some very import-
ant facts concerning our grand State.
I will not indulge in any further encomium upon our State. We
all know her history. She stands as the foremost State in all expositions
held in this country for the last decade or two at least. Missouri is a
State of which we are all proud and getting to be more and more so every
year, knowing and realizing as we do her wonderful natural resources ;
and the time comes on in the near future when Missouri will have an
epoch making period, when she will make us feel more proud than ever
and we shall stand before the world, as I verily believe, in 1903 at the
great Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis as the admired of all
admirers.
As to this association and these several associations that meet here
this week, these are very properly called the Industrial Associations,
and this suggests that we have met here for the purpose of exchanging
thought; we have met for the purpose of consulting together; we have
met for the purpose of lending each other some assistance as far as we
may in solving some of the great problems before us.
There are now before us and especially before the farmers of Mis-
souri two things worthy of our attention. The first is the discovery of
truth. There are men and women especially set apart for the purpose
of the discovery of truth in relation to agriculture and they are diligent-
ly at work day and night looking down into the dark pages, we may say,
of nature and making a study of those principles that govern all prac-
STATE INDUSTRIAL MEETING. 273
tices as far as agriculture is concerned. Tliese are they of the experi-
ment stations. The truth they discover there is one thing, and to get that
truth out among the people so that they will know and understand it is
quite another thing and that is the thing that differentiates this time and
age from ages of the past. That which characterized the mediaeval
times, the dark ages, and caused them to be dark ages in human his-
tory, is the f^ct that the knowledge and investigation of the truth of the
world was locked up in the cloistered monastery. It was not sent out
among the people, it did not radiate, the people did not get hold of it
and that is the reason why these ages were the dark ages. When that
period came on in human history, when that sentiment which was grow-
ing in the world and should grow on and on, absolute personal liberty,
had grown to such a degree that the declaration of independence was
written, it went like a -flash of light around the world and that is the
reason why this age is such a progressive age. There was abundance of
truth discovered in the dark ages, but it did not radiate and reach out
among the people. In this age in which we live this truth is reaching
out and these problems presented to us are being solved by the people
themselves and applied in their business.
We then have met for the purpose of considering some of these
problems: take for instance the Swine Breeders (I believe I was to
represent that association), there are some important problems that are
before them. There has been a development — a progressive development
in the machinery, if you please to call it such^by which and through
which we produce pork. The animal is the machine by which the farmer
makes out of the crude and raw products of his farm the finished product
of his pork for feeding the hungry people and for the market. But his
machine today is almost immeasurably superior to the classes of ma-
chines with which they undertook to make pork before this age.
Now these meetings together and this comparison of ideas. will lead
us to have a better understanding of our business and that is really the
thing that has brought about the progress of this age. It has been
brought about by reason of the fact that the great masses of the people
have taken hold of these questions. In ages prior to this the masses did
not think about these questions as they do now and consequently they
did not assist in promoting this progress that characterizes this age.
There is such a thing as gathering strength and gathering force by asso-
ciation. Take the utterances of those who have investigated this ques-
tion most carefully ; let us quote, for instance, from Joseph Strong who
wrote a book called "Our Country." He said, in speaking of the great
progress of this age that it has come by reason of association, which is
A-18
274 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the soul of great progress. ' If association is the soul of progress, in
associating together and exchanging thoughts we help along that grand
progress that 'characterizes this age; and that is the reason we are met
together. We are prone to illustrate this by the heat produced by a lot
of burning fagots, an old illustration, but a good one : take the fagots
and let each piece of wood burn singly and alone and it will produce
but little heat, put two pieces together and the heat is increased, burn
three together and the heat is still greater, bind a multitude of fagots
together and you get a wonderful amount of heat when you bum them.
In like manner one individual working out these problems singly
and alone on his own farm makes some progress, two associating to-
gether and exchanging thoughts can make greater progress than the
one, three can make still greater progress and a convention can make
yet more progress and add wonderfully to the interest of the questions
at hand, and for that reason we have met to exchange thoughts and
to help along with this progress.
- On behalf of the State Poultry Association Mr. Steinmesch re-
sponded as follows: The Poultry Association is probably the least rec-
ognized of all the industrial associations that are represented here to-
day. The chicken itself is only a small matter, still it is only a few
years back that the average weight of a chicken was three and a half
pounds ; but by conventions, by getting together and exchanging thoughts
we have succeeded in improving the breeds, we have succeeded in mak-
ing new breeds, and we have succeeded in making the average weight
of chickisns not less than five pounds. We have succeeded in making new
breeds that command a premium, as was shown a y^ar or two ago when
the Armour Packing Company advertised through the papers that they
would pay, I forget whether it was a cent or half a cent more per pound
for White Wyandotte chickens than for any other chickens that came to
the market. Half a cent a pound is comparatively a small amount, but
when it is taken into consideration that the poultry product of the State
of Missouri is greater in value than that of the wheat and oats raised in
this State combined, you cafi probably appreciate what that half a cent
a pound means.
It is said that the man who makes two blades of grass grow where
only one grew before is a benefactor of mankind. I would add to this
that the man who produces a five-pound chicken where only a three or
four-pound chicken was produced before, is also a benefactor of man-
kind. Only a few years ago producers were shipping stock to the mark-
ets of St. Louis, Kansas City and Chicago and got so much a dozen for
their chickens; it did not make any difference whether they weighed
STATE INDUSTRIAL MEETING. 275
three pounds or six, whether they were three or six years old. All of
these things have changed. Nowadays in sending poultry to market
they are graded, classified into young hens and old ones ,young roosters
and old ones, and there is an extra price for poultry uniform in color or
weight. All these things go to show what progress has been made in
the poultry industry, and I believe — in fact I am sure — ^that the greatest
credit for this improvement, this increase is due to the Missouri State
Poultry Association.
We are holding today our tenth annual exhibit. Ten years ago
the first poultry exhibit was held at Sedalia, Missouri. It was about
the first poultry show of any kind that had been held outside of St. Louis,
in this State. There had been one or two held in St. Louis, but they
were financial failures, people looked upon one chicken just like another.
From Sedalia we went to Warrensburg, from Warrensburg to ]\Tacon,
fiom Macon to St. Louis, from St. L6uis to I-exington, from Lexington
to Columbia, from Columbia to Mexico, from Mexico to Sedalia ,from
Sedalia to Fayette and from Fayette to Chillicothe. Our object in moving
around so is to give the people of the State an opportunity to see our ef-
forts, an opportunity to see our thoroughbred poultry. I feel that while
we have accumulated no wealth, while the officers of the Association have
worked without compensation, our efforts have been appreciated and in
that way the officers have been duly repaid, and I am sure all of them feel
that way. We have an extraordinary fine exhibit here which will continue
all week, the largest exhibit, I think, we have had in the last four or five
years and certainly the best in quality, and I extend to you all a hearty
welcome to attend our show.
Mr. C. O. Raine responded on behalf of the State Grange: Mr.
Chairman, ladies and gentlemen — I cannot forbear just at this time to
preface my remarks along this line with a few remarks in connection
► with and relating to the work in the future of this Industrial Association.
I would suggest, Mr. Chairman, that the representatives of each organi-
zation represented here take into consideration the advisability of ap-
pointing one man from their respective associations to act as a member
of an executive committee with the Secretary of the State Board of
Agriculture, as president of this committee to arrange the work for the
future, that these several associations may act unitedly, may act jointly,
may act for the betterment of each organization. The organization that
is strong today in a few years from now may be one of the weaker ones.
It is the weaker ones that need attention today and it is evident to me
that this Industrial Association cannot last in the future unless some
steps along that line are taken soon. For the Grange to formulate a
1
276 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
separate line of work, and the Road Association to formulate another,
etc., debars and precludes a great deal of work that might be accom-
plished by the worthy Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, who
should have the hearty co-operation of each association.
Now, Mr. Chairman, in regard to the words of welcome that have
been given to us this morning, I wish to thank Mr. Leeper in behalf of
the Missouri State Grange for ^he very cordial words of welcome he has
given us, and for the excellent thought in that address. It certainly has
inspired us, it certainly will do us all good to take home with us and
treasure up the thoughts outlined in that speech this morning.
I wish to state further, Mr. President, in behalf of our organization
that as we hold many executive sessions at this time, being compelled to
do so, we invite the hearty co-operation of each association represented
here this week, and I would urge upon each and every one to lend a
helping hand that we may make this the fifth annual meeting one of
the greatest meetings ever held.
On behalf of the State Board of Agriculture, the Secretary, Mr.
Geo. B. Ellis, responded: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen — I am
very glad to add a word this morning on behalf of the State Board of
Agriculture, and for the encouragement of the different State associa-
tions that will meet in this beautiful little city in the heart of the blue
grass region of Missouri. I wish to thank Mr. Leeper for the hearty
welcome he has given us, and I would emphasize at least two thoughts
expressed in his most excellent address, that is, "organization is the
tendency of the day'* and that when the "farmers prosper that pros-
perity is shared alike by all other branches of industry."
The farmers least of all classes are heard in our State Legislatures
and in Congress, and why? The farmers least of all have anything to
say about fixing the prices of their own products when they are sent
to market, and why ? It is to my mind evident that it is a lack of intelli-
gent organization. I am not here to raise the pessimistic cry that this
country is going to the bad because other industries are organized and
working in their own selfish interest, I do firmly believe, however, that
it is the duty of the farmers of this State and of this country to organize
intelligently into industrial associations for their own betterment as well
as the general welfare of the country. It is by association and inter-
change of ideas that the greatest progress is made. No one individual,
however wise, has ever worked out any of the great problems for the
improvement of mankind, singly and alone.
Mr. Steinmesch said that the average weight of the chickens pro-
duced in this State had been increased one and one half pounds in the
STATE INDUSTRIAL MEETING. 277
past few years. This makes a total increase of nearly 25,000,000 pounds^
worth at least $1,500,000. Who will say it has not been a great
benefit to the people of this State for the poultry raisers to organize?
Think of it ! ^ An improvement of more than forty per cent, in* a few
years, by intelligent breeding and feeding. Does any one believe that
we have reached the height of perfection in breeding or feeding any kind
of live stock? An improvement of ten per cent, in the value of all our
live stock would amount to something like $25,000,000. Will it pay to
organize ?
As another illustration, take our field crops. Missouri corn grow-
ers produced in 1900 on 6,400,000 acres a total of 193,000,000 bushels
of corn, valued at $60,000,000; on 2,218,000 acres of meadow a total
of about 3,000,000 tons of hay valued at $20,000,000; on 1,000,000 acres
of wheat a total of 16,000,000 bushels valued at $10,080,000; on 1,000,-
000 acres of oats a total of 30,000,000 bushels valued at $6,000,000 ; on
108,600 .acres of potatoes, a total of 10,000,000 bushels, valued at $3,-
500,000. Does any intelligent farmer doubt for a moment that by propei
selection of seed, by scientific methods of seed breeding, by an intelli-
gent system of rotation of crops, by a judicious use of domestic and
commercial fertilizers, that we can do as well as the poultry people have
done and increase our average yields forty per cent? Is it possible to
do it? Gan we not raise the average yield of corn from thirty to forty
bushels, wheat from twelve to twenty bushels, oats from thirty to forty
bushels, timothy hay from one and a third to two tons, potatoes from
ninety-three to one hundred and fifty bushels per acre? If we can do
this, will it not pay to organize an association of farmers interested in
every line of farm products ?
Other states are organizing their conventions of corn growers, of
«
wheat growers, etc., and why not Missouri? Every citizen should have
a patriotic pride in pushing our State that has been so abundantly blessed
by nature with a great diversity of soil, climate and products to the
very front rank in this great country of ours.
Is there any doubt about the truth of the other statement that
"when the farmers prosper all others share that prosperity?" I think
not. The more grain and live stock the farmers produce the greater
amount of freight for the railroads. The bigger the profit the farmer
gets for his products the greater consumer he becomes of other laborers'
products in the form of clothing, food, building materials, farm imple-
ments, and other articles of necessity and luxury. Show me a prosperous
farming community anywhere in the world and I will show you a com-
munity where other lines of business succeed. Last summer when the
278 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
drouth was daily cutting down the farmers' profits, how anxiously were
weather conditions watched and discussed by business men, professional
men, and laboring men of every class in the country. Why was itr
They loiew that the prosperity of the whole country would be seriously
affected by a failure of crops. I would not have you think, however,
that the farmer is independent of other classes. • While others may share
oiir prosperity, we too have a share in theirs, and we should cultivate
a more friendly relation with people of all legitimate avocations.
Let me say in conclusion, that we are proud of our achievements
in the past, but we are not satisfied to stop here. In the great exposi-
tions that have been held in this and other countries in the last decade,
Missouri has acquitted herself nobly, but are we to be satisfied with
what we have done and fold our hands and dream of the past? Only
a few days ago at the Chicago Live Stock Exposition, in one class where
eight premiums were offered, Missouri breeders captured four, compet-
ing with all other states and with Canada. In another class our breeders
won three out of eight. But we should not be satisfied with this grand
showing. Where we won four prizes this year, let us strive to win five
next year.
On behalf of the State Board of Agriculture, let me promise you
that each one of these associations will have our earnest co-operation
and support in achieving the greatest possible success in the various lines
of work.
SESSION OF
Road Improvement Association.
REPORT OF SECRETARY.
By G. W. Waters, Canton, Mo.
«
To the President and Members of the Missouri Road Association. —
For the past five years the burden of our work has been in the endeavor
to secure satisfactory legislation. A long stride forward was made by
the Fortieth General Assembly. The Forty-first corrected some inequal-
ities and so perfected the general laws applicable to counties not under
township organization, that no complaints are heard anywhere. This is
in marked contrast with the conditions prior to 1899. We have come
up from a condition of chaos to the adoption of a road system based
upon business principles.
We realize that laws, or constitutional amendments cannot make
roads. W.e now turn to the practical side of the work, the art of road
building and the methods of road maintenance. In our report of
last year we called attention to the importance of making each year
some permanent improvements. "A portion of the funds must be
used for repair and maintenance, but some amount should be applied
every year beyond this for permanent work." To undertake the task
of grading, graveling or macadamizing all of our -roads at once would
be a stupendous work — far beyond our means. Hon. Martin Dodge,
Director of Office and Road Inquiry, (successor to Gen. Roy vStone)
says : "There are eighty thousand miles of public roads in Ohio, and
about three million miles in the United States. Ninety-nine per cent
of the entire mileage remains as earth roads." Our estimate for Mis-
souri, based on reports made by the county clerk of each county, is that
only about one-half of one per cent of our entire mileage consists of
free gravel or macadam. Attention was called in a former report to
the plan of "continuous care of roads," the year round. Experience
and observation emphasizes the value of this method. The present
road law was framed with that end in view. To find out the very best
methods and most efficient means of keeping our dirt roads in a pas-
sable condition for the greatest length of time during the year, and
280 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the best possible way of averting damage to them, by floods, has been
the constant study of your secretary for the past five years.
I wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance given by the State
Board of Agriculture in affording us .ample opportunity to investigate
the various methods in practice.
At the Sedalia meeting in 1899 we called attention to the method
of frequently trimming the road bed with a light scraper or drag",
which, if done at the right time, obliterated the ruts, made a smooth
surface for travel and had the effect of hardening the surface and pre-
paring it for the next rain, so that the road was seldom muddy. Since
that was written, our observations have been extended and the plan
has proven even vastly more* efficient than we then claimed. If all
the road commissioners and road over-seers of the State could stand
as I did and take in the view of a piece of road kept in repair for the
past five years by D. Ward King, of Holt county, and fully under-
stand in detail his methods and see the results in comparison with the
abutting piece of road, not kept in repair, the object lesson would be
worth $100,000 per annum to the roarfs of Missouri. We have per-
suaded Mr. King to come to this convention and give you his plan.
Here and there over the State this method is in use with equally good
results. Wm. M. Hamby of Caldwell county says in an article to the
Orange Judd Farmer:
"One of the best kept roads I know of anywhere is between Net-
tleton and Hamilton. I have driven over this road at all times of the
year, but have never seen it rough or muddy. * * * * This is the
explanation : The road is graded in the middle so the water runs
oif at once. When it begins to get rough they run a scraper over it."
But I will not anticipate Mr. King, who is present, and will give
you the benefit of his experience. We have said that we do not need
any more law, but allow me to suggest that as the main thing now is
for us to find out the best plans of working roads, we should have
conventions of commissioners and over-seers so as to get from each
and all the benefit of their experiences. To this end I would favor a
law providing for a convention of at least one delegate from each
road district in the State, the expenses of delegates to be paid by the
State. This is the practice in Illinois. From careful estimate made,
I feel safe in saying that there may under the present law be raised
ample revenue to keep the dirt roads in splendid condition, the cul-
verts and bridges in repair and leave a surplus each year for perma-
nent roads, where the material is available. The needs now are co-
operation, a wise management and better skill in road repair and road
building.
ROftn IMPROVEMENT ASSOCrATION,
A HARD DIRT ROAD.
By D. Ward King, Maitland, Mo.
Gentlemen of the Good Roads Convention — I did not expect to be
here, so I prepared a paper condensed into the shortest space possible;
but as I am here, there are certain points I would like to amplify.
My friend Col. Waters took advantage of me and put my name on
this program without my consent. And because the Colonel had to
manufacture a title he got the wrong one: "The Best and Cheapest
Method of Getting Roads Repaired," while I want to talk about,
"How to Make a Hard Dirt Road."
.When Col. Waters visited Maitland last fall he inspected a stretch
Pliotograph of road not dragged, showing rough surfacH.
of road that I have been caring for during the last five years. After
viewing the road he asked me to tell you of my method. It is very
282 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
simple, I merely go over the road with a drag after every rain or wet
spell.
The land is rolling prairie, part of the soil is black and part of it is
yellow clay. The drag is made by splitting a log, placing the two
pieces about thirty inches apart (with the flat sides both facing in
the same direction) and pinning them together. The lower edge of
the front piece is protected with iron ; an old wagon tire will do. The
log should be ten or twelve inches thick and about ten feet long. Fas-
ten a chain or heavy wire a foot or eighteen inches from each end by
which to haul it. Hitch the team so that the drag will move the dirt
toward the centre of the road. The hitch is next in importance to the
tirtie at which the dragging is done. The right time is just as the
road dries after a rain or when it is thawed on top during the winter
and spring, and it should be dragged every time.
Of course a smooth surface for travel is thus produced, but a more
valuable result is that the road will shed the next rain instead of ab-
sorbing it. This is the reason why the road should be dragged every
time, so that it always will be ready for the next rain. If I do not say
anything else here today that is remembered — and if the people in this
association do not get any other thought that they can carry home
with them, I want them to get that idea — the way to make a
good dirt road is to keepi it so that the next rain will not go into it.
This means dragging only about once a month on an average. I have
kept track of it in order that I might be able to speak with authority
as to the amount of time and I find that the average is twelve times
a year, that is only once .a month ; not much to secure a good road. I
drag from my own front gate to my neighbor's front gate, a half mile.
It takes about twenty minutes. I don't make very many trips to town
before I have regained the time I expended in dragging, to say noth-
ing of the gain to my neighbors and to the general public.
This method is very simple, as I have said, but to one who is fa-
miliar with the ordinary dirt road under all conditions of season and
weather,, the results are but little short of marvelous. Teams pass
here at a sweeping trot when the other roads are almost impassable.
When the other roads are in such a condition that loaded teams must
be rested every few rods, the same loads are moved over this road at
a free walk and without resting.
This road is high in the center and very hard. Dragging every
time not only makes it smooth for travel, but distributes the travel all
over the road, packing it evenly instead of just under the tires and un-
der the hoofs in parallel beaten paths, thus increasing the ability of the
road surface to shed water. Dragging every time spreads a thin layer
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 283
of moist dirt over a moist surface and travel packs and pounds it to-
gether; every dragging adding just a little soil and the whole being
thoroughly amalgamated and consolidated. After five years of spread-
ing and packing I have a road on which anything less than a week's
v^et weather makes little impression. In the spring when the ground
thaws through and unkept roads are so muddy and spongy that we
say "the bottom has fallen out" this road, remains in fair condition. It
also invariably is dry one or two days before the other roads.*
A horse's hoofprint will hold from a saucerful to a quart-cupful of
water. The neglected road presents a surface of upturned cups and
saucers in which the water must stand until it either evaporates or
soaks into the road bed. Dragging every time gets the road ready
for the next rain and there are never any cups and saucers waiting. This
method also does away with mud holes and chuck holes at the
bridges. After being dragged a few times the surface of the road
stays up with the level of the bridge. One knows, only by the sound,
that he has driven on or oflf a bridge.
More dirt can be moved and more of a show can be made by drag-
ging the road during thaws in winter weather than at any other season.
At such time the soil is crumbly and mealy and pushes to the center
very easily. If a road is dragged two or three times in March or
April it will show the effects all summer. That statement seems
rather improbable and yet it is true that where I have succeeded in get-
ting a neighbor out in April, May or eve^ March to go over his road
just once or twice, that all through the summer you could tell it had
been dragged. The weeds do not grow up on the edge of the road
with a slant toward the inside as they do on a road that has not been
touched after winter travel. But if one wants a road, such as I have
tried to tell you about, he must live up to the motto, "keep your road
ready for the next rain," and to secure full satisfaction he must carry
out the idea for several years. However, do not allow this to dis-
courage anyone — but make a start.
Nor is an iron faced implement absolutely necessary. I began
with a drag made of an old post and a frost-bitten pump stock held to-
gether by two or three short pieces of inch board nailed on top. It
pulled to pieces at the beginning of the second year. And at first I
simply drove a team straddle of one wheel track, going, and of the
other wheel track coming back, merely breaking the rim of earth that
rises on each side of the wheel track and leaving the road in good
condition for teamsters to "straddle the rut." After smashing both
ruts I remember I used to look down the road approvingly, pat myself
on the back and think I had the nicest road in the country ; and while
284 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI
I did at that time, yet it would look very rough to me at present.
These days if my road does not look as smooth as a quarter stretch
I expect people to criticise it. I hope you will not think I am exag-
gerating. Mr. Waters was there and saw it and he will bear me out
when I say the road in front of my house and for a half mile south to
my neighbor's is in as good condition as any quarter stretch at your
fair grounds and it is that way most of the time — of course not
l''fom u photograph taken of Mr. King's road, showing smooth surface,
while it rains — it is not that way until the mud dries up, but just as
soon as it dries, and it dries a day or two before the other road, I get
over it with the drag just once and have another quarter stretch. If
I don't get over it the neighbors are after me to know why I don't.
This shows the power in such a condition of education. The people
are accustomed to finding that road so that they can drive over it as
fast as they wish and if they cannot do so they want to know "what's
the matter with King."
This simple method of securing a hard dirt road has been devel-
oped into what is known as the "Maitland Good Road System." Per-
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 285
haps 1 can best describe this system by relating to you the story of
its growth. We endeavored to get all to drag, but found one or two
conservatives that were hard to start and the majority allowed the
small minority to stop them. You all know how that works. In
trying to get past this difficulty, I said to a farmer who lives five miles
from Maitland : "If I will drag the road from your house to town ten
times in one year, will you drag to town once ?" He replied : "You
bet.'' I then went to some of the merchants and suggested that if
the road to Maitland was better than the road to Blanktown, the peo-
ple vC^ould come to Maitland, even if Blanktown is closer to them. I
said to them : "Now if I will get eight or ten farmers along that road
to drag to town once a year and can get eight or ten of you merchants
to drag to a point five miles out and back, that would be going over the
road sixteen to twenty times a year, which would be oftener than I
drag my road and so we will have a fine road to this town."
(I did not have to say anything about my road because it has been
there five years. It is not any talking that I have done that has im-
proved our road, it is the object lesson there in front of my house.)
To make a long story short, I secured twelve to fifteen merchants
and about eighteen farmers, though the farmers did not all live right
on this- road; and we are dragging and we have the best five miles
of dirt road I ever saw, though we have been at it less than a year; and
have barely made a start, not yet using one-half of the help promised.
There are now nine drags on about five miles of road.
Somebody said yesterday that we cannot get men or teams in
May and June. Now I have given this matter very careful study,
having been a road crank for eighteen or twenty years, and I have
learned that if you will "keep your road ready for the next rain," you
can do the work in February, March or April, depending a good deal
upon the season and upon your latitude. Then you will not find much
to be done in May and June. In February, March and April, now no-
tice, in February, March and April you can get out and work your roads
before you get into your fields. The reason we do not get out
and work our roads is because it has not been touched since last
autumn and is a great big loblolly, but if you had kept it ready for the
next rain it would be fit to work. If you kept your road good last fall
then it is in shape so that you can drag it when you can do nothing
else with your team, because the road dries before your field does. In
spring and winter you will find it best to drag the road when the sur-
face is dry, but while the part just beneath the surface, that part
reached by your drag, is still quite moist; in summer and early fall
you will find it best to drag when the surface is just a little bit wet be-
286 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
cause after summer rains, the soil an inch or half an inch below the
surface gets dry before the surface. This may seem a little thing, but
it amounts to a good deal in the course of a year's dragging. If you
wait too long, you can not do as much good as if you had dragged just
at the right time when the road was soft in the middle.
This road gets dusty, but not so du§ty as unkept roads.
Ask a man how often he plows his corn. H answers three or
four times. But does he plow it three of four times in one day? No,
the plowings are a week apart. We are willing to plow our corn at
weekly intervals, but we try to compress twelve months road build-
ing into one eight-hour day. You remember the story of the Welch-
man, who upon hearing that Englishmen combed every day remarked
that he combed his head only once a week and it was all he could do
to get it combed then. Do we not work our roads like the Welchman
combs his head?
We go to the field and plow and harrow, and prepare to plant
corn; then we get the check rower and plant it. But we go to the
highway and plow and grade it up ready to make a road and then we
— quit. Don't we? Isn't that exactly the way we do? We get
ready to plant corn and instead of planting it, quit, and then we com-
plain that the law is not right, or that we do not have money enough.
But at the foundaion the trouble is with us farmers.
I happened on to this method by accident. If it had not been for
the^old post and pump stock that I used in 1896 I would not be here
today. Col. Waters suggested this plan in his report for 1899, and
Prof. Baker of Illinois wrote of this idea in 1901, but it just happened
that I began in 1896 and that I stuck to it after every rain until novsr.
I know something of pikes. I was born in Ohio and lived on the
National Pike, but I never saw a pike in finer condition than our road
near Maitland nine days out of ten in the year, when it is not actually
muddy.
We hear much about enacting a law to make people do so and so.
We cannot make people take an interest in the roads by enacting a law,
nor can we make a law that will enforce itself. We can only use a law
•
to set a standard. Now I believe that statement is true in all except
criminal law. Criminal law says you must not do something or we
will punish you; but the road law says you may do such and such a
thing, or, such and such a thing shall be done a certain way. It is not
the law it all depends on our state of mind.^ A twelve year old boy
must be punished to make him wash and comb and he never blacks his
shoes, but the same boy at sixteen years of age wears shoes that are
like mirrors in polish and will spend an hour in tying his cravat. It
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 287
is the same boy, but the attitude of his mind has changed. When he
was twelve years old he did not care who looked at him nor how he
looked. When he gets to be sixteen or seventeen everybody is looking
at him and he is anxious to look right. It is just that way about our
roads. If we do not care how the road looks, the road will not look
very well, but if we are in a community that cares, or if you are an in-
dividual that cares how the road looks then the road will be all right.
Now I want to repeat a few remarks that have been made about
this road. I repeat them because they serve to illustrate the progres-
sive spirit that has been aroused and show what has been done. A
veterinary surgeon said to me one day as I was dragging: "King,
this is the only bridge between Maitland and Blanktown that a man
cannot tell when he comes on and goes off it except by the sound.'*
Another man stopped me one day and said : "King, you are getting
this road in pretty nice shape." I said, "Yes." He said, "Mr. A ,
(a neighbor of mine who lives a quarter of a mile from me) — "Mr. A.
has his road in nice shape also and is going to crowd you pretty soon."
You see we have aroused a spirit of rivalry and it is a question who
will have the best road. He then asked me whose road was between
mine and Mr. A's. , Now that was none of his business. He had
traveled over that road for fifteen years and it had never before oc-
curred to him that anybody in particular ought to look after that
quarter of a mile. What made him think of it that way? Was it- not
the fact that my road and Mr. A's road was good and because on this
other stretch of road he had to slow down to a walk and could not
trot that he asked whose piece of road that was? I answered, "I don't
know." Then he asked: "Is it Mr. B's business to drag that road?"
Again! answered, "I don't know." Then he asked: "Well, has Mr.
B. ever been out and dragged that road at all?" I answered, "Not
that I know of," and he said : "Well, he is a great fellow." Where
did he get the idea that a man was negligent because he did not drag
his road? From nothing in the world but the fact that he could
ride easily and swiftly over the two other pieces of road.
There is a feeling in our neighborhood that this method which
we call the Maitland Good Road System, is the solution of the road
question. Col. Waters told us last night that ninety-nine and. one-
half per cent of our roads in Missouri were dirt roads ; so if we have
solved the question of making hard dirt roads up in Holt county, we
have solved the question of making good roads for ninety-nine and
one-half per cent of the roads in the State of Missouri. That is some-
thing to be proud of.
Col. Waters said something last night that made tUQ feel so good
288 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
that I have remembered it and I want to repeat it — he said if the road
commissioners of the State of Missouri could stand as he did on that
road and examine it and understand and appreciate it, that the- im-
pression made would be worth one hundred thousand dollars annually
to the State of Missouri.
There is another thing I am thinking of trying and I would like
an expression of opinion on that subject. Would, or would it not, be
best to make* a snow plow and push the snow off the center of the
road after every snow in the winter time? That is the next thing to
do to keep the water out of the road, to get the snow off before it
melts.
Another thing I want to see is a road machine that is made in
Illinois, I think. It is, I believe, going to take the place of our road
graders. Every man who has worked a grader knows that about two-
fifths, or from two-fifths to one-half, of the power that is exert-ed, is
used in crowding the wheels against the bank. That is, if you have
eight horses, three or four of them pull the machine, while the other
three or four are crowding the wheels against the bank. We waste
half the power whenever we load the grader heavily. This machine I
speak of has two long railroad irons swung on wjieels in the shape of
a V, so you can let them down when you want to. They go along the
road with eight horses hitched to them and one iron offsets the draft
of the other one. They throw the dirt in the middle of the road and
all the power is used. I believe it is the coming machine. In con-
clusion, I would like to make the following suggestions :
Don't drive too fast.
Don't walk, get on the drag and ride.
Don't wait for the neighbors to take hold; tliey may be waiting"
for you.
Don't bother about a tongue; it is much more trouble and ex-
pense and is of little benefit.
Don't wait for the big grader to come up and shape up your road.
All you can do first will help to make the work of the grader perma-
nent.
Don't be too particular about material. With an ax and a two-
inch auger almost any kind of a log can be made into a drag. The
one I have used for several years is box-elder.
Don't try to drag with one piece; use two. One will scoop out
all the hollows in the road and deepen them. When two are used the
one keeps the other up; and in a month or so the hollow will have
filled and become level ^ncj har4 Ul^e the balance of the road.
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 289
ROAD MAKING IN SOUTHEAST MISSOURI. *
By Hon. W. J. Ward, Idalia, Mo.
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen — You are all perhaps more
or less acquainted with the conditions in Southeast Missouri. We
have all kinds of soil except gumbo ; we have none, I believe, that ex-
actly fills the description of the gumbo in the bottom lands of the
Missouri, but we have almost everything else. In our level country,
in the extreme southeast, we have sandy river bottom and the stiff al-
luvial soil; we have the undulating clay lands and further north
the Ozark counties with much of as hard stone as can be found and
and perhaps as many as there are anywhere. One who knows how
to build roads in that country, would perhaps be able to give instruc-
tion in road building in Northern Missouri.
Our roads in Southeast Missouri are as poor, perhaps, or have
been, as they are or ever were in North Missouri. We have been liv-
ing under the same chaotic law that you have here. We are conclud-
ing now that Stoddard county is almost the center of the State, but I pre-
sume that you gentlemen will dissent from that opinion. North Mis-
souri is a splendid country, but we are trying to bring up our part of
Missouri to at least its equal. Souutheast Missouri is almost entirely
a timbered country ; some prairie land, but much of it sandy, which is
not favorable for road building.
To tell you something of the workings of the law under which we
are now living, I suppose will be in harmony with the expectations of
this convention. I might say here that I have the honor of being a
member of one of the district boards. of road commissioners in Stod-
dard county. Perhaps that honor was conferred upon me because I
was a member of the Assembly that passed the road law, and, by the
way, I am not the only legislator who serves as commissioner under a
law that gives us no salary. We made very little progress for a
while after the enactment of the new jaw. Some of our people were
opposed to it. Our district board of commissioners appointed over-
seers to supervise the work, and that was all we could do. The first
year we advertised for contracts, but failed to get bidders. The law
provided that the poll tax payers should have the privilege of paying
their taxes in either money or labor, and the contractors did not want
a contract under thbse conditions. Only one of the district boards
A-lft
290 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
of commissioners (there are seven in the county) succeeded in con-
tracting the first year. In our district the commissioners construed
the law, that it was necessary every year to notify the taxpayers when
and where they were expected to work out their poll tax and so put
upon us the expense of notifying the taxpayers. This was our view
of the law and is the construction still placed upon it. The county
court has the prerogative to require all poll taxes to be paid in cash,
which should be done. This would relieve the board of the expense
of giving notice to the taxpayers when and where their work would be
acceptable in the payment of taxes, quite a material expense. This
working out of the taxes is one of the greatest drawbacks to improve-
ment of the roads with which we must contend, because the labor is
unskilled and the men and teams are untrained; however^ the law
gives ample remedy if the county court *will only require by order of
record that the poll taxes be paid in money, hence, we ought to have
no further legislation on the road question, but let the people and
the county courts see to this so that we may go on improving roads.
Last year we did very little work in the county. In our district
we bought a road grader and used it some. This year we bought
another. We have one hundred and ten miles of road in the district.
We made a contract the early part of this season with some gentle-
men to furnish their teams and hands enough to run the graders.
Early in May we began grading the roads. Last spring the center
was the lowest part of the road. We paid those gentlemen by the
day for hand and teams, the district furnishing all the tools and ma-
chinery with which to do the work. We graded eighty miles of road
in our district this season and have about paid for it all.
I believe we have made material progress along the line of road
improvement, in Stoddard county and I presume many of the road
districts in Southeast Missouri have made as much. We, of district
No. 4, have exceeded the average road district of our county. Some
of them have made very little progress. Our people understand the
law more thoroughly and our Board of Commissioners have the inter-
est of the roads at heart and we certainly have improved the -public
highways of our part of the county.
We, in our county, have a levy of only ten cents for road purj^oses,
a poll tax of three dollars, and then we get our division of the
saloon license. If our county court would give us a little additional
levy, then we could go on and make material improvements over what
we have already done. But with only ten cents levy, and three dollars
poll tax paid in cash and our saloon license, we can revolutionize the
roads of Stoddard county without a doubt. I do not know that that
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSPCIATION. 291
would apply to all of Southeast Missouri, for when it comes to work-
ing these mountain roads where there is so much rock, I cannot say
that they could make as much improvement with the same amount
of money. We have very little rock and can work with the road
grader as effectually as you can here. We have some roads with scat-
tering stumps on them, but we have been using dynamite to extract
them. So the number of roads upon which machines can be used are
steadily increasing with us.
Our county court divided our county into road districts, cor-
responding to the municipal townships, giving us from fifty to one
hundred and thirty miles to the road district.
We are making material progress along this line. I should like
to emphasize this idea — let the road law alone. I would like to im-
press that upon you, and especially the members of the Forty-second
General Assembly. For a number of years every session of the
Legislature has been changing the road law. That is a kind of
chronic proposition. If there is no other way to make variety the
legislators must make a change in the road law. Before the present
system was established, every change that was made, at least failed to
improve matters, if it did not make them worse. One time they gave
us three or four school districts for a road district. In our district we
got together, held a primary and agreed upon a man who was the
choice of our school district. The result was the man we picked on
was elected and we had no ground for complaint, but the others
complained, the road over-seer did little work and the law came under
condemnation. We do not want to go back to the over-seer plan.
Let the present law alone and prove the practicability of it. And as
the people come to understand it there will be no question about
maintaining the law practically as it now stands.
In Stoddard county there are a great many gravel beds, and in
many places throughout Southeast Missouri much gravel may be had.
We are using this gravel for the improvement of unusually bad places
in our roads. Our soil is soft and washes easily and in the spring of the
year, when the frost comes out of the ground and in wet weather, it is
extremely soft and sometimes our road becomes almost impassable.
I have in mind a certain piece of road in the township I represent that
for years had been almost impassable at times until the county court
three years ago made an appropriation for grading. Two years ago
we agreed to haul some gravel for that piece of road, each man haul-
ing whatever amount he wished to, and spread it along the center of
the road ; we just took our wagon and dropped one load after another
in the center and from that time to this the road has at no time been
292 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
very muddy; just simply from one load of gravel, per wagon length,
put on the center of the road. We can gravel our roads cheaply if
we will do it.
Under the present system we can spend a considerable sum of
money for permanent improvements and at the oame time do the ordinary
work necessary to keep our roads all in good condition. We have
abundance of stone in Stoddard county that we can use when we
have the money available to make macadam roads. We want, however,
to improve first our common dirt roads yet I think the time has come
when we should begin to study the building of rock roads. I suppose
nothing would come nearer benefiting all the people in every commu-
nity all over this land that the iniprovement of the public roads. It
would improve the condition of the farmer, perhaps more than that of any
other class of citizens. To my mind the betterment of the condition
of the farmer means the prosperity of everybody, the merchant, the
mechanic and the professional man. I do not quite approve the argu-
ment that the farmer would save just so many dollars and cents by the
betterment of the roads; it would vastly improve him by elevating
him to a higher plane of social and mental culture. These things have
been said so often, it is useless to follow this line of thought longer.
I am not prepared to say what progress has been made in the
other counties of the Southeast; I am told, however, that in Dunklin
county the requirements of the present law have never been met — that is
the county court created no district boards, no list of poll taxpayers was
made, and that they have been virtually working under the old law,
or rather no law at all.
Judging from the meagre information gleaned concerning the
general method of road work in these counties, I feci justified in say-
ing that there is much of this work being done virtually under the old
system, if it can be called a system, which is questionable, as under it
those who want to work do so and those who do not, refuse with im-
punity to either work or pay poll tax.
THE QUALIFICATIONS OF ROAD-OVERSEERS.
By Geo. F. Reed, Springfield, Mo.
Gentlemen of the Convention: — ^The qualifications of road commis-
sioners should be of deep interest to every person who travels the public
roads in this State. To define those qualifications necessary to make an
ideal commissioner, I am inclined to the opinion that few would be
found competent to fill the position as it should be done. The general
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATtoiT. . 293
idea prevailing throughout the country that most anyone can make
country roads is erroneous, and has been from its inception. When this
idea has been eHminated and we get down to the practical science in road
construction, one long step -has been made in the right direction.
A road commissioner should be an intelligent, resourceful man, one
given to thought and study, not necessarily college bred, but of good
common sense, broad and liberal in his views, so much so that any fac-
tional interests will not deter him from doing his duty, regardless of per-
sonal interests or friendship. He should be a man proud of his country,
his state, his county, his district and his personal achievements in life.
He should be something of a mathematician, that he could calculate the
quantities in a fill or cut and the cost of either. To calculate the area
drained and the probable volume of water concentrated at a given point
where a culvert is necessary for proper drainage. How a culvert should
be constructed of adequate size^ and at minimum cost.' He should also
know something of lines and levels, in the proper ditching and the fric-
tion in flowing water and the area to be drained, that the best results
may be obtained. These are a few of the qualities necessary to make a
successful road commissioner, and any district having three such men,
the roads in that district will be properly cared for.
The parties most responsible for the present Road Law appreciat-
ing the fact that such qualifications were not possessed by everyone, the
law was so amended, giving the commissioners authority to employ a
civil engineer to supply them with the information necessary for the
proper construction and drainage, and the probable cost thereof. They
are not limited in their action in any way only to the amount of money
they may have.
The other qualities enumerated must be in the man, for they can
not be supplied by any action of law. The person employed as road
overseer, contractor or representative of the commissioners in road con-
struction, should be in qualifications superior to the commissioners, from
the fact that the actual work is done under his personal supervision. He
should have the knowledge and skill of directing a body of men in the
most advantageous manner, thereby securing the best results without
loss of time, labor and money. The nature and condition of the mate-
rials to be worked, and surrounding conditions should be thoroughly ex-
amined and the best method of action ascertained by thoroughly plan-
ning and laying out the work to be performed before beginning oper-
ations. In this way much loss may be saved to the better improvement
of the road and to the general public.
When these conditions are put into actual operation, we will then
have the art of road building down to a science.
294 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
Without detaining you too long I wish to touch upon the county
road and bridge commissioner. While it is supposed that the person
elected or appointed to the position of county surveyor of a county, is
capable of filling the position with credit to himself and to his constitu-
ency and possessing the qualifications of a civil engineer, it is too often
the reverse. He may be and most probably is capable of subdividing a
section of land, one of the most common-place duties to perform, but
when it comes to road and bridge construction and the planning thereof,
then practical engineering ability is in demand, and he is found to be
totally deficient and unqualified to perform the duties as commissioner,
as the law intends he should.
There is no comparison whatever in ordinary land surveying and
practical engineering, and I am decidedly of the opinion that the law
should be so amended, giving county courts authority to employ prac-
tical engineers, in the planning and supervision of such work.
THE COMMON DIRT ROADS.
By Hon. H. A. Schoppenhorst, Peers, Mo.
Ladies, Gentlemen, and Members of the Industrial Association of the
Great State of Missouri :
I want to preface this paper by the remark that this paper was
written a week or ten days ago, and if I trespass on the territory sketched
out by other speakers, or touch on points that were discussed here yes-
terday, I desire that it should be taken as merely additional evidence to
the matter under discussion. It is a little discouraging to discuss the
road question when other industrial associations have so much to tell us
about their victories and their progress.
It is with some embarrassment that I attempt to address you on the
subject assigned to me, after we have heard so much of interest and
learned more of the different industries — their progress, their victories
and the part that each of them takes in making our Stale great, progres-
sive afid honored.
The subject assigned to me by our Honorable President is, "The
Common Old Dirt Road of Missouri." Roads are an absolute necessity
in all civilized communities. If our available means will not permit us
to build Telford or Macadam roads, we must do what we can to im-
prove our "old dirt roads." In some places in this State people are awak-
ening to their own interest in the betterment of their roads. In the last
two years more attention has been given to the proper location, drainage
and permanent improvements with the means at baud, in many commun-
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 295
ities than ever before. People in many places are beginning to see their
own benefit in road improvement.
My observation and experience teaches me that it is pretty safe to
gauge the industry, enterprise and intelligence of a community by the
condition of their roads, or their attempts toward improvement. If we
want to make improvements along this line, we must feel that we need
and want theni and be willing to give our aid to bring about the desired
result. The road question has for many years been earnestly discussed
in all parts of our State. It has been ridden as a hobby to the State
Legislature, and the result is that our statutes are overloaded on the sub-
ject. A pamphlet entitled "Laws of the State of Missouri, Relating to
Roads, Highways and Bridges," revised to date, 1901, compiled by Hon.
Sam B. Cook, Secretary of State, contains no less than ten distinct and
diflferent road laws; some special to certain conditions and localities,
others optional to the people or their county court. F'or years we have
been seeking to improve our roads by making laws, when only labor
intelligently applied, can improve them. Labor costs money and that is
always most profitably and advantageously applied when under the' su-
pervision of parties benefited by the improvement. Whenever a com-
munity is earnestly desirous of improving the conditions of their com-
mon dirt roads they can find no better guide than the law originally
framed by the Good Roads Association of Missouri and enacted into
law by the General Assembly of this State in 1899 ^"^ amended in 1901.
This law is so elastic and gives the county court, as well as the commis-
sioners, so much discretionary power, thereby making it applicable to
all localities and conditions of the State ; and what is more, the means at
hand are expended under the supervision of parties near by and most
interested in obtaining value received for the money and labor expended.
And many enterprising men, seeing the means properly applied, will
volunteer substantial aid in money or labor to help the good work along.
Many people do not yet seem to understand the importance of the
improvement of their roads, therefore, our work is. not yet done ; we
must agitate and discuss this question until they all see and feel that the
public roads are their ozvn property, that the money expended tliereon is
their money, and that the improvement of the roads means the improve-
ment of their ozmi condition- in securing conveniences and pleasures as
well as the improvement of their financial condition. Whenever this
sentiment takes firm hold in a community, we find that the roads are
given necessary attention and that permanent improvements are con-
stantly going on and will in the course of time result in good rock or
gravel roads to all important business points.
Permit me to call your attention to one of the most serious draw-
296 MISSOURI AGRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
backs to the keeping of our dirt roads in proper condition, and that is
the universal practice of using narrow tired wagons. If an instrument
of destruction had been purposely planned for the destruction of our
roads, the narrow tired wagon, for hauling freight on our common dirt
roads, could not well be improved on. Just think of the absurdity of
attempting to make a vehicle with tires only an inch and a half wide to
hold up a load of a ton or more on our spongy dirt roads. You all
know the result and have seen the conditions resulting from this useless
and expensive custom of using narrow tired wagons, simply because
Tom, Dick and Harry does the same. Wide tired wagons have been
scientifically and practically tested and have proven to be more econom-
ical, easier on the team and a great protection to and a builder of our
common dirt roads. In some localities a change for the tetter is begin-
ning to be in evidence in the use of broad tires with satisfactory results.
In European countries this is so well understood that narrow tired freight
wagons pay toll, while wide tired ones use the roads free of charge.
One more thought and I will close. The amendment to our State
Constitution adopted in 1900, permits the county courts to levy a tax not
to exceed fifteen cents on the one hundred dollars valuation for road and
bridge purposes. This levy, however, is left optional with the county
courts. Very few county courts will have the courage to make this
levy unless they are in some way urged on by the tax payers of their
county, for fear of spoiling their chance for re-election. This matter
should be taken up by the tax payers, or road organizations, where they
exist, by calling a convention for the purpose of discussing the mattei
and passing resolutions urging the county court to make such a levy.
The road tax levied under this amendment reaches all the property, even
in incorporated cities and towns, and requires them to contribute a small
share to improve the roads leading into such cities or towns. Gentle-
men, we have all the legal machinery necessary to obtain the means for
all ordinary improvements necessary on our common roads, if properly
put in motion and the funds properly applied. But I have often thought,
when passing newly improved roads and seeing much of the work im-
properly done for want of proper knowledge as to how to construct cer*
tain improvements; what a benefit and saving it would be if someone
would formulate a set of rules to be adopted and followed in building
roads.
The most expensive blunders are made in putting in culverts, which,
in most cases, do not reach the whole width of the road, and are often
placed on the up-stream side of the road, leaving the outlet on the down-
stream side in the center of the road unprotected, and the result is that
one-half of the road will wash away and can never be recovered without
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. 297
great cost. If a rule for building culverts were adopted and followed,
many mistakes could be avoided and much money sav^d. I will venture
to suggest as a sample, the following rules for building culverts, to wit :
1. Always place your culvert square across the road.
2. Always begin your culvert on the down-stream side of the road.
3. Always give sufficient pitch and see that the outlet is clearj to
prevent clogging, and securely protected to prevent it from washing out
or caving in.
4. Always make facing at both ends, of rock or other substantial
material, and pack solid, to prevent crushing or washing out.
In relation to the sewer pipe culvert, I will say we have had years
of experience with them in my county. We had very bad results at the
beginning, but we buy them by the car load still and when properly laid
they are the best culverts that we can use. They must be large enough
to carry off the water without getting clogged and they must be covered
deep enough with dirt and the dirt must be thoroughly packed. The
embankment has to be sufficient to hold the water from going over. If
properly constructed they are the best and most substantial culverts that
we have. We have some that have been there for ten years and have
never been touched since they were put in. In the beginning we put
them in too loosely, we did jiot fasten them properly and we lost money.
Now we find they are the cheapest culverts we can make and we have
put in culverts twenty- four inches in diameter in many places.
Mr. Reed. — In regard to these stone culverts, we have them in
Greene county in a good many places. We have a great deal of stone
and in some counties a considerable amount of stratified stone from eight
to ten inches in thickness is found. We build them in two or three
ways. To save the expense of building a frame in the turning of these
arches, we make most of them Gothic, laying the stone up and project-
ing each layer on the other until they are turned out in the Gothic form,
like a Gothic arch. There is no expense required for a center, and it
does not project far enough for it to tip over. This is easy enough
where you have a large culvert that needs to turn a great arch, and in
small drainage they just slip them over the same way until they get
firmly packed and are covered with a large stone and it is a fixture there.
Mr. Schoppenhorst. — ^The question has often been discussed in my
county as to whether stone or sewer pipe culverts are the cheapest in the
end. It is answered thus: Wherever stone is convenient and durable,
stone culverts are the best; but we cannot always have stone and often
sewer pipe culverts are the cheapest.
298 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ROADS AND RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.
By Hon. W. F. Blair, Breckenridge, Mo.
This subject, with the few remarks that I shall make, is as old as
the human race, for Cain, when he went into the Land of Nod, must
have used something that was, to him, a road. It has been among the
foremost subjects for discussion in all ages. I do not believe that our
improvements in our public highways have kept abreast of our improve-
ments in other lines. You may travel this country from one end to the
other and you will never see the grain cradle and very seldom the old-
fashioned reaper. The hum of the spinning wheel and the stroke of the
loom you will never hear. Our country is spanned by railroads and en-
veloped by a perfect net-work of telephone and telegraph wires; but
you will see the team hauling the same wagons over a majority of the
same dirt roads with but little improvement. The farmer is quick to
take advantage of the improvements of others, but rather slow to improve
on conditions wholly his own. He can be taxed without a murmur to
build costly State .buildings and to maintain expensive State institutions,
but when he sees a few cents added to his tax to build his own roads,
then he is heard from.
Our system of road building in the past has been so barren of re-
sults that the farmer has come to look upon his road tax as so much
money absolutely thrown away. The practice in many of our road dis-
tricts of electing an incompetent road overseer, has brought about this
state of feeling. With the improvement in the tools which has been made
comes the demand for good roads. Over in our county, Caldwell, we
have secured a better class of road overseers than we formerly had, but
the time is at hand when we must improve our roads. The State de-
mands it, the farmers everywhere demand it, and the advocate of good
roads is not talking to empty seats.
Over in our county a few years ago, a very estimable gentleman
was elected township trustee and as an experiment he thought he would
build a little rock road. There was a very bad place in the road and he
had heavy coarse rough rock hauled and put in the middle of the road
and then had it pounded down smooth with a stone hammer and for
sixteen years that piece of road has not had one cent of money spent on
it and it is as good now as it ever was. That was merely an experiment.
These experiments when they succeed are object lessons and other
neighborhoods will follow the example. We have another piece of ex-
ROAD IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION. ^99
traordinary good road covering a tract of about four miles in length that
was obtained in another way and has not been worked for twenty-five
years. Twenty-five years ago the people on that line of road put it in
splendid condition. Out of their own individual money they built some
graders — ^you have all seen them, three or four heavy planks bound to-
gether and faced with steel. They never let that road get out of repair.
They followed the axiom that a stitch in time saves nine and kept it in re-
pair continually. These are two ways of getting good roads.
The government is now sending out its agents to us and saying:
"we deliver the rnail daily to the citizens of the larger towns, and if you
farmery will keep in repair a certain line of road, we will deliver the mail
daily to every resident on that road with no other obligation except to
keep that road in repair."
It might not be amiss to tell you of a plan we are taking up along
this line to get all the residents of our rural route to form themselves
into a society, elect a president and secretary, meet at stated times and
places, and for every resident of that road to report any bad places in
the road that the overseer fails or neglects to attend to anS let every
resident have a general supervision of the road. We believe by making
every man personally interested in trying to make his mail route better
than any other in the county, in a few years our rural mail routes will
be the boulevards of our country.
The rural deliveries were a success from the very start, but they
have increased beyond the hopes of their most sanguine advocates. One
of our rural mail carriers delivered ten daily papers on his first trip out
of our city, and now, three months afterwards, he delivers fifty daily
papers on the same rural route. I dare say the other rural routes of the
country will show the same improvement.
Our government never did take a stride forward but that it had to
meet objections. The calamity howler and the disaster howler are al-
ways heard from. The rural delivery has come to stay and its advo-
cates have only to advocate good roads and keeping the rural routes in
good repair and after a while every farmer will have his mail delivered
at his own door. The' rural delivery system can hardly be exhausted.
It is like any other good thing, you cannot see too much of it. I believe
in getting every farmer interested in good road making and not until we
do will we succeed in having good roads all over our State. We have
got plenty of the very best material in this State to build roads, with and
we ought to go to work and have good roads, roads that you could travel
over the same in winter as you can in summer. If you happen to have
an old fogy in your neighborhood that objects to road' improvement, don't
300 MISSOURI AgriculturAi, REi^bRt.
argue with him but just drag him right along with the crowd and it will
come to him in time.
discussion.
Mr. . — Do I understand you to say that the keeping of the
road in repair should rest wholly with the farmer?
Mr. Blair. — No, sir ; but the farmer is more directly interested than
any other man. He has a greater interest than the merchant in the city.
The onJy interest the merchant has in the roads is to have them good so
that the farmers will get to the city and spend their money. But if
good roads will enable the farmer to take twice as heavy a load as he
could take before the road was in good condition, he had better Advocate
the keeping the road in good repair than to waste his time in taking the
two loads.
Mr. . — We will never get good roads until the entire country
is made to pay its part. Take this road from Chillicothe to Trenton. I
guarantee as many hacks and carriages run over this road as farmers'
vehicles, hut these people never contribute anything to support it or
build it up. That is one thing we have to contend with and they are
the very fellows that are going to blame us for not keeping up our
roads.
Mr. . — Do you not think the railroads ought to share the ex-
pense of keeping up the country roads? They too are interested in the
roads.
Mr. Blair. — The stock and grain are in the country and have to be
gotten to the depot some way, but the railroads are loath to help the
farmer, though they expect him to pay the expense of freight.
Mr. Maitland. — I am a farmer myself, but I wish to say a word in
defense of the railroads. I have attended road conventions in this State
for ten years, and at our first conventions we generally had representa-
tives from the various railroad companies and several times they offered
to transport road material that could be used in the State of Missouri for
the actual cost of transportation. I say this in defense of the railroad
people. They offered to transport crushed rock^ gravel or anything of
that kind from one point to another for the mere cost of engine and
crew.
Mr. . — Is it not a fact that the railroads are blockaded for
months during the year because of the vast amount of grain that the •
farmers bring in from the country when the road is in proper condition ?
If the roads were kept in good condition all the time, the farmers would
not have to bring in the grain all at one time and the railroads would not
*
be blockaded. Good roads will greatly benefit the railroads in my
opinion.
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT, 301
GOOD ROADS AND RURAL FREE DELIVERY.
By C. O. Raine, Monticello, Missouri.
Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen. — In regard to this road ques-
tion, I would say it has been customary for the mastep of the State
Grange as well as the master of the National Grange to embody in hi^
report something on the subject of good roads. In my address this year
I left the subject off because I supposed that not only the people of our
own association, but the people of Chillicothe and of the State of Mis-
souri would hear enough said on the road question at this time. It cei«
tainly is a question of great importance commercially, but that point has
been touched upon by the three speakers who just preceded me. The
farmer is benefited commercially by a good road. How so? If he has
a good road, he can take his products to the market gradually and he
can regulate the market to a very great extent, can regulate falling prices
so that the market will not fluctuate, for when the roads get bad, it is
difficult to bring the products to the market and the price always ad-
vances; and when the roads are good every farmer rushes his products
on the market and the price goes down.
I shall not take up the time to suggest as to how and in what mar-
ner good roads should be obtained, except that I have always l)een in
favor of assisting in building roads. I want a good road by my farm
and I often say to my neighbors, if they have bad roads, fill up that
ditch, cut down those weeds so that the passer-by can look over them,
so that he will not have to wade ruts and mud holes to see your farm.
If there is a place on the road near my farm that I can repair I do it. If
the overseer wants to pay me, all right, if not I will fix it anyway.
There are not a great many people who are not acquainted with the
nature of this question of free mail delivery, but they do not understand
just exactly what has brought about this wonderful result. I am here to
tell you this morning that the Grange claims the honor of pushing this
work to success. I shall undoubtedly prove this to you before I am
through. We have placed within your hands, my good roads brothers,
one of the greatest incentives to assist you in building good roads for
this country, and that is free mail delivery. Did not the gentleman just
tell you, every time a petition is sent in for a free mail route the govern-
ment agent says "fix your road first or we will not do anything for you.
Fix your road and then we will talk to yjou about getting a mail route.'*
In 1891 the National Grange took up the question of free mail delivery,
302 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
and Mr. Wannamaker who was then, I believe, Postmaster General un-
der President Harrison, suggested that an appropriation of fifty thousand
dollars be made for the first experiment. The next appropriation for
this work was a hundred thousand dollars — I am not going to take time
to tell you how they had to work to get Congress to agree to this; at
the start only a few men would listen to words in favor of the move-
ment. The next appropriation was one hundred thousand dollars. The
next three appropriations were one hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
Up to the time of the one hundred and fifty thousand dollar appropria-
tion only three of the routes that had been established were failures and
good and substantial reasons were given for these failures. The next
appropriation was five hundred thousand dollars. In 1899 the Com-
mittee on Appropriations reported the appropriation bill back to Con-
gress with the appropriation for free mail delivery left off, while the
National Grange had asked for an increased appropriation for that pur-
pose. Mr. Hanna was at that time chairman of the Committee on Ap-
propriations. The Executive Committee of the National Grange was
telegraphed for to come to Washington at once. They knew that some-
thing was wrong and immediately started for Washington but they did
not know until they arrived what they were called there for. They
were then informed of the action of the Committee on Appropriations.
They said to Mr. Hanna: "You have done us a great injustice in cut-
ting out this appropriation for free mail delivery." He answered : "I
cannot help you, we thought best to cut the appropriation down some-
where and the thing is done." They answered: "Mr. Hanna, you can
get that bill back into the hands of your committee if you wish to do so.
We want to say to you that we have petitions from thirty thousand
members of the State Grange in Ohio asking that this appropriation be
made for free mail delivery." I won't say how many petitions were
sent in by citizens all over the United States asking for this appropria-
tion, for I have forgotten the number. They said: "Mr. Hanna, the
State' of Ohio stands back of us and asks you to give us that appropria-
tion." Mr. Hanna said: "Gentlemen, I will do anything I can to help
you." Well, he got that bill back into the hands of the committee and
when it came back to Congress it reported in favor of the appropriation
for free mail delivery. This is the history of free mail delivery and since
that time it has been going on with wonderful results.
SESSION OF
9
Sheep Breeders' Association
WHY USE A PURE-BRED RAM?
By Prof. F. B. Mumford, Agricultural College, Columbia, Missouri.
The question that has been assigned to me for discussion is certainly
one that appeals to the average farmer. It is not necessary to talk to the
breeders of improved sheep on this question; it does not apply to them
at all, because they would not use any other kind of ram except a pure-
bred one; but the question as I interpret it is, why should a common
farmer use a pure-bred ram; the man who raises common sheep. I
should prefer to state the question a little differently and ask 'Why
not use a pure-bred ram ?" If we look for a moment at the history of the
development of sheep even in the past few years, w:e will see that some
remarkable changes have been brought about. In 1812 Col. Humph-
reys imported some sheep into this country from Spain that sheared three
or four pounds of wool per head. In a few years the improved flocks
bred in this country sheared from five to eight pounds per head and some
rams were produced in the course of fifteen years that sheared from fif-
teen to twenty pounds per head. Breeders have now brought these
sheep to such a state 06 perfection that there are records of single indi-
viduals of the Merino breed shearing as high as fifty pounds of wool per
head. These animals have been bred and developed in such a way that
they have been able to transmit this improvement to their offspring, and
if a man is interested in sheep from the standpoint of wool production,
it seems to me very foolish, if wool is his object, not to take advantage
of the wool producing quality that is possessed by wool sheep.
But there has been no greater improvement in the wool-bearing of
sheep, than in the mutton qualities. We have today almost perfect mut-
ton types of sheep and these sheep are able, when bred to our common
stock, to transmit the mutton quality to their offspring. I had occasion
yesterday to talk on some breeding questions, and these questions apply
very properly to the subject under discussion today. But in this connec-
tion I wish to pri?scnt to you this fact. A great many farmers who have
common flocks of sheep say, it will do very well for a man who owns
304 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
well bred flocks to pay good prices for well bred rams, but a common
farmer with common stoc!k cannot afford it, that it is a money-losing
proposition to buy pure-bred registered rams at a good price to breed to
common stock. I wish to call your attention to the fact that there is far
more improvement in breeding common ewes to pure-bred males than
in breeding them on the better bred animals. To illustrate what I mean :
suppose a man buys -a flock of Western ewes at*from $2 to $2.50 per
head, as one can frequently do; -these ewes bred to a pure-bred ram ol
any of the improved breeds will produce a lot of lambs that will be
worth a third more, or perhaps a half more than the original ewes from
which they were produced; whereas a man who has a fairly tvell bred
flock to start with, in using a ram of the same grade and at the same
price, cannot hope to secure so great an improvement. Unquestionably
from the standpoint of the amount of money invested, if a man buys a
flock of ewes for $2.50 or $3 per head and uses a good ram — and I mean
by that a well bred registered ram — he might expect more improvement
than the man who has a purer bred flock of sheep to start on. There are
men not capable of breeding pure-bred registered sheep. There has been
a great deal of money lost in this way. I do not attempt to discuss the
reasons why that is true. You know it is true and there is some risk at-
tending starting into the business of breeding pure-bred stock. But from
long observation and experience, I am satisfied that the process that we
call grading is a sure business in the hands of any man, even the most
inexperienced, and grading is always attended with success. By^ grading
I mean the use of well bred rams upon common ewes and saving the best
female progeny for the establishing of future flocks and breeding these
to a ram of the same breed and thus continue building up a flock that for
many purposes is as good as a pure-bred flock. A man with a flock of
native ewes who wishes to produce mutton, can select a good ram of any
of the mutton breeds, Shropshires, Southdowns, Hampshires or Ox-
fords and by using pure-bred males for four or five generations and
saving the best female progeny, can build up a flock that for mutton pi!r-
poses is as good as the pure-bred animals and will make just as good
mutton.
I am discussing this question from the standpoint of a common
farmer and not from the standpoint of a pure-bred live stock breeder.
We do not breed registered live stock and use them for mutton and beef.
All our animals used for mutton are grade animals and I am talking of the
production of mutton for the markets, and I speak advisedly when I say
four or five generations, for I have had some experience in this particu-
lar line of breeding myself, and I am satisfied from experience and ob-
servations that I have made on this subject that a man may expect by
SHEEP breeders' ASSOCIATION. 305
using common grade ewes (the kind we get from Western ranges) and
breeding them to a registered ram of any of the mutton breeds, he can
produce a flock possessing most of the desirable qualities of the pure
breeds.
I saw at the Live Stock Exposition at Chicago this year a very in-
teresting exhibit from the Wisconsin Experiment Station. In one pen*
were three Montana ewes, scrubbier than anything I have seen in Mis-
souri this year, small size, bare legs and bellies, poor wool, very coarse
and harsh ; I doubt if they would shear more than three or four pounds ;
and in the pen next to these ewes were grade Shropshires that had been
produced by breeding these same ewes to a pure-bred Shropshire ram,
and these grades so produced, when fattened and fed, were as fine mut-
ton sheep as T saw in the Exposition ; they even competed with the pure-
bred sheep in the mutton classes. That shows what can be done in one
generation only.
Now there is no reason why a man should not use a pure-bred ram.
A man must use one if he expects these results that I have been talking
about. The greatest mistake one ever makes in breeding any class of
live stock, is to use a male of mixed or cross breeding, no matter how
good an individual he may be. The best quality an animal can possess
is prepotency, the ability to fix his characteristics upon his offspring. No
matter what good qualities he may possess, if he has not the power to
transmit these good qualities to his oflfspring, he is of no value as a breed-
ing animal, and we have learned by experience to look for this prepotency
in pure-bred registered animals. By a long series of breeding and se-
lection there has become fixed in these pure-bred animals the ability to
transmit the desirable qualities that we want in domestic animals, and if
we want these desirable qualities, we must look first to the ability of the
animal to transmit these qualities to his offspring, and you need never
look for this ability in an animal of mixed breed, because experience shows
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred that such animals have no prepo-
tency; they are likely to produce animals inferior to the common ewes
you would use in these cases and are also likely to breed back to some
former unimproved type. There is a very strong reason, then, for using
a pure-bred ram in these cases and for using no other kind.
Now, as I have said before, there is no risk to run in grading ani-
mals. A man starting with an inferior herd or flock of females may de-
velop and build up the herd or flock, may grade them in any direction
which he chooses. If he is desirous of a flock of the wool type, he can se-
lect rams of the wool type, or of the mutton and wool type, 30-eaUed. If
306 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
he is desirous of producing mutton he can grade up his flock ih the direc-
tion of the mutton type, without risk, because every time he uses a pure-
bred ram he is absolutely certain to make an improvement.
Compare this with what happens when a man goes into the pure-
bred live stock business. He goes to the Chicago show and sees there
animals that sell for a thousand dollars and take all the prizes, and he
says "that is a pretty good business, I would like to produce a few of
these myself. I believe I will go into the pure-bred live stock business.'*
He starts out by selecting that kind of animals for his breeding stock.
What has he done? He has selected the rare exceptions, the best indi-
viduals of the particular type that he has chosen, that can be produced
by the most experienced breeders of the country and he wishes to pro-
duce from these animals some more like them. Can he do that, in. many
cases? No. In the first place he is inexperienced. In the next place, the
chances are that when one selects the very best animals for breeding pur-
poses, these exceptional animals are not likely to reproduce themselves in a
great number of cases. They are more apt to produce prize winners
than cheaper animals are, but it is not a safe proposition that they will
produce their equals, and there is a great deal of risk in it, as many men
have found out. But when a man of little experience begins with
cheaper animals and breeds up his animals, he is certain to produce from
the start better animals than he started with, animals worth more money.
It is a safe business proposition. It is bound to be so ; when one uses
a pure-bred ram of the kind selected for his purpose ; for such a ram is
sure to transmit his characteristics to his offspring. If. he does not, it is
not properly called grading, but more resembles crossing and the result
of using an animal that is not more prepotent than the females in the
flock is sure to perpetuate the inferior qualities of the unimproved fe-
males.
As to what breed or kind of pure-bred ram to use, that is a question
upon which breeders disagree. There is money to be made in various
ways of handling sheep. One sure way and quick way to get money out
of sheep, in my opinion, is to select common ewes, ranch-bred or
native ewes that can be picked up, and breed them to a good mutton ram,
and the lambs that are thereby produced, if well fed and placed upon the
market from ii to 15 months old, can be made to weigh eighty or ninety
pounds and will then sell at the best prices, if properly fattened. This is
being done in many localities and it is a profitable line of work.
Unless you select the best rams and ewes, you are not building up
your flock. For the average farmer who wants to build up his flock, it
is possible that it is fully as profitable to use the mutton-wool type of
SHEEP breeders' ASSOCIATION. 307
Merino, the National Delaine or some similar type. Save the best ewe
lambs and gradually build up a flock, but it must always* be remembered
that there is no better or quicker way to do this than to use pure-bred
rams.
PROFITS ON SHEEP AS COMPARED WITH OTHER STOCK.
By John Morris, Chillicothe, Mo.
Gentlemen. — I have not prepared any paper on this subject and am a
very poor talker, but I can say a few words in favor of sheep. I prefer
the Cotswolds myself as the most profitable combined wool and mutton
sheep for the small or moderate farmer; but for large flocks, probably
some other breed would be preferable. The Cotswold is a good wool-
producing sheep and generally their wool commands the best prices. They
have a combing wool. If I were raising a mutton sheep, I would prefer
the Downs and am partial to the Shropshire, they put on flesh faster and
make good meat.
As Prof. Mumford said, there are few men who understand the
sheep business, only about one farmer in twenty. The sheep of a sloven-
ly farmer are worse neglected than any other stock he handles. Sheep
need care and attention and the one who raises them needs common
horse sense. A man must understand his business to some extent and
watch the progress of his flock. The Bothwells have made a great deal
of money by giving their whole attention to sheep raising; they under-
stand their business to perfection. Other men who have handled the
same class of sheep have virtually failed, some have even lost their farms
buying high-priced sheep, and not taking care of them. I am partial to
the Shropshires and Cotswolds, they are the money makers. I think
with care they will make as much money as any class of stock.
But I am really partial to cattle. Cattle, hogs and sheep make a
good combination.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Maitland. — How about the profits on sheep as compared with
other stock?
Mr. Morris. — There is less investment in sheep. You can buy a
flock of sheep for a little money, and you can buy a thoroughbred male
to use on them for from $25 to $100. Very few farmers need a ram cost-
ing over $50. There is not a great deal invested, and they pay accord-
ing to the investment about as well as any other stock.
308 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Mr. Maitland. — How would you compare the profits on sheep with
that on hogs ?
Mr. Morris. — ^There is this drawback in regard to raising hogs, a
man can make money on hogs unless disease gets among them and then
he loses them faster than sheep and he has more money at stake. I have
made money on hogs, but I think a great deal depends on the class of
hogs you are feeding and the faithfulness and care you give them. The
hog farmer needs more corn. The sheep farmer uses grass and cheaper
feed. Feeding sheep does not require as large an outlay on the feed as
feeding hogs. All kinds of stock require good care and with slovenly
handling the sheep pays the least. It depends upon the investment, the
location and production of the farm. If he has a farm well adapted tr»
raising small grain and is what you call a plain farmer, if he is a sheep
man and capable of taking care of them, he can make more money on
sheep. But if he has a grain farm, hogs go into market quicker.
I can tell you of one thing I had to learn by experience and my son
called my attention to it. The Cotswold sheep do not command as high
prices as the Downs. The Down is a good mutton sheep. The Cotswold
is a better general purpose sheep. You can get more wool from the Cots-
wold, but the Downs have better meat.
I compare different breeds of sheep with different breeds of hogs.
I have a very particular friend who breeds Poland China hogs, for in-
stance. He raises pure-bred Poland Chinas and keeps them for sale,
but he comes to my house and buys Berkshire shoats. I asked him why
he did this, and he said he ate the Berkshires and sold the Poland Chinas.
It is the same with sheep, the Down has a better mutton flavor but tht
Cotswold is a better general purpose sheep. If I had to confine myself
to one breed or the other, I would prefer the Cotswolds, they are larger
sheep and better shearers and their wool commands better prices. But
either one is a good mutton sheep. I have tried the Merinos, but they
are not a good mutton sheep. Still, you can take a nice, smooth, fat
one and it will sell for several cents more per pound than an inferior an-
imal. But fashions change in wool as in cattle, some classes of wool sell
better for a few seasons than other classes. I have raised at one time
Merinos partially for the wool, but I found that the wool decreased in
value, and it took a great many more pounds to bring in the same amount
of money for the fleece. For instance, if you get fifteen cents' per pound
for one kind of wool and twenty-five cents a pound for another class,
you need a good many pounds of the former to make the same amount of
money.
Mr. Maitland.— Will not the Merinos stand bunching together in
larger numbers ?
SHEEP breeders' ASSOCIATION. 309
Mr. Morris. — Yes, providing you raise them at the proper time. If
exposed to hardships in their infancy, the young die quicker than in
other classes of sheep. If a Cotswold lamb once gets up and nurses it
will live. It will survive after freezing its tail, its feet or its ears, when
such a hardship would kill the Merino lamb. The Merinos 'have a little
more grease and not enough wool and they die quicker. That has been
my experience and I have handled sheep ever since I was a boy.
Mr. Mumford. — How do you feed your weathers all winter?
Mr. Morris. — Grain, oats, bran, hay and corn fodder. Sheep need
a variety of feed more than any other stock.
Prof. Mumford. — How much do they weigh?
Mr. Morris. — From a hundred pounds up to one hundred and twen-
ty-five pounds. I keep the aged ones and sell the younger ones. With
sheep as with beef cattle, the younger class are the highest priced for
mutton.
Prof. Mumford. — Do you feed them heavily all winter?
Mr. Morris. — Depends upon the purpose for which I want them.
If I have aged ewes or weathers I feed them for two or three months.
Prof. Mumford. — Does the market command a good deal lighter
sheep ? Does the lighter lamb command a higher price ?
Mr. Morris. — Yes, baby mutton. I would prefer to get two crops
of wool. It is not everybody that can put in their lambs and feed them
right. Sheep need housing. In a storm the wool gets full of snow and
the sheep become chilled through, while it would run off from the hair
of a hog or cow.
Mr. King. — I was interested in what Prof. Mumford said about
starting in the business with cheap shfeep. Suppose a man would buy a
few cheap ewes, say Western sheep, how many crops of lambs would it
pay him to raise, or would it be wise for him to get rid of these ewes the
next spring?
Mr. Morris. — I would answer your question in this way: for in-
stance, if I had a farm and wanted to stock it apd had not the means to
buy thoroughbred sheep, I would buy a bunch of grades, or a little more
money will buy half-bloods. I would start that way with a thorough-
bred male, because he is half of the flock in production. Then I might
try these ewes a couple of years, and as soon as I had sufficient ewes
for the farm I would dispose of the poorer ones. Even among thorough-
bred sheep some of the flock are more profitable, hardier and better
shearers than others.
Mr. . — What is the difference in the price of Cotswold and
Shropshire wool?
310 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Mr. Morris. — I have sold the Cotswold wool for several cents per
pound more. At the present time a mixture of wool is the salable wool.
I keep about five hundred to a thousand sheep on my farm, generally.
I take a few of the choice of my thoroughbred Cotswold ewes and I use
thoroughbred Cotswold males, but I cross my plainer Cotswolds with
Shropshires. For instance, if I have a good Shropshire ram and a few
Cotswold ewes that are not good shearers, I breed these ewes to the
Shropshire ram and get a better class of wool. The Shropshire is not a
good combing wool and the combing wool is the highest priced. I sent
my son to the Chicago market with a car-load of mixed Cotswolds and
Shropshires and grade Merinos, they were fat and nice. There was a
gentleman there from way up in Iowa with whom I had some acquaint-
ance who had Shropshires and other sheep with black faces and black
feet and his sheep sold for a quarter or half a cent a pound more than
mine. They were a more even lot and sold better.
I know of a hotel in Cincinnati where they made a contract with
a butcher for Down mutton and preferred to have the head and feet left,
on the carcass. Their object was to be sure that the sheep were Downs,
because it is considered the best mutton sheep. This came to be known
to the butcher, who was rather a tricky man, and when he could not get
Down sheep enough to fill the contract, he would occasionally sell them
Cotswolds or Merinos and paint their faces and feet black, until the hotel
found it out and broke the contract. There are tricks in all trades, except
mine.
Prof. Mumford. — I have had some experience in picking out sheep
in one locality in Missouri and I would rather have the range ewes that
can be bought much cheaper than the poor mixed ewes that I was able
to buy. It is different in different localities, and in North Missouri
there are a good many good grades, half-blood Shropshires, for example ;
if you can buy them at a reasonable price, you have lost a year's experi-
ence and paid more for them than for the grade ewes. These Western
ewes do not shear scarcely anything, you need not expect anything from
them. When fed and pastured properly, with a good flock of ewes prop-
erly selected as to their wool producing qualities, the wool will almost
pay for the keeping of the flock of ewes, and the lambs, moreover, are
almost clear gain ; and I do not know of any business proposition that is
a more sure one to pay out any quicker.
There is one question that came up that is of great interest in this
connection, the profits coming from different classes of animals. I at
one time conducted some experiments in feeding five hundred lambs
several different rations. One ration fed for four or five years was
SHEEP breeders' ASSOCIATION, 311
screened or shredded corn and clover hay. This was fed to lambs that
at the beginning of the experiment weighed from 55 to 65 pounds. It
required five pounds of com to produce a pound of gain. That was the
average. That average could be relied upon every year, in conjunction
with clover hay. It requires about five pounds of corn to produce one
pound of gain. The experiments that have been conducted at Columbia
and throughout the United States indicate that it requires on an average
ten pounds of corn to produce one pound of gain in cattle, to say nothing
about the fodder. In other words, two pounds of mutton can be pro-
duced by the same com that it requires to produce one pound of beef.
I am speaking of lambs as compared with two-year-old steers. Com-
paring baby beef with weathers, the difference is not so great, because
the younger the animal, the less feed is required to produce a pound of
gain. But feeding sheep, it seems to me cannot fail to be more profita-
ble, with the markets as they have been in the last few years, neverthe-
less there is money in cattle. You can buy sheep any time for a cent a
pound less than you can sell them for when they are finished and when
you have clover hay, alfalfa or even cow-pea hay to feed the sheep, in
my opinion, there is more profit to be made in feeding sheep than cattle.
Now with timothy hay these results do not follow at all. My experience
is the best thing not to feed sheep is timothy hay. Cattle will eat more
coarse fodder than sheep and sheep will eat more of it than hogs. In
the case of hogs, it requires less corn to produce a pound of gain than
sheep. Four and one-half pounds of corn will produce a pound of gain
with hogs. Hogs are the most economical animals on the farm.
Mr. Maitland. — Is that an average gain for hogs weighing from
one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five pounds ?
Prof. Mumford.r— The figures, as I remember them are for hogs
weighing from 50 to 100 pounds it requires about 4j4 pounds of corn to
produce a pound of gain, as the hog gets heavier it requires more corn
and when a hog weighs from 250 to 300 pounds it requires about 5
pounds of com to produce a pound of gain.
Mr. . — What do you consider the best method of preparing
sheep for the show ring ?
Mr. Mumford. — That is a pretty hard proposition. Give them good
care. The man must study his sheep day and night and if he sees a
shower coming up, chase them into the barn and feed them anything
they will eat.
I would not compel the sheep to get their feed in the pasture. A
little exercise is good for them, but not too much. Do not expose them
to the rains, bleaching the wool is a disadvantage; If you are talking of
312 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
fitting pure-bred sheep, the bleaching of the wool is an objection iJiid
you cannot turn them into the sun and compete with other men who keep
their sheep blanketed and in the dark. Exercise them at night, however.
It is a pretty hard matter to give definite instructions, as any man knows
who has had experience in fitting sheep for the show ring. I h^ve had
some experience myself. I did not stop with anything. If they wanted
cabbages or sugar beets or oil meal or com meal or oats they got it and
it was not a question of what was profitable in such a case, so far as the
end was concerned, it was a question of what would produce results,
and I have noticed what will produce results with young sheep will not
produce results with old ones. When you feed sheep high up to the limit
they get very fastidious and want the feed better prepared.
THE MOST ECONOMICAL WAY OF HANDLING SHEEP.
By G. B. Bothwell, Breckenridge, Mo.
Ladies and Gentlemen — I have always studied economy in feed-
ing sheep. It is not economy to have them short of feed at any time,
especially in the fall. They must enter winter in fair flesh, but care
must be taken not to let them waste feed. It is hard to handle sheep
properly without plenty of grass for nine months of the year ; a little
corn, say a half an ear per head, through most of November and by
December ist a light feed of shock corn once a day and as the cold
increases add to the amount of feed.
We find no cheaper or better feed for sheep than shock corn once
each day, and add such hay as can be had, timothy, clover and millet
to fill out what feed there is lacking of the fodder. Feed even, never
gorge and never let them get really hungry. Habitual light feeding
makes a light clip of wool and weak lambs, there is no economy in that.
We keep our sheep on blue grass pasture twelve months in the
year. We scatter shock corn on this sod. They eat the fodder and
corn clean. It is better that way than to feed in small lots. They
get some grass every month in the year, which they should have.
Sheep need grain and hay only from the middle of November to the
fore part of April.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Morris. — Mr. Bothwell's paper bears me out in my ideas of
the care of sheep. He says "never gorge them or let them go hungry.''
SHEEr DREfit)ERS* ASSOCIATION. 313
As I said before, it requires a man adapted to the business to
make money. He can make more money on sheep than he can on
cattle or hogs. Some men are adapted for one business and some for
another. I have two single boys at my home. One would starve
to death handling sheep, he does not like to feed them and does not
care for the meat. He takes to cattle. But my other son is partial
to sheep and likes to handle them.
. Prof. Mumford spoke of the comparative profits in raising hogs,
cattle and sheep. The droppings of cattle in their feeding will off-
set to some extent the gain of the sheep. There are no other stock
to follow sheep, they require just what they want to eat. You can
feed more roughness to cattle, and sheep require more care and atten-
tion than any other class of stock.
Mr. Do you think it a good idea to keep hay before sheep
all of the time ?
Mr. Morris. — In the winter, yes. I always aim to keep hay or
fodder befote them. If I have the fodder, I do not feed much hay.
Mr. Maitland. — Speaking of cattle feeding — When feeding what
we call a full feed of corn, what proportion do you charge to the
hog?
Mr. Morris. — I have never figured it accurately, but two hogs will
live upon the droppings of one steer.
Mr. Maitland. — Is 33 J^ per cent too much?
Mr. Morris. — Probably it is. It is not a great deal. Prof. Mum-
ford can probably answer that question better than I can. I have
not kept a book account. I have just used my own judgment, and
never kept an accurate account. I have made good money on cattle
as well as sheep. I prefer to use the thoroughbreds all the time,
and when you have a thoroughbred that is not a profitable one, put
him in the feed lot, either sheep, hogs or cattle. That has been my ex-
perience. I have followed this rule all my life and use that plan to
dispose of poor individuals. I keep the most profitable of all classes
of stock. I believe in using pure bred sheep as well as cattie, hogs or any
other class of stock. I believe it is better to use thoroughbred sheep, they
pay better in the end. If a man cannot stock his farm with pure bred sheep,
he can buy a pure bred ram and bring up his herd in that way. I
have sold a great many rams to bring up herds. I think that a farmer
had better commence with a few head of good stock than to over-
stock his farm with common stock. I think a man on a farm, if he
has only forty acres, if he will commence right and use good stock, he
will come out all right and make a success of the business.
314 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The following officers were elected for the ensuing year :
President, Mr. M. F. Forbis, Chillicothe.
Secretary, L. E. Shattuck, Stanberry.
Vice-President, Prof. F. B. Miimford, Columbia.
Mr. L. E. Shattuck, Jr., was elected the representative of the
Sheep Breeders' Association on the Executive Committee of the In-
dustrial Association.
SESSION OF
State Poultry Association.
THE SCIENCE OF INCUBATION AND FERTILIZATION.
By Dr. Casey, Kansas City, Mo.
Ladies and Gentlemen — I am but a novic^ in the poultry business
and cannot even be styled an amateur breeder, but almost daily in-
tercourse with those engaged in raising poultry, has convinced me
that by reason of the neglect of many of nature's valuable laws, suc-
cess has not always crowned the efforts of the poultry fraternity. In
dealing with the many different problems which confront the poultry
breeders of our land, natural or physiological laws are either lost sight
of, or so carelessly investigated that their workings are not under-
stood or their actual bearings fully estimated.
In the past the haphazard methods were principally in vogue,
and as a rule, success was rather the exception. Poultry raising from
a commercial standpoint was almost unknown, and the fact that it
was or could be a science was productive of sneers and ridicule. But
the literature of the present certainly shows that the subject is much
better understood than it was a decade ago. It has been made an ob-
ject of scientific research and study by competent persons, with the
aim of not only bringing it to perfection, but of so simplifying itj that
it may be made of practical benefit to this, one of the great in-
dustries. And now, we can point with pride and honor to the result
as shown by the United States Government's Statistical Reports of
the enormous financial income from the poultry of our land. This
gradual, but sure evolution of poultry from almost oblivion to the
crowded show room, from the barnyard to the costly poultry build-
ings, from the hen incubating her eggs in the old manger and trailing
her dew-bedraggled broods over the fields, to the well-built incubator
and the scientific, expensively-heated brooding houses, marks an
epoch, both interesting and commendable.
316 MISSOURI AGRICULTUI^AL REPORT.
To make the poultry business a financial success is the aim of all
poultry breeders, and to get all from poultry that they are capable of,
should be our ambition. It is said with truth, that he who makes two
blades of grass grow where but one did before, is a public benefactor.
What title of honor should then be bestowed on the poultry fraten-
nity, who, by study and unremitting labor have increased the produc-
tive qualities of hens to two hundred eggs per year, and by the im-
proved methods of incubation, have added thousands of chickens to
the food supply of the world. I assure you, my friends, this is truly
an age of progress, and in no branch of trade or science does this
progress show itself to better advantage than in the once ignored, neg-
lected chicken business.
Incubation as conducted today (while it is the same process as
of yore in ancient Egypt) has revolutionized the poultry business.
Our hillsides are dotted with thousands of the feathered tribes, where
but a short time since, the existence of poultry was only known by a
visit to some farmyard. Visit any of our large packing houses
and see the car loads of poultry being shipped to all parts of the world
and you can then realize the enormous growth of the poultry busi-
ness as a result of the improved methods of incubation. As poultry
breeders, you all understand that incubation is the process of the pro-
duction of a live object from an egg. It is purely a well-known physi-
ological process, depending on certain conditions, and one which na-
ture has ordained for the propagation and continued existence of the
feathered tribes of the land.
(I will not include in this, well-known and despised reptiles, who
are also styled oviparious). In considering this phenomena from a
scientific basis, we accept the' dictum of modern science which ignores
the ancient theory of spontaneous generation and proclaims that every-
thing takes its origin from a germ, an object, which, under certain
natural laws and conditions develops and becomes an animate being.
The germ requires special elements in which to develop, and
certain substances from which are to be formed the different parts of
the future being ,which in this special case, we style as the chicken-
Nature ordains the substance called the egg as the receptacle for the
germ for birds and fowls of every species. It is composed of such
substances which are appropriated by the germ, necessary for its de-
velopment. How this is done is not the province of this paper to ex-
plain, but rather to state and accept the facts as they exist. We now
have a germ, a receptacle for it and some of the material required for
its future development. This material is added to by natural laws
within the body of the parent bird until there is enough of nutritious
POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 317
substance to meet the demands of nature, when after being invested
with its calcareous covering, the egg is extruded, and becomes with
the germ enclosed, an object for incubation, commonly called "hatch-
ing.
In following the process from this step we will not enter into all
the anatomical details of it, but briefly touch upon some of the changes
which take place from day to day, both in the natural and artificial
methods. On the second day the germ begins to increase in size and
changes its shape. If it is now examined with a powerful glass,
the first traces of the future bird mav be detected in the forma-
tion of the spinal cord and small off-shoots from it. By the third and
fourth days, the head begins to show a^ an enlarged projection ; the
spinal cord bends, somewhat on itself and the network of blood
vessels, which will carry on an important part of the development,
become numerous and enlarged. On the fifth day may be seen the
beginning of the liver and other vital organs. From this time on, the
embryo chick rapidly develops and the different parts assume their
future forms. The head grows (or rather seems to) faster than the
other parts of the bird, and by the seventh or eighth day, presents a
normal appearance. By the tenth day the rudiments of the feathers
can be distinctly seen. The blood vessels appear well distributed
within the shell and their mission of carrying off carbonic acid gas
and absorbing oxygen for vitalizing the growing bird, is performed
in the most perfect manner. From this time, the changes or growth
are very marked, and by the 20th or 21st day the now fully-formed
chick begins its efforts for an exit from its calcareous prison and soon
emerges as a fully-formed, new being.
What are the conditions and forces concerned in this wonder-
ful, but natural process? The answer to this, concerns the breeder
and poultry farmer and should be fully investigated and understood
if he would be successful in the artificial methods now in vogue.
There are certain things always necessary to the formation or main-
tenance of animal Hfe, viz., oxygen; a proper temperature of the
surrounding air ; an absence of an excess of carbonic acid gas ; and a
supply of material which enters into the formation of blood, bone
and flesh. These are nature's laws, and he who would use artificial
means for incubation, must never ignore these facts. Theories may
be interesting to contemplate, but facts must be acknowledged as the
basis of success.
From whence is the oxygen derived ? The answer is simple : From
the surrounding air. You are all well aware that nature provides a res-
ervoir in the egg with a supply of air for the sustenance of the growing
318 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
chick, which is called the "air cell." She does not stop with this limited
supply, but by the process called endosmosis, the oxygen of the air is
constantly passing into the egg to replenish said supply. Without this,
all efforts at incubation would fail. Oxygen is the chief support of
life, and nothing can *exist without it in sufficient quantity. I lay great
stress on this, as it is generally under-estimated or ignored and few ap-
preciate its importance.
The next requisite is a proper degree of heat in the surrounding air.
Different forms of animal life thrive under varied degrees of heat, but
by careful observation, it has been found that birds and fowls have a
rapid circulation of the blood, and as a consequence, an increased tem-
perature of that fluid which imparts its heat to the incubating germ.
Authorities differ as to the exact degree of heat necessary for incubation.
But if the temperature of the natural mother is ascertained and the arti-
ficial heat maintained at the same degree the result will prove its effec-
tiveness.
The Presence of Carbonic Acid Gas, — ^The natural question is asked
What is the cause of this? There is a natural law, that in the combus-
tion or destruction of anything, one element always present is thrown
off. In the growth of the embryo chick there is always a destructive
action as well as a development. Elements which have fulfilled their
mission by their union with the oxygen received, are converted into car-
bonic acid gas. If said gas accumulates and is not carried off, it be-
comes in excess and is then incompatible with life. Ventilation is the
remedy par excellence for its removal — a supply of material which
enters into the formation of blood, bone and flesh.
Fortunately for man, this is not left for us to provide, but in the
formation of the egg, nature has supplied the necessary ingredients in
such proportions and conditions that they can be readily taken up and
appropriated by the growing chick. How this is done, does not con-
cern us at present. That it is done, an examination of the egg shell
after the exit of the chick abudantly proves. The working of nature's
laws, although interesting to the searcher after knowledge, is prone
to be disappointing, as it is truly said, "The ways of God are past
finding out." Man, with all his arrogance and knowledge, must ac-
cept facts even though he does not understand them.
Artificial incubation is then, the effort to carry out properly the
laws of nature in bringing chickens to life, and the nearer we conform
to these laws, the more surely can we expect success. To this end
man has devised the machine, called the incubator, and has studied
and endeavored by its construction to copy the natural method of
hatching, so perfectly that thousands of birds can be brought to life,
POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 319
the ever increasing demand for poultry for food and eggs can be sup-
plied, and success in poultry culture be achieved.
My friends, in bringing these few facts to your notice, it is done
w^ith the hope that they may stimulate you to greater efforts to
make this science a success, which I think can be done if greater
attention is paid to the second subject of this paper, the fertilization of
eggs. This, I feel, if properly understood, is the key-note of success.
We mean by this, the act or process of making eggs fertile or re-
productive. Too much attention is paid to raising stock for show,
regardless of their utility. To my mind, there is no subject connected
with the poultry business of more practical importance or productive
of greater satisfaction than an accurate and positive knowledge of this
science. And, although of such vital importance, it is perhaps less
understood scientifically, and the required attention to i-t more neg-
lected than any other. The lack of proper* knowledge concerning it
causes more failures, more discouragements, and more animosity than
can be imagined. The breeder who sells eggs for hatching comes
in for his roastings from the buyer, and often his reputation and
veracity as a breeder are injured thereby. The amateur poultry-for-
market man becomes discouraged* by his many failures in hatching
and raising chicks, attributing these failures to ill-luck, rather than
tc his ignorance of nature's laws, and the strictly poultry farmer is
handicapped by his many IcJsses and abandons the business as a fraud
and delusion. To every cause but the right one is attributed the
failure, and thus, too often the poultry business as a profitable one,
is held up to the public as a myth and classed by it as a confidence
game.
To illustrate — an enthusiastic poultry man with rose-colored views
of the future, fills an incubator with its quota of 200 eggs, recently
purchased from a reputable breeder, who has proclaimed to the world
the many prizes his birds have captured at the famous shows. He
carries out faithfully the directions about the proper management of
the incubator, he makes his estimates of the number of chickens he
should hatch and raise. Mentally, he sees his efforts crowned with
success and his flock increased rapidly by the newly acquire^d method
of hatching. On the loth day he carefully tests the eggs and finds
30 per cent or 40 per cent of them free from germs. On the 14th day
he examines the remainder and throws out 20 per cent more, which
have shown but little advance in the embryonic formation. At the end
of the 2ist day he opfens the door of the machine and takes therefrom
perhaps 50 small, weak and deformed chicks, which he removes to a
brooder. Here they struggle along for a few w^^ks and finally sue-
320 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
cumb from some unknown cause. He writes failure; condemns the
incubator; anathematizes the party who sold him the eggs, and styles
the poultry business a fraud.
Now, to what is all this due? There is no effect without its
cause, and to seek and remedy this, should be the aim of poultry
breeders and those interested in raising the standard of poultry cul-
ture to something higher than luck or haphazard work. That its
cause is not found, is because it is not sought for. The analogy be-
tween man and fowls is not so far at varia'nce that the knowledge of
the one is not to be applied to the other.
First' of all, let us look into the matter of breeding. Study heredity
carefully, and here we shall meet with much that points to the cause
of the failures, or I might say, the diagnosis of the case. Any one
who is a student of nature can see the effects of hereditary disease in
man, and while looking about, notice the subjects of the following
diseases and conditions: Scrofula, syphilis, consumption, inter-mar-
riage, cancer, and other constitutional diseases. Notice the puny,
weak, sickly, deformed (mentally and physically) children. Can a
good result be expected from the above conditions and diseases? As
well expect strong, healthy germs and chicks from roupy, consump-
tive, poorly-fed, lousy fowls, and yet these conditions are often ig-
nored. Look at the effect of inter-marriage in the human family, and
then apply its action (inbreeding) to our poultry. It will surely be
productive of degeneration. Is it any wonder that we fail to get
strong, healthy germs in the eggs, or strong chickens from such poul-
try? How much this fact is entirely lost sight of.
Again, take feeding and compare the analogy between man and
fowls. See if the poorly nourished man or woman is capable of doing
as much work as those who are better fed, and who thereby are more
ablebodied. Note the mental and physical strength of well-fed human
beings. Note their procreative and reproductive powers. Notice
their progeny, and see how they partake of the strong, healthy char-
acteristics of their parents. When I say well-fed, I do not mean over-
fed or stimulated, for the glutton and bon vivant is not, as a rule,
physically strong, but fed with the proper food, both in quantity and
quality. This holds good equally as well in fowls. The under or
over-fed fowl is incapacitated for physical and productive work,
and its reproductive organs are affected to a great degree by feed-
ing. The power of reproduction is lessened by fat (as fat is a
tissue of weakness), and deprived of strength by lack of proper
feeding, both in quantity and quality. Nutrition is injured, proper
assimilation is arrested, and the organs concerned in reproduction
Winter Meeting. 321
I will say right here that the man that raises plums don't want to
plant too many of them. You can't handle a large orchard of plums
like a large orchard of apples.
Mr. Robnett: My trees are so. thick I can't climb up in them. Do
you ever prune your Damsons^
Mr. Karnes: No, sir; not much. It does not do well to prune
them. I never tried pruning them much. The Wild Goose is a tree
that I prune for the first four or five years by cutting it back. Unless
you do, your limbs get so long and the foliage so heavy that they will
break off, and I practice cutting back, and get better fruit. I practice
the same thing on peach trees.
A Question: When do you do that?
Generally in the spring; February or March or April — any time
along there before they bloom.
Now the package I market in. The only package that I market
in, and the best I have found, is the common berry crate. I can get
not quite two crates out of a bushel of plums. They run about fifteen
crates to eight bushels.
I have raised Japanese plums that 12 is as many as you could get
in a box. I have not used anything but twenty-four quart crates, and
they carry better and sell better. For the local trade I use nothing
but the eight-pound grape baskets.
Time is getting short and I am going to pass on and notice a fev/
of the Japanese plums. I have tried Willard, Wickson, Red June, Bur-
bank and Abundance. The Willard, Wickson and Red June went dur-
ing the winter of 1898, and I never tried to replace them. They were
all winter killed. Abundance I have tried for 12 years, and have never
succeeded in getting anything like a satisfactory crop until last year.
A mild winter and the remarkably dry summer, seemed to be the kind
of weather that suits them and they did remarkably well. Many of the
perfect specimens were two inches in diameter. Burbank the same
way ; but I would not advise anybody to raise Japanese plums, in order
to get any money out of them. If you get any specimens they are re-
markably fine, and they are pleasing to the eye, but they are not prof-
itable to raise in this country. Most of th«:m are early bearers, and
they are very tender and they rot ver;r easily.
Mr. Augustine : Is that your experience outside of that hard, se-
vere winter?
Mr. Karnes: Yes, sir.
Mr. Augustine : In. the same latitude still further north, where
H-21
322 State Horticultural Society.
I live, we are growing the Red June, Abundance and Burbank with
wonderful success.
Mr. Karnes: As far as I know in this western country. Friend
Augustine, the Japanese plums are not a success, although there are
some still planting them.
Now, just a short talk on European varieties. They are like the
Japanese, too much subject to rot. We have one plum in this coun-
try that has given a few crops of remarkably fine plums. They are
of good quality and good sellers, and all right in every respect, if you
could ripen them, but they rot. If there is any way of spraying them
to prevent their rotting, or any way to prevent them rotting, they
are all right. I refer to the Lombard plum. *
There is another thing I can't see any difference in, in the fruit.
It is the Bradshaw and the Lombard, and also one labeled New
York State Prune by the nurseries. I can see no difference in them.
They may be the same thing. As far as the fruit is concerned, I
defy any expert to tell the difference.
A Queston: Have you had any experience with the German
Prune plum?
Mr. Karnes: It is not a success in this country. I have seen
some grown, but not very many.
This year there are three trees of Green Gage plums in this city,
and they had as fine a crop of plums as a man would care to look at.
They were large, and the trees were well filled, and of as fine quality
as a man could desire, but they are not a success here ordinarily.
It was a warm season, and we had dry weather. Californians want
dry weather during their fruit ripening season, and if we could have
California weather here we could raise California plums. I have
tried a number of the European varieties, but none of them have ever
succeeded.
Now, just a word or two about one or two other things. I have
a small plum orchard, a few hundred trees along the side of the
chicken range. I never spray plum trees for plum curculio, or for
any other purpose. Early in the spring I sow a little millet and a
little rye along through the plum trees, and let the chickens do the
scratching, and I have never been troubled with plum curculio.
Another thing, I think is the best scavenger we have, is the pig
during the fruiting season. There are always a few bruised plums,
and a few not fit to put in the basket for marketing, and a few pigs
that can be turned in and let run for an hour or two will pick up
everything in the way of a wasted plum in the orchard.
A Question: Do you ever cultivate a Damson plum orchard?
Winter Meeting, 323
V
Mr. Karnes: No; I fiever cultivate a Damson plum orchard.
Feed it as much wood ashes as you can and put it as close to the
chicken house as you can.
..,•.•■•• i
STRAWBERRY PLANTING— RAISING AND HANDLING THE
CROP.
(By F. H. Speakman, Neosho, Mo.)
The subject assigned to me by our secretary seems to cover about
the whole ground, and I realize that one to do justice to it, must, if
he meets the requirements along the lines of extensive production,
be a master of the situation from the selection of the ground and
its preparation to the placing of the product in the market. This
is a wide range, and I hesitate to undertake so complicated a task
and the remarks that will follow, will of necessity have more or less
of a local application being based upon my experience at Neosho.
In the outset, permit me to say, that of all horticultural work
the growing of the strawberry is my favorite. No doubt this par-
tiality is due to the degree of .perfection attained by this fruit in South-
west Missouri, which can truly be said to be the home of the straw-
berry, but I would not say the same for the peach. Of all produc-
tions of this region, and they are many and varied, none flourish
better, if so well, as the strawberry, and none yield a surer return for
labor rightly expended.
As our natural markets are the cities and towns north and north-
west of us, most of therii being too far away to reach safely by ex-
press, our efforts are directed to the production of sufficient quantities
of fruit to make daily car lot shipments, and of this degree of produc-
tion my paper will treat.
Of soils I prefer good timber upland, which has been cleared and
cultivated thoroughly one year. This is in a condition to supply all
the needs of the strawberry and contains sufficient humus to work
easily and resist drouth well. My next choice is naturally good old
land, which has produced a crop or two of stock peas. Neither of
these soils will be benefited by the application of any kind of fertilizer,
and I now avoid their use in every case.
Plow the ground early in the spring as thoroughly and deeply
as possible, following in the furrows with the subsoiler that will loosen
up the largest amount of clay or whatever happens to be present un-
derneath. Do not fear bad results from this treatment. Such will
never appear, I assure you.
324 State Horticultural Society.
Now, harrow enough to smooth the surface, but leave the ground
somewhat loose.
About March 20th it is generally safe to begin setting the plants,
and it is important in planting a large acreage that no time be lost.
Mark the ground out both ways, the wide way three feet ten inches
and the other three to three and one-half feet, according to varieties
to be set.
In planting, get, if possible, experienced help, and allow them to
use nothing but dibbles for the work. This tool should be about three
inches wide and eight inches long, and is the only suitable one for the
purpose.
Plants, of course, should be the best obtainable, and wili be surer
to grow and make a stand if they were dug in the winter. Plants
taken up after the first sharp freeze, which usually comes in Novem-
ber, carefully cleaned of all runners and leaves and closely root-
trimmed, then packed in shallow boxes, or kept in cool, moist cel-
lars until needed, are much better than those dug as wanted in the
spring. The greatest advantage these plants have is that they will
keep much later than it is practicable to use the spring dug ones. An-
other advantage of winter digging is the having of that much work
out of the way before the rush that is sure to come with the spring.
The planting operations being well under way the cultivators
should be started and kept following closely. If the land is not too
stumpy use a good two-horse cultivator that is provided with some
kind of a scratcher attachment to level the surface and kill weeds
that have been loosened by the narrow, deep running shovels, which
should for the most part be used in the cultivation of the strawberry.
Keep buds and blossoms picked off and cultivate thoroughly both
ways until runners come out freely ; then, instead of destroying these
runners until July, as recommended by some planters, train them
carefully along the rows as they will be needed and cultivate but one
way. Hoe when necessary, but do not attempt to do it after every
rain.
Much of the labor expended by the average strawberry raiser
in trying to cultivate and hoe his plants as often as it rains is worse
than lost.
As the season advances and runners come out freely, assist them,
if necessary, to fill in the spaces evenly, cultivating a little farther
from the center of the row each time, and carefully avoiding the
windrowing of the runners along the edges of the rows.
By the ist to the 15th of August the rows, if the weather ha% been
Winter Meeting. . 325
seasonable, and the proper treatment has been given will be 20 to 24
inches in width.
Now, instead of putting the rolling coulters on the cultivator and
treating your plants as you would an Osage hedge that was getting
too high, stop^the cultivator and watch conditions closely. Do not
concern yourself about the plants that form in the spaces. There is
something more important for you to do just now. This is the time
that the average grower makes a vital mistake. This is the time
that the writer in the early days of his strawberry experien-ce care-
fully cultivated between the rows and watched for every little weed
to appear, but failed to note that his plants were getting thicker
and thicker, now two inches, now an inch, now half an inch apart,
now two, no three plants in depth all over those rows. They were
beautiful to look upon, but, alas, yielded a very large crop of disap-
pointment only.
I was partly excusable for this mistake as in my search for in-
formation on the subject of strawberry growing I think all writings
consulted emphasized the importance of watching the weeds to de-
stroy them as they appeared.
Let me emphasize the necessity of watching the plants that they
do not pile up too high during the months of September and October.
My plan is to watch the plants closely, and as soon as I find a sufficient
number of them firmly rooted, go over the rows with light four or
five tined potato diggers, scratching across the rows and tearing out
all weak plants that are running in profusion in every direction. It
will be necessary to pull many of them off with the hand after draw-
ing them out into the spaces. Men, to do this, should have good
judgment, and to be valuable, must keep their minds on the work.
One thorough treatment may be enough, but if the weather is
very wet, two will be needed.
This brings us along to, say November ist. Now get the cul-
tivator again and destroy the plants between those rows, cutting
them down to the width we left them when cultivation ceased. Fin-
ish the treatment of the season by following with hoes carefully, re-
moving all mutilated plants and all of those innocent-looking weeds
which come up in the fall, grow all winter and blossom and produce
seed at the time the strawberry ripens its crop. Their name is legion,
and they sometimes do great injury if not removed.
Now you can leave the strawberry fields for a few months unless
you linger to put up the sheds that will be needed in the spring.
Mulching for best results should be done in the spring to avoid the
strong growth of wheat, cheat, etc., which invariably follows the ap-
326 State Horticultural Society.
plications of straw, the only available material for the purpose which
we have in any quantity. A very thin covering on the ground around
and through the plants is all that will be beneficial, and this is needed
simply to keep fruit clean.
So much for the raising. Now, the handling will be a compara-
tively simple matter. Much thought should be given to the rules gov-
erning the picking and other work. Clearly define the duties of the
record keepers, field bosses and pickers. Give a premium for satis-
factory season work. This will do wonders to hold pickers in line
when most needed. The addition of the premium to make the amount
per box which you intend to pay. Pay pickers only at the end of the
season. I never did, and have no intention of ever using tickets with
which to pay pickers. The record system is far better.
Provide a cheap but commodious shed (that can be moved with-
out injury when needed in another place) for every ten or fifteen
acres.
The best record keepers will be found to be those persons who
are the greatest success in the school room. Give each one the direc-
tion of the work in the shed. A field or row boss should not be given
over fifty pickers and should be instructed to work in close harmony
with^ the record keeper in seeing that every picker does his work
properly. It is possible for the extensive planter to pick, pack and
place in cars for shipment i,ooo, 2,000, or even many more crates per
day of strawberries that have been more carefully handled than the
average grower handles the product of his one, two or five-acre patch.
It is a business, however, and one to succeed in it must begin
in a small way. The idea that strawberries cannot be grown on a
large scale is an unbusinesslike and foolish one. Fifty acres can be
grown and cultivated and the product marketed at a much less ex-
pense per acre than the patch of two acres. The proper system will
do it.
No onje without a strong love for the work should attempt ex-
tensive production, however, as he will surely fail in many of the
almost numberless* little details which all come in for a share of atten-
tion.
The following were appointed delegates to various State Horti-
cultural meetings:
Arkansas — G. A. Atwood.
Iowa— W. H. Maxwell.
Illinois— M. Butterfield.
Kansas — ^W. G. Gano.
Nebraska — L. A. Goodman.
Winter Meeting. 327
THURSDAY— December 5, 8 p. m.
The programme of the evening was varied by songs and recita-
tions, and a very pretty flag drill executed by twelve young ladies of
the Todd school.
VARIETIES OF PEARS AND PLUMS.
(By W. L. Howard, Assistant Horticulturist, Columbia, Mo.)
VARIETIES OF PEARS.
In selecting varieties of pears for planting, some important points
must be kept in view. One must consider the relative time of ripen-
ing of the fruit in order that it may be marketed with reasonable con-
venience with the facilities at hand, and also questions of pollination,
so as to have mutually fertile varieties which bloom at the same time,
planted close together. It is impossible to name any certain number
cf varieties which will succeed in this State, because, apparently, their
success or failure is purely a matter of local conditions. The pear
growing industry for the United States has been developed fully,
only in the Eastern and New England States. There the list of suc-
cessful varieties is not long, as compared with some of the other fruits
like Apples and Plums. All told, but 28 varieties have proved to be
reliable, as reported by practical growers, and there are instances
where some of this number did not do well in some sections. For
Missouri conditions, the following 13 varieties are recommended by
growers as being the most reliable for the State at large, although
some failures may be expected in some localities from causes not yet
understood. Anjou, (called also, Buerre de Anjou) ; rather large, fine
grained, excellent flavor; ripens in late fall, but keeps till far in the
winter. Angouleme, (known also as Duchess de Xngouleme) ; very
large, buttery, juicy and -very good when well grown, but poor and
worthless when small; ripens in midautumn. Bartlett; large, flesh
nearly white, tender and buttery, and with a moderately rich flavor;
the best summer variety. Buifum ; size medium, skin yellow, with a
broad, reddish-brown cheek, somewhat russeted ; flesh sweet, very .efood
but slightly variable ; is a good producer ; ripens in fall. Clairgeau,
(also known as Buerre Clairgeau) ; large, often with a crimson shade
328 State Horticultural Society.
toward the sun, and numerous brown dots ; flesh buttery and melting
and with a rich flavor, but frequently poor; ripens in winter. Howell;
rather large, light yellow, frequently with a handsome cheek ; moder-
ately rich flavor and somewhat variable in quality ; ripens in early fall.
Kieffer; everybody knows the Kieffer and all have -condemned it at
one time or another, but, like the old Ben Davis Apple, it con-
tinues to turn up in the markets to a larger extent than any other
sort. Lawrence; size medium, lemon-yellow, with numerous small
dots; very good flavor; ripens in early winter. Louise Bonne, (also
called Louise Bonne de Jersey) ; large, flesh yellowish-white, juicy
and fine ; hardly of the best quality, but very productive ; a fall variety.
Mt. Vernon; medium, dull brownish russet, with a red cheek; rich
flavor; ripens in fall and keeps well. Seckel; small skin brownish-
green, becoming rich yellowish-brown, with red cheek ; the richest and
highest flavored pear known; a summer and fall variety. Seldon;
medium, or large, flesh coarse, but juicy and brisk flavored ; ripens in
fall. Winter Nelis ; size small or medium, sweetly aromatic, with ex-
cellent flavor; a winter variety. New varieties not generally tested
are, Krull, Koonce, Lincoln and Sudduth.
Kieffer and Bartlett are usually classed as self-sterile, but the de-
gree of sterility varies in different places and under different condi-
tions. Probably any variety will fertilize any other variety in case
the two bloom at the same time. The safest plan in setting a pear
orchard is to plant not more than two rows of one variety together,
and to alternate with one or two rows of another variety. The most
popular variety in the eastern Pear district is the Bartlett, with the
Kieffer holding second place. With these growers the Seckel is a
prominent variety, and is the standard of quality.
The Duchess is the best dwarf. It sells on account of its size, for it
is of indifferent quality. Other popular dwarfs are, Louise Bonne,
Anjou, Clairgeau, Manning Elizabeth, and, to a less extent, Bartlett
and Seckel.
VARIETIES OF PLUMS.
At the Station we have 15 varieties of plums that are fruiting.
The most of this number are European sorts, but there are a goodly
number of American varieties and some of the leading varieties of
.Japan. This is only a rough way of classifying Plums. The botani-
cal arrangement as adopted by the American Pomological Society is
to divide the principal members of the Plum family into five sections
as follows : — Prunus Americana, — or those derived from our common
wild Plum; Prunus angustifolia, — of American origin, but including
Winter Meeting. 329
only those of the Chicasaw type ; Pruiius cerasifera, sometimes classed
as European, but rightly contains only those like Marianna and De
Caradeuc; Prunus domestica, which includes all of those known as
Europeans; Prunus hortulana, commonly known as American of the
wild Goose type,- but also embraces the Miner and Wayland groups ;
and, Prunus triflora, the Japanese sorts.
Taking them alphabetically, some of the varieties will be dis-
cussed. The American Golden and ^he Golden Beauty are very much
alike, flower and fruiting on about the same dates; both are small,
round, yellow and hard, ripen late, and too well known to need further
mention. Abundance and Botan — names used synonymously, repre-
sent the Japanese type at its best. Burbank, Wickson, Yellow Japan
and others of this type have their respective merits, but none of them
are of finer quality, and certainly none are so sure to set a crop of fruit
and ripen it as the Abundance; they are usually large, fine-textured,
juicy and of delicious flavor. Chas. Downing makes a fine tree, usu-
ally produces a medium crop of average sized fruit which somewhat
resembles the Miner in appearance, but is not of so ^ood a quality,
and, as these two ripen at about the same time, it would be un-
wise to use it instead of the Miner. Coe's Golden Drop ; this is men-
tioned because in the East it is reported to be a desirable variety, but
I have not seen it amount to anything; a rampant grower, blooms
abundantly every season, sets a big crop of fruit, but never holds it ;
a fine, late, exceedingly large Plum when it ripens — which is so sel-
dom that we have it only in the form of a beautiful memory. Cum-
munia, is a dark colored Plum, which rots pretty badly, but the tree
sets such an enormous crop of fruit that there is a respectable yield
left after half have rotted; a desirable European sort. De Caradeuc
often has a big. crop of very pretty fruit, but is chiefly valuable on ac-
count of its earliness, ripening as it does about the 20th of July. De
Soto is one of the old standard varieties, yellow in color, prolific bearer
and a sure fruiter, but shorter lived than many of the others. Forest
Garden can always be relied on to have a crop that will make the
housewife smile; size above medium, yellowish, and free from rot.
Forest Rose is good for home use, but is too tender to ship well ; a de-
sirable American variety. Garfield ; along with this might also be
classed Moreman, World Beater, Wayland and Missouri Apricot — all
of which would make good buck shot, they are so small and hard ;
however, these have their uses; they are especially desirable for
shipping long distances, preserving and spicing. Gold has not done
much with us yet, being too young, but is said to be promising. Gol-
den Mammoth has not fruited with us yet, but is given a good
330 State Horticultural Society,
reputation by those who have seen it. Goliath ; this is rather a weak
grower and does not fruit every season, but when it does "hit," it will
make you glad; very large, firm of flesh, and does not rot badly.
Grand Duke ; here is one that has special uses and should have a bril-
liant future before it; tree vigorous and healthy, of European type;
fruit fine large, dark in color, pear-shaped and covered with a heavy
grayish bloom and seldom or never rots; it has firm flesh and would
make a good shipper. The special use to which Grand Duke could be
applied is to place it on the market as a substitute for the expensive
California sorts. This is not theory, for we have sold this Plum to
retail dealers at fancy prices and I know for a certainty that fastidious
customers took them and were well pleased. The fruit is at its best
about the second or third week in September. If picked and care-
fully placed in shallow boxes, about a dozen in each, there is> no reason
why a few trees of this variety should not yield as good an income
as a whole orchard of the kinds that have to be sold for ten cents per
gallon. Jefferson, is rather a weak grower, but has fine large fruit;
it is somewhat subject to rots, but is promising. Lafayette, is an-
other European, somewhat like Communia, in that it produces very
large crops and about half of the fruit rots, but leaving enough for a
good harvest. Magnum Bonum ; here is a variety that is among the
largest of Plums and in some localities appears to do well, but with
us it has fruited but scantily; it was a favorite with the late Judge
Miller. McLaughlin is fine, delicate and large, but from some cause
does not set but a few fruits to the tree. ' Merunka ; this an European
variety, which, in its manner of growth and productiveness, resem-
bles the Damsons, but it is not so purplish in color and rather smal-
ler in size ; it is valuable for cooking purposes and is liked by some
for eating from the tree, when well ripe ; the seed is free. This var-
iety is well worth cultivating. Middleburg is an American sort that
produces well some seasons, but has too many off years. Milton
ripeps about the first week in July, and is a desirable sort on that ac-
count only, as its quality is not of the best. Miner is too well known
to require any description ; Moore Arctic is a European sort, probably
originated in this country, that is worthy of a place in the orchard ;
it is very dark in color (almost blue), covered with a heavy grayish
bloom, is a little above medium size, and sets a heavy crop almost
every year; its principal drawback is its tendency to rot. Newman;
probably worth more as a pollinator for the Wild Goose than for any-
thing else. Prince Englebert ; one of the largest Plums but does not
bear enough. Quaker; here is a native Plum of good size that for
delicious eating is 'hard to beat ; valuable for culinary purposes, too.
Winter Meeting, 331
Reine Claude de Bavay; this one should be included in planting, al-
though it does not fruit heavily every year ; ripens middle of Septem-
ber when others are scarce ; gets sugary and delicious ; it is a white
or greenish, European. Robinson; an American and a sure fruiter
being loaded down annually ; fruit not first class in quality, but fair.
RoUingstone, Wyant and Wolf each have their merits. Stanton is
an excellent late European variety. Union Purpl^ is fine and large,
but nearly always rots. Victoria is a beautiful thin^g when it chances
to ripen, but it is a shining mark for rot. Wild Goose is a leading
commercial variety, but needs a pollinator; Newman answers the
purpose. Yellow Gage is susceptible to rot but when it escapes is
fine.
Many varieties possessing some merits have been omitted for
fear of making this report too long. In a test this season to determine
what varieties were able to fertilize themselves, it was found that one-
third of the total number were more or less self-sterile. This was de-
»
termined by placing paper bags over several of the twigs on each tree
before the flowers open and afterwards noting how many set fruit in
the sacks. It has not yet been satisfactorily worked out just what
varieties are incapable of fertilizing themselves nor the best trees to
plant for pollinators, but it is conceded by all who have investigated
the subject, that there, should be a mixture of varieties in the plum
orchard.
ORNAMENTATION OF HOME GROUNDS.
(By Ruth Jackson, Columbia, Mo.)
There are two destinct types of landscape gardening — the geome-
trical and the naturalistic. To these Edward Andre adds still another,
the composite style, which is a blending of the other two.
According to the geometrical style of landscape gardening, the
grounds are laid out in squares, circles or other geometrical designs :
the trees are planted in straight rows, the shrubs trained to regular
patterns, the walks and drives from definite, and sharp angles. On
the other hand the naturalistic style attemps to follow the plans sug-
gested by nature. It cannot be wholly natural, for there must be
walks, drives, fences and buildings, but these may be so arranged as
to harmonize with the natural features about them.
As to the relative value of these two styles of landscape art, we
may say they are of equal merit under certain conditions. The geome-
332 State Horticultural Society,
trical style may be followed with pleasing effect along public boule-
vards, around large buildings with steeples and spires and particular-
ily a large building on a small area. It heightens the outline of the
building and emphasizes its importance. Many other places might
be mentioned where the formal style of gardening would be effective
and desirable. But over large estates in rural places and suburban
homes where the character of the surrounding landscape retains much
of its natural beauty. A formal system would be entirely out of place.
The fault, therefore, in much of our home gardening lies not in the
system, but in the wrong use of that system. It is true that there are
many pretences toward either a formal or informal system, which are
complete failures. But again it is not the fault of the system, but the
inability of the gardener himself, who is merely a grower of plants
and who has not the keen perception of a natural artist.
If we would succeed then in landscape art, we must, first of all,
have a special love for the beautiful in nature. We should be famil-
iar with our nature trees, flowers and shrubs and varying effects of
form, size and color. We should then begin, first with a careful study
of the natural resources of any given place from a landscape point of
view. There is no spot either among mountains at the seashore or
on the rolling prairies which does not have its own original beauty.
There may be massive trees that are impressive from their size and
age, which man, by one foolish act, could destroy — thus undoing what
it has taken nature years to develop. There will always be some-
thing in the contour of the land, in the plant growth or the general
outlook of the grounds that will be worthy of our serious considera-
tion. To make or to mar this lies in the province of man.
He who succeeds in preserving the natural charms of a place, its
spirit, and sentiment, though he does not attain the highest perfection,
ij3 far in advance of the one whose first attempt is to obliterate every
thing natural in order that he may substitute some stilted and artifi-
cial plan.
Tho the landscape artist has given due respect and reverence to
nature, that is not all that remains for him to do. It is only a right
beginning.
He has not the artificial features — walks, drives,^ fences, etc., to
blend and harmonize in his landscape. The walks and drives should
be as few as convenience will permit; "they should neither be so
straight as to lack beauty, nor so meandering as to lack good sense."
There should be a legitimate reason for a curve in a drive. Some-
times there will exist naturally a small hill, a clump of brushes, or a
tree that will offer sufficient reason for turning aside. Otherwise
Winter Meeting. 333
one can make the curve seem natural by planting shrubs or a tree
in those places. Whatever may be his device, it should be something
that is permanent and real. Something that could not be destroyed
or easily removed. For instance, a flower bed would not be a perma-
nent obstruction. It would offer no resistance to passing wheels.
Not only would it be unsuitable on account of its trivial transitory
nature, but on ground^ which are large enough to require a road, a
flower bed would be entirely out of place. The same principal holds
true in the construction of paths as in the construction of drives.
Paths and drives are for utility and not for beauty. Then with that
aim — and only that in view, should they be built.
We have still a more difficult problem to meet than that of walks
and drives, and that is what to plant and how to plant it. These are
questions that ought to be raised by nearly every one, for there are
few places but what could be improved by a judicious planting of or-
namental plants. In the words of Mrs. Rensselaer, "two trees and
six shrubs, a scrap of lawn and a dozen plants may form either a beau-
tiful little picture or a huddled disarray of forms and colors." Too
often instead of a beautiful picture we have a "huddled disarray."
But even that is better than no attempt at all. It shows a slight ap-
preciation of the beauiful.
But to return to our ideal garden. In this we would have shade
trees, shrubs, hardy climber, annuals, perenials and a well-kept lawn.
There must be harmony throughout not only with the individual de-
tails, but with the landscape beyond. There must be harmony of
color, form and structure. How to obtain these is the work of the
artist.
The most valuable plantings from a standpoint of beauty and
utility, are the shade trees. Their artistic value is embodied in the
three qualities, form, texture, and color. The form of a tree is deter-
mined by its outline as described against the sky or other trees. In
this it may be eliptical, oval, pearshape or of various other outlines.
Structure is another important factor in determining the form of a
tree. This includes the manner of branching, which may vary all the
way from the drooping habit of the willow to the aspiring branches
of the poplar. We can, thus, readily see the inharmonious effect in
massing trees of these two extremes as the willow and the poplar.
The texture of a tree is determined largely by the form and density of
its foliage. Let us compare, if you please, the leaves of tlie arbor vitae
and those of the pine, the great trembling leaves of the cottonwood
w^ith those of the weeping willow, the catalpa and cedar — the extreme
difference is apparent.
334 State Horticultural Society.
Again the color of the bark and foliage is quite as important an
element from an artistic point of view as form and texture. All shades
of green, blue, white, red and orange are represented. In this we
have equally as great a variation as in form and texture. Then what
is the gardener to do with such diversities of color, texture and form.
He must know his trees. He must know them as they change with the
seasons and with the years. If he is not able nor willing to do this he
must take the results of chance.
As time is limited let us pass on to other features of landscape
art that deserve our attention.
There are multitudes of hardy climbers and annuals that may be
employed over porches, trellises, arbors and against the bare masonry
of buildings. Climbing roses and honeysuckles, for example, wis-
teria, Virginia creeper, clematis, trumpet vine, cypress, maderia, the
wild grape and the hop vine must not be forgotten. Not all will look
well together nor be suited for all places. Each has a special charm
and beauty of its own determined by its habits of growth and the
character of its flowers and foliage. Hardy climbers are more effec-
tive in uniting the lawn and walls of* the house than annuals, which
are present for a season and then gone, leaving not only the junction
of the soil and walls bare, but the work to be done over again the next
year.
Flowering shrubs is another necessary element in the ornamenta-
tion of home grounds. Like the climbers there name is Legion. We
have all gradations, from the little deutzia on the one hand with its
low' spreading top to the upright honeysuckle, barberry and flower-
ing crab. It is in this profusion of species the danger lies in select-
ing the proper forms for the proper places.
Here again the gardener should know his plants. He should
know those that first put forth their leaves in spring, the time of
blooming, the character of the flowers and fruit. In general mass
those shrubs with the darker restful colors in the back ground, and
those of lighter shades in the foreground.
Select those forms that blossom successively, for it is in this con-
stant change we have one of the principal charms of the garden.
If we attempt the naturalistic style of gardeninj^, let it appear
natural. Don't destroy the lawn and the whole effects by dotting
here and there pattern beds with bright and variegated foliage that
stare at us the summer long like a painted sign.
Pattern beds are not the only monstrosities that appear on our
lawns. Equally as bad are the camp kettles, vases, fountains, paint
buckets and even sewer tiles are seen promiscously scattered about on
Winter Meeting. 335
the lawn. What could be more unnatural and out of place? Schil-
ler tells us that^ "If the art of gardening is at last to turn back from
her extravagance and rest with her other sisters, it is, above every-
thing, necessary to have clearly before us what we require. It is cer-
tainly tasteless and inconsistent to desire to incompass the world with
a garden wall, but very practicable and reasonable to make a garden
into a characteristic whole to the eye, heart, and understanding alike."
PEACHES IN NORTH MISSOURI.
(By A. W. Bloomfield, St. Joseph, Mo.)
The origin of the peach is hidden together with the prehistoric life
cf the Aryan tribes of Central Asia. The primeval home of these early
tribes was on or near the 40th degree of north latitude. In fact the
Turko-Siberian city of Bokara, for which a well known variety of
peaches has been named, is located exactly on the parallel mentioned
above.
This 40th parallel north separates our neighboring states of Kansas
and Nebraska and running thence east bisects Andrew county this State
and the other counties in the second tier from the north line. I have
shown that North Missouri is in latitude with the native home of the
peach. Next let us see if other physical environments are similar. The
altitude of Central Asia in general is high and the surface is drained by
several large rivers running in all directions. The soil must be somewhat
sandy and the air dry, as the country is dotted with arid deserts.
The altitude of North Missouri ranges from i,opo to 1,200 feet and
the nearness to the more arid regions between us and the Rocky Moun-
tains insures us the proper aridity of atmosphere.
Our upland soil formerly covered with timber, is much of it of
loess formation and contains sufficient sand to make it well adapted to
the growth of the peach tree.
My effort to prove North Missouri an ideal peach district would
be futile, unless substantiated by facts gathered from recent crop re-
suits.
In the last ten years eight full crops of peaches have been raised in
Northwest Missouri. Can any other section of our State make a better
showing.? This year the writer sold the crop from one acre, consisting
oI'Elberta, Champion, Crawford, and Summer Snow peaches, for $352.
Twelve years a^s^o ]\Tr. Hopkins of Springfield in a paper read before
this Society at Lebanon, said: "I cannot advise our friends in the
336 State Horticultural Society.
northern part of this State to set peaches extensively for commercial
purposes. They will not pay." Does ^ eight full crops in ten years of
any fruit pay? It surely does. Especially of peaches. Was not Mr.
Hopkins surely wrong in his conclusions ?
With the proper kind of soil in which the peach does best, the
right altitude, and a latitude similar to its indiginous home, we can, we
do and we will grow big peaches, not only for home consumption but
for commercial purposes also. All the common commercial varieties
fruit well here. The Elberta, Champion and Crosby, leading as favorite
varieties. Our loess soil does not require cultivation throughout the
entire life of the peach tree. I cultivate until the fifth year when I sow
to red clover — mowing oif the first crop and allowing the second to
fall to the ground to reseed and make a winter cover. The only en-
emies the peach has in North Missouri are an occasional borer and the
leaf-curl, neither of which does serious damage.
All hail to the luscious peach. If the apple is the "king of fruits,"
then has Pomona surely crowned the peach as the "queen of fruits." It
vies with the strawberry in delicacy and flavor and defies the art of man
to counterfeit it in color.
A PLEA FOR A MORE NATURAL COURSE OF INSTRUCTION
IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
(By John R. Kirk, State Normal, Kirksville, Mo.)
The typical school falls short of its possibilities because it ignores
the nature of the children and bends their energies to the acquirement
of conventionalities. It represses the natural impulses of childhood in-
stead of directing and utilizing them. It inhibits habits of action and
tends to destroy the power of initiative instead of developing that power.
It withdraws the child's consciousness from visible and tangible things
among which he lives and must live. It fills him with facts remote from
his unavoidable sphere of action. It receives children who are fond ot
serving others, full of willing energy and, by both nature and habit,
industrious. It sends them back with distorted ideals and a distaste
for doing the world's work.
Let us survey our field of action and get our bearings : Reformers
too often magnify their isolated specialties and fail to see things in their
relations. We need practical science in elementary schools. This can
not come without the contemporaneous organization of several related
subjects.
POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 337
commercial poultry. Mr. Boyer says : "There was a time, and there
is yet to a certain extent, when white-skinned fowls did not com-
mand the ready sales in the market that the yellow-skinned ones did,
but that prejudice is fast dying out where the Langshan fowl has been
marketed. The broiler men in Hammonton, N. J., send considerable
Langshan meat to the New York market ^nd are commended for
shipping such fine stock. The truth of the matter is *just this:
There is no fowl bred for the table that will give finer or better meat
than the Langshan, and the turkey taste of the flesh is what suits the
average epicure. Langshans crossed with Plymouth Rocks give the
finest roasters, and Langshans in their purity' furnish the most ex-
cellent broilers."
I recently heard a gentleman say that he did not like the Asiatics,
that they were too lazy. I asked him if he had ever tried the Lang-
shan. He said no, but "reckon" they were the same as the rest. No
one who has ever tried the Langshan can make this assertion. The
Langshan is undoubtedly one of the best of foragers and in this re-
spect excels some of the smaller breeds. Give them unlimited range
and they will forage over a small farm. In confinement they are con-
tented and if fed in a deep litter of straw or leaves will work until every
morsel of food is found and in return will shell out a fine lot of strong-
ly fertilized eggs. As setters they are faithful and as mothers look
carefully after their chicks. If your stock is vigorous and properly
fed, you may depend upon a large hatch everytime.
From a fancier's standpoint what is more beautiful than a well
bred pen of Langshans, with a proud carriage, with head and tail erect,
breasts full and rounding and eyery movement of military precision,
what more can be desired ! Can you paint in your mind a more beau-
tiful picture than a lot of Black Langshans, as they stand with tail
feathers, neck, hackle and saddle glistening in the sun with their rich
sheen that every shade of iridescent green is capable of producing J
Or take the white variety, with that proud carriage and clothed in
beautiful spotless white, and you cannot help exclaiming "oh how
grand ; how majestic." Go with me into the show room and hear the
crowds always found in front of the Langshan coops and you will
hear as I have often heard the exclamations of delight and praise of
our black and white beauties.
Before closing I want to call your attention to an article recently
written by the veteran judge breeder and writer, I. K. Felch, in which
he writes on the Langshan as follows :
"Prejudice more than any other cause has prevented this from
A— 32
338 ' MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
becoming one of the most popular of the practicable breeds. Neither
the color of. its skin nor its dark pin feathers hurts the flavor of the
meat. Will any one deny that a thin skin is indicative of tender flesh?
"The only thing that remains is that the Langshan offends the
sight of those who have been educated to look upon a yellow skin in
poultry as the best. They are early and persistent layers and as win-
ter producers are strictly first class. In these days when merit arid pro-
lific ^%z .production are asserting their influence in a marlced degree
in the increased sales of thoroughbred fowls, I do- not see why this
breed should not regain its old time popularity. While it is useless to
call the attention of the Langshan breeders to these facts — as they
are all well known to them — we feel warranted in repeating the above,
knowing full well that they will not disappoint any one who may start
to breed them. That they are gaining favor mostly on account of their
good qualities, as stated above, was satisfactorily praven to the
writer while inquiring of exhibitors at several prominent shows last
season, as regards to sales made by them, the majority stating that a
number of their sales were mide to parties who were starting to breed
them and in a number of cases they were not able to fill their orders on
account of the increasing demand. That this year will be a repetition
of last is a certainty, if it will not eclipse it by far."
Now my friends if you are about to start in poultry breeding, either
for profit, or pleasure, or both, or if you want to change from the
variety that you now breed, we advise you to give our favorites a trial.
Test them on their merits and we are sure that you will be as enthusi-
astic on the subject of Langshans as are nearly all who have given
them an honest trial. From a utility^ standpoint they will meet every
requirement and are fast coming to the front. In describing the good
points of a Langshan briefly, you will find them large in size, majes-
tic in appearance, hardy in con^itution, seldom having diesase, the
best of winter layers, good setters, careful mothers and as dressed
fowls they have an abundance of tender and delicious flesh.
SESSION OF
Improved Live Stock Breeders' Association.
FUTURE OF CATTLE INDUSTRY
By T. F. B. Sotham, Chillicothe, Mo.
There are two ways to estimate what the future of the cattle business
will be. One is by just simply going blindly by the past and saying,
what has been will be again ; and the other is, to take advantage
of what is ps^st and note the signs of the times and the changes
that are taking place everywhere, and try from the two together to es-
timate what may follow. Some people say that because we had a
panic in 1893 that we have to have another; these pessimists
say there is no possible way out of it, and yet they don't stop to esti-
mate the fact that in 1893 we were considered among the borrowing
nations, and in 1901 we are already a loaning nation. We lend our
money to England, supposed to be the lending nation of the world.
AVe have a balance of trade in this country amounting to $50,000,000
per month or $600,000,000 per year. After we have paid for everything
this nation buys from other countries, we still have $600,000,000 due
us from them each year. That is, more money in one year's balance
of trade comes to us than cam.e to us during the entire first century of
our existence as a government. Now you have a factor to deal with
that you did not have before, and it' is impossible to estimate the future
with this factor in it by the past, because you did not have that factor
before. That covers our entire industry — industries of the United
States, of which the cattle business is a very large factor, much larger
than most people realize.
Back in 1893 and previous to that, particularly in the 8o's, we
had, as you know, a very extensive demand for young breeding stock.
You know that right here in Missouri, western buyers were here to
pick up grade heifers — even what we call scrubs — at good prices, to
stock the ranges of the west, southwest and northwest, a territory up
to that time, that had no cattle to speak of. After awhile the range
country filled up and instead of being buyers for our surplus here they
340 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
had a surplus of their own to sell. Now going back a little farther,
you know that our markets absorbed irregularly the supply cattle
up to the time the range demand set in for our she stuff. Then there
came a shortage because the market had been used to absorb the
butcher stock that consisted largely of cows and heifers. When the
ranchmen began to buy these cows and heifers to ship them west for
breeding purposes, the shortage of butcher stock made high prices for
the remaining available beef. The shortage in the butcher stock
caused by the demand for the stuff in the west made a shortage ; then,
later, as a result of stocking the heretofore unoccupied* rnngcs, *he
time came when those ranges had some cattle to sell instead of Jiayingf
to buy, consequently the glut followed.
You remember how many cattle companies were formed in the
west. When I was in Denver in 1883, you could not meet a man — not
even a clerk or servant, no matter whether he knew a cow from a saw-
buck, but who had some stock in a cattle company. You know fbat
class of men were not practical in their dealings, and that for the
unpractical cattle man the business was unprofitable. Thus some
of these companies, not well managed, were not satisfied to sell their
surplus, but deposited their whole outfits on the market. I heard of
one European party that in establishing a ranch company, fell into
the hands of cattle sharps, who sold and delivered to these tenderfeet
the same herd, three different times, and all the sharpers did was to
drive the same herd around a hill three different times repeating the
delivery. Could anything but failure be expected from such
*'chumps?" They met and deserved disaster.
When the surplus of these range breeding herds went onto the
market you know what happened. There was a glut and we could not
get enough for our Missouri cattle to make ends meet. During this
time, I sold registered Hereford cattle at $40 per head, as good as I
now sell at $500, for there was no demand for them. People did not
want to improve their herds. They said that one animal was as good as
another ; that there never could be a raise in values ; that scrubs were as
good as pure breeds ; that straight Texans were hardier and more pro-
fitable than blooded cattle ; that numbers, not quality counted. How
often when I predicted the restoration of values and a return to in-
telligent methods was I laughed at for my pains. Prosperity delayed
until, optimist as I was, I despaired its coming. I suffered as deeply
as anyone, but in faith and hope. We know it has come now. Here
is our situation today. Not only the eastern states, but the entire
western range country has been absorbed and stocked with cattle, ex-
cept the large domain that has been absorbed by the sheep interests.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. * 341
and they are encroaching all the time on cattle interest. ^We have
already drawn on Mexico for all her supply, until Mexico is rather a
buyer than a seller today. Same is true of Canada, both eastern pro-
vinces and the northwest. We get all the surplus cattle of the prov-
inces of Ontario and Quebec through the Buffalo market and they are
distributed through Ohio, Indiana and other states as Canadian feed-
ing cattle. I say we have drawn on the supply of Mexico, Canada,
etc., yet the cry is that we have not got cattle enough and hence prices
tend higher.
You now see the day when the market has overtaken the supf)ly of
cattle. Now I ask you where are you going to increase the source?
Where can you go today to increase the supply to overtake this
growing demand? Will you go to the range in the west or the
northwest ? You will find that they have already been overstocked.
You will find strife, even to bloodshed, between the sheep and
cattle men. Sections of America that were heretofore devoted to
cattle have been given over to sheep and they will always stay
there. As sheep ruin the range for cattle and can't exist together
on the same range, the result is that we have shoved our cattle
territory almost exclusively into the state of Texas, where the range-
men own their *own lands or can lease them from the state.
Our American cattlemen are purchasing lands and cattle down
in old Mexico and Texas, and Mexico is already the centre for large
cattle growing plants of this country, and the only place on the North
American continent where they can be carried on successfully and
permanently. Now the eastern and southern states have wakened up
to the fact that they must have beef cattle. They find they have
made the mistake of putting all their money into high priced com-
mercial fertilizers when they should have had the cattle and made
their own fertilizers at home. There is going to come a day when
the south is going to keep cattle (whether the cattle make money
directly or not) just to make cheaply and at home the only real and
permanent fertilizer. They are tired of having their eggs all in
one basket. They are tired of having one industry^ cotton alone.
But that change is going to be a slow process; the whole southern
agricultural system has to undergo a change.
The southerners are going to be slow, because the land is all held
by small owners, just as it is going to be slow to have a big supply
of cattle in Livingston county, Missouri where you have had a short-
age before. The hope of the future is in the young people. They
are grasping the situation intelligently where the prejudice of the
elders prevents progress.
342 f MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
As I have said before, the sheep have encroached on the range
cattle industry^ and the result is that the cattle are decreasing, while
the demand for beef cattle is constantly increasing. Therefore, I
give it as my unhesitating prophecy, that the American cattle in-
dustry is on a sound basis, one that it never knew before. Until now,
there has always been new territory to occupy, new ranges to s'tock.
Now all the pioneer work is done. Where in America, Mexico, Can-
ada, can you go and stock a range with cattle without first buying
out some man that is in the same business? That country does not
exist in the United States today ; our territory is all occupied, and our
markets absorb the entire supply. ,
For a good many years, cheap politicians have "jumped" on the
big packers, calling them the "Big 4," the "Robber Packers," men who
were "squeezing the life blood out of the starving agriculturist," or the
men who have' made "colossal fortunes out of the poor, down-trodden
farmer." What are these packers, doing today? There is not a
butcher in this country who would be willing to kill a bullock for the
profit that these packers are satisfied with. These packers will take
the offal which the butchers will throw away or pay you to haul away
that they may get rid of the stench and ^tract from that very waste
a by-product that they are satisfied to take as their profit for killing
the animal and distributing it to the customer. The reason they do
it is this: They are satisfied when they make $2.00 net profit per
head, while the butcher who only gets three or four head a week, could
not live on such profit. But when they kill their thousands a week,
you must admit the economy of the methods and on their large trans-
actions they make a fair and lawful profit. These .packers have
awakened to the fact that when the farmer is prosperous, the packers
are prosperous.
The railway companies also see that they can't be prosperous un-
less the farmer is prosperous. And what is the result? A "condi-
tion not a theory," that if a man had prophesied it ten years ago, he
would have been called a lunatic. What do we see in the Union
Stock Yards owned and controlled by the railway and packing in-
terests? Acts, not words. Money poured out in the interest of far-
mers; not vain, empty mouthings of platitudes. They say: "Gather
all these breed associations together and talk with them, and we
will give them a show." They replied : "We will stand by you and
make a show, the like of which the world has never seen !" and the
first year instead of it costing $10,000 to run the show, it cost to my
certain knowledge over $26,000. The result was a champion steer
sold for $1.50 per pound; the prize carload selling at i5/4c, and large
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 343
numbers at eight and ten cents, because of the enthusiasm. That
was in 1900. Then, this year, what do you see? They have gone
and built buildings to house this show for the farmers that have
cost over $50,000, and they do not know yet how much more it will
cost them. President Spoor insisted that this should be an educa-
tional, not a mpney making scheme.
Go to- Kansas City and see what the Stock Yards Company has
done. They have built a pavillion for the exclusive purpose of hold-
ing pure-bred cattle sales. Forty-five thousand dollars paid for it.
Then they built another building to house the Kansas City Royal
Cattle Show. They have put thousands upon thousands of dollars
to house these shows, and for premiums to draw cattlemen together,
to draw rangemen from the west and farmers of the east, and encour-
age them to improve their herds. It is these monopolistic "octopuses/*
that in the disordered brains of the demagogue "have eaten up the
substance of the farmers," that have been and are continually doing
this sort of thing. There is an era of good feeling — what it is attrib-
utable to, I will not attempt to define; but there is scripture which
says, that "A thousand' years is as one day with God." I think the
end of this thousand years being so close at hand we are feeling the
influence of some of the proohesies of God to be fulfilled in the next
millenary (mayhap millenium). But regardless of what I may think
we all do know that there is an era^of good feeling; that there is
growing and fast spreading a different spirit in the world, and the
man who looks on the past and sa^s we are going to have a hard
time, the pessimist, narrow brained, little hearted man, who has an
idea in his head that we are going to. the dogs because we have been
there before, does not study the signs of the times. Keep your senses
together.
GOOD TIMES AHEAD. .
Now that the supply has overtaken the demand, there can't be a
cessation of demand. It is the one certainty of the future verified by
the pa^t, that consumption is bound to grow larger, and as our supply
is to be increased by the slow methods of the small farmers of the east
and south, demand must increase faster than supply.
So in looking on the future, I see nothing for the intelligent, con-
servative, sincere, honest business man, but good times. There can't
be anything else for this type of cattleman, whatever may be the case
with others. Our supply has got to the place it cannot' be suddenly
enlarged. No avalanche of cattle can fall upon our market from
a new and at present unknown source, the sources have all been ex-
plored, and drawn upon to their utmost limit. v / •. ,
344 MISSOURI Agricultural report.
The demand has overtaken the supply in the United States, and
there is no new source of supply other than a gradual or healthy one.
I have thought with new railroads connecting us with the extreme
south, taking in the province of Rio Grande da Sul of Brazil and the
whole country of Argentina, that it might be possible to bring their
cattle up this way; but when I think that it takes 35 days to make
the trip by a cargo steamer, steaming 10 to 12 miles an hour (that
cannot go faster without consuming all transportation profits by an
unwarranted use of fuel,) then I can see that that field is hardly worth
considering. So that with our .demand overtaking and passing our
supply, you can all see that the future of the cattle industry in
America, is founded upon a rock, and one that will last as long as our
government and people last.
SOME RECENT INVESTIGATIONS OF BREEDING
PROBLEMS.
By Prof. F. B. Mumford, Agricultural College, Columbia, Mo.
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen — The subject that has been
assigned to me is one in which I am sorry that I cannot stick closer
to my text.
The Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States have
been interested and active in the study and investigation of a great
many questions of practical value to farmers. There have been in-
vestigations in the problems connected with the crops oi the farm,
'there have been untold numbers of variety tests in connection with
farm crops, there have been fertilizer experiments, there have been
experiments with live stock, but up to the present time the Experi- *
ment Stations of the United States have paid very little attention in-
deed to the investigation of "the problems that especially interest the
breeders of improved live stock. Notwithstanding the fact that at
every great agricultural show the interest centers around the pure
bred live stock, and more money is hung up in prizes for pure bred
animals than any other exhibit, the experiment stations have so far
neglected any systematic experiments to settle some of the great
problems that confront the ordinary breeder. It is my purpose to call
attention to some things more or less well established, and some of
the facts more recently investigated in certain parts of the world.
A large number of the experiments that are conducted by the
"experiment stations are of mere local value; a great many experi-
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 845
ments tried in Missouri are only applicable to the conditions that ex-
ist in the State of Missouri. This is especially true of all variety
tests of farm crops and fruits. The fruits adapted to Missouri con-'
ditions are not the ones best adapted to Iowa or Kansas. There are
certain experiments of local application. There are other experi-
ments of wide application and an experiment conducted in the State
of Missouri or Maine may be applicable to any other part of the
Ignited States or the world. This may be said of breeding experi-
ments, any experiment conducted to settle probkms that pertain to
breeding will be of wide application, 'and that experiment station that
takes up these problems will be perhaps doing more in the way of
promoting the generaj science of agriculture, particularly that phase
that relates to live stock husbandry, than in making experiments of
mere local value. One reason why the stations have not begun on
these problems is because results will be naturally slow, and the
experiment stations have often shown a very unfortunate anxiety to
try experiments, the results of which could be published the same
or the next year, and a great many experiment stations have neg-
lected some very important phases because they could not publish
results quickly. Now manifestly experiments on some of the great
problems of breeding will require time, and that experiment station
that undertakes these problems needs time enough to de^finitely in-
vestigate certain problems. Still this should not be an argument
against beginning experiments of this kind and breeders of improved
live stock are demanding that the stations pay some attention to this
line of work.
It has been said frequently by those connected with the experi-
ment stations that this is the work of the biologist and the embryolo-
gist, the man who studies germs, the processes of fertilization; that
the problems of heredity must be solved by an examination of the
germ plasma and the processes that go on in the germ. I wish to
call your attention to the statements of some of the leading biologists
and embryologists of the world on this subject, and so far as I am
able to observe they are united in the belief that the changes which
bring about these phenomena of inherited characteristics are so
minute in the embryo and so far beyond the possibility of definite so-
lution by present methods of investigation that the chance for dis-
covering the real causes of many of the phenomena of interest to
practical stock breeders, is very slight. This is not saying that many
of the investigations of embryologists are not of value, but it is saying
that in-breeding or cross-breeding or the influence of a previous im-
pregnation, that these changes, if they do occur in the germ are so
346 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT. '
minute that we have no means of observing them at present, there-
fore we cannot look to the biologist or embryologist to settle these
questions. All that we know about the process and methods of breed-
ing have been based upon what you may call practical observations,
largely the results of practical experience of breeders.
Darwin was the first great authority to use the results secured
by practical breeders to support and confirm his great biological
theory of evolution and those of you who have paid attention to Dar-
win's theory of evolution will be impressed most forcibly with the
idea that he placed a great deal of dependence upon those facts that
he secured from consultation with practical breeders and facts that
have been evolved by the practical experience of breeders. All that
we know of in and in breeding is based upon the observation of peo-
ple who have actually tried it, and the results that have come from it
have been observed by practical breeders and not by biologists or em-
bryologists. I call your attention to that fact that if we are to ar-
rive at definite results we must rely upon the careful, systematic ob-
servations of trained breeders; we must actually breed in a certain
way and observe results.
Now this is best accomplished by those who have some know-
ledge of breeding and the principles of breeding and it is entirely out-
side of the work of the embryologist. Now as to the necessity of
work ^long this line, I do not know that it is necessary to spend any
great amount of time, but certainly there is a great need of work.
There has been very little work done anywhere in the world on this
sub'ject, and with a few "notable exceptions, scientific methods have
not been employed in the solution of these questions. There is no
work being done in this line in the United States. Notwithstanding
tut vast amount of money and the great numbers of stations at
work on local problems, not one of them is attempting to solve
problems connected with these questions that trouble breeders.
There are a great many notions about certain problems of breed-
ing that ought to be dispelled. The best way to do that is to prove
that they are not true. The greatest trouble with breeders is not
that they know too little, but too much — too many things that are
not true. Now it is not necessary for me to name over a lot of
these notions that have come to be prevalent at this time, because I
wish to present another phase of the question that in my opinion is
more important ; but the result of some systematic experiments along
this line would not only dispel some of these notions — facts that are
facts — but help to fix the limits of our present knowledge. We say,
for instance, breeders are pretty generally agreed that some of the re-
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 347
suits of in and in-breeding are a loss of fecundity or fertility, and a
decrease in the size of the animal, if practiced persistently, and a loss
of constitution. These tfifee results from close breeding are gener-
ally accepted. Now opposed to these bad results that come from in
and in-breeding, we know that some of the best animals that have
been produced in times past and some of the best animals of recent
times have resulted from very close in and in-breeding. Animals do
not always show these bad results from in and in-breeding to which
I have called your attention. Why not? What are the limits of in
and in-breeding? Can we practice it for the good that is in it
without securing the bad ? *We need some definite experiments along
that line. Some experiments conducted seem to indicate, for ex-
ample, in those breeds of animals that produce litters, in case two of
the animals of a certain litter are very much alike in character, that
is of the same appearance, the same form, color, nutritive habits and
deportment; if these two animals are bred together, the bad results
from in and in-breeding are almost sure to follow. But if in the
same litter there are two animals not resembling one another, which
frequently happens, and they are bred together, the bad results do not
follow at all. We certainly need more information to limit our ideas
and knowledge, and to know how far we can go and what we can de-
pend upon.
In a similar way do we need more definite knowledge of the re-
sults of cross breeding. Crossing, in a general way, tends to disturb
whatever prepotency may have been built up by in and in-breeding.
Hence experienced breeders practice crossing with caution or not at
all.
It seems from what experience we have had that in-breeding is
one of the sure ways of establishing prepotency (the power of trans-
mitting character to offspring) in an animal, for after all is said, it
seems to be well established that in-bred aniijials are undoubtedly
stronger in fixing their characters upon their offspring, and other
things being equal, prepotency is the most desirable quality in any
breeding animal. I need not stop here to - discuss a good individual,
it does not take much of a man to select a good animal or buy one
that some judge has pronounced. the best animal, but what assurance
have we that that animal can fix his qualities upon his offspring ? It
happens" sometimes that an animal is a superior individual, and if
we knew how to introduce into that animal the ability to fix his
characteristics upon his offspring, it would be an exceedingly valu-
able piece of information.
It has been found that not only is in-breeding valuable in ena-
348 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
bling animals to fix their characteristics upon their offspring, but there
are certain other factors involved in connection with heredity that w©
speak of as prepotency. In a general way we speak of this under
three heads, the first is impressiveness, and under this division we
place all of those classes where the animal has acquired rjrepotency
because of in-breeding. This is called artificial prepotency. Some ani-
mals are bprn with the power to impress their characteristics upon their
offspring, irrespective of their breeding. This we call natural prepotency.
There have been numerous examples of this in history. Every breeder
knows of male animals that have been exceedingly prepotent. Hamil-
tonian lo, the great trotting stallion, was afl animal naturally prepotent.
The great Shorthorn bull, Hubback, was an animal of great prepotency.
I remember a trotting stallion of the*Nutwood strain, a sorrel, with
white legs and a white face. He was so prepotent in this character-
istic that it did not matter to what breed or type of mare he was
mated, the progeny were always of a sorrel color, with one or more
white legs and a white face. This was almost invariably the case
in the thousands of colts that this horse produced, so prepotent was
he in fixing his color on his offspring. Certain breeds are very pre-
potent in fixing color on their offspring, the offspring of the Here-
ford nearly always has a white face, while the offspring of Angus
bulls are nearly always* black and polled. This is exclusive inheri-
tance. But animals may not only themselves be prepotent, but the
offspring of these animafls may also be prepotent in fixing their charac-
teristics upon their offspring, and this is the most valuable form of
prepotency. This is a form of prepotency not possessed by many ani-
mals, it is unfortunately possessed by few or none of the improved
breeds ; unfortunately, I say but in another sense it may be fortunate
for the breeders of improved live stock. What I mean is this, a bull
of an improved breed, bred to. a common cow impresses himself upon
his offspring, that is they have the characteristics of the breed to which
he belongs, but the half blood progeny of this bull do not possess the
prepotency of their sire, and generally lack the ability to fix upon
their offspring the characteristics of that particular breed to which the
sire belongs. I say this is unfortunate for some people, but it is very
fortunate for the breeders for by reason of this fact we insist on
every man using pure bred males, instead of half blood ones, and that
is a good thing for the breeders of pure bred live stock.
The controlling of this matter of prepotency is one of the most
important questions. Are there factors in prepotency that man can
control ? Can we develop prepotency in an animal ? If we can, it
is a thing that we ought to know. We can control it sometimes and
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 349
under certain conditions and some of the factors concerned in the
control of this impressiveness of animals may be named as follows :
In the first place age. It is undoubtedly true in general, though
there are many exceptions, that the younger the animal, the less pre-
potent he is. When a young female is bred to an aged male, the
offspring of such a mating is very likely to resemble. the aged par-
ent. There are a good many careful experiments which seem to indicate
that this is true. In some recent experiments conducted by Professor
F. C. Ewart of Edinburg University, he has found that if the female
is very young, for example, bred as early as possible, the progeny
resembles the male; but as the female becomes older, even though
bred to the same male, the progeny comes to resemble the female
more and more, and he has tried this long enough so that he is will-
ing to verify the belief that age is a controlling factor and that young
animals are less prepotent than the same animals will be when older.
This fact is of practical value in breeding, it shows that a man will
m
be more likely to secure good results by using older animals, males
for example. When we buy valuable pure bred males, if we buy a
yearling bull and begin to use him before he is fully developed, he will
not be so impressive, as he will later on: The older animals are more
likely to fix their characteristics upon their progeny.
Then sex undoubtedly has some influence. I mean this: those
of you who have studied Miles Stock Breeding will remember that he
believes that there is nothing in sex per se, that an animal is prepo-
tent because of its breeding or some natural inherited quality and
that the animal is not prepotent because it happens to be a male or
female. Recent investigations indicate that Miles is not correct and
we are beginning to think now that in those animals that are gregari-
ous in a wild state, that is live in famiUes or herds, having several
females and one male, such as horses, cattle, sheep, etc., the male is
naturally more prepotent, although his breeding may be the same.
This has come about from natural selection. There is ever a contest
for leadership of the herd and the result is that only the strongest
males are saved and generally an old male and always a strong one
heads the herd. All the females, both weak and strong, are saved, and
this results in a lower average for the females. It follows then that
the male is always fitter for breeding than the most of the females,
and as this process has been carried on through a very long period
of time, through the workings of natural selection this has probably
become a fixed characteristic in the male, just the same as in the case
of domestic fowls, the cocks have spurs and the hens have not. Pre-
potency has become a male characteristic, just as in certain herds of
350 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
sheep the horns develop on the males, so in some of these breeds in
these gregarious types of animals there has been developed this In-
herent characteristic of the males to be more prepotent. How strong
this prepotency is, is another question, but it undoubtedly exists,
reduced to a practical basis, other things being equal, the bull is more
prepotent than the cow, the stallion is more prepotent than the mare,
the ram is more prepotent than the ewe because of, or as a result of
sex. We can say with perfect truthfulness that the bull is more than
half the herd. We generally say the bull is half the herd, but the
bull is more than half the herd, from the standpoint of the practical
breeder, owing to that inherent quality of the male to fix his' charac-
teristics upon his offspring. So we may say with perfect truthfulness
that the superior bull is more than half the herd and the imi)roved
live stock breeders have one more argument for using pure bred
males.
In connection with the subject of sex as a factor in prepotency,
there are some illustrations that will be interesting. When a mare
is bred to* a jack, the result is a mule that more nearly resembles the
jack than the mare, in form at least. If a jennet is bred to a stallion,
the result is an animal that is nearer like a horse than a mule. The
hinny is more like a horse than a mule. In both cases the male has
fixed on his offspring those characteristics that make up the external
form. It is true that the mule is sometimes colored like the mare,
but the form of the mule will resemble the jack more than the mare,
and the form o£ the hinny will be more like the horse than the jen-
net.
I want to make a statement, and if it is not true, you may correct
me. A Shorthorn cow bred to a prepotent Angus bull wiH produce
generally a black hornless calf, but if you breed an Angus cow to a
Shorthorn bull, the result is always a blue-gray calf, and it frequently
has horns. Tell me if that is not true. That is the result of my ob-
servation. That shows again that the male is more prepotent. When
you use the Shorthorn bull, you get horns and color like the Shorthorn,
and when you use the Angus bull the calf seldom has horns and is
black in color. This shows that the males of certain kinds of animals
are more prepotent.
There are certain kinds of animals where the females are equally
prepotent with the males. This is true of all tTiose animals that tend
to pair, especially all kinds of pigeons and even in domestic fowls the
male is possibly not more prepotent than the female, but particularly
the pigeon. Experiments indicate that the female is as prepotent as
the male where animals do not run in herds, and the male is no fitter
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 351
for breeding than the* female. This is true, of course, with cats, and
is also true of wild animals, like the lions and tigers, etc.
Environment is another controlling factor. The nutrition of the
animal, amount of exercise and other conditions have something to
<io with the ability of the animal to fix his characteristics upon his off-
spring. When an animal is in the best possible condition physical-
ly, he ih in the best possible condition to fix his characteristics upon
his offspring. That is not always true. Certain kinds of feed may
have something to do with this matter, or in some cases certain
methods of feeding.
There are at the present time, to my knov^ledge, just two great
stations that are conducting experiments along this line, and I wish
to call your attention to one of these because I hope to bring out
some discussion on this subject. At Halle, in Germany, there is be-
ing carried on at the present time the most extended experiments in
crossing ever undertaken in the world. Dr. Julius Kuhn, the Direc-
tor, is crossing domestic animals with wild animals, the swine with
the wild boar and the female of the wild hog with the domestic
males. He is crossing domestic cattle with the bison. He is cross-
ing the cow with the musk ox and with the Indian cattle or zebus.
He is crossing the zebras and the jacks to common mares, and by all
these combinations he is attempting to discover some of the questions
that have to do with crossing, and his results up to the present time,
so far as I am able to judge, prove that what we have believed to be
true of crossing is true, that crossing tends to break up the character-
istics of the improved breeds of live stock, and that particularly so
after the first cross. The first cross is generally successful, but the
second is invariably a failure. If you should breed together a pre-
potent Angus and Shorthorn, the result would probably be a good
animal, but the result of that cross used for other breeding would
beget a lot of mongrels. That has been Dr. Kuhn's experience all
the way through. He* has succeeded in producing the most inferior
lot of hogs I ever saw; worse than any razor-backs that you can find
in the United States, and he has produced them from the best breeds
of hogs, simply by crossing.
There is another man that is doing a great deal for live stock
breeding, and that is Prof. F. Cossar Ewart of Edinburgh University.
You may have read about his famous experiments. He began with a
desire to investigate the subject of telegony, or the influence of a
previous impregnation. It is claimed by some that if a mare is bred
to a jack, the union resulting in a mule, if that same mare is the next
time bred to a stallion of her own breed, the result may have some
3.')2 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
mulish characteristics. This is generallv believed, I think, by most
farmers and breeders. If you breed a prepotent Angus cow to a
Shorthorn bull, this theory holds that the Angus cow is in some
respects forever after a cross, and if you afterwards breed her t'.
an Angus bull, she may drop calves that have some Shorthorn char-
acteristics. This is widely believed by all of the best breeders in
England and by many in this country. Many leading scientists like
Agazzis, Darwin, Spencer and others believed that this was pos-
•
sible. Prof. Ewart used in his experiments a male BurchelFs zebra.
He bred several mares to this zebra, producing several hybrids.
These mares were then bred to stallions of their owu breeds and in
these seven or eight years experiments he has not been able to
m
find that the previous sire in any way influenced the progeny. Still
one might try thousands of experiments and not find such a case,
and then the thousandth might show such an influence. The con-
tention is that such a thing sometimes happens, not that it fre-
quently happens, and it certainly is worthy of investigation.
I hope the Missouri Experiment Station will take up some work
of this kind. You can readily see that this kind of work is expensive.
When a man uses these animals for experiments, the animals have
no commercial value, and it takes money, but it should be done, and
the Missouri Experiment Station should take up some work in this
line. The Missouri Experiment Station is doing a great work, and
should lead also in discovering the truths so important to breeders.
I hope the breeders of improved live stock in this State will co-
operate with the Missouri Experiment Station in this work and help
us to carry it on.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. I would like to ask, in order to secure prepotency
and a prepotent type of animal, is in-breeding advisable and neces-
sary?
Prof. Mumford. — I suppose if you would ask a physician if it
were advisable to give a certain strong medicine for some disease, he
would hesitate in answering, but probably he himself would give it.
In my opinion in-breeding is like a powerful medicine, exceedingly
valuable and necessary when administered judiciously, but in the
hands of the unskilled it may often result in failure. My experience
with it has been both favorable and unfavorable. I bred Shropshire
ewes to their sires and the results were very satisfactory. Four
Shorthorn cows were bred to their sire and one of the calves was
extra good, but the other three were weak and inferior. Two of
them died at birth and the other died a short time afterwards.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 363
Does anyone know of colts from a stallion-bred mare that had
been previously bred to a jack that showed mulish characteristics?
If you do, I want to find just such a case, and I would travel a long-
ways to see one.
Mr. King. — ^You spoke of prepotency of the male in gregarious
animals. You also said the development of spurs and presumably
tusks, etc., because the male had to fight for his place at the head of
the herd, had l^y the process of evolution become a sexual charac-
teristic. Does that prove that he and his ancestors begot better
chickens or that they had prepotency? Does the f^ct that the male
hog wins his place for the leadership of the herd, because he and^
his ancestors had hig tusks, prove that they also possessed pre-
potency?
Prof. Mumford.— Not at all. That does not have anything to do
with it. I brought that forward as an illustration of the fact that
there are certain sexual characteristics developed in certain kinds 61
animals from some cause. The argument was this : If these charac-
teristics developed as sexual characteristics," if they came to be pe-
culiar to the male sex, and are transmitted to the offspring of that
sex, as we know they are, we may also be justified in believing that
it is possible that the male sex may also develop the characteristic
which we call prepotency, the ability to fix its characteristics upon
its offspring. Not that the development of spurs is related neces-
sarily to prepotency at all; but the very fact that there are sexual
characteristics, such as these mentipned, leads us to believe that it
may be that prepotency may become a sexual characteristic.
Mr. King. — If I recollect rightly, you mentioned these charac-
teristics as belonging to gregarious animals. Are not some of these
characteristics also true of animals that pair?
Prof. Mumford. — Secondary sexual characters may belong to
animals that pair as well as gregarious animals.
Mr. King. — ^You spoke of the lion as an animal that pairs. The
male lion always has a mane.
Prof. Mumford. — ^The only point I tried to establish was that
prepotency might be a sexual characteristic, that there might be
developed in the male that sexual characteristic that we call prepo-
tency. We believe that is true, and because we observe that ^he
male can develop other sexual characteristics and transmit them,
we do not see why he could not develop prepotency and transmit it.
Mr. King. — I did not mean to suggest for a moment that he could
not, but my suggestion is, the fact that he has developed spurs from
A-23
354 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
one cause does not suggest to me that he may develop prepotency
unless the same cause would produce prepotency.
Prof. Mumford. — You see the same cause would not produce
this effect. The spur is produced by reason of the necessity of the
animal to fight and win his way. Prepotency may be developed from
an entirely different cause. Sometimes an animal develops certain
characteristics from one cause and other characteristics from an
entirely different cause. Prepotency is developed from an entirely
different cause from the necessity for fighting. There are innumer-
able causes producing various results in the great cycle of evolution.
Mr. Hall. — If the necessity of fighting is the cause of these
characteristics of spurs, etc., I suppose after a f6w years sharp horns
will go away altogether.
Prof. Mumford. — We do find domestic animals without horns.
But you are introducing a very conflicting lot of conditions, sucR as
the artificial condition of domestication and man's selection. Man
wants the horns such a size and shape and he selects them then in
accordance with his wishes.
Mr. King. — Mr. Hall has stated that question in such a way
that I can succeed in conveying my idea now. Where can you find
the necessity for prepotency? That is the idea I tried to get at, and
Mr. Hall has helped me.
Prof. Mumford. — We have no reason to presume that charac-
teristics are developed only as the result of necessity. They are
often developed for other reasons. Necessity is one great and con-
trolling reason why certain characteristics may be brought about,
but degeneration is going on, environment, surroundings and disease
are also controlling factors. There are nutritive necessities and
physiological necessities. It may be necessary for the male to be
more prepotent than the female because he fixes his characteristics
upon far more individuals than the female. The female only pro-
duces a limited number of young while the male produces thousands
and that may be the necessity for the male to be more prepotent than
the female.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 355
THE TUBERCULIN TEST.
By D. F. Luckey, State Veterinarian, Columbia, Mo.
The fact that tuberculosis is a highly contagious disease among cat-
tle and that it exists to-day to a greater or less extent among some
of the herds from which Missouri breeders are accustomed to se-
lect animals make some means for diagnosing it almost indispen-
sible. Owing to the apparent fear that the tuberculin test may
not be reliable and altogether harmless and that it still might be
forced upon them by arbitrary live stock sanitary authorities a great
many cattlemen entertain a prejudice against its use. I want to
say that in its discussion to-day that I shall attempt to state the
truth in regard to it and shall not advocate forcing its use upon
the people. I have confidence in the eminent work of the tuber-
culin test and am sure that when the breeders of Missouri understand and
comprehend its value they will use it as their interest demands without
any coercion. The main idea I have in view in choosing this subject for
this meeting was to discuss it candidly before a Missouri audience with
special reference to its use for the benefit of Missouri herds. I do not
hesitate to say that I think the tuberculin test will soon be regarded as a
boon by Missouri cattle breeders. It is plain to be seen how, by its proper
use, the introduction of tuberculosis can be wholly preyented. For that
reason I take pleasure in introducing Missouri cattlemen to a friend with
whom I am glad to say a great many of them are already well acquainted.
Tuberculin is a glycerine extract from cultures of tubercle bacilli.
It was discovered by Koch in his efforts to find a cure for consumption.
It is a liquid put up in hermetically sealed bottles and is free from all
kinds of germs. Its use consists in injecting small quantities beneath the
skin of the animal and taking observations of any change in the tem-
perature that may be caused thereby. A marked rise in the tem-
perature following in from nine to sixteen hours after the injection
indicates that the animal injected is tuberculous.
In testing a dairy herd over a year ago I took the temperatures of
ninety- four head of cows at 2, 5 and 8 p. m. and injected 2 c. c. tuber-
culin into each animal at 9 p. m. The next day starting at 6 a. m. I took
their temperatures every two hours at 6, 8, 10, 12 and 2. On the first day
the temperatures averaged about loi, which is normal. On the second day
in forty-eight head they were practically the same and in fifty-six . head
they were up considerably, varying from 105.5 to 107.3 degrees. These
reactions were decided, showing tuberculosis in fifty-six cattle, and tht
356 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT,
post-mortem in* those that were killed showed that the test was accurate.
It is worthy of note that the cattle of this same dairy were tested about
twelve months before and were found free from tuberculosis. Only a
few head of cows were introduced into the herd during the year, some
of which were tuberculous. The rapid spread of the disease was due to
the fact that the cattle were fed on a plane surface before the row of stalls
in which they stood so that they could eat with each other. Besides, in clean-
ing, the leavings were swept along in front of the stalls from one fteding
space over another to the end of the row. The sweeping was always in
one direction and the disease spread in the same direction as the sweep-
ing. In one row containing eighteen stalls a tuberculous cow, during the
year, was introduced into stall No. 5 and spread tuberculosis' to all the
others in the same row in the direction in which the sweeping was done.
The four head in the othfer direction were healthy.
This particular test is mentioned in detail to explain the methods used
in applying it and to show what might happen in any herd of cattle if
tuberculous cattle are introduced. The owner of this herd disposed of his
tuberculous cows and now tests all new stock with tuberculin and by its
use prevents the further introduction of tuberculosis.
In this test, as in all others I have made, I found that absolutely no
harm was done to any of the cows by the injection. The owners of the
herds that I have tested all testify to this effect. In careful hands the
tuberculin test is almost infallible. In a small per cent of cattle con-
demned and slaughtered as a result of this test, it is true that no lesions of
tuberculosis have been found. It is possible that the lesions were over-
looked, but if they were absent, contrary to the indications of the tuber-
culin test, the number of such cases is so small that the fact remains that
the tuberculin test is about as perfect as any work of the human hand,
and it is by far the most reliable of all means for the diagnosis of tuber-
culosis.
It is impossible to give the exact statistics, but a large per cent, of
many of the best herds in England are tuberculous. The disease is very
common in other European countries. This fact is shown by the offi-
cial test of imported cattle. In the Eastern states of the United States
where tuberculosis was neglected too long it has spread among the cattle
to an alarming extent. In Massachusetts, Connecticut and Pennsylvania
the strongest possible efforts have been made to eradicate it. In Pennsyl-
vania where the most practical methods and large appropriations are em-
ployed in combatting it, a biennial appropriation of $40,000 being used for
that purpose, the best report that can be given of the work is "the fre-
quency of tuberculosis in the infected herds in the State has been reduced
more than one-half and the number of infected herds have been greatly
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 357
diminished." In Missouri the examination of herds for tuberculosis has
been somewhat limited, but all indications are that very few herds are
affected.
Only one dairy herd has been found tuberculous and only two herd
bulls of the beef breeds have reacted. The bulls have been isolated and will
be re-tested later on. It is safe to say that Missouri herds are now practi-
cally free from tuberculosis.
Viewing the situation as we find it today some important questions
arise. Without any efforts on our part can we expect our herds always
to remain free from tuberculosis ? What are the breeders and dairymen
going to do about this matter? Are they going to formulate effective
plans for preventing tuberculosis and employ, if necessary, the tuberculin
test, or are they going to let the purest prejudice close their minds to the
facts in regard to these matters ?
Only recently I was present at a post-mortem on a bull which had
been" shipped from England to be placed at the head of a splendid herd
of Missouri Shorthorns. This bull reacted to the tuberculin test that was
applied by the agent of the Bureau of Animal Industry on his arrival in
this country. He was shipped to the herd in Missouri and kept in quar*
antine for a short while awaiting a re-test. In the meantime he died of
blackleg and an opportunity was afforded to test the accuracy of the tuber-
culin. Four veterinarians present agreed that his lungs were tuberculous
and pieces of the diseased tissue are preserved for examination by any
one who is interested in the matter. I hope the significance of this inci-
dent will be noted by all the breeders and dairymen in the State. Con-
template for awhile the results that may have come from the introduction
of this bull into the herd for which he was intended and then decide
whether or not you think it will be best for you to take the precaution
necessary to prevent the introduction of any tuberculous animal into your
own herd.
There are some valid objections to the tuberculin test. One is that
it is not reliable when applied to cattle that are excited from any cause.
This can easily be avoided, however, by simply having the cattle in their
natural surroundings when the test is made. This test should not be ap-
plied to cattle en route. Another objection, and the gravest menace to the
test, is that one injection prevents a reaction even in tuberculous animals
from a subsequent test which is repeated in a short while. This leaves a
chance for the preparation of the animal to resist the test and mistakes
may be caused in this way. These things must be taken into consideration
and if the breeders and dairymen decide to make use of their friend they
may also decide to overlook and correct his faults.
358 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Sotham. — I understand you accept Dr. Koch's idea that tuber-
culosis cannot be communicated from cattle to the human family and it
is all right to use the milk of tuberculous cows.
Dr. Luckey. — That is a matter which is, in the first place, out of my
province, belonging to the State Board of Health. It is a subject that has
been disputed by the best authorities and I can point you to authorities
equal to Dr. Koch, who hold exactly opposite views as to the communi-
cation of tuberculosis from cattle to the human family. That is a matter
of no particular interest to veterinarians ; what we want to do is to keep
it from spreading among the herds and let the human family look out for
itself. We do not want to overstep our bounds.
Mr. . — Give us an idea of how quickly a herd is infected with
tuberculosis, how soon it becomes infected after a tuberculous animal is
brought into the herd.
Dr. Luckey. — The questions are capable of varied answers, the ex-
tremes of rapidity and slowness with which tuberculosis may spread. I
know of a herd into which half a dozen cattle were introduced in a dairy
barn where the owner thought he had the most perfect sanitary condi-
tions. These few head of cattle were introduced into the barn that at the
time I tested them contained 94 cows and they spread tuberculosis among
the herd until 56 cows out of the 94 were affected in about nine months.
That is an extreme. I would advise against common feeding spaces.
Where the animal is kept in a stall where it does not eat with others, it is
possible to keep an animal for years without its infecting another animal.
Mr. Sotham. — You object to the common feeding troughs. You
want to keep each animal in an individual feeding trough by itself.
' Dr. Luckey. — The common feeding trough is about the worst thing
you can have for the herd. When we study this matter properly we will
quit using the common feeding trough.
Mr. . — In the case of the eighteen cows you spoke of in one
row of stalls. Were not the thirteen affected on account of sweeping in
the direction of the thirteen ?
. Dr. Luckey. — Yes.
Mr. . — How about herds in open pastures ?
Dr. Luckey. — It has been found in the ranches of Montana that a
few tuberculous bulls have spread the disease to other cattle, but you can
see for yourselves that the disease is not so apt to spread in the open range.
The cattle shipped from the open country to the markets here do not
show the same per cent diseased as the cattle in parts of the country
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 359
more thickly settled where they are more confined. Reason teaches
us that and facts justify that conclusion.
Mr. . — Is that caused by the confinement or because of less
association ?
Dr. Luckey. — The latter altogether.
Mr. . — Are watering places as apt to spread contagion as feed-
ing troughs ?
Dr. Luckey. — Not so apt to do so. They do not lick the edge of the
watering troughs as they do the feeding troughs, nevertheless, I would
not want to water my cattle with a tuberculous animal.
Mr. Sotham. — Is not tuberculosis most ccwumonly found in the dairy
breeds of cattle?
Dr. Luckey. — It will spread in any herd in which it is introduced. I
do not think the breed has anything to do with it. As far as my experience
goes, I think one animal in a healthy condition has about as great power
of resistance of tuberculosis as another.
Prof. Mumford. — I was going to ask Dr. Luckey one question. At
the Michigan Experiment Station some years ago a whole herd became in-
fected with tuberculosis and the infected a^nimals were isolated and treat-
ed for a few years and some recovered and were returned to the herd as
perfect animals. I want to know if that is possible for animals that were
once affected with tuberculosis.
Dr. Luckey. — It is my opinion that these cattle did not recover in the
true sense of the word, that is the disease was not entirely removed from
their systems. We know that nature has great power of overcoming dis-
ease. A study of the pathology of tuberculosis teaches us that in many
cases nature throws around the lesions fibrous substance that prevents its
contact with other parts of the body almost as perfectly as if the lesions
were on the outside of the animaFs body. Medical students tell me they
often meet with cases of lesions in dissecting that have been surrounded
by nature and have lain dormant there for years and the person had lived
on until he died of old age. Cases like these we speak of as recoveries
from tuberculosis. I think the pathology of the disease thoroughly studied
would indicate that there is never any complete recovery of tuberculosis,
and at any time nature should withdraw this preventioh, the disease is
likely to break out again with renewed vigor.
Prof. Mumford. — Will such animals as you speak of show any re-
action from the tuberculin test ?
Dr. Luckey. — I can see how nature would so separate these lesions
from the rest of the body that we could get no reaction from the tuber-
culin test. I would feel safe in putting them with my herd because I
would think that none of the germs would infect other cattle.
360 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REt^ORt.
Col. Waters. — I would like to ask Prof. Miimford and Dr. Luckey
if they are acquainted with the experiment of the Minnesota Experiment
Station where they tried the tuberculin test and made a postmortem ex-
amination after killing a number of the cattle ? I was present the day the
killing was done and Dr. Reynolds, the veterinarian in North Dakota,
prophesied what their condition would be. He stated that there was no
positive recovery, but that the lesions of tuberculosis would still be found
in the lungs. Three of these animals were killed and the very statement
of the veterinarian as to what we would find came true. In cases of ap-
parent recovery there were plainly found tubercles covered over witli
tissue so that the disease did not get out into the system, but they were
there and would never be absolutely eliminated and the recovery was only
an apparent and not an absolute one. That was his idea and I believe it
is correct.
Mr. King. — The recovery was temporary and might prove to be per-
manent.
Col. Waters. — Permanent, so long as the tubercles remained isolated
from the rest of the body, but the weakening of the system or the ap-
proach of some other ailment might turn the tuberculosis loose again.
That was the teaching of this veterinarian. I remember the lecture dis-
tinctly, possibly because the veterinarian pointed out before the aninial
was killed what we would find in his lungs. The animal had been treat-
ed on the open prairie and allowed the full benefit of air and sunshine and
had apparaitly recovered so that he had failed to respond to the tuberculin
test.
m
Mr. . — At what stage in the progress of this disease is there
outward symptom or sign that we can recognize it ?
Dr. Luckey. — I could not describe. As a rule when the vital organs
become affected to any extent some symptoms begin to develop.
Mr. Abbot. — Is a cough an indication of tuberculous infection?
Would you have occasion to suspect on account of a cough that an animal
was troubled with tuberculosis rather than something else?
Dr. Luckey. — A cough is, you might say, always present in advanced
stages of tuberculosis of the lungs, but at the same time there are numer-
ous causes for coughs and a cough is no certain symptom that we could
use in diagnosing the disease.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 361
PURE BRED STOCK ON THE FARM.
By John F. Coulter, Excello, Mo.
The business of breeding pure bred stock is at once remunerative,
elevating and fascinating. Let us consider the subject first in its most im-
portant light, the remunerative side of the question, which necessarily
comes in for first consideration in all avocations. First, because there is
nothing more important to man than food, raiment, shelter, home, etc.,
all of which are but different forms of benefits derived from our avocation.
The subject of pure bred stock on the farm is one that can be considered
with profit, by the great mass of farmers the entire length and breadth of
the land, without respect to locality. With but few exceptions the testi-
mony is unanimous from the fine stock breeders of the country as to the
success with pure breds, the entire length and Sreadth of our country.
Many no doubt would be surprised to know the great disposition at the
present time of farmers in states not now known as stock breeding states
to engage in the business. A single day's mail frequently brings the
breeder inquiries and orders from coast to co^t of our country and from
Canada.
The man of average intelligence needs only to glance at the market
reports or a visit to any of the great markets to see the wide difference in
price of the well bred animal and the mongrel. Then, the. high grade ani-
mal being possible only by the use of the pure bred sire, the importance of
the pure bred is at once established. Then the question arises : "Wh^ is
to be the perpetuator of the pure bred ? Must it be only a few specialists ?"
We answer no not necessarily. Although the specialist will ever be the
mainstay to the business and will be the one who will maintain that high
standard necessary to the advancement or permanancy of the breed, the
mass of the farmers should all breed pure breds. The would-be breeder
hesitates to enter the business mainly because he fears his ability to secure
the fancy prices being obtained by the well established breeder. I find
this to be the hindering cause above all others. There is hardly a man to
be found who is not sufficiently posted as to the superior advantages of
the pure bred over the ill bred, and he becomes more anxious to engage
in the breeding of same than the breeder who has the stock to sell him,
and he is at once a ready buyer when he sees his way clear to financial
gain. I have this argument for the man who has now reached this point :
he must not expect to at first be able to sell his output of surplus stock at
362 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
a price equal to that of the breeder who has given years of toil, stu(l}\
time and money in advertising and the establishing of his now lucrative
business. But the new investor can well afford to sell at prices readily
obtainable the country over, of at least twice that of the common stock of
same age. He should sell only his males and keep all females that are
suitable to build upon until they have entirely supplemented the scrub or
graded stock of the farm. In this way a farm can soon be stocked entirely
with pure breds from the smallest fowl to the most important animal
kept at small expense and from a very small beginning. No one at this
day need to be told that uniformity, easy fattening qualities, early matur-
ity are valuable qualities. All know it. Which qualities can be had only
by the use of registered or pure bred sires. All, or nearly all, are ready to
breed them if they only could believe they would be able to sell their sur-
plus as others are doing, financial gain being assured. The breeder
soon finds that this is not all the good to come to the breeder of pure bred
stock.
The calling is elevating, mentally and morally. It wields a great in-
fluence for good over those who own and handle them, the boys of the
farm and those who are hired to care for the pure bred stock feed them
better, handle them more quietly, regard them more tenderly, because of
their superior qualities an4 unusual value, and are by this benefited
by refining influences and associations of their stock, fatted, well kept
charges of which they are justly proud, and thus by the influences
wrought upon the men and boys of the farm, and by the increased
interest taken in leading stock journals and the congenial associa-
tions of fellow breeders of like refinements, the entire household is
reached and pervaded with this elevating influence, fascinating also.
The great interest manifest in every breeder of pure bred stock leads
to such a deep study of the great breeding problems and to such earnest
expectations for the visible evidences of his judgment in the plans and
experiments all made with a full determination of improvement on the
types at hand and financial gain that it stops at nothing short of fas-
cination.
In view of the many advantages of the pure bred animal over the
mongrel, who in this age of progress will persist in toiling in the old rul
of f ogyism ? Using scrub, or graded sires, each year depriving themselves
and families of the abundant reward in store for the industrious, energetic,
progressive, up-to-date breeder of pure bred stock.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 363
THE ANGORA GOAT INDUSTRY.
By Wm .T. Mclntire, Kansas City, Mo.
The American Angora Goat Breeders' Association was organized at
Kansas City in March, 1900, with a membership of a few enterprising An-
gora Goat owners. The Association at once put out Uterature pertaining
to the Angora Goat industry in this and foreign countries, made up from
their own knowledge, from Government reports furnished by Hon. Jas.
Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture at Washington, and from information
given by the oldest breeders in the country. The information thus se-
cured was put before the breeders and others that could be reached in the
United States.
For the benefit of the Association and Angora Goat breeders in gen-
eral, a paper called the "American Angora," to further collect and dis-
seminate matters of interest pertaining to the Angora Goat industry, was
started in Kansas City. The first issue of this paper came out in Febru-
ary, 1901. The paper has done good work in furthering the interests of
the industry.
By October, 1900, we had more than one hundred members in the
association, which consisted of some of the best breeders in the United
States. In that month we held at Kansas City the first annual exhibition
and sale, which proved to be the greatest ever held in this country up to
that time. The widespread interest manifested spread throughout the
country ; many thousands of Angoras were purchased by farmers through-
out the East and Middle West from Southern and Western breeders. One
hundred more new memberships were taken out by those who had em-
barked in this industry.
Our second annual exhibition and sale came oflf in October of this year.
This brought together nearly all of the principal Angora Goat breeders in
the United States, competing in friendly rivalry for the large cash pre-
miums offered by the Association. It is doubtful if any such exhibition
oi Angoras was ever held in the world. The public sale that followed
brought out the true value of Angora Goats as the most profitable of all
farm animals. As high as $1,050 was paid for one single animal, ont
brought as high as $500, many $200, and from these figures down to $5,
$10 and $15 per head for large numbers, the total sales being nearly two
thousand head. The highest prices were paid by old breeders who knew
how to appreciate the true value of fine Angora Goats.
364 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
V
The results of the October show and sale brought many more new
members to the Association. The more complete information given to
the world through all the various channels since the last show and sale
has had a wonderful effect on the industry. New memberships are com-
ing into the Association daily. At this time it numbers over two hundred
and fifty of the best breeders in the United States. The industry is on
the upward tendency.
Angora Goats produce mohair of which the finest and most durable
fabrics are made, consisting of fine plushes used in upholstering palace
cars and fine furniture. Also dress goods, fine underwear, hats and many
other articles of constant use are made. Many large manufactures are
being erected to produce these articles from mohair.
Angora venison is a most delicious meat, second to none, and can
now be found on the bill of fare of the best hotels. Angora Goats are
farm cleaners and farm reclaimers. They are browsers as well as grazers.
They clean the farm of all underbrush and weeds, thereby doubling and
thribbling the value of the lands on which they exist. It is known that the
Angoras have been put on brush and weedy lands not worth more than a
few dollars per acre and in two years, after they had cleaned off the brush
and weeds, the same land was worth $15 to $20 per acre for other animals
to pasture on or for agricultural purposes.
Angoras are healthy, hardy and prolific, taking care of themselves at
all times. The only extra care is to keep them out of cold, sleety rains in
winter and early spring. Cold weather does not affect them. They do
well in any climate. No other domestic animal can rival the Angora Goat
in giving remunerative returns on the investment made. The day is not
far distant when their glossy fleece will shine from many thousand hill
tops in this country.
DISCUSSION.
Col. Waters. — I would like to ask you if you think the Angora Goat
would thrive and do well on a pasture that is entirely covered with brush ?
Mr. Mclntire. — ^Yes, sir ; they will live and thrive on brush.
Col. Waters. — There are thousands of acres of land in the Ozark re-
gion of South Missouri which are covered with White Oak, Post Oak*
and Black Jack, and it occurred to me that there was a vast waste in that
section of the State which might be utilized if the goats would thrive on
brush alone.
Mr. Mclntire. — They will, no doubt. You can take the southern part
of Missouri and the northern half of Arkansas and goats would live and
do well there. I have been in the section of the country you have spoken
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 365
of and have sold a great many goats there, in fact all the farmers bought
that could afford to buy goats.
Col. Waters. — What amount of fencing is necessary to turn them ?
Mr. Mclntire. — A three-foot fence will turn any goat that has been
raised on the Western range. They are no harder to turn than sheep.
Mr. Walker. — ^What is the average weight of a fleece that can be
clipped from a goat during the season, what is the average price of it, or
in other words, how much money return can you expect from one goat?
Mr. Mclntire. — In reply to Mr. Walker I will say that a registered
Angora Goat will shear about three or four pounds free from burs and
kemp. There are a number of goats that will shear six to seven pounds,
but they are not average goats. I have seen several bucks that would
shear sixteen to seventeen pounds. I sold one fast spring that went over
in Illinois that sheared nearly seventeen pounds.
Mr. King. — What is kemp ?
Mr. Mclntire. — Why, kemp is a second growth hair that will not
take the dye from the mill quite as readily as the mohair. In fact a grade
Angora Goat has two crops of hair. The first one we call kemp and the
second one, mohair. The pure bred Angora is supposed to be free from
kemp.
Mr. . — When the goat has reached a standard of perfection
does it still have kemp ?
Mr. Mclntire. — ^There are only two families of goats in the United
States that are absolutely free of kemp.
Mr. Maitland. — Is there any market for the meat of the goat?
Mr. Mclntire. — We find that the sale of the goat for mutton is just
about the same per pound as mutton. We have been selling thousands
and thousands of them the past five or six years in Kansas City. We had
a banquet in Kansas City on the evening of the 28th of November. We
had about two hundred and fifty guests there from all over the United
States and everyone that partook of the delicious meat pronounced it
very fine.
Mr. Maitland. — Did I understand you to say that the Angora Goat
would not do well on good blue grass pasture?
Mr. Mclntire. — ^They attain their highest development from a weed
and brush pasture.
Mr. . — Are the young kids easily raised?
Mr. Mclntire. — They are very tender until they are about six weeks
old. They do not suckle as often as lambs.
Mr. . — Mr. Chairman to supplement Mr. Mclntire's statement
in regard to the Angora Goat on brush I wish to emphasize the fact that
366 , MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
for the past few years down in Greene county there have been about twen-
ty-five hundred goats turned loose on the range where nothing but brush
is raised and they have done well. These goats were shipped from near
Chicago down there as an experiment.
THE ADVANTAGE OF CORRECTLY COMPILED CATALOGUES
FOR PUBLIC. AND PRIVATE SALES.
By J. P. Hall, Breckenridge, Missouri.
Mf. 'Chairman : — A catalogue is a list of the animals offered for sale.
It is a form of introductory from the breeder or the seller to the buyer.
It should contain a correctly compiled list of the breeding of the animal
offered. In order to present them thoroughly they should contain all ot
the blood lines contained in the make-up or the breeding of the animal
and should show the ancestors both maternal and paternal, also the color,
age and the breeder of both the sire and dam. Pedigrees are judged by
the information given, in the first place by the knowledge of the breeder,
that is the knowledge he has of the herd book and without having a per-
fect knowledge of the herd book he must have some other way of judging
the marks of the pedigree and one that is more permanently impressed on
their minds of the reputation of the breeder. In the breeding at least it
is necessary to know the strain of blood in order to breed stock for special
purposes or in order to mix the blood as it should be mixed to produce
the best results. It is just as necessary to have the knowledge of the
blood lines of the stock as it is for a druggist to have the proper labels on
the bottles in an apothecary shop in order to make the mixtures desired.
I don't know of any particular point that I could bring out that would
help the matter any, except that the pedigrees should be full and complete
and perfectly true to the herd book or the record book. If they are not
they are just the same as false labels on apothecary bottles.
IMPROVED LIVE- STOCK ASSOCIATION. 367
THE PURE BRED VS. THE SCRUB SIRE.
By J. C. Hall, Hallsville, Missouri.
Gentlemen :—^In beginning the discussion of the subject Pure Bred
Sire vs. Scrub, we are met at the outset with the question : Why discuss
it at all ? Do we not all recognize the need of better blood in all kinds of
stock on the farm? This question is like some of the propositions we
used to be called upon to demonstrate in school. Such as "A straight line
is the shortest path between two points," or that "From one point to an-
other, but one straight line may be drawn." So plain it cannot be proven.
Yet with. all its seeming self-evident facts and plainness, we find it neces-
sary each year, yes every day in the yearj to show and attempt to prove
to people the hurtful effects of using scrub, or what is nearly as bad,
mixed bred sires. Just here let it be understood that what we shall say
applies to all kinds of stock. In cattle, among the beef breeds, whether
Angus, Herefords or Shorthorns; in hogs to the Poland Chinas, Berk-
shires, O. I. C. or Durocs ; and in chickens if you have Plymouth Rocks,
Buffs, Wyandottes or what nots, stand by them, keep them pure and im-
prove them along straight lines.
Understand further that to my mind, cross breeding is but little bet-
ter than scrub breeding — only requires a little longer to achieve the same
evil effects. In most cases the cross breeder soon degenerates into the
scrub breeder; when his case is most hopeless, indeed, for having
fallen two degrees, it is almost impossible to reinstate him and set
him on safe ground.
Now in the chicken world, as in most things else, our mothers and
wives are smarter than many of us men. When they wish to purchase
new blood they not only want pure bred roosters, but they like to buy the
"prize winner." They even go so far as to demand to be shown the
"score card." This is the rule at my house and my wife handles mighty
nice chickens.
Then ascending the scale, the sheep men are coming to recognize that
uniform, even, broad-backed flocks, first-class mutton and high-priced
wool, are more rapidly and cheaply obtained by the use of pure bred sires,
followed by intelligent feeding and at least dry housing.
The improvement in sheep raising among the ordinary farmers, un-
der my observation at least, has been greater than any other branch of
live stock husbandry. In my county the call is always for a "full-blood'*
368 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
for a "flockheader," and from this fact the sheep men are to be commend-
ed for the long steps they have taken in the right direction.
To use the vernacular of the day, the hog and cattle people are "up
against it" to keep pace with these wide-awake and pushing wool and
mutton producers. A sheep man's feelings would be wounded should
you try to sell him a grade or scrub sire. But perhaps in no department
•of live stock breeding are the results of using pure blood sires' or the op-
posite so marked as in the case with hogs. Do not think for one moment
that any but pure bred sires should be used on the farm at all. Better
still, if possible, chickens, hogs, dogs, sheep and cattle, should all be eligi-
ble to registry. Such is the case on my place. But with the hogs the use
of pure bred sires can so easily be shown. Feed good hogs and scrubs
side by side and drive them over the scales now and then. Better put
them in different lots, hogs of the same age and weigh or measure out to
them the same feed. The results will convince the dullest. Besides the
improved hog can be fattened at any age, while the scrub must have all
seasons for his own. Then people are so different in mental niake-up, in
their emotions and feelings. We meet men in every community who will
doff their hats to an aristocratic member of the porcine family, whose
pulses would scarcely quicken at sight of Lavender, Viscount, Dandy Rex
or the most superb muUey that ever wore a black and mossy robe.
Still a few hog raisers persist in using grade sires. This number grows
smaller year by year. When they are all dead we can say with the old
Boone county negro woman who had lost six children, "The Lord has
surely lightened our burden by taking away some of our troubles.'* -
As I said before the sheep men are pretty safe. I have great hopes
for the hog people. I believe the day of their deliverance is near at hand
when they can strike hands with the sheep growers and by talking, writ-
ing, experimenting and in many ways become missionaries. They can
forge ahead and not only improve the partner but help to carry the ban-
ner of Pure Bred vs. Scrub into the cattle breeding world. For right here
it seems to me is the great trouble. As our Eastern friends would say:
"Here is the heft of it." To the owner of pure bred cows I need say but
little. Allow me to urge that of the pure bred bulls you find for sale, buy
the best one you can pay for. Get a good one even if you have to pay
$100 more than you had expected to pay. You will like yourself and your
cattle more, your fellow breeders will respect you and buyers will come
further and oftener and pay more money for your calves. Besides you can
have the satisfaction of knowing that you are in line, that you are helping
to carry forward the work, and are not being yourself carried as so much
dead weight.
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 369
To you who own high grade cows, I would say that so far you have
done well. Do you want to stop? Ought you not to go higher? Do you
not want uniformity in coloring, style, finish and feeding qualities ? These
can be obtained only by the use of pure and strong bred sires. If you have
high grade cows let me beg of you not to ruin your future by the use of
some nondescript bull that happens to look well and can be bought for
little money — he is never cheap.
You say you just want to raise beef cattle. You want good beef cat-
tle, do you not ? Do you not know that a good even lot of nicely colored
cattle sell for more money and have been developed and fatted at less cost
than the mixed, long legged, sharp-backed sort ? Take two car loads of
say twenty cattle each. Feed them to same age, give same quantity and
quality of feed, one load, say fall after three years old will average six-*
teen hundred pounds ; the other load, scrub cattle, all colors and shapes,
will weigh about fourteen hundred pounds. Now what is the difference in
value? Any well posted shipper will tell you quickly that $i per hundred
is not enough and when we take into reckoning the two hundred pounds
excess in weight we have for the well bred cattle a difference of at least
$25 per head or $500, a sufficient sum to have purchased a pretty good
pure bred sire.. But to the fellow who says he owns scrub cows, what shall
I say ? Why he is the man who more than all others needs a pure blood bull.
If your load is heavy and you are away down in the mud, put on your best
team and send your most experienced driver. If you are just a little sick
send for the young doctor, but if you are awfully sick send for the most
skilled physician and this you will do regardless of cost. Do you own
scrub cows, sows or ewes ? Buy at once the best pure blood sires you can
find and pay for. The best is none too good. You want to build up.
Having scrub cows you have a long hill to climb, can you get to the sum-
mit too soon ? Life is short, do not waste its precious hours in halfway
measures. Do not crawl when you can run. I know that some of these
cattle people are slow to learn. It is a difficult task to protect a man from
his enemies, more difficult still to protect him from his frien4s, but it
sometimes seems that nothing short of Divine intervention in true Calvin-
istic form will ever be successful in redeeming a man from himself — to
lift him out of the ruts into which thick-headed ignorance and unreason-
ing, mulish, preconceived notions have pushed him. But they will all tell
you they want better blood — ^just better — ^better than they have but not too
good. See! Yes, they say they have been grading up. How do they
know? Do they in many cases know what blood they have been using?
Can any scrub or his owner be pedigreed? If these people want to know
A-24
370 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
where they "are at," let them purchase a pure bred sire and for once give
their good grade cows a decent show to produce some actually good cat-
tle.
But why continue this discussion? If men owning such excuses for
cows as were once owned by the Texas and other range people, could by
the use of pure bred sires, improve their cattle and build up their herds to
their present high state in color, shape, style and fattening qualities — even
making prize winners ; surely owners of grade cows, whether Galloways,
Herefords, Angus or Shorthorns, can in no way more surely benefit their
holdings than by buying at once splendid representatives of these several
breeds for herd headers.
And now in conclusion allow me to add that whatever you do, never,
no never cross breed. If you are an Angus man, be an Angus man. These
cattle are worthy your best thought and energy. If you are a breeder of
Shorthorns, never lower the banner of the red, white and roan by mixing
with any other cattle on earth: If you feel that your money-and love
should be lavished on the beautiful white faced charmers, never cause
them pangs of sorrow and regret that their offsprings are a lot of mon-
grels and scrubs.
Let these principles and practices obtain with you in hogs, sheep and
the chicken world. Everything after its kind was and is the Divine in-
junction.
DISCUSSION.
Prof. F. B. Mumford. — There are some points brought out in Mr.
Hairs paper that it strikes me will be well enough for us to take into con-
sideration and take home with us. Now there are a great many farmers
who have derived good effects by the first cross, as Mr. Hall has told us,
and have reasoned from that that crossing must be a good thing. There
are a great many not only ordinary farmers, but there have been a
great many experienced breeders that have undertaken in times past
to double the price of animals by means of crossing. Now that is a very
taking idea I know. If you can breed together and produce an animal that
will have the beef qualities of the Shorthorn and the dairy qualities of the
Jersey, that would be a very desirable result if it could be brought about.
In the first cross you are more apt to get the beef qualities of the Jersey
than the milking qualities of the beef Shorthorn. It is sometimes true
that the first cross produces a good result, the second cross, the experience
of all those who have tried it proves, is very likely to result in failure.
Now crossing breaks up the well fixed characteristic of a breed and it is
dangerous, crossing is dangerous. The second crossing results more
often in producing mongrels that are even worse than the scrubs that you
IMPROVED LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. 371
first bought. There are many cases where this can be shown to be true.
You take in the case of the breeding of horses in many states of this
Union, and I am sorry to say that it is true in many places of the State of
Missouri, breed part of the time to draft horses and part of the time to
saddle horses and then again to coach horses, trotting horses and the result
has been that in many sections of the State of Missouri the horses are worse
than scrubs, they are mongrels. The same is true of cattle fti certain states.
There are certain states east of us that have bred their beef breeds to Jerseys,
Holsteins, Guernseys and so on and have produced grade dairy animals, then
when beef cattle came up they have gone back to breeding beef animals
and the result is that they have a lot of mongrels and mixed cattle and it
is one of the greatest mistakes that a man ever made. Now the crossing
of beef breeds is the least dangerous, but it is questionable, very question-
able if it is profitable ever, as Mr. Hall says, to change the breeding type
of an animal by introducing the blood of some other breed. A good herd
of Shorthorn cows is never improved in the long run by breeding to
Herefords or Angus or any other breed of stock. I believe that principle
cannot be questioned notwithstanding the fact that the first cross is fre-
quently attended with good results, but it is a well known fact that the
second cross is frequently attended with failure. I think that the breeders
of pure bred live stock cannot bear down on this principle too forcibly.
OP
THE MULE BEST *) ALL.
By L. M. Monsees, Smithton, Mo.
What few words I may say in favor of the mule is from my own ex-
perience and observation. In the first place the most essential part is,
the mule is a sure money maker. I, one of a large number of men, tried
to make money out of the horse and went broke. Then I went back to
the mule, and ever since have been making good money. Now do not un-
derstand me to say, that there is no money in the horse, for I think that
there is good money in the horse, if a man is smart enough to grow and
educate the right kind and then smart enough to find a buyer at a good
price; and when you grow and educate one and have him ready for the
market, you sure are compelled to get a good price for him or you will
come out in debt. I have bred, raised and educated a few good horses
which I sold at very good prices, but while I was growing these few good
ones, I also raised a number which did not bring the price of a second-
class mule, and the cheap ones were equally as well bred as the high-priced
372 . MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ones. Please do not understand me to say that there is nothing in pedi-
grees, for that is one of the most essential things in breeding any kind
of stock. You can raise a good mule out of a fairly well bred mare and
a well bred jack, but I have never yet seen or heard of a horse breeder
that had his herd of brood mares well enough bred to raise all good
ones. You may raise two horses — full brothers or full sisters or full
brother and sisfer, as the case may be — one a first-class horse the other
very common, not worth the price of a fourteen hand mule. While there
have been hundreds of men who failed in handling horses, there have been
a very small number who have ever lost any money in handling mules. A
fine horse is all right, but if we all had to depend on raising fine horses
for a living, there would be a great many poor, hungry men looking for
a job* Any of you farmers and stock raisers who have had a little expe-
rience along that line can observe two of your neighbor boys or young
men start out to do business for themselves and to make money farming
and growing stock. One goes into the fine horse business and the other
into the mule business ; they both come to you for a little favor — in the
way of borrowing some money. The chances ar^ that you will gladly
let the mule man have the money without any question and inform the
other party that you are afraid of the horse business and will not likely
grant him the accommodation. If a man had one horse and one mule,
and that was all he had on earth, and thie man should die the chances are,
that the mule would go to pay his funeral expenses and the horse be left
on the administrator's hands. And, if he did not dispose of him very
soon, he would likely come out^n debt and be loser in the transaction. The
"Mule best of all," because he does the work that raises the corn, oats and
other feed to grow the horse and produces the energy that makes the grain
that feeds our cattle, hogs, sheep and other stock, that make our meats.
There is nothing but the mule that can go down South and do the work
successfully to grow our cotton which makes the bulk of our clothing. It
is nothing but the mule that can stand the difficult labor on the sugar
plantation. It is nothing but the hardy mule that can go down into our
mines and stand the darkness and heavy work in handling the Coal that
runs our engines and fuel for our use. It is nothing but the mule that can
successfully do the railroad work. We will have to have the mule as long
as we work hired help, raise cotton and corn, cultivate sugar plantations,
build railroads and work the coal and other mines.
The horse I consider all right, the cow is all right, the hog is all right,
the sheep is all right and many other animals are all right, but the mule I
consider by far the best of all.
Session of State Grange.
A BALANCED EDUCATION.
By W. T. Carrington, State School Superintendent.
The great question with us who feel deep interest in the schools is
how to round out properly the common school work so as to prepare the
95 per cent of the children (who attend no other) for the responsible
duties that may fall to them in whatever position in life they may be called
and at the same time fit and prepare the one in twenty for entrance upon
a higher course of school training. Too long did the opinion prevail that
the higher education consisted of formal and abstract presentations and
conceptions and in the study of the vehicle of thought rather than of
thought itself. The demands of these higher institutions were such that
the lower grades and preparatory schools, as they were called, had the
entrance requirement of the school next above them so in mind that this
largely determined what was undertaken as well as the character of the
work done.
In more recent years there have been two general conclusions reached
having great influence in determining the points involved. The most im-
portant is that formal and expressive work of the school' are best done
when they are outgrowths of the thinking and doing work — that reading
is best taught when the child reads to learn something — ^that the child spells
best when the words convey to his mind living, burning ideas — ^that writ-
ing becomes easy for him who practices it as a means of expressing his own
conclusions — that correct speech becomes a habit to him whose efforts to
convey definite thoughts of his own are well directed.
This has opened the way to the introduction into our school curricu-
lum such subjects as make it worth while to study them for their own
sake and the doing of such things as are wortJi doing if the doing was
all there was to it. The introduction of such subjects does not detract
from the amount or character of the first work done. This has led
to the study of children and principles of education — to the balancing
of the curriculum.
374 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
This has in turn brought us to the conclusion that what is best for the
child that stops his school career at the end of the fourth, the sixth or the
eighth grade is also best for that one fortunate enough to have the privi-
lege and inclination to push forward to more advanced fields of learning.
So while I would provide shops for manual, industrial and art work and
laboratories for original investigation and experiments in the sciences
along with libraries for individual research in the humanities in the sec-
ondary and higher institutions and thus balance the practical over against^
but not in lieu of, the disciplinary work of these schools, I would not for-
get that something of the same sort of influences and like trends should
animate and control the spirit of the lower grades and rural school
work. This being true, should not the child's local envirpnments, the
natural aspects of life to him and his community, affect very much the
subject matter of what is taught, but not in reality change the purposes
of the school ? We should first establish the purposes of the school and
then discover the best means of accomplishing these purposes.
The question of first importance is "What should the schools do for
the children ?" In answering this question we should not lose sight of the
facts that not to exceed 50 per cent of the children of our State remain in
school long enough to go through what is known as the "Fourth Grade ;*'
that not to exceed one in ten finish the equivalent of a thorough common
school course and not to exceed one in twenty ever enter a secondary
school. In discussing the question let us have in mind the children in pri-
mary departments more than the college or university students, the gram-
mar grade more than the high school.
In the first place the school should co-operate with the home and
other local environments to bring the child into close sympathetic touch
with those things, both natural and spiritual, with which it must live and
move and upon which its very life depends. In other words, if we first estab-
lish what constitutes an ideal home training, we have determined one line
of work that the schools must undertake in order that good home training
may be properly supplemented, that the bad results from the lack of
proper home training and discipline may be counteracted. The time was
when the average home in Missouri was more of an industrial school than
it is at present, when through the performance of duties imposed for the
sake of discipline as well as from the necessities of the situation the chil-
dren had their perceptive faculties, their powers of observation more sys-
tematically trained at home. There seems to be a great dependence on the
schools for muchof what the home formerly did. Without discussing the
evil or good influence arising from this tendency, it is a condition that
must be considered when answering the question "How balance the edu-
cation of the children?"
STATE GRANGE. 375
In the second place, the children must be furnished the key that will
unlock to them the store-house of knowledge and inspiration found in
literature and history ; they must learn how to look into the records of the
past and learn practical lessons therein, to commune with master spirits
of past ages and draw information therefrom.
In the third place the individuality of the child must be preserved
and developed. The school work must be systematized and planned to
give every child as complete and as all-round development as possible.
This involves the study of each child, of its mental characteristics and the
relation and inter-relation of the ever varying mind functions and their
special powers of co-ordination. You say this is an impossible task for
the average teacher. Grant it. There has been a sufficient amount of
experimenting done to enable us to reach some general conclusions upon
which we may justly act in the absence of any positive observations or
experience to the contrary.
Every one present knows that corn possesses more of the fat produc-
ing elements than other grain or food known to us. A stock feeder a
few days ago, in giving the results of some experiments, said that he had
selected two bunches of pigs as nearly alike as it was possible for him to
select them. To one bunch he fed corn, and corn alone. To the other
bunch he fed both corn and alfalfa hay. He fed both the same
amount of com and to the one a ton of hay in addition. The ones
to which he fed the hay ate the corn with a greater relish th^n the
others. Within the given time, the lot to which the ton of hay had
been fed increased 800 pounds more than did the others. This seems
a pretty big pig story. The idea that 2,000 pounds of alfalfa hay can
be converted into 800 pounds of pork seems out of the question.
When we look into the further analysis of the experiment we find
that it was not the elements in the alfalfa that made the 800 pounds
of pork. There was that in the alfalfa which enabled the pigs to get
more out of the corn, and this kept their appetites whetted.
Reasoning by analogy, may we not conclude that certain sub-
jects may serve an excellent purpose in the schools even if their in-
trinsic worth is not apparent, if we can not easily see any practical
lessons in them, if we can not trace some mental or moral culture
as a result?
In the fourth place, the work of the schools must inspire children
to higher ideals of living and implant in their breasts greater am-
bitions than their parents have known. In this progressive age
each succeeding generation must know more, must do more, must
get more out of life than the preceding.
Applying the same principles to our school work that farmers
376 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
do in balancing the elements of fertility in the soil, as the stock
feeder balances the rations for his cattle and hogs, we see the neces-
sity of a balanced curriculum, a balanced course of study — contain-
ing not alone subjects for the practical information contained in
them, not alone ^or disciplinary effect, not alone for inspiration, but
for each and all of these in due proportion and in addition such
subjects as are necessary to whet tEe mental appetite for some of the
essentials to growth and development, and to assist in mental diges-
tion and assimilation.
Within the past six years much progress has been made in or-
ganizing and correlating the subject matter taught in the schools
and within ten years there has been a revolution almost in some of
the work done in the secon3ary or high schools of our State. Cul-
ture, discipline, information, and utility are duly united in the re-
sults. ^They are in mind from the beginning. Isolation of both sub-
jects and purposes has given way to unity in both theory and prac-
tice.
These changes have not been brought about by the agitation of
specialists or cranks in the educational work. The beginnings may
be traced to a former period when the question most frequently dis-
cussed at teachers' gatherings was as to whether the sciences or
the classic languages were the mo^t important elements in the cur-
riculum of the higher institutions. It had not dawned upon them
that both could be accomplished together just as easily as either
alone.. There has been a more general inquiry into the nature of the
child and the world has come to know child nature from an entirely
different point of view as a result of these discussions. Everywhere
students of pedagogy and supervisor? of instruction have gradually
seen ithe necessity of adjusting the work of the school to the child,
rather than adjusting the child to a preconceived notion of what the
school should be. This question is uppermost in the minds of all
who would have schools • most economically promote the best in-
terest of each individual child.
Until very recently the schools confined themselves to formal
and expressive work, much of it having no substantial basis. When
content subjects were introduced for their own worth it was not
long until they formed a basis for the best results in the formal and
expressive work. At first, however, man and man as a member of
society only, was the center around which the world of learning re-
• volved just as it was supposed for ages that the earth was the center
of the universe around which the sun, moon and stars all revolved.
STATE GRANGE* 377
United States history, civil government and political geography were
introduced to educate for voting and to prepare for social duties.
This view looked upon man as nothing but a citizen. It did not
take into consideration that he must be educated tc do things — to
render service. All instruction touching the common phenomena of
nature and their relations to human living were taught as the "olo-
gies" in the high schools and colleges. Today nature study is a new
feature in our elementary school work, and it has come mainly as a
balancing agent. It has come to connect school work with the living
processes, to adjust education to child life in such way as to prepare
it for industrial pursuits; it has come to put the child into close
sympathetic touch with his natural environments, to give him con-
trol of the forces of nature, to minister to his glory and happiness
here on earth. It has conie into the schools to give meaning and
purpose to every other phase of school work ; it infuses new life into
the spelling, writing, drawing and making or doing work, and modi-
fies all of the school relationships in a most helpful way, offering a
better means for the teachers' understanding pupils, and for pupils
seeing and knowing the real purposes of teacher.
Nature study is not science in the sense that it is knowledge
classified, but it should lead to it. "Nature Study" is just what the
two words mean. In the first place it is nature not book work.
In the second place it is study, not merely talking and reading about
nature. It is the study of plant and animal life, of the earth and its
elements and of the physical forces that affect these and the relations
one to the other. It culminates in both the theory and practice of
agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, stock culture and any other
sort of cultivation in the realm of physical being. It may be made
to point to and culminate in any of the mechanic or domestic arts.
Nature study is chiefly a study of relations. The commonest
phenomenon in nature is related to many other phenomena. The
grain of corn is related to the entire corn plant and to each of the
essential parts of the plant. To understand the plant one must un-
derstand the function of each part ; to know its life history one must
know the processes of both production and re-production. It is re-
lated to, and dependent on soil, rain, sun and wind. It is related to a
class of insects that feed upon it and to another class that fertilizes
it. There are countless other relations. The investigation of com-
mon things about us, arranging and grouping their relations^ con-
stitutes the study of nature.
But the aim of nature study does not end here. It seeks the in-
dividual development of the child. Nature is many sided and each
378 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
pupil sees it from a different point of view. The instructor will soon
realize that teaching classes is not teaching individuals; as a result
nature study becomes more of method than of matter.
As important as is the practical knowledge or facts learned in
the study of nature, its aim is still higher. It is a means of securing
personal, individual investigation, a means of developing all of the
powers of child mind and of training children to see and think and
express for themselves. More and more nature study is made the
basis for reading, spelling, language, penmanship, drawing and model-
ing work of the school. Every teacher knows that the acquisition of
knowledge and the development of power are dependent on interest
aroused. Certainly there is that in nature in some of its manifesta-
tions to attract and interest every child. Above all of these, how-
ever, is the aim to adjust the child to his environments — physical,
intellectual and spiritual ; to adjust him to nature ; to man, to God.
Nature study deals with the present, with things as they are
and directs thought to the future. Literature, in some form at least,
deals with the past and thus furnishes a means of interpreting the
present and becomes the hand-maid and help-meet of nature study.
These two subjects may be so corrielated as to concentrate, to
unify the entire work of the school. They may be made to furnish
a basis or common ground for the correlation of any and all other
subjects taught, to supplement them in as many ways as possible
and to enrich the results in each, to provide a means of interesting
every child and of Holding him in school longer, to touch the child
mind at every point and thus secure an all-round development, to
inspFre to higher ideals and implant new ambitions.
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.
By Dr. R. H. Jesse, President Missouri State University.
Every Jew that attempted to educate his son at all taught him a
trade. Whether this was the custom of the nation originally or not
I cannot say, but such was the universal practice in the century pre-
ceding the birth of our Lord. Said one of the most distinguished
of the Rabbis : "He that allows his son to reach man's estate without
giving hini a trade educates him for larceny." It was not a mark
of our Lord's humble origin at all that he learned the carpenter's
trade, nor should it excite wonder that St. Paul, one of the most pro-
STATE GRANGE. 379,
foundly educated men of his generation, learned the tentmaker's craft.
Every respectable Jew learned a trade of some sort, and before the
Christian era the Jews were God's chosen people. This adds no
little historic dignity to manual training. Time fails us to tell to
what extent, if any, the idea was adopted by the schoolmasters of the
Greeks and Romans, but this at least is sure that the Emperor Au-
gustus, the wisest statesman that Rome ever produced, and one of
the wisest that earth has yet beheld, made i\: a prime feature of his
policy to awake in the people of Italy an interest in the pursuits of
agriculture. To ttiis policy we owe the Georgies of Virgil that im-
mortal hymn in praise of agriculture. Industrial education in our
day is in a measure a return to the wisdom of the ancients.
Many imagine that industrial education is a fad fostered chiefly
in Missouri. Without looking up statistics at all we can point easily
to the fact that in the province of Ontario, in Canada, agriculture —
an important phase of industrial education — is a part of the cur-
riculum in the public schools. If it is a fad at all it has made in
one of its forms much greater progress among the Canadians than
among the people of the United States. Industrial training in one
form or another is a part of the curriculum of all the public schools
in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. It is found in all the public
schools in France and Belgium, and in many of those of the Nether-
lands. It is more widely spread in Germany, Austria and Hungary
than it is in the United States. In fact, those who oppose industrial
education should be called upon to defend themselves from the charge
of being behind the times.
There is great confusion in Missouri at least in the use of the
term Industrial Education. It is important to determine what we
mean by it. It is indeed many sided.' Among the Jews it included
the learning of a trade. In the United States it includes trades
schools. Let me remark in passing that trades schools are excel-
lent institutions which should form a part of the system of public
instruction in every center of population. There ought to be one
or two at St. Louis, and one at least at Kansas City, and one at St.
Joseph. It is possible that there ought to be one at Joplin and an-
other at Springfield. Every one of them should have a day session
and a night session, open to young and to old. But when we favor
the introduction of industrial training into the public schools of Mis-
souri we do not dream of making them all trades schools. We want
the industrial features introduced for their educational value without
reference to the future occupations of the pupils. We no more teach
handicraft with a view of making mechanics than we aim at the pro-
. 380 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL RErORt.
duction of sailors in teaching geography. Many Americans consider
nature study to be a part of industrial education. No man in this
assembly is so strenuous in his advocacy of industrial training as
to make it more than a feature of our schools. We prize it and ad-
vocate it for the contribution it makes to the training of the pupil.
Under no condition would we offer it as a substitute for education
or indeed as a "chief feature to which other studies should be sub-
sidiary except perhaps in the trades schools, which are admirable
institutions in centers of population. I cannot leave this subject
without raising my protest against an idea which has found favor
with some, viz., that the introduction of industrial features means the
exclusion of the classics. Why, because you introduce industrial feat-
ures into a high school, should you put out the classics or modern lan-
,guages, or history, or literature, or mathematics, or science or indeed
anything else? If it be urged that there is no time for the industrials
and the classics, let me point to the apostles of manual training who
have claimed that their pupils not only do not lose time thereby, but are
so strengthened in body and mind as to make better progress in other
studies than other pupils do. I am 7ealous for introducing industrial
training into our high schools and into our grade schools, but my oppo-
sition is deadly to making it exclude anything else that is useful. Let
us correlate it with everything else that is now valuable in education
without setting il in opposition to anything.
What we in Missouri advocate as industrial education may be de-
fined as follows :
1. Its aim is education rather than industry.
2. It includes handicraft in the grades culminating in manual train-
ing and cooking in the high schools.
3. It includes nature study in the grades developed in the high
schools into the elementary sciences of zoology, botany, entomology, and
field geology. Drawing should be a chief feature of the work from
beginning to end. The man that struggles for manual training alone
is struggling for but a part of the industrial education that I advocate.
He that struggles for nature study alone is struggling for but a part.
In former days I thought that manual training ought to be the larger
part of the subject in the cities, and nature study the larger part in the
country. But it seems to me in later years that nature study is not less
important for city people than for country people. For the country
however, I still think that nature study is more important than handi-
craft. The fact that nature study is so easily applied to agriculture is
the justification if there be any of including it in industrial education.
STATE GRANGE,
381
Perhaps it would be clearer to call it industrial education and nature
study.
There is one phase of this subject in which I feel an interest that
should be shared by every patriotic teacher. We should develop in Mis-
souri a system of rural high schools in which should be taught lan-
guages, literature, history, mathematics, physics, and chemistry with their
applications to plants, soil, and climate; manual training and cooking,
and nature study developed into the sciences of ^oology, botany, ento-
mology and field geology. It might not be possible to teach all these
things at the start, but the scope of the school in ultimate development
should include them all. In the beginning if anything be excluded let
it be foreign languages, and yet I would turn my back upon these schools
if the scheme in ultimate development did not provide for them. I am
willing, however, to postpone them rather than the other studies. This
is not a retraction of my statement that the industrials ought not to be
set in opposition to anything.
How shall these schools be established in Missouri ? Partly by state
aid and partly by increased taxation of the locality. Let me hasten to
say that in my opinion the present distribution of the state school fund
is not just to the rural districts. It is not right that it should be divided
between the country and the city alike. To do so is against sound pub-
lic policy. Living in the town of Columbia and paying tax upon a cer-
tain amount of property I enjoy for my children excellent facilities, because
there are fifty-five hundred people who live within a radius of a mile from
my house. If I move five miles into the country and pay tax on the same
amount of property the educational facilities open to my children in
their own school district become inferior. Yet I am paying the same
amount of tax on the same amount of property. But even if in the rural
districts I and my neighbors doubled the tax levied in Columbia we
still could not have half so good a school. If I go to Kansas City and
pay the same tax on the same amount of property I get school facilities
that are immensely better than those of Columbia because now I have
within street car distance of my house a hundred and seventy-five thou-
sand people. It is not sufficient reply to say that I am not bound to live
in the country, that if I want better educational facilities for my children
I should move into town. The State is vitally interested in having peo-
ple live in the country. The process by which the country is becoming
depopulated and the cities built up is against sound policy in the com-
monwealth. If, therefore, it is of great public interest that people would
stay in the country the commonwealth ought to see that their children
be not thereby largely robbed of educational advantages. It will not
382 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
do to say that a child in Kansas City ought to have as much of State
money as a child that lives in the depths of the country. I admit freely
that the children in Kansas City should be objects of as great solicitude
as those that live in the country, but the State should take some note of
the power to help one's self. If you had twenty thousand dollars worth,
of property and two children, one of whom had received from some
relative ten thousand dollars, while the other had received nothing, you
would not divide your twenty thousand between the two children equally.
One might be as dear to you as the other, but you would so devise your
property as to give each child fifteen thousand dollars. A fair method
perhaps would be to distribute one-third of the State school fund in
proportion to enumeration just as the whole fund is apportioned now,
to distribute another third according to actual attendance, and to distribute
the remaining third so as to equalize to some extent at least the educa-
tional advantages of different parts of the State. Whether the division
is correct or not it seems to me beyond dispute that each of these three
things should be considered in the distribution of the school fund :
1. The enumeration.
2. The attendance.
3. The power or inability of the locality to have a good school apart
from State aid.
In ten years the University has approved about a hundred public high
schools scattered over Missouri. Ninety-eight of them are on lines of
railway. Very few of them are in towns of less than three thousand
inhabitants. It would be safe to say that ninety out of the hundred are
in towns of more than three thousand inhabitants. Therefore our much •
lauded* system of approved high schools is an urban system. With its
efforts in behalf of secondary education the University has not yet reached
the rural districts of Missouri. The general secretary of the Y. M. C. A.
of Missouri tells me that there are seventy-three counties in which there
is not a town of three thousand inhabitants. I doubt the accuracy of
the statement, but have not time to look it up. It is beyond controversy
however, that a large number of counties have no city of three thousand
inhabitants. We cannot safely count under existing conditions upon es-
tablishing an approved high school by local taxation in towns of less
than three thousand inhabitants. What shall be done with the numerous
counties of Missouri in which the largest town has less than one or two
thousand people ? I suggest that by State aid we begin a system of rural
high schools on the pattern mentioned above in which cooking and man-
ual training and nature study developed into elementary natural sciences
shall be taught throughout the four years and shall be compulsory. I
STATE GRANGE. 383
hope that a committee will be appointed to formulate a plan for reaching
this end. It would be vain to establish any large number of such schools
at first. I should be happy if the next Legislature would in some way
provide State aid enough to enable us to establish si:^. Wisconsin made
last year an appropriation for the establishment of two such schools as ex-
periments. I have such faith in the idea as to be willing for Missouri
to establish half a dozen as experiments. If one of the two Wisconsin
schools were to^ fail the idea would be brought into disrepute ; if both
schools through accident proved failures the idea would be banished for-
ever. It seems to me to be fair to the idea to try it on a scale large
enough to give security against accident. The State aid should be stim-
ulative of local taxation. In the outset at least State aid should be given
only where it can be shown that without it a good high school cannot be
maintained and that with State aid and heroic local taxation a good
high school can be maintained.
If we can devise any means by which money can be raised separately
for the inauguration of this system of rural high schools 1 shall be glad
to help, but if no system can be devised then I think that through better
distribution of the school fund we ought to provide means for trying
this experiment and if it succeeds for enlarging it. We should ultimately
have at least one such high school in every county in Missouri. It seems
to me that the State University, the three normal schools, and the State
Superintendent of public education are alike interested in seeing this
experiment fairly tried. The University at least, God helping us, will
endeavor to unite country people and city people alike in a demand that
the ri^ral districts of Missouri partly by local taxation and partly by
stimulative . State aid be provided with high schools which, while not
eschewing any learning that experience has proved to be good, shall
educate the children of farmers in harmony with their environment, empha-
sizing especially the sciences and the industries that lie closest for farm life
such as manual training, cooking, household management, zoology, botany,
entomology, local geology, and physics, and chemistry and 'their appli-
cations to soil plants and climate. While these schools should aim pri-
marily at the education of the young in their several localities, they should
endeavor also by night session and in other ways to enlighten and indeed
so far as possible to educate the adults in their neighborhoods. Having
had already some success in strengthening high schools in the towns of
Missouri the University is now about to enter upon the far more arduous
task of building up rural high schools according to the pattern described
above. How long and how difficult the undertaking is no man knows
better than the writer, but that is but additional reason for beginning the
work promptly. Who will help us? Surely we need help.
384 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
ORGANIZATION.
By Hon. R. H. Kern, Macon, Mo.
Ladies and Gentlemen — I am very glad that our Worthy Master
does not care to assume the responsibility of what I shall say. If
he had been a lawyer for twenty-five years, it would not make very
much difference about the responsibility, because a lawyer's mouth
is like the toll gate at the turnpike, it opens both ways for pay. A
fellow once asked what would a lawyer do when he was dead, and
a wag answered, he would "lie still." However, having followed the
law pretty faithfully for twenty-five years, by accident I travelled
up into Macon county two or three years ago and bought a little
farm, returned to vi-ew the scenes of a youth that I had passed in an-
other state and concluded that for a few years I would make some
study of agriculture.
The great Napoleon, on bein^ asked what was the secret of his
marvelous success in battle, replied in one word "Organization." I
believe that never before in the history of this country has there
been such an opportunity presented to the American people for the
fullest realization of all of the possibilities of American life as is
being presented now. The recent Spanish War was not a result of the
forecast of the statesmanship of America. Two years before it hap-
pened — aye, a year before it happened, there was not a statesman in
America who foresaw it. It came like swift lightning from the
clouds, and it has produced results that, for our 'people at least, are
as far reaching, almost, as any that have ever come upon us, and if
the American mind is equal to its opportunity, great possibilities lie
before it. I want to say a word to the pessimist who thinks that the
best of life, civic, political and personal, is behind us. The next
ten years will witness the greatest growth of all the industries of this
country that it has ever seen, and I am not a materialist, but no man
can ever shut his eyes to the fact that refinement, culture, educa-
tion and all such advantages go along with success in material things.
If the American people choose to organize, the world will be at
its feet before ten years. Today Ameiica is better known in the
great sisterhood of nations, as the result of the Spanish War than it
was ever known in the fifty years of its history preceding that time,
and the small tax that the people paid to take the yoke off of the
STATE GRANGE. 385
little Island of Cuba, has been more than returned already to our
people in the wonderful growth and extension of our trade.
Now, then, I want to say a word to the farmers. I happen to
own a little farm — a few thousand acres, down here in Macon county
myself, and I am running it myself, too — ^not asking very much of
anybody how I shall conduct it. I never have asked very much of
anybody in this life as to how I shall do anything, except my good
wife. The farmers of the State need to pull themselves together.
Was there ever a time when organization was as paramount a need
of our life as it is now? I have lived in a city of half a million of
people, and have been in all of the cities of this country and many^
*
of the cities of Europe, and all of the business interests of the world
— particularly of this country, are pulling themselves together. They
are organizing to reap the greatest benefits that may be possible as
a result of the concentrated brain of the country. But I think the
farmer is lacking. Here we have this week in the beautiful city of
Chillicothe, a meeting, representing the great interests of this mag-
nificent State of ours — every department of agriculture has been rep-
resented in this hall this week and the farmers are not so largely rep-
resented here as they should be. If you people will pull together — if
the farmers of America will stand shoulder to shoulder, the great in-
terests that seem to be dominant in American life at this moment,
will take off their hats and bow to the farmer. But if the farmers
*
do not organize, they will make a mat of him upon which they will
wipe their feet and take his earnings from him in an unjust and un-
deserved way. Is it possible for you farmers to organize? Why not?
It seems to me that the life of the agriculturists should not be such
a one as to send everybody to the towns and cities. It seems to me
that in this State with its wonderful diversity of soil and products
and climate, there can be made a beautiful home life for all the people
that choose to live outside of the towns and cities. It seems to me
that the farmers are the people that have the right to direct the
policy of this country, and I have always thought so. Why not?
They are the people whose work never ceases in summer or winter;
work must be done on Sunday and on holidays, and if these people
who till the soil and take their chances with the elements, have not a
right to say what shall be the policy of this country, who has ? I am
a western man. I believe in western life. I never spend a moment
in the East unless I have to, but upon a thousand stumps I have
made the statement that it is a great pity that the West never stands
imited for its own interest. It is a great pity that the laws all favor
A-25
386 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the people east of the Alleghany Mountains, as they have done for
the last fifty years or more. It is time that the people of the West
are united and getting some of the favors in this country. Are the
farmers eoing to organize? It seems to me that the Grange of the
State of Missouri should have a membership of ninety per cent of
the farmers of this State, I am told that less than ten per cent of our
farmers are grangers. I do not refer to any co-operative stores. ' I
think the farmer can afford to let everybody live, but he cannot
afford to dwarf his own interest in this country. If the farmers were
united, there is no reason why there should be a law on the statute
books of the State of Missouri or on the statute books of any state
in the United States of America that discriminates against you in
any way. Here is your opportunity. There are going to come times
of depression, of course ; but I believe that the dark hours of agricul-
ture are over, and I am showing my faith by my works, and I have
made an investment — speaking for myself — in Macon county that I
consider one of the best investments I ever made. I did it because
I knew this country of ours is to be the granary of the world, and I
think that the great four or five interior agricultural states that
group themselves around Missouri are to be the states that are to
supply not only the food of the United States, but the food of the
civilized world to a large extent. Take Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin,
Ohio, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska and Iowa and you have the great
granary of the United States. Even the mule is furnished by Mis-
souri, and the only unholy thing that he ever did in his life was to
go down into Africa and help the Englishmen to stamp out the
liberty of the noble Boer people, and that was the fault of the laws
of trade and the Missouri farmer was not responsible for it. Your
cattle are going today across the waters to feed the nations of Eu-
rope, and as was said today by Mr. Sotham — and I take my hat oflF
to that citizen of Livingston county for the great work that he has
done in the line of the development of the cattle industry of this
State— orders are coming in faster than we can fill them. With
your wheat going to the foreign markets after the construction of
the Nicaragua Canal (and every man who has crossed the ocean
favors the construction of that canal^ and that speedily), there is
going to be a marvelous trade with the Orient, and Missouri must
furnish her proportion. If the farmer has had anything to despair
of, outside of this unusual wet spell that we have had for the last
nine months, drowning everything except the hopes of the people,
I do not know what it is.
*It seems to me that the agricultural people should unite. There
STATE GRANGE. 387
is no reason why the school house should not have a meeting^ every
week in which subjects of interest to the agriculturists should be
discussed by the people in the neighborhood. There is no reason
why the town should' not be moving to the country instead of the
country moving to the town. There is no reason why whatever con-
tributes to the comfort of the people should not be found on the
farm. I verily believe if the farmers of Missouri would unite, they
could get some outside help in their organization, but there does
not seem to be any organization among them and so the thing goes
on.
I want to say that I am going to make some study of the con-
ditions of agriculture myself. I have not forgotten all that I learned
as a boy on a farm many, many years ago; and if my voice from
Iowa to the Ozarks, from Kansas City to St. Louis, anywhere in the
grand old State of Missouri, can do anything toward upbuilding the
great interests of this State, it shall be heard. If my time can help
improve the condition of her people, it shall be given. If my money
can help along the good cause, that, too, shall be given ; and So I am
going to these meetings, if the Lord spares me, until we get the
thing going, and when we once get it to going, my word for it, the
agriculturist will be the man that will not be wandering over the
ground where the combined trust interests of the country are going to
crush him down. The farmer has been under the heel of the trust a long
time. There are three or four great packing houses in this country that
fix their own prices, and now the merchant who sat in the city and watched
the farmer groaning beneath this load is beginning to take a little of that
medicine of having his prices fixed by the combines, as well as the farmer.
I saw in Kentucky the other day where one of the tobacco
raisers said: "We are waiting for the tobacco trust to come along
and tell us what they will pay for our tobacco, and we will have to
take it."
The farmer must send men to the Legislature who have some
backbone and that is the prime requisite in life; they should send
men to Congress who have backbone. These goody goody fellows
that go there and let the other men pull the wool over their eyes and
fasten upon the people unjust laws, should be invited to stay at home
and raise sweet potatoes and it will be a much better occupation
for them. You should pick out men of force and character, wherever
they are, and send them to the Legislature.
Why should not the farmer have his rural delivery, for example.
Here we find only an occasional route. What do you pay taxes for?
You will get free delivery and all the other advantages if you rise in
388 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the majesty of your might and demand them and you never will get
these advantages unless you do demand them. Other trades will
take advantage of their opportunities and it is time for you to take
advantage of yours.
My ten minutes are up, and I am very glad to have been here.
I hope by co-operation and organization the next meeting will be
so large that we will have to rent all the vacant halls in the city
where we choose to hold it, and that the farmers may be peaceful
and prosperous, and be able to make up for the awful drouth that
has cursed us this year.
THE WORLD'S FAIR IN 1903.
By Hon. B. H. Bonfoey, Unionville, Mo. .
After thanking your President for the kindly words of recogni-
tion that he has so kindly expressed toward the Board which I repre-
sent, I wish to say that I will take up but a few moments of your
time. I have no set speech to make you gentlemen. I am here to
meet you, and have a heart to heart talk on a subject in which we
are all interested — the St. Louis World's Fair. As a representative
of the Commission from the great State of Missouri, I have been dele-
gated to appear before you, and ask your hearty co-operation in
making a display for the grand State of Missouri that will be com-
mensurate with her grandness. Gentlemen, the last Legislature of
your State appropriated a magnificent sum for that purpose and
your servants, the members of that Board, have the work of the dis-
bursement of that sum. When I say to you that in our preliminary
estimate we have appropriated one hundred thousand dollars to make
a display of the agricultural interests of this grand old State, and
then when I come before you and ask your co-operation, so that
Missouri shall stand at the head of all of the states, I believe that I
will have that co-operation. We, the members of that Board, realize
the position in which we are placed. We realize that we have to
have your co-operation to make an exhibit that will do us justice.
On behalf of the horticultural interests of this State we have
made an appropriation of fifty thousand dollars. On behalf of edu-
cation we have set aside fifty thousand dollars. Now, what are we
going to do, gentlemen? We have a membership on that Board of
nine men, who are at your service.
STATE GRANGE. 389
My friend, Mr. Kern, has struck the key note tonight when he
says organization will do wonders. We want you, gentlemen, of the
State of Missouri to organize, and you should begin right now, and
work from now to the first of May 1903, so when our display is
shown at the World's Fair in 1903, you will not be ashamed of it.
We have money enough at our command ; we only ask for your sug-
gestions; tell that Board what you want; we are your servants; we
expect to carry out the ideas of the agriculturists of this State, to
carry out the ideas of the horticulturists and educators. The states
on all sides of us are organizing. Iowa' has appropriated two hun-
dred and fifty thousand dollars; Illinois has appropriated the same.
The state of Arkansas has appropriated fifty thousand dollars, and
I heard when in the city of Buffalo that Arkansas had appointed four
hundred members on her commission, everyone of whom was a
committee of one to see that Arkansas was not outdone by any other
state. Are you going to stand by and not help the members of your
commission? We are here today to ask you to suggest to us and
tell us what you want done, and see that we carry out your wishes.
We will have organizers throughout the State from now on. We
think it is necessary for every farmer, every horticulturist, to begin
right now to prepare the articles he wants to exhibit at that Fair.
Farmers tell me the last wheat crop was one of the best ever pro-
dticed. Save your samples of wheat and fruit and put them in cold
storage until our collectors can come around and see them, and they
will be put where the world can see them.
Do you realize what is before us? We are to be the hosts of
the world. The world will be poured into St. Louis in 1903, and
we are to he their hosts. We want to display to the world what
Missouri will produce. We do not want to be outdone by other states.
We know that we have the resources in the mines, the fields, the
schoolroom, the orchard and all of the various industries of our State,
and we want only organization and co-operation, and that is why I
am here tonight, to ask you to co-operate with us and organize and
go to work.
- 1 have no set speech to make. I came here to answer any ques-
tion you wish to ask about the St. Louis World's Fair that it is in my
power to answer. We want to co-optrate with you, the educators,
the horticulturists, the farmers, and we do not expect to cease our
work, we expect to follow it up. Do you all recognize what that
Fair is going to be ? The United States has already appropriated to
it the magnificent sum of five millions of dollars, the City of St.
Louis appropriated to it ten millions of dollars, and the grand old
390 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
State of Missouri appropriated one million dollars. Now we are
going to ask two millions more from the general government, be-
cause the Fair has spread out so, and is so much larger than we
first intended it to be. We can hardly grasp the magnitude of it.
Today I saw a statement from Mr. Taylor, the general architect of
the St. Louis Exposition, that he needed twelve hundred acres of
land for the magnificent displays of the diflFerent governments and
the different states, and he is asking for additional territory. You
see the Fair is outgrowing its original dimensions. We had only
four hundred acres in the original plan. The art gallery stretches
two hundred feet high, and it is over a thousand feet from length
to length in the form of a semi-circle. You will grasp the magni-
tude of that one building. I think our record in the past bears me
out in saying that our display at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
of 1903 will be a world beater. At the Pan-American Exposition
in Buffalo, Missouri took more prizes than any other State in the
Union. !• understand that lately our Missouri cattle have been grasp-
ing the first premiums all over this country. I am not a cattleman,
but that has been told to me. Our cattle industry is wonderful and
reaching from ocean to ocean, and even today I was delighted with
your poultry exhibition. Yesterday I picked up a little paper in
which it was stated that the poultryman from the Pacific Coast had
been sending clear over to Boston for his breeding stock and eggs,
but that the time was coming when he would send to Missouri, for
the Missouri poultrymen were producing fowls that beat the world.
I believe from the looks of the poultry that I saw this afternoon that
that must be true. I want to see at the World's Fair in 1903, Mis-
souri's farms, her live stock, her orchards and her every industry
represented, and I believe that we will be prepared to take care of
them, and we will bid you all a hearty welcome.
In regard to any special feature of this Fair or anything as to
our work Brother Stroupe or myself will be pleased to answer any
questions.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Maitland. — I wish to ask what the Missouri Commission
would suggest as the best means of collecting Missouri's ,agTicul-
tural display?
Mr. Bonfo^y. — ^The matter has been under discussion at the last
two meetings of our Board, and I have been talking wth Mr. Ellis
in regard to that matter, and suppose by the co-operation of the
State Board of Agriculture and our Commission, the matter will be
STATE GRANGE. 391
determined on a near day in the future. Speaking for myself personally,
I will say that I would like the co-operation of the counties as counties
and of individuals themselves. We will have men in the counties to
acquaint yoii with our desires, and what we expect from each sec-
tion of the State. I would like for anyone here who has a fine speci-
men of any product to save it until he can confer with anyone of the
Commission direct. Col, Waters has been our representative and
has been representing us at the farmers' institutes, but he will now
probably be foot-loose and can confer with you direct.
Mr. Ellis. — Let us resolve as individuals to produce something
on the farm this coming year to exhibit at that Exposition.
The following resolution, as read by Col. Waters, was adopted:
Resolved, That it is the sense of the several industrial associa-
tions of the State, now in annual session, that we heartily approve
the offorts of our State Board of World's Fair Commissioners to
make the best agricultural and live stock exhibit ever seen, and we
hereby pledge our active and earnest support.
Adjourned.
SESSION OF
Swine Breeders' Association.
ALFALFA AS A FEED AND PASTURE.
By Hon. S. F. OTallon, Oregon, Mo.
Ladies and Gentlemen ; I have been experimenting with alfalfa for
some years. I suppose there are some present who think that alfalfa
is a plant suitable only for irrigated land or one that is raised princi-
pally in the arid regions of the country. That has been true in the
past* In Missouri it seems that we have not made much progress in
alfalfa culture. In my section of the State, the extreme northwest, it
has been cultivated for the past few years. Six or eight years ago we
felt about it as most of you now feel, that it was a plant that was not
suited or adapted to our State, and where an experiment has been
made and failed, it usually deters anyone else from experimenting
along that line, but I. believe these failures in the culture of alfalfa
in our State were due largely to lack of fully understanding the habits
of the plant and the care necessary for it, and not giving it proper
cultivation.
In Holt county five or six years ago no one thought of raising al-
falfa, but we find our land splendidly adapted to it and' thousands of
acres of our bottom lands have been put in alfalfa and it is one of the
most valuable crops we have. It is also sown largely on the upland.
We get three crops off of alfalfa, the same as they do in Nebraska and
Kansas and it makes splendid hay.
It makes the very best pasture for hogs. I know of nothing that
equals alfalfa for hogs. It comes nearer being what a hog needs than
any other crop known. The season we have just passed through, and
every farmer and breeder knows it was the worst drouth we have had in
our State in recent years, at least, we had great success with our al-
falfa. There is a time of the year when we cannot depend upon clover
or blue grass or anything else raised in our section of the State — we
don't raise soy beans or cow peas in our part of the State — ^and there
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 3^S
is nothing for the hog to graze upon and every breeder understands
that the hog is a grazing animal and must graze to keep him healthy^
therefore we must have alfalfa. We have been growing alfalfa and it *
keeps green when clover and blue grass are dried up by the hot winds.
That has been tried in Kansas, Nebraska and our State, and nothing
stays so green during dry weather as alfalfa.
We are growing it on the upland. A gentleman who lives neai
Forest City, where the Board of Agriculture recently held a very suc-
cessful farmers' institute meeting, on one of the highest hills on the
Missouri river, had last summer a few acres in alfalfa and it remained
during all the hot, dry weather as green as could be. Of course the hot
weather affects it, but it seems to resist hot winds better than anything
else, and it is the most profitable green feed that we can have for hogs.
It is not only a fine pasture, but it can be cut and fed to them, and it
is as valuable a feed as can be given. It is good not only as a pasture^
but as a dry feed, as hay. I have fed it for several years and it is fine.
I live on high ground where we have not always made a success of it^
but it makes splendid pasture there, and as a dry hay I do not think
anything equals it. There is not much waste about it, for the hogs eat
all of the rough stems. It made three cuttings this year and good
ones.
A friend erf mine in Southern Kansas, in talking with me a f^w
days ago told me he had fifteen acres of alfalfa on the creek bottom
land this year, and had pastured sixty or seventy hogs on it the entire
season, and they did very little damage, and then he cut two crops of hay
off of it. Whether or not it could be grown successfully in this section
or over the State generally I could not say, as I have not had experi-
ence. Alfalfa must be grown on well drained land. In our country
it flourishes on alluvisCl soil, also in gumbo. On the worst sort of
gumbo in the Missouri bottom land they raise alfalfa in my county.
One trouble with alfalfa is that it is a little hard to start. That is
one reason why it has not occupied the place that it should in our State.
It does not start so readily as clover, it is hard to get established. The
land must be thoroughly tilled, and it should be where the ground has
been shaded, so that it will not be full of weed seeds. When the plant first
comes up it is very small and weeds will smother it, unless it is in the
right kind of soil.
It must be dipped the first year especially. After that, of course,
if it is pastured, it must be clipped to keep the weeds down. While it
may make a little start, it is. not a good idea to pasture it the first year,
possibly not even the second, unless it is growing luxuriantly, as it
will in some places.
394 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
In Kansas the increase of alfalfa culture is phenomenal. Ten
years ago it was like it is in Missouri to-day. There are several coun-
ties that now have as many acres in alfalfa as there was in the entire
State ten years ago. Almost every county in Kansas is growing
alfalfa, and it is the same way in Nebraska. Alfalfa will produce
more hay lo the acre than any other plant. Not only that, but it is
drouth resisting when it once gets firmly established in the soil, and
it is very nutritious. It is good for all kinds of animals as hay.
There is nothing better for feeding brood sows in the winter than
alfalfa hay. It takes the place of green feed on the pasture. I under-
stand that in Kansas and other experiment stations they expect that an
acre of alfalfa will keep ten or fifteen shoats and make from six hun-
dred to a thousand pounds of pork to the acre with grain. You can
keep hogs and rough them through the winter entirely on alfalfa, and not
give them any grain at all. They may not come out as well without any
grain, but the alfalfa is nutritious and invaluable for the hog and just
what he needs.
There is one other crop which I might mention, with which I have
experimented more than with alfalfa. In places in this State where
we have hard pan, while alfalfa cannot be raised, there is nothing more
valuable for the swine grower or farmer than sorghum. For several
years I have been raising it and using it as hay, and hogs do well on it.
Raise it as you would raise sorghum for syrup. Plant it early, cut it up
and feed it to your hogs in July and August when the pastures are
burned up, and it is worth more than anything else. One-half or one-
fourth of an acre will feed them, and they will do well on it. Cut it
up and shock it like corn and feed it to your hogs in the winter and
they will do well on it.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. — : What time in the spring do you sow alfalfa?
* Mr. O'Fallon : We sow it late ifi the spring, later than clover fot
it is harder to start than clover and the plants are small and weak and
frost kills them. We plant it real late in April or May.
Mr. — : How much do vou sow to the acre?
Mr. O'Fallon: Fifteen or twenty pounds to the acre. We have
not been growing it in the bottom lands as much as dover. The ground
should be pulverized very carefully, more so than for any crop I ever
grew. I have failed utterly on alfalfa because my ground was not in
the right condition.
Mr. Ellis : Do you think fall sowing is better than spring sowjng?
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 395
Mr. OTallon: They do sow it in the fall, but spring sowing is
better with us.
Mr. Ward : Will it grow well on clay subsoil?
Mr. OTallon: It seems to flourish about Forest City and that is
clay subsoil.
Mr. Anderson : Will if make permanent pasture, or will it die like
clover ?
Mr. OTallon : It will be permanent if you can make it permanent.
It has died some in this State in some places, but it does not die in other
states, nor does it with us. We have had it for four or five years in my
county,' that is all the personal knowledge I have of it. Six years is
about as long as we have been growing it, but we are shipping it out
by the car load.
Mr. Abbott: Do you notice any difference in the variety of alfalfa
you have and that which comes from Kansas? I am using part of a
car load of alfalfa that came from Holt county, and it does not look like
any I ever saw. I have P'iven it study, but have never noticed any
special varieties of that grown here. I noticed they found varieties
where they have been experimenting with it.
Mr. O'Fallon: I think the alfalfa in Holt county is the same as
that in Kansas and Nebraska. I do not know where the seed came
from, but I believe it is better to get the seed from Kansas and Ne-
braska than it is from Colorado or New York.
Mr. — : Is it not a stomach producer instead of a ham and shoul-
der producer? That has been my experience. I lived nine years in Col-
orado and I harvested quite a number of crops of alfalfa, and I have
grazed a few hogs on it, but I found unless you fed grain with it the
hog would be all stomach.
Mr.^ O'Fallon : Of course there is no one thing that is a perfect ra-
tion for a hog or for any other animal. You must feed some grain with
both clover and alfalfa to get best results. The Kansas Experiment
Station answers that question in this way. They have been fattening
hogs with alfalfa hay and corn, and they figure that hogs fed on alfalfa
hay and corn in a certain time gain ninety pounds, while the same
kind of hogs, taken good care of and fed on corn alone, gain only 52
pounds, of course this extra forty pounds gain does not all come from
the alfalfa, but because you are feeding two kinds of feed, a bulky
feed and a grain. It does not all come from the fattening qualities
of the alfalfa, although alfalfa is as rich as any plant you have, it is
the principle of feeding a balanced ration.
In Atchison county, the northwest comer county of the State, they
are beginning to raise quite a good deal of alfalfa and it was very much
396 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
of a success this season, dry as it was, as you heard them say at the
Farmer's Institute and as you would judge from samples of the hay.
Here lately, the farmers on the Missouri and Nishna Botna bottom land
are bringing in alfalfa for sale, and they claim that it makes fine feed.
I have not had experience with it, but it looks fine. They tell me while
it is a fine hog pasture and produces a great ha) crop, especially fine for
cattle, that it is not a good pasture for cattle, as it produces bloat like
clover, and our farmers do not advise sowing it for cattle pasture. They
say it is good to sow it and use it for a hog pasture, then harvest the
hay crop and feed it to cattle during the winter.
I was talking recently to a breeder of Percheron horses and he t old
me of his experience with alfalfa. He said he raised a good deal of it ;
that it was dangerous for a cattle pasture. He said you could produce
a good hay crop and at the same time go right along and pasture it to
your hogs.
Mr. Ellis: I wanted Mr. OTallon to bring out two other points
before he closed, but he did not, in reference to the time and manner of
sowing. I think these are two important things to consider. If it is
sown in the spring there is danger of the weeds smothering it out, but
if you will clip it when it is only a few inches high and clip three or
four times the first summer, you may save it. Mr. Bryant of Indepen-
dence, a member of our Board told me he secured a good stand by sow-
ing with flax in the spring. I have found flax an excellent nurse crop
for red clover. It branches at the top and does not grow so thickly at
the bottom as oats or wheat. I believe in this State, however, we will
do well to try fall seeding, August loth to September loth. Prepare
the land just as you would for a bed of onion seeds, make it as fine and
compact as you can get it, work the land down some time before you want
to sow, and then sow shallow with a press drill or sow broadcast and
cover with a harrow. As to kinds of soil adapted to its cultivation, I will
say it is now being grown in a small way in fifteen or twenty counties in
the State, and it will be perfectly safe to try it on any well drained soil
that will produce corn.
Mr. Abbott : There is another point I wish to be brought out, and
that is the time to cut alfalfa for hay. Half of the hay that comes to the
city markets is worthless for feed and alfalfa hay can be spoiled
quicker than any other kind of hay. The experiment stations recom-
mend cutting it just as it begins to bloom. We bee people do not like
that because it is the best honey plant in the world — ^but to make good
hay it wants to be cut the minute it begins to show bloom. The longer
it is left standing after it begins to bloom, the less feeding value there
is in it. If left standing till full bloom, the stems will be worthless. I
have been feeding alfalfa in St. Joseph for a long time, although I do not
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 397
grow it. Sometimes I get alfalfa that is absolutely worthless. The al-
falfa that I have now seems to be all leaves, there is no bloom on it and
my horse will eat any amount of it. She will almost leave her corn for
it. She pushes the stems aside and gets the leaves. After she has eaten
all the leaves she will eat the stem, for the stem that has leaves along
with it is good, but where the leaves shatter off, as they do when the
plant is in full bloom, the stem is perfectly worthless.
Dr. Peters : How long have you been feeding alfalfa to your horse ?
Mr. Abbott: A number of years.
Dr. Peters : Is he all right ?
Mr. Abbott: Yes.
Dr. Peters: I will say that alfalfa is not considered as a rule a
successful feed for horses. I do not know just how it would be in this
State, but in our State it becomes easily affected with a fungus, and if
it is not cut at the right time and it should happen to be a moist time
when it is cut, the fungus grows very readily and this is injurious to
horses. It is not injurious to any other animals and it makes a good
feed. On the other hand, it makes a good pasture for hprses. I wish
to emphasize the fact that anyone who has had any experience with
alfalfa for ^pasturing cattle knows it is not a success. You may try
putting a big bit in their mouth or any other device, but you are liable
to lose from ten to fifteen per cent, of your cattle. It is a great forage
plant, we have tried it in Nebraska and have had great success. At
our Farmers' Institutes I hear them advising the securing of seeds from
the home market, as near as I can gather it, they seem to think if they
secure seed from their own locality it is better than if they secured
them from the eastern market. Alfalfa is certainly the king of all
the forage plants that can be fed to hogs, but do not let anyone
make you think that you can feed and fatten hogs on alfalfa alone.
I have known some alfalfa enthusiasts to leave that impression,
but it is not true. I would rather grow alfalfa on my farm than
possibly any other forage crop if I were raising hogs. Though
I am not personally in the hog business, I have probably as good
a herd to maintain as can be found on the market to-day, and I
know of what I speak when I say I would not exchange alfalfa for any
other feed for hogs.
Mr. O'Fallon has given you some very practical suggestions on
sorghum as a feed for hogs. Sorghum is a wonderful feed for hogs,
and I wonder why our farmers in the eastern states as well as in the
western states have not availed themselves of this forage plant. I
know it is in very bad repute, owing to the fact that we find it is
sometimes dangerous as a cattle pasture, and I shall speak of that
398 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
later, but it certainly is one of the very best feeds for hogs, if we
cannot have alfalfa, and it seems that sorghum will grow anywhere;
and because most every farmer can grow it I think everyone engaged
in the hog business should certainly have a little patch of it.
Mr. Johnson. — I would like to speak in regard to the difference
in the quality of alfafa, of which Mr. Abbott spoke. The first crop
of alfalfa — Mr. OTallon will bear me out in this — ^the first crop is
more of a stem crop, the second crop is a leafy crop. It is a seed crop
like clover, and the time of cutting has a good deal to do with it. I
have seen alfalfa cut and by the time it would reach the stack there
would be very few leaves on it. If rain comes it will shed its leaves
as quickly as any grain when the frost strikes it and it is difficult
to secure it when the stalk is in proper condition. Heavy dews will
affect it. It is more easily affected than clover and everybody has
had experience with clover. As a hog pasture it is a great crop.
In' regard to horses, as Mr. Abbott has said, it is a good feed
for horses; it will fatten a horse as long as you are not working
him, but do not work a horse that you are feeding on alfalfa. Alfalfa
is a grand feed, but there are two sides to the question. This is my
experience with it after nine years residence in an alfalfa country
where I saw a great deal of it and helped to handle a great deal of it.
Mr. Abbott. — What affect does it have on horses?
Dr. Peters. — It will heave them ; it will produce asthma in horses.
This is one of the objections to it. I have brought this out because,
if you should go away from here very enthusiastic on alfalfa, as you
no douBt have a right to be, you might feed it to your horses and
then you are apt to ruin some valuable horses and you would con-
demn alfalfa ever afterwards. I believe in telling people the truth
and they can govern themselves accordingly. Alfalfa is a valuable
feed, there is no question about that, but on the other hand you can-
not work horses on it as a full feed on account of a tendency to pro-
duce inflammation of the kidneys. There is no question about that ; it
is dangerous to feed it to. horses that are working hard, either in the
cities or on the farm. Those that have had experience with it will
condemn it for working horses.
Mr. OTallon. — I omitted to speak of one thing in regard to cut-
ting alfalfa and Mr. Abbott called my attention to it. It should be
cut sooner as a hog feed, as soon as the bloom begins to appear.
That is what the hog eats. It ought to be cut green with all the
leaves on it. I use the third cutting for hogs, as I believe that is the
best; possibly the second cutting may be just as good, but I do not
believe the first cutting is good for hogs at all.
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 39&
^ A FEW DISEASES OF THE HOG.
By Dr. A. T. Peters, Animal Pathologist, Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Lincoln, Nebraska.
DISEASES OF THE BESPIRATOBY ORGANS.
I shall try and classify three diseases which have caused very-
heavy losses in the last few years.
The first disease manifests itself in the respiratory organs of small
pigs and shoats. The animal usually coughs, especially during feed*
ing time ; the coat is rough, the hair loses its lustre and the animal's
entire make-up is a picture of unthriftiness. As the disease progresses
the animal becomes weaker, more gaunted, and the cough more severe.
These symptoms may be applied to three different diseases of the
respiratory organs: The first, caused by feeding too heavy a grain
ration, such as corn, without any regard for a balanced ration or pro-
viding any of the mineral salts that are necessary to build up the
system. Second, by mechanical substances. Under this heading we
have first, mechanical pneumonia, caused by compelling animals to
inhabit quarters where they are obliged to continually inhale a great
quantity of dust. This dust naturally adheres to the mucous mem-
branes of the breathing organs, such as the bronchial tubes, which
when completely filled up, causes mechariical pneumonia. Th;is
disease alone has taken away many thousand hogs in this State last
year. In many instances, during a very dry spell, the hog lot be-
comes very dusty, so that the hogs moving around freely in the
corral stir up a cloud of dust; and it is this dust that causes these
heavy losses. ,
Mechanical Pneumonia Produced by Parasites. — The symptoms
in this case are almost the same. The animal coughs at the least
provocation, loses flesh rapidly, and becomes emaciated. It is caused
by very small threadworms lodging in the bronchial tubes, which
if not removed, will finally completely obstruct the air passages, caus-
ing heav.y losses.
In order to administer the proper remedy it is necessary to first
determine which of the three above mentioned diseases is causing
the loss. The first two can very easily be ascertained by taking an
inventory of the conditions. The latter is more accurately diagnosed
by holding a post-mortem on one that seems to have been very much
affected. If lung-worms are present, then a treatment is indicated.
400 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The treatment for the overfeeding is a balanced ration. Use
some slacked lime with the feed ; also charcoal, and allow the animals
to root. By thus changing the feed and removing the cause they
are certain to soon recuperate. The same is true for hogs which are
shut up in dusty places; when this cause is removed, and with a
light tonic, such as tincture of iron in water, the animals will soon be
on the road to recovery.
When affected with parasites — small thread-worms — it is wise
to feed something to drive off these worms. The most efficient is
turpentine or gasoline, which should be administered in the swill, and
the best on an empty stomach. The proper way to feed this medicine
is to omit the morning feed and give a teaspoonful in the feed for an
average hog. Two or three applications usually suffice. The breeder
must not rely upon the use of chemicals alone to be given to the
animal, but he must also inaugurate immediately through disinfec-
tion; because the eggs of these parasites are laid in the feeding and
watering troughs, and for this reason they must be thoroughly-
cleansed, or the hogs will be reinfected in a short time. Too much
cannot be said for the liberal use of disinfectants and hot water in
the feeding and watering troughs.
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.
A disease affects small pigs in which the lower or upper jaw and
the snout become affected. It commences with a small sore on either
of these parts, which rapidly spreads, and in a very, short time in-
volves the entire mouth, gums and tongue. This disease has been
described by many writers as being caused by black teeth or due to
the tusks that are seen on the side of the jaws. Man^ writers claim
that it is due to an injury caused by animals fighting or biting each
other; but the latest theory advanced is that it is due to a lack of
phosphate of lime in the bone. The bones of the jaw, being in need
of these ingredients, become brittle and the least injury will produce
aggravating ulciers. It is essential, therefore, for the prevention of
this disease, that the sow should be fed enough of lime ingredients
that when the small pigs are born the milk will contain a sufficient
amount of lime ingredients.
Treatment. — ^The affected parts should be well washed once or
twice a day if possible with a five per cent, solution of zenoleum or
carbolic acid, and after being thoroughly cleansed they should be
anointed once or twice a day with a zenoleum salve made with two
parts of zenoleum to five parts of common lard not salted. A small
amount of slacked lime should be given in the drinking water or
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 401
milk. With these remedies the greater number of animals affected
can be cured.
A similar disease is described in some farm journals and by
most breeders as rheumatism. The animals show the following symp-
toms : They lie around and it is quite difficult to make them move ;
the joints usually become swollen, and if no treatment is followed
they finally become hard; the animals seem to walk on their toes,
and the joints of the fetlock seem to be "knuckled" (enlarged.) When
made to stand or move they show symptoms of excruciating pain,
and stiffness in every limb, as though foundered. The latest investi-
gations have shown that this disease is not true rheumatism, but that
the animals so affected are lacking earthy salts, such as phosphoric
acid and phosphate of lime. To prevent the occurrence of this dis-
ease the herd should be supplied with plenty of minerals, such as
slacked lime, and allowed to root in the ground, where they can se-
cure the natural minerals they require to maintain their balanced
ration.
Animals affected should be given about a quart of slacked lime
mixed with a gallon of food, which should be prepared at least six
or eight hours previous to feeding, so that the food is thoroughly
saturated with slacked lime. A little slacked lime water should be
administered in the drinking water each day, and if the animal is tiot
too far gone, recoveries with this treatment are certain. If the joints
are very much swollen, a liniment made of ammonia one part and water"
three parts, applied once a day to the affected parts, is very beneficial.
INTESTINAL PARASITES.
Intestinal parasites are at times very troublesome to the hog
raiser, and at certain times of the year they take a great per cent, of
the hogs. Hogs affected with parasites cough occasionally, do not
take up their feed as readily as usual, are languid and unthriftyj^ the
coat is rough and th^ hair not smooth and glossy. As the disease
progresses the animals become emaciated and pass parasites. At
times these parasites are so abundant in the colon and stomach that
while vomiting some of them become lodged in the throat and nose.
Whether or not hogs are affected with parasites can best be deter-
mined by a post-mortem ; or when worms are noticed in the feces it
is best to commence treatment. The following is a powder for hogs
affected with worms:
Copper sulphate, one-half pound.
Gentian root, one-half pound.
Licorice root, one-half pound.
Wood charcoal, one-half pound.
Hyposulphate^f 'sodai two pounds.
A— 26
402 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAI, REPORT.
Give a teaspoonful to each hog once a day ; or in very bad cases
about five grains of calomel should be given to each hog, either in the
feed or by dropping a five-grain tablet into the mouth. This is a
very easy and simple method of administering this drug.
PABALY8I8 OF THE HIND LIMBS OF HOGS.
One of the diseases of the hog which has been quite an annoy-
ance and has caused heavy losses, usually manifests itself in mature
animals, but very often in small pigs, by paralysis of the hind limbs.
The animal at first shows a weakness by walking on its toes, some
days previous to the final collapse. It also shows symptoms of pain
and restlessness, by lying down, getting up again, moving around,
and symptoms of colic. In some, symptoms of rheumatic pains are
noticed. In the later stages of the disease the hind limbs become
^eak. The animal knuckles in the anWes and finally drags its hind
parts. The limbs are cold to the touch and the animal has no fever.
Appetite is usually good. As the disease progresses, the animal be-
comes weaker and the constant dragging of the lumbar region (hind
parts) causes abrasions, as the animal will try in the early stages of
the disease to move along with the other animals if possible. As
stated above, the appetite does not seem to be impaired. The ani-
mals, however, do not as a rule make any rapid recovery. Very often
when tonics are administered- they finally get up on their feet again;
but as a rule the animals seem to be weak and do not thrive well,
and a recurrence of the disease may appear at any time. The dis-
ease usually appears in well fed hogs. I have noticed that this dis-
ease attacks some of the best and fattest animals in the herd, either
old animals or young shoats. I have found it occasionajly in sows
that had just farrowed and that were not in very best of flesh.
The cause of this disease has been largely attributed to the kid-
ney worm. Whether it is due to this parasite or not I shall not defi-
nitely state, but the observations made by the department certainly
contradict that theory, for we have held hundreds of post-mortems
in the last six years on subjects affected with this disease and yet
we have failed to find in a single instance a kidney worm in animals
so affected. On the contrary, I have known of instances in which
animals manifesting no symptoms of disease whatever and appar-
ently sound in their feet have been shipped to the packing houses and
the kidneys found to be very much diseased (degenerated^contain-
ing large cysts). ; and therefore I believe that it cannot be the kidney
worm that causes this trouble, for if it were the kidney or the kid-
ney worm we would certainly expect to see one or more kidneys
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 403
partly destroyed in advanced stages of the disease; and yet these
animals during life showed no trouble of this kind. This has often
been demonstrated by post-mortems on animals for other diseases,
such as hog cholera, which revealed diseased kindneys, the owner
having never noticed symptoms of this peculiar lameness. I think
that the seat of the trouble is in the nerves of the spinal column, and
we have therefore inaugurated the following treatment with very
good success, judging from the reports received.
The operation we recommend is to produce active inflammation
by using the actual cautery. To produce this cauterization, take
some baling wire, about eight inches long, and taper this at one end.
Cut about eight wires of this length ; secure your animal away from
Ihe 'buildings, and build a small fire; place the wires therein, and
when they are at a white heat secure them with pinchers and insert
them through the fat, down to the lumbar muscle, making eight punc-
tures on each side of the spinal column. Be sure to penetrate the fat
so as to reach the muscular tissue. With this treatment we have
been very successful. The reports of some two hundred cases have
been favorable, and we therefore venture to give our experience with
this trouble and advise anyone who has cases of this kind to try this
simple operation.
I wish to say that while it may seem barbarous to use the heated
wire, yet it is not painful to the animals, as they do not seem to
feel the white heated wire inserted in thcfat, and it is not nearly as
painful as some of the treatments I have seen where a large incis-
ion is made in the back and turpentine or Spanish fly applied, causing
a very severe blister and intense pain. The wounds caused by the
remedy I recommend in this article heal readily and in most cases
leave no scars whatever. The animal should be kept on light food
in a cool, shady place in the summer. It should be borne in mind
that animals in this condition must not be subjected to a great deal
of disturbance, which, causing excitement, is not beneficial to their
recovery. Rest with proper diet is one of the essential features for
this disease.
VALUE OF DIPPING HOGS.
It has long been known to the intelligent hog breeder and grower
that the presence of insects on the hog is a very serious matter. It
is a fact that very few hogs are free from lice and that breeders have
been accustomed to use various remedies for the destruction of the
pest. The favorite seats of lice on the hog are back of the ears, along
the neck and under the breast. These vermin are bloodsuckers and
404 MISSOURI AGRICUWURAL REPORT.
they produce in a short time a very weak, debilitated condition of
the animal, making him far more susceptible to' other diseases that
the animal is heir to. The louse has not been credited with occa-
sioning serious loss, but of late years more and more attention has
been given to this little insect by the Department of Animal Pathol-
ogy. We have found that the hog louse becomes all the more a
serious question when hogs are out of condition. As above stated
ifc is a bloodsucking insect and if the accompanying conditions are
bad, especially if the pens are excessively dusty and through the in-
halation of an excessive amount of dust there should be a slight
pneumonia pi the lungs, the animals being affected with a large quan-
tity of lice will be all the more apt to die.
We have also found that where animals affected with cholera
were free from lice there was, in the great majority of cases, a far
smaller percentage of loss sustained than where the herds were
largely affected with lice. This has been brought to our attention
after examining numerous herds in various parts of the State during
the last five years, and so now the first rule that we insist upon when
we visit an outbreak of cholera is to examine for lice and if present
the hogs are immediately thoroughly relieved of these insects. The
breeding pens and hog houses are also thoroughly disinfected. All
the bedding that is found in pens and hog houses at time of disin-
fection is burned. The method that we have for disinfecting the
hog pens and hog houses i^ as follows: For the stables we prefer
to use hot water and any of the coal tar, such as chloro-naptholeum,
zenoleum and other similar preparations. This is done by making
a one per cent, solution of either of these preparations and using ,it
liberally with broom and brush and also with a spray pump. If you
have any of the spray pumps used for spraying trees it will answer
the purpose admirably.
After the stables and pens are thoroughly disinfected the ani-
mals should be disinfected also. This can be done by dipping them,
which is a far easier method than any other. Of course, it necessi-
tates a dipping tank. These dipping tanks can be bought on the
market very reasonably. If one is not in favor of using the dipping
tank, or does not feel warranted in spending the amount that it would
cost to purchase one, a spray pump will do the work, but I wish to
state that in spraying hogs one should have them on the floor and
must have quite a large and forcible sprayer, so that they can be
thoroughly saturated with the liquid. If sprayed they should also be
rubbed with a broom immediately so that the fluid will soak well
into the skin. The solution that we recommend is from 5 to 6 per
SWINE breeders' association. 405
cent, for grown hogs and about 3 to 4 per cent, for small pigs. In
our experience we have not found any harm resulting from dipping
very young pigs.
Spraying and dipping for lice can be highly recommended, as it
is the only safe, rational thing to do if hogs are in any way infested
with lice, and, as stated above, there is not a breeder of hogs who
has not been troubled with this insect and the remedy is to dip, and
dip often. It aids the very best balanced ration that can be given to
a hog, by enabling him to thrive and assimilate the food adminis-
tered. Breeders who have begun to dip their hogs find it very eco-
nomical and a very beneficial method of ridding the animals of these
insects, and the coal tar preparations which have been mentioned,
chloro-naptholeum, zenoleum *and Lincoln dip, leave the skin in a
very soft, pliable condition and I believe that it is a very economical
and sensible way out of this difficulty.
In conclusion I desire to say that I do not wish to convey the
idea that it is absolutely necessary to procure a dipping tank. I have
known instances where our American farmer with his genius for
making the most of his surroundings has soon improvised a proper
dipping tank with very little cost, but it is the purpose of the writer
to urge every grower of swine to dip his hogs at least every two or
three weeks to have the very best success and also to use liberally
any of these dips in a spray in his hog pens. And he will attain the
very best results and in a great measure prevent infectious diseases
from gaining any foothold on his premises.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. . — ^What causes these praying hogs that go around
on their knees and do not stand up ?
Dr. Peters.— ^Do you mean yotfng or old hogs?
Mr. . — Both kinds. The ones that weigh one hundred or
one hundred and fifty pounds. I call them praying hogs because they
kneel all of the time.
Dr. Peters. — That term describes the symptoms very well. My
treatment for that trouble is this, for young animals I advise a lini-
ment made of equal parts of strong ammonia and oil. Rub it along
the tendons. I also give a tonic. Fowler's solution. Give the doses
in accordance with the size of the animal, twenty drops to a hog
weighing two hundred pounds and ten drops to a hog weighing
one hundred pounds. Drop it on a piece of bread and throw
it to the animal and they will pick it up readily and eat it. I
increase this dose five drops every day. If you start in with twenty
406 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
drops increase the dose until you have given eighty drops. If you
start in with ten drops, then increase the dose five drops a day unlH
ydu reach sixty. By that' time you will notice a great improvement.
Also mix lime water in your feed and within a fortnight you will
have your hog pretty well on the road of recovery.
Mr. Schooler. — I wish to ask in regard to that treatment for
paralysis. For instance I have noticed as a rule the hogs affected with
this disease are often very fine ones. I have one on my place now
that was paralyzed that way last spring and she just drags herself
around into the pasture. She raised three of the nicest pigs I ever
had on my farm. She is still dragging her hind legs around. Do
you insert this hot wire into the loin?
Dr. Peters. — Yes, perpendicularly down for about two inches,
according to the size of the hog. Put eight punctures on each side.
'Mr. . — I tried that. I came in a little late and do not
understand your theory fully, i tried that remedy on a hog of mine
six weeks ago and it failed. I made the incisions with No. i6-inch
wire (I think it was) ; eight punctures on a side and added three
incisions immediately over the back, bone itself — whether that was
going astray or not I cannot say — but my animal still drags her hind
feet. She is in good condition, has a good appetite and I see no trou-
ble with the brain — although I have always had the impression that
this trouble was paralysis instead of kidney worm as has been said.
Dr. Peters. — The reason you failed may be due to the fact that
you did not .insert the wires deep enough. The wires must penetrate
through the fat and into the muscles.
Mr. . — My animal would probably weigh two hundred
and twenty-five pounds. I inserted the wire, as near as I can recol-
lect, two inches.
Dr. Peters. — That is about the average. I cannot explain why
you did not have good results. I would suggest that you try it again.
Mr. . — Just insert the wire and draw it right out?
Dr. Peters. — Perhaps the wire was not hot enough. You should
get it to a white heat. You want to get the same results that you
want to receive from a blister.
Mr. . — What would be the result if you would run the
wire too deep?
Dr. Peters. — I never heard of anyone having any* bad results
from the operation.
Mr. . — What spaces would you use in probing in up and
down the backbone?
Dr. Peters. — Half an inch.
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 407
Mr. . — I mean lenghtwise on the backbone?
Mr. Schooler. — You make these incisions eight on a side, length-
wise.
Dr. Peters. — Yes.
Mr. Schooler. — ^That would make four inches you would go up
and down.
Dr. Peters. — Yes. Use good strong wire, heated to a white heat.
Mr. — . — What causes lumps on pigs?
Dr. Peters. — Lack of phosphate of lime.
In Europe it was found that on very wealthy ranches and estates
they could not raise hogs and little pigs because they were raised
in what you may call palaces. The extremist had been there and
the man who said that hog cholera could be cured in that country
by having fine stables so that they could furnish them with hot
and cold water, cement floors and all that kind of thing. They found
they could not raise hogs in that way, while the hog of the poor
peasant that had none of these advantages grew and flourished, simply
because the peasant was raising hogs as nature intended them to live.
We cannot raise hogs on cement or even hard wooden floors. Give
m€ good earth floors and I will grow the very best of hogs. To-day
if you go through that country, the southern part of France and south-
ern part of Germany you will see tlmt on tho^e rich estates cement
floors are a thing of the past.
Mr. Schooler. — Then you do not advocate wooden floors?
Dr. Peters. — No; I would not grow hogs on them. I like a good
floor in the feed yard where they can go and take up their feed. A
good feeding floor is economical because you do not lose the feed. If
you have a good feeding floor you can feed any kind of feed at any
time.
DUROC-JERSEY HOG FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PORK.
By W. L. Addy, Parnell City, Mo.
With a careful regard for all breeds of swine, I do not hesitate
to assert that the Duroc is second to no other hog for the production
of raw material for the great packing houses of the world, in which
are prepared the most thoroughly marbled bacon, the finest of ten-
derloin, the largest cuts of pork-steak, the most satisfactory class of
pickled pigs' feet, the smallest proportion of head cheese, and the
largest proportion of leaf lard. At this point I desire to diverge a
408 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
little and offer a point in defense of the Duroc; as we are unfortu-
nate in having a color which is of a similar tinge to the seriously ob-
jectionable and out croppings belonging to other breeds, we are oc-
casionally referred to as mongrels, which are but the result of in-
different methods in breeding operations ; the effect is inclined to be
the outcroppings of the objectionable characteristics of the conglom-
eration of which the animal is composed, which is sure to appear in
a sandy hog, too often credited to the Red hog. To this class we
do not wish to be understood as referring in our remarks favorable
to the Duroc Red hog. To the carefully bred Duroc I aim to confine
this paper, which, for want of time, will necessarily be short. In
the carefully bred Duroc may be found a hog ready for an early fin-
ish, yet one which may be profitably fed until a very heavy weight
is obtained ; a hog of extra length, splendid breadth and depth, strong
bone (most generally very heavy bone) and the best of feet, a good
jowl well attached, assisting to form a'properly finished neck upon
which is generally found a handsome head and ear, 'a hog of mellow
skin and a smooth (no long stiff bristles) coat of glossy texture;
such hogs are the result of careful breeding operations, along well
established lines of idealities, the mixing of different strains of blbod
lines with brains; the careful consideration of blood lines as well as
individuality in the selection of breeding stock. These results may
be acquired without destroying the valuable traits which are said to
belong to the less improved hogs.' In the Duroc we have a hog of
feeding quality, to which we have in part already referred, and to
which we further desire to call your attention in the fact that at dif-
ferent experimental tests made at experiinental stations, with swine
of different breeds the result has not been unfavorable to this breed.
Also to the fact that where parties, in the way of a trial, have placed
one or more litters with a more favored breed, where all have the
same care, the result has been almost invariably favorable to the
Duroc. Hence, largely the rapid favor into which the breed has
merged. With referenc ^ t • their propensities to grazing I have been
criticised for claiming this a superior quality in a feeding hog. It
has been said that a roaming hog is necessarily a rough, uneasy scav-
enger. This we deny. Among Durocs of large scale, with coats as
smooth as pigs, with backs as broad and bodies as deep, with heads
and ears as neat as can be found on any breed, hogs not hunting
trouble^ hogs, easily restrained, hogs well shaped for the commercial
market, they may be found regularly taking daily tours of the pas-
tures upon which they are permitted to range. With reference to their
power to produce large litters and rear them, we claim this breed
SWINE BREEDERS^ ASSOCIATION. 409
combined with other qualities mentioned, has no superior, and I doubt
their having an equal. We have often known sows to farrow fifteen
to seventeen pigs. We do not claim that sows are generally able to
sustain to a weaning age litters of this number, yet with such, a be-
ginning we have favorable hopes of a satisfactory ending. We know
of sows, some of which were gilts, which raised eleven to thirteen
pigs, every one of which has gone out in crates as breeding stock.
We know of a breeder who weaned 120 thrifty pigs from 15 sows.
To one man last spring I sold two gilts which farrowed in April and
he told me about November ist that from those two gilts he now
had twenty-six head of hogs, the. spring litters then weighing, as he
said, on- an average of 275 pounds each. This party is living in town
and has no range for his stock, these hogs getting only such food as
•are given them by hand. We have a party rn our town who operates
a slaughter house on a small scale ; he butchers for everybody within
a radius of two miles. He dresses representatives of every class of
hogs. Unsolicited, he has told me that the Duroc hog invariably
showed a larger per cent, of leaf lard than any other hog he opened.
It is also generally conceded they are equal to any in the matter of
superior bacon, that they are invariably a deceiving weigher. All
of which is readily explained upon the theories above referred to.
. Finally. — ^Witha smooth hog of handsome style, of a disposi-
tion to take plenty of exercise upon pasture, put on finish at any
age, able to mature very large profitably, produce large litters and
sustain them carefully, turn out an excessive proportion of leaf lard,
take no back seat on the bacon question, we ask is not the Duroc-
Jersey breed of hogs the mortgage lifter indeed?
DIPPING HOGS— MODE AND ADVANTAGES.
By E. E. Axline, Oak Grove, Mo.
Mr. President and Gentlemen,. Fellow Breeders and Feeders of Swine :
When I received the communication from your honorable Sec-
retary that he had assigned to me as part of the programme, the
thoughts and suggestions I am about to oflfer on the mode, experi-
ence and results of dipping hogs, I felt he had made a great mistake
and placed me in a disappointing position to those who might expect
words of wisdom from one of many years' experience in hog culture,
but, like the boy whom his father commanded to perform a certain
410 MISSOURI AGRICUITURAL REPORT.
*
task, right or wrong, I will do it because father is right, and will not
ask me to do anything but what is right.
Ten years ago I consulted a gentleman in reference to the mode
and plan of dipping hogs, or rather he consulted me by advocating
the plan that I afterward adopted, that I had pondered in my mind
for years, believing it to be the common sense, practical and only
certain way of preventing what people call Hog Cholera from pene-
trating and devastating our herds, whether they be thoroughbreds
or grades fattening in feed lots.
By observation, investigation, research and experience, I learned
partially how to develop a certain type of hog, and while I believe
after long years of breeding, the Poland-China hog is superior in
some respects to any of his rivals, yet I am frank to admit that all the
strains of thoroughbreds Iiave their good points — but to my subject
and the question before us.
The hog. being constituted more like the man than any other ani-
mal that has brought wealth, satisfaction and pleasure to the Ameri-
can farmer and the American home, particularly in the great states of
Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Indiana, Michigan and
Ohio, it behooves us, as men engaged in this industry to work on
intelligent lines protecting our herds from the ravages of disease
as well as the bringing of the hog to the highest state of perfection
by the cross and interchange of blood in both the male and female,
developing the proper bone, muscle, head and symmetry of form,
which is or should be a joy to every thoroughbred breeder. These
being facts beyond any questionable debate, how shall we protect
the ideal hog by dipping and feeding a remedy that will rid the hog
of all lice, mange, parasites, fever germs, filth, and at the same time
keep the pores open, thereby assisting nature in throwing off the
dead matter that continues to accumulate during the natural life of
the hog, feeding the same remedy to rid the hog of worms, one of
his worst enemies, and keeping his digestive organs in perfect order.
I do not believe it necessary to have Hog Cholera, nor do I be-
lieve in administering these nostrums, powders, foods, sure cures
or certain decoctions to a hog, and forcing the hog to partake of poi-
sons more destructive and deadly than the disease that is propagated
and developed in our own feed lots, breeding pens and among our
own droves that carries off thousands of valuable animals yearly,
but years of successful breedmg, dipping and feeding, a remedy that
has kept my herd in almost perfect condition, permit me to advise
all my fellow breeders to adopt this simple common sense mode and
plan at a cost of a few cents per hog per year.
SWINE BREEDERS- ASSOCIATION. 411
My tank for dipping is about ten feet long, four feet deep, and
it is larger at the top than at the bottom. I have it set in the ground
itj a box, and my chute is about twenty feet long, the last four or
six fe.et slopes to the end of tank, where hog enters at an angle of
about twenty-five degrees, so whenever the front hogs pass on in-
cline, the rear hogs crowd them forward, and they slide into the tank,
going entirely under in the solution, passing out on a cleated board
at the other end of the tank. With this plan and mode I can dip 200
to 300' hogs in an hour, and after the drove is dipped, I cover up the
solution to prevent dirt, rain or snow from getting into it, and this
solution lasts indefinitely, or as long as an ounce remains. I add
the necessary amount of liquid and water whenever I want to dip,
keeping the tank a little over half full of the solution, and I dip as
often as I think it necessary to keep my herd in perfect condition.
Whenever I bring any hogs on my farm I think it a good idea to dip
them twice and feed the remedy before I turn them in lots with my
other hogs.
I have tried to the best of my ability, knowledge and experience
to place before this intelligent body the mode, plan and results of
dipping hogs, and in conclusion, I advise you to beware of many
things or solutions that are advocated for this purpose, as there is
never a genuine without a counterfeit, and both will find favor, just
as the words of a man in authority will advocate "hog cholera cannot
be prevented." I advise every man engaged in the hog business to
adopt this simple common sense plan of dipping and feeding, and I
believe it is only a short time until the fears and uncertainties of
this destroyer, call it what you may, will not be feared and this mode
ox treatment will be adopted generally.
ARE WE BREEDING OUR POLAND CHINAS LARGE ENOUGH ?
By J. R. Young, Richards, Missouri.
Your Association has assigned to me the very important subject,
"Are We Breeding Our Poland Chinas Large Enough ?" I hardly feel
able to intelligently present this question, not having had a very wide ex-
perience in breeding or particularly observing the very large Poland
Chinas. From some cause I became early in life most favorably im-
pressed with the medium sized hog and am of that impression still.
The very large hog never, as a rule, seemed to me to present that
captivating finish that expert judges almost invariably tie to. A question
412 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
here arises, what is a large hog? As I will present it a hog that weighs
from 750 pounds up is a large hog ; from 600 to 750 pounds the medium
hog, and a matured hog under 600 pounds may be considered the small
hog. Few breeders, if any, are sticklers for the small hog for the prac-
tical hog, because they do not get large enough at the usual marketing
age — from 7 to 10 months — to be profitable. My experience with the
large hog evidences the same fault ; the large hog is. by nature longer in
arriving at maturity and necessarily does not finish up with the medium
.sized hog at an early age.
On several occasions I have fed the large specimen with the me-
dium kind, giving them identical care and invariably the medium sized
pigs would, at from 7 to 10 months of age, be plump, fat and well finished,
while those of the larger kind were long, lean and usually lank and grow-
ing. I believe it is generally conceded by the practical hog man that the
medium sized hog gives the quickest and best results from the present
methods of feeding and usual age of marketing.
Let us see, for instance, what the weight of some of the State Fair
winners of recent years might suggest. We will begin with Corrector,
champion of Illinois State Fair this year, of whom the "American Swine-
herd" has said in substance : *'No better boar was ever produced and long
will it be until his equal will again be produced." I understand from Col.
Lail, his breeder, that Corrector would likely not over-reach 750 pounds
which puts him in the medium class.
Chief Perfection 2nd, the pride of Iowa, his illustrious brothers, I
Am Perfection and King Perfection, three of the most phenomenal boars
living, the product of one sow and one boar, can neither of them be
classed as large hogs.
Proud Perfection, Perfect I Know, M's Black Chief and Missouri's
Black Chief are none of them hogs of any great size and can hardly be
placed out of the medium class, yet who doubts biit that they, with mai%y
others of similar scale, are first in the hearts of most breeders of Poland
Chinas ?
You would infer from this paper my answer to the query. I think
we are breeding Poland Chinas large enough.
Mr. Schooler. — ^While attending the Nebraska State Fair last fall
and mixing up with the Nebraska breeders I found that they were find-
ing fault with the Missouri breeders for not breeding our hogs large
enough. For instance, Mr. John Blaine of Pawnee City has a hog, Logan
Chief, that when in show condition weighs from 950 to 1,000 pounds and
a number of hogs on exhibition at that fair from Nebraska were very
large, much larger than our Missouri hogs, but these extra large hogs do
SWINE breeders' ASSOCIATION. 413
not show the finish that the medium sized hogs do, and I think as Mr.
Young says, we find greater finish and better quaHty in the medium sized
hogs than we do in the larger ones, and as the Nebraska people were
rather finding fault with us, I thought we would let Brother Young de-
fend us.
FEEDS AND FEEDING.
By J. M. Ketchum, Love Lake, Mo.
Gentlemen : — The subject assigned me by our worthy Secretary is
*'Feeds and Feeding." This subject is susceptible of a wide range and
difference of opinions. I will give you a few items on the feed question^
with a view of carrying on the business and growing pigs profitably.
My idea of raising hogs is to grow them as cheaply as you can so that
you will get all the gain with as little cost as possible. As a successful
raiser of hogs you must use judgment in raising your own feed to bring
good profits. All swine breeders or pork producers should have a large
range for their hogs such as woods, blue grass, clover or rye pasture,
with plenty of fresh running water or a large pond so the hogs can
wallow at will and which will keep them free of lice and skin diseases.
Through the heat of the day they retreat to the thick brush and under-
growth to get away from the flies, but beware of small, filthy, stagnant
mud holes, they breed disease.
My mode of feeding for pork is to feed shelled com soaked ten or
twelve hours, feed in troughs or on a plank floor and avoid feeding in
the mud as much as possible. Feed so the hogs will clean up all feed and
come up squealing for next feed. Soaked corn is worth about one- fourth
more for hogs than corn not soaked. This feed with the range of clover
or rye is a good mixed ration. In pushing hogs for show ring and quick
and large advertisements, I feed shipstuff mixed with ground corn and
oats of equal parts, mixing in about one-fifth part of oil meal and a small
amount of bone meal, mix into a thick slop, feed three times a day and
also some dry shelled oats. Hogs should have free access to wood ashes,
charcoal, salt mixed with copperas. This treatment, with correct
breeding of good constitution, good heart girth, good medium bone,
well upon feet, will, as a rule, bring the practical farmer a reasonably
profit.
The State Dairy Association.
Abstract of Addresses at Annual Meeting.
THE DAIRY COMMUNITY.
By Mr. Rudolph Miller, Proprietor of the Alacon (Mo.) Creamery.
A few days ago I received a letter stating that they had put me
down to say something about the Dairy Community. I was some-
what perplexed about it, I did not just like that idea, and had a good
mind to refuse^ but the thought came to me that the Pible says you
must not be hearers only, but doers. I, therefore, resolved to say
what I could and do my best here, because if we all refuse to do what
we can, to do our best, the meeting would be a failure. Therefore,
I will tell you what I think about an Ideal Dairy Community, and
also about a dairy community that is not an ideal dairy community.
From my talk you will soon learn that I am not a full-blooded Mis-
sourian. But I believe I will tell you what I have seen here in Mis-
souri first.
I was very, very much discouraged, I have only been here a
year and a half. I came here to Macon, Mo., on the recommendation
of the Burlington Railroad Co., came here in* January a year ago and
saw something I had never seen before. First thing, I had never
seen as much mud. I saw green grass in January, and I had never
seen that before, and I learned that where there is mud there is grass.
Don't you know that I never saw a calf suck before I came to Mis-
souri? The cow came in in the spring; summer time came and I
expected an increase of milk, but there was no increase — the matter
was, the calf sucked and I sucked my finger. I do not call that an
ideal dairy community. I asked my dairymen : Are you going to
let the calf suck all the time? I want to get a little milk for the
creamery. When you get your check you look at it and think the
creamery is a failure; when you look at the calf it is thin, that is a
failure. Let one or the other be a failure, but not both. When the
cow comes in in the springtime and you let the calf suck, by the
time it is springtime again the cow has eaten the calf up.
My ideal of a dairy community is one I have in mind in Illinois
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 415
in the Elgin district ; it is at Hebron. I went there to visit a friend
of mine ; he had nineteen patrons in his creamery. This was in Octo-
ber, and they had 14,000 pounds of milk.
As a rule the farmer has not much to do in the winter time; he
works hard for six or seven months, and what he makes in the sum-
mer he eats up in the winter. If you have your cows come in in the
fall, you have all kinds of time to raise your calves. Give them the
• skimmed milk; you can keep it sweet in winter. In summer you
give a calf sweet milk to-day, and sour milk tomorrow. When you
feed regularly sweet skimmed milk, I guarantee you can raise just
as good calves with that and a little other food as when allowed to
suck. Corn and oats cost money ; do not give the calf a bushel a day,
but a handful. When the calves get that they will do well. When a
calf sucks it gets all that butter fat that is not necessary for it. When
the farmer learns that he can raise calves on skimmed milk, then it
will pay the dairyman to raise calves in Missouri.
What does a good dairy community consist of? If you take the
train and go through a good dairy community, you will see fine
houses, fine barns and good roads. When you go out of that section
you wonder at the difference.
In a dairy community there is a steady income right along; you
don't have to go to the storekeeper and ask for things on trust. As
a rule there are good schools, because people have money and hire
good teachers, and have good buildings. The roads are half the
battle ; I never saw as poor roads as we have here. When we have to
fix a road, we get together and talk and then go to dinner ; after din-
ner we talk again, and the road stays as it was. There is better edu-
cation among the dairy farmers than there is among those who do not
dairy, because as a rule they take several good papers. There is
more money among them, because there is always something com-
ing in. Of course, it is not the cows alone. You must figure out in
proportion to the cows you have and the amount of milk you have,
the number of hogs you can keep.
When a man has money he can build stables, but if he cannot do
any better he can make sheds. A man came to me and said, '^I have
seven cows and they are giving a good deal of milk, and I would
like to patronize you, but have not any cans." By and by prices will
be a good deal better than they are now, I said, and you bring in your
milk, but he has not been there yet. He has no shelter to keep his
cows in. I think that to make money out of your cows you must
have good shelter for them, they must be taken care of. I think the
great difficulty here in Missouri (I have not found it so out in Wis-
416 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
consin), is that the farmers will not milk the cows here. If they want
milk, they just take a little and the calf gets the rest. It cannot be
so in an ideal dairy community.
I am not talking creamery, but take good care of your milk
whether you take it to a creamery or not. Patrons of a creamery
get together at the creamery ii\ the morning and talk together and
advise one another. We should all come together and talk over what
is best. We organized what we called the Macon County Creamery
Association. We talk over what to feed, how to feed, and where to
get it. That I think is a very good thing among all of us, that we
come together and talk those matters over, and, if you have any-
thing better than I, let me know about it. Help one another, it brings
a better understanding. I think that if anybody expects to have what
we call an ideal dairy community, he ought to take one or more good
dairy papers and read them. When you get through with them and
fin4 something good, mark it or cut it out, or hand it to your neigh-
bor. By so doing you will see that it will not take long before you
will get together, talk the matter over and derive profit in the long
run.
If you have cows, whether five or fifty, it makes no difference
how few or many, take care of them. Do not overstock yourself.
But if you have fiye or fifty cows and neglect them for outside busi-
ness and do not milk them, then I say sell them, get rid of them as soon
as you can.
I am much disappointed in Missouri as a dairy State. I do not
believe there is a state in the Union that can produce as cheap milk
as Missouri. Up near Macon it does not pay to raise grain. They
cannot begin to compete with Iowa in raising grain. But I have seen
them clear off the brush here in Missouri and have nice blue grass
without sowing the grass seed. Why is it that the people do not take
hold of it better than they do when they do not have to raise grass?
In lots of places in Missouri there are creameries, but they are locked
up. There was one in Macon and I bought it, but it is up-hill busi-
ness.
When the day comes when the farmers learn to feed the calves
skimmed milk, the whole problem will be solved. They must know
the value of the skimmed milk. If they figure on just what butter
they get out of it they will not be satisfied ; they must figure on the
value of the skimmed milk ^nd use it right,
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 417
MILK AS A HUMAN FOOD.
By Miss Jane Zabriskie, Professor of Domestic Economy in the Mis-
souri Agricultural College.
We have a saying in Columbia that it takes a freshman to know
how to run a university. It really seems impertinent for a school
teacher to come to tell dairymen about milk. However, when we
think of the importance of milk in its relsttion to the human body, we
all agree that the subject cannot be emphasized too much. And
although I shall go over much ground with which you are familiar,
I trust you will be interested.
To begin with, we will take up the subject of the human body.
It is composed of ^vater, of fat, of muscle or proteid matter, and in
the bones we find lime and other mineral salts. Now, a stove needs
fuel. In the same way our body needs food, else it would soon ex-
haust itself. We find that food is made up of the same compounds of
which the body is composed, viz. : Proteids, which we find in meat,
fish, etc., and which would build tissue, fats and oils, mineral salts,
water and starches, the latter not forming starch in the body, but
going to make heat to maintain the continuous warmth of the body.
But the body requires these compounds in a definite proportion.
You dairymen make your cows fat or muscular by regulating the
proportion of foods in their diet. Did it ever occur to you that a bal-
anced ration is as good for man as beast? We need in the human
adult body about ii8 ounces proteid, 50Q ounces of starch and 56
ounces fat. Mitk, although containing all these compounds, does
not contain them in this proportion. The proportion of water is so
large that great quantities would have to be consumed per day in
order to obtain the necessary nutriments. Then, too, the proteid is
in large quantities compared with the fats and carbo-hydrates. So
that milk for an adult is not a perfect food, and one could starve to
death on it.
^ In a seed of wheat we find the food necess^iry for the young plant.
You all know how the seed germinates, and how the germ feeds on
the starch surrounding it, until all the starch cells are exhausted.
Then it utilizes the outside circle or layer of proteid matter and min-
eral salts, and by this time we find the plant really sprouted anc}
ready to get nourishment from the soil.
A-g7
418 MISSOURI AGRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
In the same way an egg contains all the nourishment for the
little chick. Even the shell after hatching is found to be worn thin,
as much of its mineral matter has been used in forming the chicken's
bones. Now milk is often called a "perfect food.'* It is, for calves,
but not for cows. For invalids and children's use the value of milk
cannot be over-estimated, owing to its rapid and easy process of as-
similation.
The methods of altering milk to suit the taste and digestive re-
quirements are so numerous that we will group them under four gen-
eral headings:
First — Methods of altering the taste of milk.
Second — Methods of improving the digestibility of milk.
Third — -Methods of predigestion.
Fourth— Methods of sterilization and preservation.
The first, that of altering the taste, is done to beguile the patient
into taking larger quantities of milk without tiring of it. Black
coffee or weak tea, a little qaramel, or cocoa, salt, liquors, wines or
spices, if added in very minute quantity will not affect the dietetic
value of milk and will relieve the painful monotony of a regular
milk diet.
The second method, that of improving the digestibility, aims at
preventing the formation in the stomach of dense tough curds, so diffi-
cult of solution by an enfeebled gastric juice. It is done by skim-
ming, or diluting with water, or adding alkaline or aerated waters,
such as lime water or Vichy; or it can be done by adding a little
cooked starchy food, like flour or corn starch. If milk is sipped,
rather than taken in large quantities at a time, the curds are not
formed so large.
The third method of altering milk, by predigestion, relieves a
weak stomach of much labor. It is done by adding pepsin or pan-
creatin obtained from an animal's stomach to the milk, and thus
partially digesting it.
The fourth method of altering milk, by sterilization, is made nec-
essary because it is generally impossible to procure cow's milk suffi-
ciently free from harmful bacteria, so it becomes necessary to kill
these germs with heat. In sterilization the important thing is, first,
to kill all germs in the milk, and, second, prevent other germs from
entering it later. For sterilized milk do not use lime water. A bit
of baking soda will give the desired alkalinity. Although there are
many ways of sterilizing milk, it is by all means, best to procure at
the outset, special apparatus.
Pastuerization was devised by the celebrated French chemist,
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 419
Pasteur. It has the advantage of killing the germs at a sufficiently
low temperature not to coagulate the albumen at all and render the
milk indigestible. It is much preferred to sterilization. It, how-
ever, unlike sterilization, cannot be done without a thermometer.
The method consists in heating the bottles containing the milk mix-
ture, to a temperature of 150 Fahrenheit or 167 degrees, instead of
212 degrees as in ordinary sterilization, and in then removing them
to a refrigerator just as soon as they will stand the cold. It has been
found that this process destroys the germs sufficiently for practical
purposes and that it does not alter the digestibility of the milk or
affect its taste.
Every hospital has its milk diet. An exclusive milk diet is desira-
ble in all acute diseases of young children, in typhoid fever, in acute
Bright's disease, and in many other sicknesses. And milk in combi*
nation with other foods form the general convalescent diet, although
an active person would require, if taking milk alone, several quarts
per day; in illness five or seven pints are usually enough. Many
invalids have been starved to death by being kept on a milk diet, and
fed only a glass or two a day. If we have nothing but milk, let us
have plenty of it.
Regarding the cookery of milk, there is little to be said. The
scum which rises to the top upon boiling is proteid, and is not* so
hygienic as when raw. In scalding milk it is better to place the pan
in an outside vessel filled with water. We call this contrivance a
double boiler. When the water in the outside kettle begins to boil,
the milk is sufficiently scalded, yet there is no scum on top. There
are other advantages in using the double boiler for heating milk.
First, owing to the large amount of sugar contained, milk burns
easily. Was any drink ever concocted by Macbeth's witches more
odious to a normal palate than scorched milk? It is impossible to
scorch milk in a double boiler. Another plea for the double boiler
lies in the fact that in it milk does not boil over.
The reason water boils is this: The particles of water at the
bottom of the sauce pan, nearest the fire, become heated and are
turned to steam. This steam, being light and gaseous, rises to the
top and endeavors to escape. The force of the steam pushes the sur-
face of the water up in a so-called bubble, because the surface of the
water is elastic. These bubbles break in quick succession, and we
term this boiling. Milk, however, owing to the casein and albumen
contained, is even more elastic and these bubbles instead of break-
ing, stretch over each other, and finally stretch over on the stove. The
next best thing to a double boiler for heating milk is a thick granite
420 MISSOURI AGRICUWURAL* REPORT.
sauce pan perviously rinsed out with cold water. The water fiUa
the pores, and helps to keep the milk from sticking.
Skim Milk. — Possibly you have heard of the economical milk
maid who would skim the cream off the top of the pan, and then, look-
ing first to see that no one was watching, quickly turn the milk over
and skim it on the bottom.
Really it was not so bad, however, for skim milk has a value
which is not appreciated. A quart of skim milk contains more pro-
teid — that is, more casein and albumen than a quart of whole milk;
and proteid is the most expensive part of our food. Two quarts of
skim milk has a greater value than a quart of oysters. Oat meal and
skim milk form a well proportioned diet, and if generally adopted
by the poor in our cities, would do much to improve the health of
the people. The hardiness of the Scotch and Irish, are largely attri-
buted to their daily ration of oat meal or potatoes combined with
skim milk. In some recent experiments in Maryland skim milk was
found to be just as digestible for calves or babies, as the whole milk.
Housewives, particularly, in the city, do not realize that there are
numberless nutritious and delicious soups and puddings which can
be satisfactorily made with the skim milk which is often thrown
away.
'Cheese. — ^And now we come to cheese, which is composed so
largely of proteid and is therefore such a valuable food product.
According to Matthew Williams there is in every pound of cheese
twice as much nutriment as in a pound of the best meat. There is
much difference of opinion as to the digestibility of cheese, but the
fact remains that to the average person it is as' digestible as it is
nutritious. The Scotch and the Swic^ who eat it in the place of meat,
experience no trouble in digesting it, nor would any one who ate it
rationally, as they do. But it is too heavy to be eaten in large quan-
tity,^ combined with other heayy foods as we Americans use it.
Contrary to general belief, cheese is considered more digestible
when cooked, especially if a tiny pinch of baking soda be added to
the preparation. Cheese custard and omelettes, cheese and macaroni,
cheese and rice, cheese and potato, are combinations we would do
well to introduce oftener into our menus.
Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat when eaten raw.
It can be given to young children when other fats would be harm-
ful. When taken alone it will not support life for any length of time,
but in combination with other foods, it is highly digestible and nutri-
tious, and often fattening. It has been said that if bread is the staff
of life, then butter is its golden head. When heated, however, it,
bAiRY Association. * 421
like other fats, becomes chemically changed. It decomposes and
sends off little particles of smoke, which are irritating not only to
our eyes and throat, as we who have fried chicken and crullers, know
only too well ; but it is even more irritating to the tender membranes
lining the digestive organs. This is why fried food is so injurious.
A fried beefsteak takes twice as long to digest as one which is broiled
over hot coals. Raw butter, however, is very hygienic, as you, of
course, know.
Buttermilk, strained, contains less fat than ordinary milk, and is
digestible and refreshing. It should be drunk fresh, as it decom-
poses quickly.
Surely the dairy is about the most important food institution
which the country possesses. The household economic people as a
class, are exceedingly grateful to the dairymen for their praiseworthy
efforts in securing clean, pure milk products. A gigantic stride has
been taken within the past ten years. Think of the dainty brick
of butter, covered with its waxed paper, or the clean glass bottles
of separated cream and compare it with the crude products and
methods of twenty years ago. There is much to be done, however.
Frauds are even yet perpetrated in many of our milk stores and but-
ter packing houses. Butter of all grades and containing all degrees
of dirt and adulterations, is melted down, re-colored and sent out as
"best creamery." Such frauds are the worst enemies with which the
legitimate dairy business has to contend. But, on the whole, a pKiblic
sentiment has arisen, which bespeaks better things. Science, too,
has aided the dairyman, and probably it is safe to say that at present
dairy products are the cleanest of all food stuffs with which the
housekeeper has to deal.
It used to be said that the stream in Montana, called the Milk
river, was so named because — because it contained water. The time
has come when we call it the Milk river, because it is so pure.
a 1 «» .
BUSINESS DAIRY PRINCIPLES.
By Prof. D. Hi Otis, Professor of Dairying, Kansas Agricultural
College.
Before a man embarks in the dairy business he should stop and
consider the cost. Dairying, like any other pursuit, is a business
proposition and should be established with the same care and judg-
ment that is exercised when a bank is started, or a dry goods com-
pany is incorporated. To succeed in any pursuit a man must be in
422 ' MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
love with his business. While attending a farmers' institute in Kan-
sas a farmer made the remark that he wanted his son to be a doctor,
and said he was willing to send him to a medical college, but did not
feel like sending him to an agricultural college. The son, on the
other hand, preferred farm pursuits. Another farmer in the same
neighborhood remarked that he wanted his son to become a farmer,
although the boy had inclinations toward the law. Both of these
men had wrong ideas. Give that young man a chance to develop
along the line that suits him best. He may make mistakes, but rest
assured he will find them out before it is too late and he will be all
the stronger for the experiment.
While the inclinations of a man are to be considered, those incli-
nations are greatly influenced by environment. While assisting at
a farmers' institute in Marshall county, Kansas, your speaker was
invited to remain over night with Mr. L. Scott, a farmer who lives
two miles out of town. Mr. Scott is a former school teacher, and
ex-county superintendent of Marshall county, but for the last five
years has been working and improving a 90-acre farm. Mr. Scott
is working on the theory that the farm should, as far as possible, pro-
duce all his family needs on the farm, and accordingly has a fine
apple, peach, pear and plum orchard, together with an abundance of
small fruits and strawberries. A garden near by contains all the fresh
vegetables that the housewife could possibly use, even to a large
patch of peanuts for the children. Both the orchard and the garden
are planned with a view of producing more than is needed by a family,
thus furnishing a little ready cash from the sale of extra products.
A little patch each of alfalfa, clover, corn, sorghum and millet com-
pletes the list of crops grown. A few hogs, some chickens, and a
small herd of cows, with a few horses, completes the list of live stock
that converts his crops into ready cash.
Mr. Scott believes in getting all the comfort and enjoyment that
it is possible to get out of life. He does not overwork and for this
reason has time to spend with his family. When a holiday comes he
sees that the chores are done and then he celebrates. Mr. Scott says
he is not getting immensely rich, but he is getting lots of satisfac-
tion out of his farm. He has plenty to eat, plenty to wear, and plenty
of time to read and enjoy himself with his family. What more does
a man need ? Such a life is worth living. We need more such spirits
among our farmers.
Thefe is another feature connected with this farm that should
commend itself to every intelligent farmer. Mr. Scott has adopted
four bright boys from the orphan asylum. When these boys come
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 423
to the farm each one is given a pig, a chicken or a calf, as his own
property, which he is expected to care for, and when sold to invest
the proceeds into something else. In this way the boys learn how
to conduct business transactions. Once in a while an object lesson is
given. For instance, two years ago Mr. Scott had cholera among
his hogs. One day he asked one of the boys if he would trade his
rooster for a hog that he saw at a distance in the yard. "Oh, I will
trade," replied the boy eagerly. "All right, we will call it an even
trade," replied Mr. Scott. A moment later the boy vient out to look
at his hog and found it dead. The boy's experience was a hard one
and although the rooster was returned three or four days later, he
never will forget the lesson.
These boys have twenty-five holidays during the year — one on
each of their birthdays, on legal holidays, and a few extras thrown
in. On these occasions the family hitch up the team and go off for
a fishing expedition or in some other way, to enjoy themselves. The
boys look forward to these excursions with a great deal of interest.
In the meanwhile they are expected to work, and do work with a vim.
When leaving the farm the speaker went out to tell the boys
good-bye. He remarked to one of them that he would expect to see
lihm at the agricultural college some of these days. The little fellow
pointed to a calf out near a tree, and said, "Do you see that calf?
I think that calf will send me to college."
How many boys on our farms are encouraged to take an inter-
est in farm work like these boys are taking ? It is one of the leading
secrets of keeping the boys on the farm. It adds interest to their
work and helps them to realize that farming is not all drudgery. It
was surprising what interest, what enthusiasm the boys put in their
work. Give the boys a chance, let them handle some of the income,
buy their own clothes, shoes, hats, etc., and it will not be long until
the boys will be inclined toward the farm instead of away from it.
Much complaint is raised that the hired men do not like to milk.
Frequently that is the result of asking them to do a full day's work in
the field in addition to the milking and other chores. Allow the
milkers to finish the chores by the time the regular field men quit
work and their attitude toward milking will be modified considerably.
At the Kansas Agricultural College the position of the milker is in
demand by our students, not so much for the money they can get out
of it as for the skill and knowledge gained by keeping the records in
connection with actual experience. All our boys are trying to make
records with their cows, and of course are very careful to milk them
clean. They compete with each other to see who can get the most
424 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REt»ORT.
milk and at times they get so interested in special cows that they carl
hardly wait until they are through milking in order to weigh the
amount^ and it is amusing to watch the pleased expression when a
high yielding cow goes up a few tenths of a pound in her yield or
her test. It is such intelligent interest as this that makes the milk-
ing hour a pleasure and not a time to be dreaded and scorned as is
too frequently the case.
From what has been said it will be seen that a poor man will not
make a dairyman; an average man will scarcely make a living; only
the best men make a success of dairying in the truest sense of the
word. What is true of the man is likewise true of the cow. It fre-
quently happens that farmers, hearing of the profits to be derived
from private dairying or from a newly established creamery, become
intoxicated over the prospects, and as a result every cow that can
be bought in the neighborhood, regardless of quality, is drafted to
contribute her mite at the milk pail. A partial record is kept for a
few months or perhaps a year, and, after estimating the cost of labor
and the cost of feed and subtracting this total cost from the total
income, the profit is either a minus quantity or so small that the con-
clusion is reached that dairying doesn't pay. This dissatisfaction is
frequently contagious, and a number of farmers in a single commu-
nity have been known to quit milking their cows because they have
found by experience that there is no money in the business.
A man might with just as much propriety go to Arkansas, buy
up all the razorback hogs he could find, and after a year's experience
declare that there is no money in raising pork, as to say that there is
no money in milking cows. Undoubtedly there are far too many
"razorback'' cows in Kansas and Missouri as elsewhere; cows that
are actually "eating their heads off," to say nothing about the expense
of labor or interest on the money invested.
Unless a cow gives considerably more milk than is needed by
the calf, it will not pay to milk her. If a man's time is worth I2j4
cents per hour (and every dairyman's time ought to be) it will cost
$8 a year to pay for milking a cow ; and it will cost from $8 to $9 to
raise a calf by hand on skim milk. This indicates that a cow must
produce, to be a profitable milker, at least $16 worth of butter fat.
This leaves the skim milk to pay for the hauling. With four-per-
cent tests and I5J4 cents butter fat, this would mean 2600 pounds
of milk per annum. This does not mean that cows giving this amount
of milk are really profitable dairy animals, for usually a dairy cow
will consume more grain than one nursing a calf, but it indicates to
the man who has the dual purpose animals what his beefy cows must
DAIRY ASsociAtibivf. 425
yield in order to pay for the expense of milking and raising the calf
by hand.
If poor or average cows are not a success in the dairy, how are
we to get the choice cows so much desired ? Not by buying, for such
cows are seldom for sale. In nearly every herd there are at least a
few good cows. It is only by persistent selecting, feeding and cross-
ing these with a No. i dairy bull, that the average farmer can hope to
possess a herd of choice dairy cows. How can a man tell his best
cow? The only way yet invented is through the record of the scale
and the Babcock test. A man often thinks he knows his paying cow
without having kept a record, but usually when his judgment is
placed alongside the scales and Babcock test, ,a big discrepancy ap-
pears. Mr. Chas. C. Lewis, of Kansas, a close student of the dairy
c©w, and one who is in the dairy business for the money he can get
out of it, has the following to say on this point : "I thought I knew
our cows quite as well when I began keeping our record, and I num-
bered them in the order I thought they would stand at the close of
the year. I got the first one right and the last one ; the other eight
were all wrong."
"But I cannot spend the time to keep records," is the sentiment
of a large number of cow owners. Upon the point, as to whether
it pays to keep records, Mr. Lewis says : "We think it. does. It adds
interest to the milking and is one of the best things I know to get the
boys to do their work well and to milk the cows dry, each one being
anxious to have his cow do the best. It forms the only basis upon
which to weed out the poor cows and keep the best. By carefully
studying the records you learn the individuality of each cow and
know how to handle her to the best advantage.
"The effect of care and feed are easily noted, and improvements
along these lines may thus be inaugurated. When the milk flow of
an individual cow, or of the herd, decreases, we know it at once, im-
mediately look for the cause and try to find a remedy.
"The time required to weigh and record the milk is very small.
The scales and milk sheet are placed in a convenient location, and it
takes but a few seconds to make the record. A new sheet is placed
on the board each week, the old one being taken to the house and re-
corded. *The weekly sheet furnishes an instructive study for one who
is interested in his herd, and it is a pleasure to see what interest the
boys take in the performance of the cows for the week.
"I see no reason why the dairyman should not know whether he
is conducting his business at a profit or a loss, just the same as any
other up-to-date business ma/i. If there is a loss, he should have
426 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
some system that will enable him to detect the source of the loss.
The individual record furnishes the only means."
Mr. T. A. Bornian, a Kansas creamery patron who realized an
income of $8i from each cow in his herd, has the following to say
about keeping individual records: "Years ago we began weighing
through idle curiosity, but this demanded regular weighing, and the
spring balance demanded the Babcock test. The one without the
other is a delusion and a snare, and the two brought about tabulated
records. Dairying without these simple means of ascertaining the
real value of the cow is not conducive to the best results. J know
that a pair of spring balances hung in a convenient place in the barn,
will actually make a cow give more milk. They induce clean milk-
ing, and if a good yield is shown one day and a low one the next, he
i? a shiftless milker, indeed, who will not give the same feed, x>t
place the cow in the same condition as nearly as possible as that of
the day of the high yield. The scales in the barn are a good thing
for us and will do much good for any one else. No farm work is so
instructive, or will yield so great a return for a bit of intelligence,
as does dairying."
At the same time we are choosing we must be improving. The
criticism is sometimes raised that the experiments carried on at our
agricultural experiment stations are of but little value to the average
farmer, for the reason that the stock used are either pure-blood or
high grades and are not the kind with which the average farmer
has to deal.
On the contrary, considerable criticism has been expressed by
farmers and agricultural writers about the Kansas Agricultural Col-
lege spending its time experimenting with scrub cattle, when it
might be spending its time to much better advantage in testing blooded
cows. Undoubtedly both criticisms are well taken. With most of
our farmers it would be impracticable, as well as unwise, for them
to sell oflF their common and grade cows and buy pure-bloods. The
problem that confronts them today is, how best to make the most
of what they have.
Records of a number of herds in Kansas and Missouri show that
some of the dairymen are succeeding. But while a few of our best
«
cows are yielding from 200 to 300 pounds of butter fat per annum,
the general average is far below. The average annual capacity per
cow of the herds of 82 patrons investigated by the Kansas Experi-
ment Station was 104 pounds of butter-fat. Where the cow machine
has been the object of prolonged and deep study we find whole herds
that average over 350 pounds of butter-fat and individual cows that
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 427
yield from 400 to 500 pounds. This, and the good records with which
we are already familiar, give us an idea of what -we may expect from
good dairy cows, and show very 'plainly that there are great oppor-
tunities for improvement. The dairy interests of these western states
are demanding a dairy cow that has the capacity to transform cheap
raw feeds into milk and do it with such a degree of efficiency that
there will no longer be any doubt about the unprofitableness of try-
ing to squeeze milk out of a beef animal. If this great need of west-
ern dairying is to be met, it will necessitate the use of better sires in
^lading up common herds.
A good grade cow may yield as much milk and butter as a pure-
blood, but a grade of any kind has not the power to transmit its quali-
ties to its offspring aS has the pure-blood, for the reason that the lat-
ter has received the qualities for which the breed is noted through a
long series of years of careful breeding and selection and these quali-
ties have become fixed or permanent.
Out of the 82 patrons mentioned, there were only 19, or 23 per cent.,
that were using pure-blood sires, and two of these had Herefords and one
had Aberdeen Angus — animals that, as breeds, are unfit for profitable
production of milk. This leaves 'j'j per cent, that bred to grades or com-
mon bulls of no partictilar breed. Some of these are bred to any kind of
a bull that they could find to get fresh cows. One man bred to a Red
Poll bull because he was working for a red color. Another man did not
know what kind of a bull he had last year, but said he had a fine one
this year. When asked the breed, he replied, "Don't know, but guess he
is a Red Polled.'' Right here lies the secret of many of the low yields
of our cows. Many of our farmers little realize how extravagant they
are in using a common or ordinary bull. Their short sighted policy leads
them to believe that because a good animal costs $100 it would be money
thrown away to invest, when, in reality, it would be money in their pock-
ets. A dairyman can much better afford to pay $100 for a good bull than
to accept a poor one as a gift. Mr. T. A. Borman says : ''An old red cow
dropped two heifer calves in succession, one a half-breed Holstein, and
the other from a Shorthorn bull. The Holstein heifer with third calf
produced an average of 52 pounds of 3.8 per cent, milk per day for seven
days, and at the same time, the red heifer with second calf gave 2.^ pounds
of four per cent, milk per day. The cows were half sisters, one producing
2.3 pounds of butter per day and the other 1.2 pounds; the first milking
eleven months of the year, the second dry at five months." "This in-
stance," says Mr. Borman, "only serves to demonstrate the value of a
sire bred for milk and butter when the farmer is rearing a dairy herd."
428 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The question very naturally arises in this connection, "What is the
best breed to grade up cows along dairy lines ?" Unfortunately we have
no definite or extensive experiments *to throw light upon this point. But
in the absence of experimental data as to crossing with different breeds
the dairy interests must not lag. Any of the dairy breeds can furnish
sires that are vastly superior to those from grade or common cows, and
our dairymen should become acquainted with this fact. The^ dairy inter-
ests demand that the breeder of the coming dairy cow shall be a sire that
will stamp his qualities in a way that they will show at the milk scale and
Babcock test, and the improved stock breeders along dairy lines need to
agitate and educate until our dairy farmers feel that they are committing
a crime against their own welfare to use anything but a pure-bred sire.
Life is too short in which to grade up a herd of common cows with a com-
mon bull. Time was when we could afford to harvest grain wilih a
scythe, and the time was when we could afford to keep an ordinary cow
for her calf, but that time is past ; we must now have the modern improved
self-binder, and likewise we must have the modem, improved, up-to-date
cow machine.
The right kind of a man in possession of the right kind of a cow will
not be able to accomplish much without the right kind of feed. This feed
must be rich in milk producing elements, must be appetizing and at the
same time be economical. The latter point is usually the be^t accom-
plished where as much of the feed as possible is produced on the farm.
In the spring the blue grass and in some localities the orchard grass and
clover furnish abundant and nutritious pasture, and in favorable seasons
will continue through the summer. Frequently and especially during the
last season, there comes a dry spell through June and July, or July and
August. This dry spell may be tided over by the use of soiling crops,
preferably green alfalfa, clover or corn, although oats, sorghum and Kaffir
corn may be used to advantage. During the past summer the Kansas
Experiment Station tested the value of sorghum pasture for dairy cows
with the following results :
During the month of July we realized $8.20 per acre from pasturing
sorghum, besides having the field left to produce a second crop. On
July I, 2,y cows were given all the alfalfa hay they would eat and then
turned on a sorghum field of 6.7 acres for 15 minutes. The sorghum
was from 18 to 24 inches high. The next day they remained 30 minutes,
the third day 45 minutes and so on increasing 15 minutes daily until they
reached an hour and thirty minutes when they were left to run at will.
During this transitional period the cows were given all the alfalfa hay
needed to keep up the normal flow of milk. For the first nine days this
amount was nearly 24 pounds daily per head. After 12 days the cows
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. . 429
were allowed to pasture the sorghum at night as well as during the day.
For the rest of the month these cows consumed less than 5 pounds of
alfalfa hay daily per head.
If it had not been for the sorghum pasture it would have required
at least 24 pounds of alfalfa hay daily per head to keep these cows up to
a good flow of milk. This would have amounted to 10 tons. As it was,
the cows consumed only 4J/2 tons, making a saving of 5^ tons. At $10
per ton (a low price for this year) this would have amounted to $55
which divided between (>.y acres would amount to a saving in alfalfa con-
sumed of $8.20 per acre.
On August I the cows were turned into a fresh field of sorghum,
from three and a half to five feet high, but with the same precautions
that were exercised July i. This time it did not take so long to get them
on full feed, and after the first week had free access to the sorghum day
and night. The two fields of sorghum were connected with each other
and the cows not only had access to both fields but in getting to the sec-
ond field were obliged to pass through the first, where second growth
sorghum was making a vigorous start after the recent rains. The herd
has not experienced the least trouble from poisoning or even bloating.
During the time the Kansas Station has been pasturing sorghum
several reports, have been received of cattle dying from ten to fifteen
minutes from the time they entered the sorghum patch, but in every case
where we have been able to get the details, the cattle have eaten the sor-
ghum on empty or* nearly empty stomachs. Cattle should have their
stomachs so well filled that they feel completely satisfied before touching
the green sorghum, and then allowed to eat only a few minutes at a time
until they are accustomed to it. If sorghum can be pastured successfully,
as has been done at the Kansas Experiment Station, it means that the
dairymen and stockmen can get an immense amount of pasture from a
small area, which is available at a time when their other pastures are
getting short and dry. Pasturing will also be the most economical way
of utilizing sorghum. The man that turns his cattle in a sorghum field,
however, must realize that he may be taking risks. He must weigh the
evidence for and against its use and then decide ior himself whether the
benefits will outweigh the risks.
With blue grass, orchard grass, red clover and sorghum for pasture
supplemented if necessary with soiling crops will enable the dairyman
to get through the summer in first class shape. The next problem is to
provide grain and roughness for winter use. Corn, Kaffir corn and oats
can usually be grown in abundance ; bran can generally be had at rea-
sonable prices and supply houses for concentrated meals are not far away.
430 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT
For roughness you have already heard of and some of you have used
silage. It is one of the best and cheapest feeds for the dairyman.
Red clover grows luxuriantly in Missouri and is a most desirable
hay. Without detracting one word from the credits of red clover there
is one crop which greatly outranks it both in yield and percentage of
digestible nutrients. I regret to say that Missouri farmers have not yet
taken hold of this crop as they ought. Alfalfa is becoming more and
more the w^onder crop of the world* This last season's dry spell has
established its superiority beyond the shadow of a doubt. In eastern
Kansas, on soil similar to that found in Missouri, the first cutting (about
May lo) yielded from one and a half to two tons per acre. There was
from four to five cuttings during the season, making the aggregate yield
from three to nine tons per acre. In good seasons two tons of red clover
is considered a good yield. Alfalfa produced that much of a yield before
there was any sign of a dry season. Alfalfa is nearly fifty per cent, bet-
ter feed than red clover pound for pound. Alfalfa being a perennial
does not have to-be reseeded every two years. It sends its roots down to
a great depth to gather plant food and water from the lower portions of
the soil. Perhaps a few examples will better impress us with the impor-
tance of alfalfa. Mr. A. Scott, of Pottawatomie county, Kansas, had 12
acres of alfalfa. The third cutting was saved for seed c^nd yielded 105
bushels. This sold for $5.50 per bushel. The seed and hay combined
brought an incpme of $82 per acre. Another farmer, C. W. Peckham, of
Reno county, Kansas, realized $52 per acre from hrs alfalfa land. Mr.
M. O'Brien, of Montgomery county, Kansas, s^measured his alfalfa by
adding the height of one cutting above another and during the season
found that his alfalfa had made a growth of 13 feet and a yield of 7.4 tons
per acre. Is any farther testimony needed to show the Missouri dairymen
the value of alfalfa? Missouri has excellent natural advantages but her
dairymen will not make the most of them until they get their farms well
seeded to alfalfa. It will be impossible here to go into a discussion of
preparing the ground, sowing, care of young plants, care of old plants,
harvesting and feeding alfalfa.
Pasture grass, ensilage, Indian corn, sorghum or Kaffir corn and
alfalfa make a combination of feeds that are exceedingly economical and
hard to excel in quality in Missouri or anywhere else. It rests with the
dairymen of today whether they will lay hold of the opportunities of-
fered and make the most of them in advancing the dairy interests of this
great commonwealth.
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 431
HOW I FEED MY DAIRY COWS.
Paper by J. L. Erwin, Steedman, Mo., to W^hom Was Awarded the First
Premium.
Dollars and cents to the credit side of the balance sheet is the ulti-
mate object of every dairyman. Large yields per cow at large expense
and risk, may mean, after all,, little profit in the business. My pastures
of blue grass, timothy, red and white clover, orchard grass and red top
supply the feed in general from May till November.
It may interest this audience to know how I have managed my cows
during the past year. A year ago we had a fine crop of pumpkins, whicli
we sliced with a com knife and fed to the cows, adding also a few nubbins
of com twice a day to tTie grass ration. I have ground no corn for the
past eight years because corn was too cheap to grind. When corn was
worth 25 cents per bushel, it cost one-fifth to get it ground; this one-
fifth added to the ration, was all saved by the pigs and the chickens. I
fed my best cows a peck of nubbin corn, chopped fine with the shuck on,
at a meal, with all the corn fodder (and at times a small ration of clover
and timothy hay) they would eat. I shredded. my fodder last year and
my cows did well on it.
About April 20 I turned on grass, and by the first of May had
ceased to feed com. July 25, 1901, found the pastures so dried that I
began hauling green com from the field and running it through a feed
cutter and supplementing this with about two pounds of bran and two
pounds of ground wheat per day. This I kept up till October 18, when
I began grazing on wheat, which I sowed, commencing on September
7, since which time I have fed nothing. Whilst others were sowing cow
peas, sorghum, Kaffir corn, Hungarian millet, etc., I was at work on my
wheat ground. I plowed shallow and rolled and harrowed and rolled
till when the drill started it was one great field of dust, which made such
a cloud of dust you could hardly see the team. My neighbors were all
against me; "Will lose your seed. It will sprout and die," they said.
**Why didn't the wheat sprout and die that shattered off last June,'' said
I. Wheat is a plant that grows in cool weather. Fine earth will hold
the moisture the longest ; wheat is the best drouth resisting plant we have ;
old fashioned red clover and common field corn — the Missouri article —
with its thick, tough blade, next. Had we understood this thing fullv
and thinned our corn to the old way of four feet apart each way, and two
stalks to the hill, and made a dust mulch of the surface, we would have
432 MISSOURI AGRICUWURAL REPORT.
made a good half crop. I intended to say that by feeding I held my cows
up in condition, though I lost nearly half in yield, till I reached the wheat
pasture and I am now getting as good a yield as I did last June when the
grass was good.
I am going to grind my corn this winter, because it is old corn and
the cob is too hard for the cows to crush, and the corn is too high in
price to allow any considerable portion to go to the cheaper hog. I ran
nearly my whole crop of corn this year through the feed cutter, corn and
stalk, and blew it into the mow over the cows. I took the cyclone stacker
off my shredder and put it on the feed cutter. It worked to perfection.
I am shredding fodder for my neighbors and baling the shredded
fodder like hay. A good shock of sixteen hills each way will make about
two bales. Care must* be taken to see that the fodder is dry, or it will
mould and heat. I am also baling my wheat straw and may cut some of
it if the com gives out.
As soon as it gets cold and frosty I shall begin a grain ration at full
feed; will give a peck of ground corn and cob with a couple of pounds
of bran or ground wheat mixed with it.
Now, as to the income. All the stuff fed is raised on the farm ; the
milking and churning is done by the family. Twenty-five cows and
heifers have turned in about $i,ooo during the year, the butter selling at
15 cents for the six summer months, and 20 the six winter months. It
is about all sold at the nearest town, four miles away, on a cash basis.
The calves brought $300 of that sum.
DAIRY SANITATION.
By Dr. D. F. Lucky, State Veterinarian.
The subject of sanitation about the dairy is entirely too comprehen-
sive to be treated in full in any one paper. It would probably require a
paper longer than this Association would desire to hear to go into the de-
tails of how to keep the dairy and dairy utensils clean. It would require
another to explain the proper ventilation and lighting of the dairy build-
ing. Material for another w^ould be furnished by the plans for the proper
drainage for the dairy building and its surroundings.
It seems almost useless for me to suggest here that it is important
and necessary for dairymen to practice the utmost cleanliness in connec-
tion with the milk vessels, the water and feed troughs and the floor of
the dairy barn. Cows, as well as other animals, require plenty of fresh
air, and besides lending a wholesomeness to the surroundings, plenty of
sunlight destroys many germs of diseas^.
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 433
I will not stop to consider these matters in detail, but pass on to call
attention to two things which are of the utmost importance in contiectibri
with the subject of sanitation. The first is the use of dUe cafe to ^voici
the introduction into the herd of diseased cattle. The second is the
proper arrangement of stalls in the dairy barn to prevent the rapid spread
of the disease should it once gain a foothold.
Spreading Disease, — ^The promised development of the dairy industry
in this State in the near future will require the bringing together of new
herds, the addition of new blood to those already formed, and the inter-
change of stock among the dairymen. In the ordinary trading of stock,
especially of herd bulls, with a view to improving their herds, dairymen
necessarily open the way for the introduction of disease. The extra
traffic that we may expect as a result of the impetus that the dairy indus-
try is receiving will increase the chances for the spread of the disease,
and unless the greatest possible care is exercised by those who are under-
taking the dairy business, disease will increase faster in proportion than
the number and size of the dairy herds. It is to this matter that I wish
to call the special' attention of the dairymen present today. I wish to
urge that the greatest possible care be taken in the selection of dairy stock,
to avoid getting disease. I should like very much to have the co-opera-
tion of the dairymen and breeders in an effort to prevent the introduction
of disease among Missouri herds, so that these herds may be kept in the
future, as they have been found. in the past, .practically free from all con-
tagious diseases.
I do not mean to infer that either dairvmen or breeders are careless
in this matter now, or that anyone \vould purchase an animal of any kind
knowing it to be diseased. The point I want to bring out is, that now
and then a diseased animal is added to a Missouri dairy herd and con-
siderable damage is done in'spite of the fact that the owner used what he
considered reasonable care. J want to call attention to two diseases in
particular, either of which will ruin a dairy herd and either of which is
liable to be overlooked in purchasing stock by the ordinary dairyman. I
know of only a few dairymen in the State today who use precaution
enough to prevent the introduction of these diseases. The ones I have in
mind are contagious abortion and tuberculosis. Just now at the very
dawn of the dairy industry in this State, I wish I could stamp on the mind
of every man who is interested in the business a deep impression of the
damaging nati^re of these plagues. To say the least a cure for either is
not practical. We will therefore have to prevent them as far as possible
and I shall discuss their prevention alone.
Contagions Abortion, — I can call to mind some ten herds of dairy
A-28
434 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
and breeding cattle in this State which from time to time have become
affected with contagious abortion. One was a herd of registered Jer-
seys, one of pure bred Herefords, one of grade and pure bred Aberdeen-
Angus and one of mixed dairy cattle of good milking qualities. More
or less despair was caused by an effort to proceed with the breeding of
these infected herds. The disease could be held in apparent check for
awhile and would then blaze out afresh. Its ravages were to the extent
that at least the profits of the several herds were lost. The Jerseys
eventually were sold for beef, the Herefords were sold at a sacrifice of
some $8,000 on their value and the mixed cattle were put on the market
for what they would bring for beef. The best advice that I could give
in regard to handling an ordinary bunch of dairy cattle which were af-
fected with contagious abortion would be to prepare them for beef and
put every animal in the herd on the market. The barn can then be disin-
fected and a new herd purchased, but I fear that at this point many dairy-
men would quit. Let us hope to prevent this plague and spare our dan-\ -
men the loss and worry caused by it.
I cannot discuss contagious abortion here any further than to point
out the necessity of its prevention. It is enough to say that it is practic-
ally incurable and may be introduced into a herd by an infected animal.
It is spread most by the bull. The cow is not apt to spread it any further
than to the adjoining stall, and on pasture I think cases are rare where
she spreads it directly to the other cows. The infected bull, however, in-
fects the entire number that are bred to him with the result that, as a rule^
about three-fourths of that number abort.
It is to be regretted that there is no way to tell by any kind of an
examination whether or not a bulf is infected with contagious abortion.
The purchaser must therefore avoid the disease in one of two ways. He
must either rely upon the representations of the seller or buy stock that
has never been bred. I think that the bull always gets the infection by
serving an infected cow. Therefore a purchase of a bull which has never
served a cow is the thing to do ; I believe that such a bull will not spread
contagious abortion even if he is selected from an infected herd. I can
not, in this connection, advise too strongly against the breeding of a cow
that has aborted from any cause whatever to a good herd bull. I should
treat every cow that aborts as though she had the contagious form, and
if I wanted her to milk again I should keep her isolated and breed her to
some bull of little value. A good herd bull is often ruined by allowing
his use in breeding outside cows, and this is bad practice as far as the
owner of the bull is concerned. The herd bull at the Missouri State
Farm was infected in this way and has spread the abortion to nearly all
of the cows. Those in the dairy business doubtless have cares enough
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 435
without soliciting by carelessness the extra burden which this disease
will cause them. I only wish that those who have had no experience
with it could comprehend all the facts about it as well as those who have
worried with infected herds.
Tuberculosis stands as a constant menace to our dairy herds. There
are no symptoms by which this disease can be detected except in the
most advanced stages. However, the tuberculin test affords a means of
detecting it in the early stages. In order to allay any prejudice that may
exist against the tuberculin test, let me say that tuberculin is a glycerine
extract from the cultures of the tubercule bacilli containing neither live
nor dead germs. It is injected beneath the skin of the animal and I have
never noticed any harm coming from its injection any more than would
be done by the injection of the same amount of distilled water. The
marked rise in the temperature of the animal following in from nine to
sixteen hours after the injection indicates that the animal is affected with
tuberculosis. I have examined herds of breeding and dairy cattle over
the State, applying the tuberculin test to ascertain whether or not Mis-
souri cattle are affected to any extent. I have found tuberculosis in con-
nection with two herd bulls and in one lot of dairy cows.
In order to explain the contagious nature, the absence of symptoms
in the early stages and the use of tuberculin to detect tuberculous ani-
mals — things which are necessary to carry out my original purpose of
telling how to prevent tuberculosis — I shall relate briefly the facts in con-
nection with the test of a dairy in which 56 out of 94 cows were found
to be tuberculous. In this particular dairy the sanitary conditions were
supposed to be the best. The lighting and ventilation were just about
perfect; and the floor was made of cement and kept scrupulously clean.
To avoid any cracks or crevices for the accumulation of filth and germs
of the disease, the cattle had no feed boxes. Their feed was poured on
the plain surface of the floor just in front of the row of stalls and here is
where a fatal mistake was made, that of allowing the cattle to eat to-
gether. In cleaning up, trash was swept along in front of the stall from
the feeding space of one cow over that of another. There were four
rows in one department of this barn each containing 18 cows. In one
of these rows a tuberculous cow was introduced into stall No. 5 and
when the test was made all of the others were found to be tuberculous
in the same row in the direction in which the feeding surface was swept.
The four cows on the other hand still remained healthy. In 1899 ^^^
cows of this dairy were found upon examination by the State Veterina-
rian to be free from tuberculosis. A few head of tuberculous cows were
introduced during the year and the disease spread from them inside of
twelve months until 56 out of 94 head were tuberculous. This example
436 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
shows three things. First, it shows the importance of avoiding the pur-
chase of tuberculous animals ; second, the contagious nature of tubercu-
losis; and third, the danger that comes from the feeding together in a
common trough, of cattle that are to be housed and kept for breeding
and dairy purposes.
All experience has shown and "reason teaches that where cattle are to
be housed the stalls should be so constructed that each animal has an en-
tirely separate trough and manger and each animal should always be re-
quired to occupy the same stall. This alone is of more importance than
the whole question of lighting and ventilation of the dairy barn and I
may safely include the drainage and cleanliness of the floor. Numerous
cases are on record where a tuberculous cow, always occupying her indi-
vidual stall has remained in a dairy for years without spreading the dis-
ease to other cattle. I therefore suggest the use of individual stalls and
feeding apparatus.
I am sure that those who have had any experience with contagious
abortion or tuberculosis do not need to be reminded of the necessity of
the prevention of these diseases. What is true of them is true of lumpy
jaw and other diseases. Let us hope that all dairymen will use reasonable
diligence in preventing the introduction of the disease into their herds
and that none will try any experiments with feeding cattie in a common
trough.
MAKING PRIZE BUTTER.
By A. M. Larsen, Kansas City, Mo.
If I should be asked to give any definite rules for making prize but-
ter, I could not. I know of no rules that would apply in all cases. The
rules for making a uniform, high grade of butter will all depend upon
the conditions the buttermaker is laboring under, condition of milk and
cream, and the season of the year.
There are those who seem to know how to make a fine article of
butter, but for some reason, lack of vigilance and a lack of application to
their work, result in failure to produce a uniform article.
There are those who depend upon theory alone and do not combine
with it the knowledge of actual experience, and utterly fail. Theory
and practice must go hand in hand. The production of a fine article of
butter under conditions where everything is favorable, offers no" criterion
by which to pass judgment on a man as a buttermaker. First of all, a
buttermaker must be an excellent judge of milk and cream. It is impos-
DAIRY ASSOCIATION. 437
Bible to make prize butter from tainted milk or cream. It must have a
clean flavor. Certain bad odors can be overcome in the process of ripen-
ing, but it is best not to have them. My highest scores were received
on butter made from milk two or three days old. Of course it would
undoubtedly have been better had I have had milk only one day old, but
the principal thing seems to be to have clean, sweet milk even if it is a
few days old.
I favor ripening at a high temperature if conditions are favorable,
but a buttermaker must adapt himself to conditions under which he
is working. He must take the practical side into consideration in
his daily routine of work, more than the theoretical side, or he will
not make a success.
If I had a creamery where I could take in the milk myself or
where I could treat the milk direct from the weigh can to the cream
vat, I would skim at such a temperature that the cream would be
75 degrees in the vat and ripen at that temperature. As to how long
I would keep it at that temperature, would depend upon facilities at
hand for cooling and the condition of the cream during the ripening
process. If everything was favorable and I could control tempera-
ture, I would not let the temperature go below 70 until it had reached
its proper acidity, and then cool down at once to churning tempera-
ture, but if I had to cool cream with water and ice surrounding the
vat, then I would begin cooling before the cream had reached its full
ripening stage, so that it would be about right when cooling process
was completed. We receive our cream from the numerous skim-
ming stations at the Brady-Meriden factory in Kansas City from 6
to 10 o'clock in the evening. The cream is immediately graded and
that of the same quality and temperature put in same vat. A starter
of 10 to 15 per cent is added and temperature is raised or lowered
as required so as to have cream ready for churning at 5 o'clock next
morning.
I never make any special selection or rejection of milk or cream
when making butter for contest, nor do I change my way of making
from my every day method.
The tub of butter that secured sweepstakes at the St. Louis Fair
recently, on a score of 97 J4, and pronounced by the superintendent, Mr.
Chubbuck, as being one of the best tubs of butter ever exhibited at
the St. Louis Fair, was made from cream from four different skim-
ming stations, about 300 gallons in all. The cream arrived at the
factory at a temperature of 70 degrees, slightly sour, but of clean
flavor. I used 10 per cent of skim milk starter on account of my
438 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
commercial starter being "off" and a new bottle of culture failed to
arrive in time to get a new starter made from it that day. The cream
was kept at a temperature of 70 degrees until it had reached its proper
acidity, when it was cooled to 52 degrees by putting ice into the
cream. I do not recommend this method as the proper one for cool-
ing cream, but it is the way we have cooled our cream all summer
and I have noticed no bad effects from it. Of course we used pure
manufactured ice made from distilled water.
The butter which we sent to the Pan-American Exposition for
October contest was made the same way as the St. Louis tub, except
that a commercial starter was used. We had 46 packages exhibited
there, of which the highest scored 97^ and the average was over
96 points.
The cream was churned until the granules were the size of
wheat kernels, when the buttermilk was drawn and the butter washed
in water at 52 degrees by revolving the chum once in slow gear. I
used half the amount of water that I had cream. The water was
quickly drawn and the butter salted with Worcester salt, one ounce
to the pound of butter ; churn revolved twice before put into work-
ing gear. Working was finished in 30 minutes and was made in a
Disbrow churn and colored with "Alderny" butter color, of which
I used one-half ounce per thousand pounds of milk.
City Forestry,
By L. A. Goodman, Secretary State Horticultural Society.
A quarter of a century ago it would have been easy to have settled
this matter in many parts of Kansas City, and especially so on
these rocky hills and deep ravines. All these hills and valleys were
covered with some of the most beautiful forests known to this wes-
tern land. The elms and oaks, in a dozen varieties, the walnut and
hickory as fruit producers, the linden and willows giving honey
to the wild bees, the maples, hard and soft, sugar, and white, grow-
ing beautifully everywhere, the sycamore, ash, wild cherry, Cot-
tonwood, hackberry, coffee bean, the thorn and crab apple with
their beautiful flowers and delightful, pungent fruit,* the box elder, and in
some places the tulip tree. All these magnificent trees interspersed with
an endless variety of shrubs and vines and plants and wild fl(^wers would
have made^ it easy for one to settle this matter of City Forestry with the
greatest of satisfaction in the olden time.
It does seem a pity that these western Americans have so little re-
gard for the trees in, and about, oiir large cities. Beyond this, it is still
more deplorable to see how quick our city fathers have been to destroy
Qvery tree that stood anywhere near a street or sidewalk, no matter if it
be a forest tree planted by nature and grown for hundreds of years, or
if it be one planted by the owner of the lot and cared for until it becomes
like one of the family, if it only stands one foot in the way of a street or
sidewalk, out it must come. What has been done cannot be helped now,
but what we may do by carefully guarding our treasures, "the priceless
trees," and by preserving religiously every one of them is a matter in
which we are all deeply interested. There are many of these beautiful
hillsides and valleys and creek bottoms in and about our city, which are
still worthy of our attention and preservation. Trees as old as this na-
tion, yes trees which were in these valleys when the Pilgrim Fathers
landed at Plymouth Rock, or perhaps when the foot of the first white
man stepped upon this land, are of such wonderful beauty and size that
we must surely revere and protect them. There are elms in the Brush
Creek valley which measure twelve to fifteen feet in circumference and
the spread of the branches over one hundred feet. There are beautiful
44d MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
dells and vales, rocky knolls and steep hillsides, high bluffs and glorious
hills, grand springs and lovely creeks whi'ch are still covered with the
native forests that arc of untold value for future beauty and they must
be preserved.
. I have but to point you to the beautiful Fairmount Park, and the
Wissahickon river out of Philadelphia, where you may revel in the beauty
of nature's forests in which has never been the ax of the woodman. With-
in a few miles of the capitol of our nation there are hundreds of acres of
the native woods in all of their wild beauty and those places are being
preserved with a religious zeal and determination.
How much more should we reserve and preserve some of the grand-
est spots about our new city. Then there are noted trees on some of these
old homesteads and on some of these hills which should always be cher-
ished for their age and beauty.
A society for the preservation and improvement of our natural beau-
ty spots and waste places is something to be desired right here in this
city. But the probability that this will hardly be accomplished soon shows
the greater necessity of something being done now, ere we lose more of
our natural beauty. There is nothing more delightful than this study of
tree growth and nature's beauty; nothing so productive of good for
the future, I plead with you, therefore, for your assistance, for your
influence, for your authority, to help create a love for trees and awaken
such an enthusiasm for the preservation of what we have and the planting
of more, that no one will dare to deface, injure or destroy any of them in
the future.
Forestry in its true sense means to get the most trees in number per
acre that the land can grow, with the idea of getting body growth and as
few branches as possible. But City Forestry means to get all the leaf
growth, all the shade, all the broad branches, all the spreading top that
we can secure on the ground with the least number of trees. Twenty-five
years ago the greatest landscape gardener of the West, M. G. Kern, who
laid out Lafayette Park and Forest Park in St. Louis, went with me over
the hills in and about Kansas City and outlined a most beautiful landscape
and park effect. Such a plan might be put in working order and the pres-
ervation of these grand monarchs of the forest be accomplished.
Let us then at this late day begin to protect every tree we can and
plant every tree we can, with this idea in view, the covering of our city
with a leafy growth of trees.
Tree Grozvth. — What then can we make our city by planting? We
know that it takes years to develop these forest trees and we must always
keep in mind, therefore, what the trees will be in twenty, forty, or one
hundred years hence. We must remember, also, that we do not want tall
CITY FORESTRY. 441
bodies as the trees get old, with the leaf surface forty feet from the
ground, as in real forests, but we want this leaf protection as close to the
ground as possible, so we can walk or drive under.
First — By street planting. All street planting should be of one va-
riety on the street for permanent trees, some other varieties may be
planted between with the idea of removing as soon as they get too close
or the branches interfere. The permanent trees should not be planted
closer than fifty or sixty feet. Of course this will necessitate one between
them for at least ten or fifteen years, especially if the permanent tree is
to be a hard or soft maple. These extra trees are to be used as fillers
only, and are to be cut out as soon as they begin to crowd the others. The
only danger lies in the failure of the party to thin out. If you can
cut out when the time comes, then so plant.
Second — Planting in the waste places, hollows, ravin«s, corners, or
nooks. Many of these may be secured by the city for the asking. Some
of them have had the taxes accrue against them and they have been for-
feited to the city. In some of our cities these waste places are planted
with a clump of forest trees simply for the covering or hiding of unde-
sirable objects and the giving of leaf surface instead of the barren spots.
On many of our waste places nature soon plants a young forest of her
own if you will just let her alone and protect the young seedlings as they '
come up. Note an instance of this on the east side of Grand Avenue
south of Twenty-fourth street in the old quarry, where is a wonderful
growth of young elms which make us think of the words of the poet.
The elm a lovely lady is,
In shimmering robes of gold,
They catch the sunlight when she moves,
And glisten fold on fold.
These trees in a few years, if protected, will entirely cover the old
barren, unsightly places with a young forest that will be a thing of beauty.
Third — ^The plan will be to do a lot of group planting at comers or
in large lawns or back yards so as to break the monotony of the regular
lines of street trees. In the City of Washington we find this plan utilized
to its best advantage. Whenever there is a little three-cornered plot at
the intersection of streets it is covered with a group of forest or ornamen-
tal trees, and it becomes a wonderful relief to the long rows of street
trees. We have many large lawns or back or side yards where such
grouping can be most profitable and advantageously done without a dol-
lar of expense to the city, if we will but call the attention of the owner to
its beauty and value.
442 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
What do we plant when we plant the tree?
A thousand things that we dally see.
We plant the spire that out towers the craig.
We plant the staff of our country's flag.
We plant the shade from the hot sun free,
We plant all these when we plant the tree.
In this planting, therefore, we want to understand the nature of the
tree. What it is, how it grows, what are its working parts, how it eats
and drinks and sleeps. "First of all, then, we must ever remember that
the tree is alive. It is alive, and because it cannot move, like our
dumb animals, and cannot talk like our children, yet it is none the
less alive, and it will bend in obedience like our dogs and respond
in answering our questions like our children if we can only under-
stand its talk.
The working parts of the tree are the roots, branches and leaves
and we should follow nature in the treatment of these. The roots need
to be in the ground and the tree needs all of its roots, and so when we
take up a tree we must take up all the roots we can get, and we must keep
them in as near the condition as they are while in the ground as can possi-
bly be done. You might just as well expect a fish to live out of water) as
a tree to live with its roots lying in the full stwilight on a hot day or out
of the ground during a frosty night.
The tree begins to suffer, in fact, it begins to die just as soon as the
roots are out of the ground, and it is only a question of how long it will
be before it is dead. More than nine-tenths of our trees are lost by
this exposure of the roots, and the trees are really dead before plant-
ing, although tTiey may not show it until months after. It is not like
Rome, which took 700 years to die, but it does sometimes take the
tree seven months to show it. , •
The tops, body and branches begin to suffer in just the same way,
but not so quickly. The branches are evaporating moisture all the time,
and if the- roots are not able to supply it they at once begin to shrivel up
and it is only a question of how long before the tree will be ruined. Again,
in the handHng of these trees the bark is often bruised and broken from
the bodies and branches, and if the trees could cry out they would do so
just as quickly as you would when the skin is torn from your hand or
arm or face. Then in order to cover these various injuries the "tree
butcher" will cut off all of the tops of the trees and leave nothing but the
poles. The trees need good roots and branches and young twigs to begin
the foundation of the other working part, the leaves which are the pump-
ing force of the tree, the transformer of the sap from the roots into twig
growth and the producer of a layer of wood on the outside of the tree.
How can the tree do this if there are no leaves until midsummer, as is too
CITY FORESTRY. 443
often the case when there are nothing but poles, instead of tree tops.
These branches and leaves are like you, they love pure air. Trees cannot
thrive well otherwise. The scraggy appearance of so many of our trees
in the city is due to the soft coal smoke and you may as well expect to keep
healthy and rosy cheeked in a dungeon, as for a tree to be healthy and
vigorous with soft coal smoke in the air.
Trees love society, they do better in groups, grow more vigorous
when they protect each other from the hot winds of the summer, and
cold of the winter. They love attention and respond in their own way to
every care and attention given them. Do you love trees ? Then they will
grow for you, they will live better if you plant them, they will answer
you with increased loveliness for every particle of food you give them to
eat and every drop of water you give them to drink, and every washing
or cleansing you give their bodies, just as much and just as certainly and
just as intelligently as does any horse or dog or cat
Do you love trees? Then try them and see and you will get a
thousand times the pleasure out of them, you can talk with them more
intelligently and receive a hundred times the reward for the love ex-
pended upon them in return, than you or any living man oi* woman
can get from a pet poodle dog, fox hound or pug dog in a thousand
years and those who live after you will call you blessed.
Set some trees on the commons-
Ashes, linden, poplars, birch;
Set them out around the schoolhouse,
Plant them thick about the church.
Have the childrens' playground shaded,
And the public walks as well,
And the joys from these arising,
Ooming ages glad will tell.
This tree planting means much more to all of us than what pleasure
we get out of them or those who come after us will get. These trees are a
plan of nature to modify the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Our
delight on a hot summer day is under the shade of the trees and the modi-
fying of the winter blasts by the forest is just as perceptible to you if you
seek their shelter. The trees help to regulate our rainfalls and our moisture
and every city and town and village should be a city forest just so far as
it is possible. We should have leaf growth of any and every and all kinds
for our pleasure and profit and health, and for its influence on the climate
and rainfall. Without these forests we should have the desert wastes de-
scribed by the poet.
444 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The forest trees that in the olden times»
The peoples' glory and the poet's pride,
Tempered the air and guarded well the earth.
And under spreading houghs for ages kept
Great reservoirs to hold the snow and rain,
From which the moisture through the teeming year
Flowed equably but freely— all were gone,
Their priceless leaves exchanged for petty cash.
The cash has melted and had left no sign,
The logger and the lumberman are dead.
The ax had rusted out for lack of use,
But all the endless evil they had done
Was manifest upon the desert waste.
The Home of the Birds. — I was at Marshall, Mo., the other day in
the campus of the college grounds among the beautiful trees and the
President said to me that the trees were becoming a birds' paradise and
his whole trouble during the summer was to keep the boys and men from
killing the birds and destroying the nests. Not the least, therefore, of
the many benefits of the tree planting is the place we give the birds for
their homes, plenty of beautiful forest trees in which to make their
nests, after having destroyed their native habitat, the natural forests.
The farmers and fruit growers realize more and more each day the
need of birds as assistants in keeping the insects in check.
This tree planting in all of our cities will thus be of untold value to
the agriculturist. Birds are one of the plans of nature to give us
sweet songs and also protect us from our enemies.
I plead therefore in this matter for protection to our birds. They are
beautiful in our trees but not on hats. They are valuable in our forests
but not on our tables. They are happy when on their nests but not when
the nests are in the boys' hats. They are industrious after insects if we
give them the trees for homes, but they flee far away when there are no
forests or city trees to protect them. They are our best friends in the
woods and fields but not when murdered by the ruthless hand of the man
with the gun. Let us plant trees for the birds.
Nature Study has no more delightful phase of pleasure or profit or
investigation than has this same tree planting or "City Forestry."
I. It creates a love for the trees so that we can talk or commune
with them to our heart's content. You know how much more you enjoy
society when you are well acquainted with every person present, do you
not? Well just so do I plead for a knowledge of our trees, know them,
get acquainted with them, see their characteristics in summer, in winter,
know the leaves, the twigs, the bark, the roots, know them by name just
as you know your friends by name and call them such.
Our Friends the Trees. — "The book for every one to read is the open
book of nature. There was none ever written that contains one-half of
CITY FORESTRY. 445
the information, none other half so fascinating, none so perfect and so
pure."
A FEW PRACTICAL THOUGHTS IN THE LINE OF GROWING AND PLANTING'
AND HANDLING TREES.
First — ^The best tree is grown in the nursery from seeds, and there
well cared far, headed at the proper height and where necessary trans-
planted once or twice or thrice before planting out in its permanent home ;
all trees are much more valuable when thus transplanted.
Second — Tree^ must be taken up with plenty of roots, about one foot
in diameter for every inch the tree is in diameter at the crown of roots.
Third — ^^Handle so that they will not be exposed to the air more than
absolutely necessary, cover all roots with wet straw or wet sacks as
soon as dug. Do not bruise root or top. ,
Fourth — Pruning so that there will always be some of the one year
old wood left on the tree. Cut back the tops so that they will compensate
for the roots cut off.
Fifth — In lawn planting always plant in clumps or groups. The
beauties of the tree are much more prominent when broad patches of
green grass intervene between the clumps of trees. It makes a setting for
the trees, a frame work for the picture. This is always a safe, sure, and
satisfactory plan.
Another great mistake is in thinking that trees are not beautiful until
they become large. There is just as much beauty and sometimes I think
more, too, in a small, shapely, thrifty, vigorous growing tree, be it apple,
pear, peach, maple, elm, evergreen or shrub, than there is in the full
grown specimens. To a lover of trees, the beauty and pleasure they give
is a continual one, for the first of spring, the middle of summer, the
autumn or the winter, all have their attraction.
Sixth — The plan of pruning is to have an ideal tree always in
mind. What is an ideal? I think it is one with a central trunk
with all the branches coming out of the main trunk at as near right
angles as possible, and scattered all along the entire trunk.
Keep the main center stem longer than any of the others and
prune in a rather pyramidal form. All trees thus pruned will make
a symmetrical growth, and you will hardly have a fork to split or
break down by heavy winds or snow or ice. Something in the shape
of a Norway spruce is near the plant I like to carry in my mind. I
know it is hard to realize this ideal in many of our trees, but if we
will have it in mind all the time we will gradually bring the tree to
its ideal in a few years. I have a soft maple in my back yard that
is thirty years old, now six feet around, fifty feet high, and spread
446 MISSOURI AGRICUI^TURAL REPORT.
of branches seventy feet, that has never been injured by snow or
storm, and sugar maples that at one-third of a century are perfect
marvels of beauty.
Seventh — Plant thickly so as to get immediate effect, and then
chop out when they are too thick, and do not be afraid to do it in
time.
I fear to recommend this rule, because so many will fail to do
the cutting out in time.
Eighth — In street trees plant them so that they will occupy the
middle of the grass plot between the sidewalk and the curb. These
granitoid .men will come and cut the roots from a lot of trees that
have been planted twenty years, to within one foot of the tree, tak-
ing off all the roots for a depth of twelve to fifteen inches.
A perfect outrage and a barbarous practice sanctioned by our
city fathers; it should be prohibited by every person with the least
bit of sense.
Ninth — Planting should be made in holes large enoAigh and deep
enough to hold the roots in a natural position. Do not plant any
deeper than the tree stood in the nursery. Put well pulverized soil
around the roots, so that every root will be in contact with the soil,
and then tramp the soil well.
Tenth — ^When shall we plant ? Whenever we can find the ground
in good condition, spring or fall.
Eleventh — ^The care during the first and second years is to hoe
the trees well and often, or mulch them well with rotten straw or
old manure. Pruning with the only ideal tree in mind, taking off
only such twigs or branches as are destroying the symmetry on tree.
Twelfth — Piotect the bodies of the trees, especially in large trees,
by wrapping them with old gunny sacking or hay rope. This will
prevent sun scald .and keep out the flat-headed borer, and insure a
good growth the first year.
Thirteenth — Pruning in after years need be only such as will pre-
serve the beauty and the symmetry of the tree keeping the same ideal
ill mind, and cutting back about one-half of the year's growth in the
case of soft maple and elm, and that dass of tree. For a lawn tree of
peculiar beauty it is often desirable to have the trees branch at the
ground like the spruces. This is true of some birches and beeches,
and it makes a very striking feature in the landscape.
Fourteenth — It is always desirable to preserve the individuality
of our trees. It is just as distinct as is the individuality of each
person in this room, and we lose one-half of our attractiveness when
CITY FORESTRY. 447
we lose this characteristic, just so with the trees, no two are just
alike, and it is always well to preserve these distinctions, and so it
is necessary often to cut out surplus trees in order that we may
retain this individuality of each variety. One tree well shaped and
covering" 50 or 100 feet of ground with its' branches, is much more
grand than the same space covered by a clump of a half dozen. On
my home place I have cut out more than three times as many trees
as I have left and have thus retained the individuality of the trees.
The elm, for instance, varies greatly from the tall upright to the
low crooked, scraggly, drooping branches, and it is absurd to try
and modify them by a variety of treatment, but treat them so as to
induce this peculiarity in each.
Can you go into the woods and name one-half the varieties of
forest trees? Then is it any wonder that you do not love the trees?
Can you love people and not know them? Know the different mem-
bers of one family, not one member only. Such, for instance, as the
family of Oaks, Black, White, Red, Brown, Spanish, and so on, or the
family of Elms.
If you do not know them thus, then you lose half, if not all, the
pleasure of the study of our forests. Nature study in this direction
is a delight, a recreation, as well as a good lesson, to all of us if .we
will but make use of it. We can see beauty in every leaf and bud
and branch and variety, and when the leaves have fallen, then in the
twigs and branches and bark and lichens that grow thereon.
Nature in and among our trees and the growth of these trees is a
valuable, delightful, interesting and profitable study as is any science.
What is science? I know not what you think, but in my humble
opinion science is "seeing things that you look at and drawing con-
clusions from what you see." Can you apply this to our trees and
tree planting? Then you will become a scientific forester. If you
thus love nature study and follow it you will always be ready to pro-
tect the trees, young and old, planted or being planted.
Protect them :
First — From our city authorities, shame to them l)e it said.
Second — From our tree butchers, who cut them to pieces.
Third — From our telephone and electric light companies, when
they want to run a wire over or among them.
Fourth — From the man who hitches horses to them and lets the
bark be pealed off.
Fifth — From the careless boys.
Sixth — From the ignorant owner.
448 . MISSOURI AGRICULTUlgtAI, REPORT.
Seventh — From the horses and cattle that run at large.
In conclusion many a man would find a most healthful and de-
lightful recreation if he will but give some of his spare time from his
office or his business, to the plainting of some ornamental or fruit
trees, and to the care of them. He would lose every thought of busi-
ness care, and would enjoy the most complete rest and relief that
any occupation could possibly bring him, add years to his life and take
wrinkles from his brow. Love trees, protect trees, care for them,
plant them, water them, train them, feed them, talk with them, and
you may be sure they will repay you a thousand fold.
Economic Notes on Some of the Grasses of
Southwest Missouri.
By S. A. Hoover, Professor of Agriculture, State Normal School, War-
rensburg, Missouri.
(The result of the study of the grasses and forage plants of Taney,
Stone, Ozark and Greene counties.)
Southwest Missouri is old geologically. It was not subjected
to glacial action. Its streams all lie far below the general level of the
country. The creek and "river bottoms are usually narrow, and the
bluffs abrupt. Sometimes cliffs several hundred feet high may be
found, notably, the one at Forsyth, in Taney county. In some places
there are bald knobs, or mounds, nearly devoid of vegetation. Flint
hills abound which are difficult of cultivation, but which will pro-
duce fairly good crops of grain and excellent fruit. Grass, however,
does not succeed on this quality of land. The smaller valleys and
creek bottoms are frequently gravelly, and the soil is poor. Some of
them, like the Sac and Osage river bottoms, and valleys, such as the
one at West Plains, in Howell county, are very productive. These,
with the Burlington limestone land are by far the best agricultural
lands in this part of the State. The latter, when forested, has a nat-
ural growth of white hickory, black walnut, hackberry, mulberry,
linden, redbud, red elm and sometimes scaly-bark hickory. On this
quality of land I have seen exceedingly heavy crops of timothy cut
from a field which had been in continuous cultivation for sixty years
without fertilizers of any kind having been added to it.
The subsoil in some of the prairies and in the post-oak flats is
very stiff, and it will hold water like an earthen vessel. When heavy
rains fall the water reaches this subsoil, and remains there until it
evaporates. This quality of land is not well adapted for the cultiva-
tion of most grains or grasses.
The flora of Southwest Missouri is very rich in species. Perhaps
no other portion of the United States equals it. Some plants whose
habitat is further south are found here now.
A-29
450 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Nature, wherever possible, puts a covering of some kind of herb-
age on the land. In the extreme southern counties, such as Stone,
Taney, etc., leguminous plants predominate. In the open woods of
the north part of Dallas county, in Camden county and in Stone
county there are beautiful, park like expanses, mostly covered with
little blue stem (Andropogon scoparius) ; in other places big blue stem
(Andropogon provincialis) and bushy blue stem (Andropogon nutans)
are found. All these ^*asses grow and thrive until so closely past-
ured that the ground cannot be burned over in the spring. When
such a condition comes about the under-brush soon smothers out the
grass, and the pasture is destroyed.
GRASSES.
Importance of the Grass Crop, — All our cultivated grains, except
buckwheat, belong to the grass family. Grasses vary in height from
a few inches to more than seventy feet, as in the case of the giant
bamboo. While the useful grains belong to the grass family, yet we
always speak of them as wheat, corn, etc., and never as grasses. On
the other hand, timothy, red top, blue grass and many others are al-
ways called grasses. Many of the grasses are of great economic in-
terest, because of the fact that they furnish both hay and pasture.
While we could raise stock without grass, by substituting for it some
one of the leguminous crops, such as clover, alfalfa or cow peas, yet
stock-raising would be much more difficult, and, certainly not so
profitable.
On the prairies of Missouri, nature was many centuries in pre-
paring a number of grasses adapted both to the soif and the climate.
It is a matter of regret that so many of these natural meadows and
pastures have been destroyed by the plow. Where the prairies have
been used as pasture, in many instances, the grass has been killed by
over-pasturing, and weeds have taken its place.
While some grasses are useful, others are very bad weeds.
What a Grass Is. — Both clovers and sedges are popularly called
grasses, but it is a mistake to designate either of them by a name which
does not belong to them. A grass has a jointed hollow stem, or
culm, while the stem of a sedge is neither jointed nor hollow. There
are other differences, but these two characteristics are sufficient to
distinguish a grass from a sedge. The sedges of Missouri are of no
economic value, as stock will not eat them.
Some grasses start from the seed, make their growth and ma-
ture seed all in one season. Such grasses are called annuals. Others
again live an indefinite number of years. These are perennial. Ken-
GRASSES OF SOUTHWEST MISSOUKI. 451
tucky blue grass is a perennial, while June grass, belonging to the
same genus as the blue e^rass, is an annual.
The parts of a gra^ are :
1. The stem, or culm.
2. The leaf — divided into two parts. One part clasps the stem,
and is called the sheath; the second or free portion is the blade.
3. The membranous part of the sheath which extends above
the blade is the ligule.
4. The fruiting part may be either a spike or a panicle. Timo-
thy is an example of the spike and oats of the panicle.
5. The panicle and spike are each divided into spikelets.
6. Each spikelet has upon it one or more fruits.
7. The fruit is made up of sever^ parts : The chaff or glume,
and the palea, which is opposite to. the glume and partly enclosed by
the latter. The spikelet has at its lower part two empty glumes. In
some cases, as in the panic grasses, the spikelet is jointed bdow the
empty glumes. In oats, and in most of the grasses, it is jointed above
the empty flumes. In the latter case, when the spikelet is removed
or drops off, the empty glumes remain as chaff. Each glume may
have upon it a beard or awn.
The writer has foUnd more than sixty species of grasses which
are growing wild in Southwest Missouri. One of these, red top, has
escaped from cultivation. The others are either natives or else they
have been carried into the State by various means from other places.
The first grass which blossoms in the spring is the ^une grass, or
poa annua. In the spring of 1901 it was in blossom before the last
snow. The latest one to blossom is the Sporobolus minor. It sel-
dom blooms before the last of August or the first of September.
Others which have bloomed earlier may continue to bloom until
killed by frost.
THE CULTIVATED GRASSES.
_Phleum pratense L. (timothy). This is easily the king of meadow
grasses. It is a delicate feeder, however, and only succeeds on good
land. The probabilities are that the wire grass will not injure it, if
the ground is very fertile. The timothy, not being a gross feeder,
is not able to make a living in the impoverished soil, while the wire
grass is a weed, and can live in any soil. If the timothy is well fed,
it will in most cases be strong enough to keep the wire grass out.
Dactylis glomeratu L. (orchard grass) is cultivated to some extent
as a pasture grass. It starts very early in the spring and remains
green until late in the fall, and is, therefore, of value as a pasture
452 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
grass. It is inclined to grow in bunches, and cattle do not relish it
as much as they do other grasses. They will not eat it so long as
they can get other grasses or forage plants, which they like better.
According to the writer's observation, it only succeeds on rich land.
Agrostis alba. L, (Red-top.) This well known grass is a
fairly good hay and pasture grass, though somewhat difficult to cure
as hay. It succeeds in any soil, except the poorest. It will make a
good crop of hay on the post oak flats, where other grasses would
fail. It is also a good pasture grass, and will stand very close pas-
turing.
WUd grasses. The most important of the native grasses are the
Andropogo\ts, to which the blue stems belong. They are quite
variable. One of them, in Stbne county, shows at least eleven varia-
tions. Although they are variable, yet the general characteristics
are so well marked that there is nq difficulty in identifying any one of
the species.
Poa pratensis, L. (Kentucky Blue Grass.) When other
native glasses are killed by close pasturing, blue grass makes its ap-
pearance. It does best on the Burlington limestone lands, although it
does fairly well on any porous, well drained soil. It does not suc-
ceed on cold, spouty land. In the early part of the season it is by
far the best pasture grass that we have. When the summer drouth
comes it dries up, but upon the advent of the fall rains, if it has not
been injured by close pasturing, in a few days it forms a beautiful
green sward. In many pastures during the intense heat of the past
summer it was entirely killed. This was caused by over-stocking.
If not pastured during the autumn, on the limestone land, it would
make excellent winter pasture.
Tripsacum dactyloides. L. (Gama or sesame grass.) Grows
on rich uplands and in well drained creek and river bottoms. Prof.
F. Lamson-Scribner says of it in his "Grasses of Tennessee :'' "It
grows in large tufts, producing a great mass of broad leaves, which,
when young and succulent, are eaten with great avidity by stock.
When abundant Gama aflfords a large amount of natural forage, and
is valuable to this extent."
Triodia cuprea. J acq, (False or tall Red-top.) Succeeds best
in low, rich land, but may be found growing on poor upland. It has
been considered valueless from an agricultural standpoint, yet, when
young and tender, the leaves are eaten quite readily by stock. Dur-
ing very dry weather it remains green when most other grasses have
dried up.
Uniola latifoUa. Mich.w (Broad leaved Uniola.) This is one of
GRASSES OF SOUTHWEST MISSOURI. 453
the most beautiful grasses found in the West. It might be cultivated
for ornamental purposes, and for winter bouquets. It is found along
the margins of creeks. Not very plentiful.
Boutelona recemosa. Lag. (Side oats .) This grass
grows on the dry uplands of Stone county, where it forms a dense sod,
resists drouth and tramping of stock, and is greedily eaten by stock.
These characteristics make it a valuable pasture grass. It would
certainly pay to experiment with it in cultivation.
Panicum sanguinale: L. (Crab grass.) Abundant in culti-
vated fields, door-yards, lawns and waste places ; makes good pasture
or hay, but is, nevertheless, a pest in corn fields and gardens.
Panicum proliferum. Lam, Common everywhere. It grows in
wet places and in small ponds on the dry uplands. It blooms from
early summer until late fall. Its economic value i^ that it tends to
drain wet lands and fit them for other plants.
Panicum crus-galU. L, In rich grounds, barnyards, and in
Ihe edges of ponds. Common and variable. A coarse grass, but
eaten by stock when other grass is scarce.
Andropogon provincialis. Lam, (Big Blue Stem.) Through-
out Southwest Missouri, Usually it grows on dry uplands, in open
woods, b}^ waysides, etc. It affords excellent pasturage, but is easily
killed by the tramping of stock. It would make fine grass for hay
if it could be grown in sufficient quantities. The stems are large,
and \Vhen matured they become woody. For hay it should, therefore,
be cut before' it ripens.
Aristida oligantha, Michx, This grass is locally known as Wire,
Dog-hair grass, or Poverty grass. When young, the blades form a
thick mat, which is exceedingly difficult to cut. Usually the sickle
glides over it unless the machine is set very low. When set low
enough to cut this dense mat, it is almost impossible for the ordinary
team to pull the mower. Wire grass ruins the meadows by smother-
ing out the meadow grass. In a few years after this grass gets a start
the meadow will not be worth cutting. As it does not mature its
seed until long after the cutting of the other grass, it thoroughly
seeds the ground for the next year's crop.
Andropogon scopariiis, Michx, (Little Blue Stem.) Found in
open woods. Stock will not eat it readily when other pasture is
plentiful.
Andropogon halepense. Scribner, (Johnson grass.) Has made
its appearance in Greene and other counties in Missouri. It varies
soniew^hat ffom the form occurring elsewhere — noticeably in the ab-
454 MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
sence of the awn. I look upon it as the most dangerous weed that can
enter the State. I believe that when it once gets a foot-hold on a
farm, it is utterly impossible to get rid of it. It spreads by means
of its many jointed root-stocks as well as by seeds.^ Plowing only
helps it to spread by breaking up these root-stocks and scattering
the pieces. S. M. Tracy, in Farmers' Bulletin No. i8, of 1894, says : •
*'We have never seen it permanently cleared from a field where it
has become established." It is simply impossible to grow any crop
with Johnson grass. The immense number and size of its root-stocks
prevent the growth or cultivation of other plants with this pest.
Oh a farm, eight miles south of Springfield, an attempt was made to
grow a crop of potatoes in a field overrun with Johnson grass. About
the first of September the field looked as though covered with a heavy
crop of sorghum, which had been sown broadcast. A gentleman,
who owns an extensive farm in northern Arkansas, purchased the
seed of this grass from an enterprising firm in California. It was
advertised under the name of ''Ever-green millet." He has never been
able to eradicate it from the orchard in which he sowed it. He has
kept it from spreading by preventing the ripening of the seed, and
by turning hogs on it. The hogs will eat the root-stocks, but enough
pieces are always left in the ground to start another crop. To give
an idea of how others regard the Johnson grass, I quote from Dr. J.
B. Killebrew in his "Grasses and Forage Plants of Tennessee":
''While it makes excellent hay and furnishes a large amount of graz-
ing, it is at the same time one of the most troublesome weeds that
can be introduced upon a farm. If one wishes to raise nothing but
hay ; if he has no regard for the rights of his neighbors ; if he expects
never again to grow tillage crops on his farm, then the wisdom of
sowing Johnson grass may be commended. Otherwise it should be"
left severely alone, for no time will completely eradicate it when
once well set upon good land. It has a thick, fleshy root-stock that
penetrates the soil in every direction and throws up a culm from
every joint. If a single joint of it an inch long is left in the
ground it will be the prolific mother of a numerous progeny of stalks
and roots within a year. It is possessed of a strange and extraordi-
nary vitality. A barrel of salt poured upon a bed of it eight feet
square did not destroy the roots. Within a month the salt disap-
peared, leaving a briny surface, but the invincible roots sent up an
army of numerous stalks that waved their flags in victory over the
bed that was intended to be their grave."
It grows entirely too coarse in this part of the country for hay.
In Western Texas, where the rain-fall is light, and other forage
GRASSES OF SOUTHWEST MISSOURI. 456
plants do not succeed it is worth raising, because the land may be com-
pletely given up to it. In this State, and in Arkansas, where much better
forage plants may be grown successfully it is very foolish to attempt its
cultivation. In fact," farmers ought to be on the lookout for it, and de-
stroy every stalk that makes its appearance.
Andropogon virginicus. L. (Broom-sedge.) In some re-
spects this is a bad weed, while in others it is of benefit to the farmer.
It injures meadows and pasture, yet when young it furnishes good
pasture. It is generally supposed that stock will not eat hay which
is made from it, but I noticed that mules belonging to a street rail-
way company ate it quite readily last winter. The hay had been made
from grass fully matured, yet the mules ate it up clean. During one
of the driest summers ever known in Southwest Missouri most
grasses showed not a green blade, but in spite of the intense heat
and drouth, broom-sedge remained green. In one pasture I noticed
that it was the only plant which furnished feed for the cattle, and
it w^s kept eatea down quite close to the ground. Another thing that
may be said in its favor is that it wiU grow on the very poorest, worn-
out land.^ An old^ field whose fertility, has been exhausted for years
will still yield a large crop of Broom-sedge. By pasturing this, or
by turning it under before it matures its seed, one might possibly
be enabled to restore this wornout land.
It is an annual, and if it can be kept from producing seed there
will be no trouble in getting rid of it. Pasturing the meadow after
the hay is taken off is recommended by some farmers. Cattle do
not like it, but will eat it when other grass is scarce. After it gets
a good start the best remedy is to plow the meadow up.
Muhlenbergia diffusa. Schreber. (Nimble Will.) Stock will not
eat this grass at all. Under shade trees, if permitted to grow, it kills
blue grass. It is almost impossible to mow it, and the best way to
get rid of it is to pull it up by the roots.
Panicum capillare. Everywhere. A somewhat troublesome weed.
Hordeum jubatum, L. Waste places.
Eragrostis pectinacea. Gray. Common. Specimens of this grass
found in Greene county seem to differ from the typical plant in hav-
ing (to quote the language of F. Lamson-Scribner) "remarkably long
and lax panicles." A very beautiful grass, but of no economic value.
Eleusine indica. Gaertn. Common in door-yards, barnyards,
cultivated fields, etc. Stock will eat it in the absence of other grasses.
Setaria glauca. Beauv. (Fox-tail.) Found abundantly in all
cultivated fields. As a weed it is very troublesome. It makes fairly
good pasture, and is sometimes cut for hay. If used for hay it should
456 , MISSOURI AGRICUI.TURAL REPORT.
be cut before it rii^ens its seeds, as the beards are a very unpleasant
thing for stock.
Bromus secalinus, L. (Cheat or Chess.) This grass is so well
known that it needs no description. There have been more disputes
about it than about any other plant. It is popularly supposed that
wheat turns to cheat. Such a thing is an utter impossibility. Wheat
always produces wheat, and cheat only comes from the seed of a
plant like itself. No matter what the appearances are, the seeds of
cheat were in the ground before the plants could come. It is a very
bad weed. Only seed free from it should be used.
The writer hopes in the future to make at least a check list of all
Missouri grasses, and to this end he asks farmers, teachers and every-
body else interested in the subject to send specimens from different
parts of the State. In sending them, be sure to send root, stem,,
blades and the fruiting parts.
MISCELLANEOUS.
457
MISSOURI WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Secton 10576, Revised Statutes, provides that the standard weight
in this State for a bushel shall be the number of pounds indicated in
the following table:
Name.
Pounds.
Name.
Pounds.
Oraing.
Wheat
Bye
Shelled corn
Corn meal
Ear com
Flax seed
Barley
Oats
Buckwheat
Castor beans
Cotton seed
Bran
Vegetables.
Beans
Beans, green, unshelled
Peas
Peas, green, unshelled.,
Sweet potatoes
Irish potatoes
Cucumbers
Turnips
Toponion sets
Onions
Tomatoes
Carrots
Rutabagas
Parsnips
60
56
56
50
70
56
48
32
52
46
33
30
60
56
60
56
56
60
48
42
28
57
45
50
50
44
Orass Seeds.
Clover
Hungarian
Sorghum
Blue grass
Bed top
Orchard grass
Timothy
Millet
Hemp
Ft-uits.
Apples
Apples, dried
Peaches, dried
Pears
Miscellaneous.
Salt
Coal, mineral
Malt
Osage orange
Flour, bbl
Flour, sack
Flour, Hsack
Flour, H sack
I
60
48
42
14
14
U
45
60
44
48
24
33
48
50
80
38
36
196
98
48
24
Apples when sold by the barrel and no special agreement is made,
the barrels should be of the following dimensions : Length of barrel
28j4 inches with chimes of ^ inch at the ends; the diameter of the
heads shall be I7J4 inches, and the diameter of the center of the barrel
inside shall be 20j^ inches.
458
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
MISSOURI COUNTIES.
Table giving area, population, taxable wealth, etc.
County.
County seat.
>
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CP
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at
Adair
Andrew
Atchison
Audrain
Barry
Barton
Bates
Benton
Bollinger
Boone
Buchanan
Butler
Caldwell
Callaway
Camden
Cape Oirardeau
Carroll
Carter
Cass
Cedar
Chariton
Christian
Clark
Clay
Clinton
Cole
Cooper
Crawford
Dade
Dallas
Daviess
DeKalb
Dent
Douglas
Dunklin
Franklin
Gasconade
Gentry
Greene
Grundy
Harrison
Henry
Hickory
Holt
Howard
Howell
Iron.'.
Jackson
Jasper
Jefferson
Johnson
Knox
Laclede
Lafayette
Lawrence
Lewis
Lincoln
Linn
Livingston
McDonald
Kirksville
Savannah
Bockport
Mexico
CassvlUe
Lamar
Butler
Warsaw
Marble HiU....
Columbia
St. Joseph
Poplar Bluff...
Kingston
Fulton
Linn Creek....
Jackson
Carrollton . . . .
Van Buren
Harrison vUle. .
Stockton
Keytesville
Ozark
Kahoka
Liberty
PlattsDurg
Jefferson City.
Boonville
Steelville
Greenfield
Buffalo
Gallatin
Maysville
Salem
Ava
Kennett
Qnion
Hermann
Albany
Springfield
Trenton
Bethany
Clinton
Hermitage
Oregon
Fayette
West Plains. . .
Ironton
Independence.
Carthage
HlUsboro
Warrensburg .
Edina
Lebanon
Lexington
Mount Vernon
Monticello
Troy
Linneus
Ohillicothe
Pinevllle
570
420
560
680
810
21,728
17,332
16,501
21.160
25,532
5,966
1.886
1.080
5,099
702
612
874
744
616
680
18.253
30,141
16,556
14,650
28.642
2,737
3,1^
743
295
5,651
420
718
430
760
692
121,838
16,769
16,656
25.964
13,113
102,979
4.321
655
4,883
340
540
690
500
688
496
24.315
26,455
6,706
23,636
16.923
1.658
3,854
1.844
565
740
556
510
415
440
26,826
16,939
15.883
18.903
17,363
1.127
830
1.818
2,407
1.878
390
562
710
500
530
20.578
22.532
12.950
18.125
13,9C3
9.664
4,377
686
1,406
757
578
440
720
792
500
21.325
14.418
12,986
16,802
21,706
1.780
925
1.481
1,509
866
510
450
688
460
30,581
12,296
20.554
52,713
17,832
744
1.575
2,025
23,267
5,396
730
740
415
462
450
24.398
28.054
9.965
17,083
18,337
2.093
5,061
1,032
2,717
920
550
630
672
640
21.834
8,716
195,193
84,018
25.712
2.902
797
6.974
9.416
254
800
510
740
622
606
27,843
13,479
16,523
31.679
31,662
4.724
1.605
2,125
4,190
1.206
510
598
620
520
580
16,724
18,352
25,503
22.302
13.574
287
1,153
878
6,905
15,586.556
5,793,682
8,471,948
9,628,389
3.871.126
5,713.796
9,362,943
3,410,829
2,240.260
8,974.495
26,862,172
3,403,543
5,689.327
6,^3,687
1,819.513
5.547.196
9,196,094
1,370.254
8,890.737
3.448,873
6.906.647
2,861.527
4,570.145
7,253.520
7,369,732
4.790.311
7,618,234
2,932,949
3,921,381
1,796,436
7,966,392
5,232,860
2,080,761
2,389,244
3,118,237
7,597,650
3,667,264
6.359,915
13.627,564
5,690,136
17,791,143
8,450,621
2,034,403
6.758,313
6,165.380
3,730.451
2.430,968
88,248,891
14,788,965
5,574,532
10,533,646
4,282.732
2.829.812
10.478,437
6,035,716
5.1^,069
5,323,598
6,828.308
6,426.228
1,736,704
9,884
2.280
673
""ieo
19,840
40
80
420
3,219
3,501
7,240
80
4.100
2,317
9.606
14,424
8,894
MISCELLANEOUS.
459
MISSOURI COUNTIES-Oontinued.
■ouaty.
County seat.
P
to
12°
gga
o
cr
Alacon
Madison
Maries
Marion
Mercer
Miller....
Mississippi
Moniteau
Monroe
Montgomery
Morgan
New Madrid
Newton
Nodaway
Oregon
Osage
Ozark ,
Pemiscot
Perry
Pettis
Phelps
Pike
Platte
Polk
Pulaski
Putnam
Ralls.. ^
Randolph
Ray
Reynolds
Riplev
St. Charles
St. Clair
St. Francois
Ste. Genevieve
St. Louis
Saline
Schuyler
Scotland
Scott
Shannon
Shelby
Stoddard
Stone
Sullivan
Taney
Texas
Vernon
Warren
Washington
Wayne
Webster
Worth
Wright
Macon
Fredericktown.
Vienna
Palmyra
Princeton
Tuscumbia
Charleston
California ,
Paris
Danville
Versailles
New Madrid —
Neosho
Maryville
Alton
Linn
Gainesville
Caruthersville
Perry ville
Sedalia
Rolla
Bowling Green
Platte City
Bolivar
Waynesville . . . .
Union ville
New London....
Huntsville
Richmond ......
Oenterville
Doniphan
St. Charles
Osceola
Farmington
Ste. Genevieve
Clayton
Marshall
Lancaster
Memphis
Benton
Eminence
Shelby ville
Bloomfleld
Galena
Milan
Forsyth.
Houston
Nevada
Warrenton
Potosi
Greenville
Marshfield
Grant City
Hartville
820
493
515
430
484
590
430
420
644
546
638
620
648
848
780
586
780
480
436
688
640
63U
410
640
520
542
490
470
584
830
640
520
690
410
450
492
760
336
440
434
960
514
840
516
, 656
660
1,145
850
435
780
800
630
270
700
33,018
9,975
9.616
26,331
14,706
15,187
11,837
15,931
19,716
16,571
12,175
11,280
27,001
32,938
13,906
14,006
12,145
12,115
15,134
32,438
14,194
25,744
16,193
23,256
10,394
16,688
12,287
24,442
24,805
8,161
13,186
24,474
17,907
24,051
10,359
50,010
33.703
10,840
13.232
13,092
11,247
16,167
24.669
9.892
20,282
10,127
22,192
31,619
9,919
14,263
15,309
16,640
9,832
17,519
4,068
1,577
2,323
1,575
225
l,8fl0
2,181
1,397
174
l,24d
1,489
2,725
4,677
468
491
222
2,315
84$
15,231
1,600
1,902
744
1,869
2,050
881
1,805
3,478
1,508
7,982
1,037
1,778
1,707
5,086
980
2,195
234
777
1,475
1,757
204
514
7,461
770
638
1,051
964
1.406
445
$8,660,496
1.827,870
1,645,136
8,914,806
4,551,717
2,438,910
2,770,128
4,348,058
6,493,651
4,832,417
2,640,344
2,246,160
5,216,718
12,007,345
2,068,017
3,894,724
1,080,346
2,150,407
2,935,766
11,330,333
2,653,031
8,316,188
5,887,721
4,189,179
1,747.210
4,072,828
4,532,127
7,169,957
8,631,501
1,696.635
2,036,227
10,794,530
4,002,276
4,027,797
1,982,842
31,622.130
12,207,842
2,930,376
4,057,922
3,596,511
' 2,086,251
5,722.654
4,222,380
1,175,739
5.258.928
1.023.602
3,221,743
9,212,060
3.497,288
2,770,081
2,681,622
3,067,836
3,055,698
2,707,397
6,332
2,100
3,800
340
"5,*297
54,566
» • • • •
, 303
11,779
80
22,106
6,498
3,194
'2)366
270
1,458
2,254
• • • • •
14,250
13,474
14,678
2,203
4,692
268
460
MISSOURI AGRICULTUR-AL REPORT.
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138.580
303,345
156,107
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MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
MISSOURI LITE STOCK.
Table showing number of sheep, hogs and "all other live stock," and tlie assessed valuation
on June 1, 1901, in the State.
(Compiled by Hon. Albert O. AlUn, State Avdtior.)
Counties.
Sheep.
Hogs.
And all other live
stock.
Number.
Adair
Andrew
Atchison
Audrain
Barry
Barton
Bates •'•
Benton
Bollinger
Boone
Buchanan
Butler
Caldwell
Callaway
Camden
Cape Girardeau.
Carroll
Carter
Cass
Cedar
*Chariton
Christian
Clark
Clay
Clinton
Cole
Cooper
Crawford
Dade
Dallas
Daviess
DeKalb
Dent.
Douglas
Dunklin
Franklin
Gasconade
Gentry
Greene
Grundy
Harrison
Henry
Hickory
Holt
Howard
Howell
Iron
Jackson
Jasper
Jefferson
Johnson
Knox
Laclede
Lafayette
Lawrence
Lewis
Lincoln
Linn
Livingston
McDonald
Macon
Madison
Maries
Marion
Mercer
Miller
Aver-
age
value.
Valua-
tion.
Number.
Aver-
age
value.
Valua-
tion.
Num-
ber.
Aver-
age
value.
Valua-
tion.
4,403
3,121
1.446
16,627
8,709
3,092
3.597
6.370
7.840
8.674
2,114
1,059
13,357
^16,706
9,283
7,684
3,858
629
5,480
B.823
5,313
5,785
6,291
6,787
4.392
2,779
6,259
6.494
3.120
10,181
11.328
2.962
6,768
11.343
212
3.261
3,649
8.987
5.471
7,363
10,262
1.955
5,268
1,724
6.677
7,652
2,792
7,421
2.284
2,919
7.167
5,951
8,748
4,588
3,532
9,018
5,569
8,009
6.416
4,551
10.044
3,128
7,379
7,469
3,917
10,188
$1 05
97
96
48
15
00
04
35
38
11
82
00
12
39
02
39
34
24
18
35
22
35
44
39
206
15
89
50
82
55
46
78
47
33
36
26
06
31
26
00
93
81
75
35
02
33
04
53
20
13
00
34
23
83
28
05
55
38
29
00
46
13
48
72
53
20
$4,660
3.055
2.875
23.244
10,008
3.016
3.727
8,619
10.790
18,425
3,860
1.058
15.006
23,325
18,831
10,680
5,184
780
6.454
5,166
6,474
7,911
7,650
9.490
9.037
3,217
11,850
9,797
5,691
15,868
16,539
5,284
9,964
15,133
290
4,114
3,884
11,785
6,901
7,340
19,853
3.542
9,233
2,325
11,480
10,200
2,907
11,385
2,758
3,326
7,245
7,957
10,751
8,415
4,551
9,510
8,680
11,026
8,322'
4,551
14,720
3.543
10,964
12.870
9,932
12,270
11,031
27.268
44,421
18,926
21,560
17,500
37,623
15,691
20.372
17.614
20.035
11.456
27.894
14.302
18.373
26,058
35,648
5,065
40,398
25,982
24.433
22.610
10.222
23,692
26,349
12,663
26,698
12,524
16,105
19,624
35,226
22,710
16,400
20,916
26,928
18,748
10,584
26,819
32,196
15,967
35,247
23,969
17,224
31.286
15.992
16,397
5,099
36,509
16,307
16,837
29,368
18,347
21,013
28,080
16,211
14,091
18,202
13,291
20,481
14,568
19,231
9,508
18,429
11,795
16,119
22 446
$3 00
3 21
278
429
1 41
220
263
2 61
1 30
238
2 87
1 00
2 51
260
1 17
150
2 13
1 14
2 45
2 10
1 76
1 65
382
2 81
3 31
1 30
2 40
1 52
226
1 56
253
407
1 23
1 09
1 22
2 10
2 17
277
159
2 78
3 19
325
1 91
4 06
2 74
1 02
1 18
3 38
256
1 43
3 19
223
1 22
3 67
236
2 52
258
2 28
234
1 68
2 61
1 14
1 00
327
3 42
1 18
133,125
87,735
123,896
81.167
31,460
38,587
Qfi Qon
40,992
26.513
41,995
57.695
11,943
70,275
38.315
21.616
39,345
76,144
5,808
98,950
54,750
42,935
37,415
39,100
66,650
87,217
16,496
64,300
19,117
36,445
30,766
89,165
92,562
20,137
22.917
33,020
39,529
22,966
74.430
50.444
44,489
112,558
77,946
32,696
127.760
43,830
17,820
6,045
122,382
41,790
24,230
93,760
41,043
25.674
103,200
38,328
35,515
47.065
30,263
47,935
24,556
50,370
10,821
18,429
38,675
55.137
26,534
104
382
179
55
10
60
297
m
1,160
7
228
213
124
188
12
69
42
28
826*
33
21
381
119
36
10
15
111
79
64
165
II 00
8 87
1 06
1 00
1 00
600
1 78
1 21
356
1 43
13 07
268
1 26
208
1 08
305
7 05
'2*44
256
600
2 16
1 86
358
1 50
36 20
582
85
97
91
$8^
$104
3,771
190
56
10
360
529
1,706
25
1.404
25
427
2,784
517
333
'4,647
237
25
76
1,281
1,975
'2,*i22
84
510
126
825
222
129
15
543
646
67
62
151
127
MISCELLANEOUS.
465
MISSOURI LIVE STOCK-Oontinued.
Counties.
Sheep.
Nuinber.
Aver-
age
value.
Valua-
tion.
Hogs.
Number.
Aver-
age
value.
And all other live
stock.
Valuation ^^^"
Aver-
age
value.
Valua-
tion.
Mississippi . —
Moniteau
Monroe
Montgomery . . .
Morgan
New Madrid....
Newton
Nodaway
Oregon
Osage
Ozark
Pemiscot
Perry
Pettis
Phelps
Pike
Platte
Polk
Pulaski
Putnam
Ralls
Randolph
Ray
Reynolds
Ripley
Saline
Schuyler
Scotland
Scott
Shannon
Shelby.....
Stoddard
Stone
St. Charles
St. Clair
St. Francois
Ste. €renevieve.
St. Louis
St. Louis City. .
Sullivan
Taney^
Texas
Vernon
Warren
Washington......
Wayne
Webster.,
Worth
Wright
Total in State.
70
3,304
23,529
6,371
5,826
323
645
3,600
4,925
4,415
6,798
409
6,509
4,448
7,189
9,682
3,689
9,362
7,560
8,636
8,012
8,286
5,069
5,189
3,636
3,113
20.837
6,482
523
2,127
10,791
2,574
3,592
3,130
4,277
1,549
2,907
913
10,348
5,988
17,343
2,851
2,695
3,920
3,417
12,859
3,596
16,907
661,456
21
71
15
17
12
36
18
04
00
02
15
39
25
'80
04
77
31
55
32
20
49
96
55
02
23
48
04
47
25
07
49
03
69
06
08
34
27
82
21
28
51
23
08
03
45
30
48
85
85
6,657
27,210
13,885
6,539
440
764
3,751
4,925
4,510
7,833
572
8,169
' 8,248
7,460
17,140
4,852
14,520
9,985
10,438
11,950
16,310
7,8f4
5,328
4.501
4,610
21,784
9,580
655
2,288
16,129
2,655
6,076
6,461
4,630
2,080
3,699
1,665
12,602
7,675
28,191
3,528
2,915
4,066
4.961
16,763
5,325
31,406
1969,998
13,608
16,023
14,339
17,699
9,950
11,862
11,436
61,476
17,332
17,905
16.964
15,108
25.741
34,645
14,783
17,855
18,093
31,574
16,120
14,269
9,322
10,354
47,600
12,367
15,761
36,970
17,534
11,499
18,276
11,301
1.3.719
29,362
14.401
23,543
18,659
4,290
12,665
13.974
14.317
13,614
27,778
23,422
13,293
11,169
14,332
19,772
13,825
18,819
2,372,488
1 34
2 34
96
01
37
17
42
2
3
2
1
2
204
1
1
1
1
2
1
00
21
89
64
27
10
15
3 02
2
1
1
1
2
3
2
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
69
78
22
68
73
27
73
04
24
30
65
71
31
04
72
00
56
62
17
88
30
87
2 27
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
4
1
07
07
64
52
06
43
29
38
31
18.334
37,592
42,530
53,480
23,598
13,945
27,702
125.776
17, .332
21,774
14,802
24,845
32,800
72,778
16,952
53,960
48,678
56,236
18,680
23,970
25,490
33,870
130,173
12,838
16,152
122,210
29,090
31,215
23,978
11,765
37,279
29,497
22,541
61,751
40,556
8,075
.17,516
40,180
32,449
14,644
29,827
61,906
20,225
11,841
20.579
26,453
60,805
24,702
$5,046,273
270
160
524
9
165
144
212
266
"54'
479
53
104
143
88
1,038
125
88
232
100
9,493
25 00
3 00
1 09
4 00
1 00
1 00
96
8 50
1 00
1 33
1 44
70
1 58
1.39
2 76
1 1:
1 00
6 40
1 11
1 28
1 76
25
125
295
635
501
9
7,143
169
6,984
1,220
213
355
78
336
84
145
396
355
103
1,038
676
6,185
98
296
176
$54,105
♦This is for the year 1900. Returns for this year not in yet. (1) stock not listed in other
classes.
A-30
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MIPSOUHl AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
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INDEX.
A.
Page
Agriculture, Board of 4, 37
Agricultural College Committee, Re-
port of 33
Agriculture, European, Some Les-
sons from 182
Holland 183
■Germany \ 184'
Switzerland 193
Great Britain 197
Alfalfa 232, 392
Angora Goat Industry 363
Angumous Grain Moth 136
Army- Worm 97
Asses and Jennets, Number by coun-
ties 460
Ash Saw Fly 222
Auditing Committee, Report of 32
B.
Berry Growing 216
Board of Agriculture,
Officers of 4, 37
Members of 4
Breeding Problems 344
Budding 210
Buffalo, Exposition of 266
Buffalo Tree-hopper 228
Butterine Law, Enforcement of 27
C.
Canker Worm 221
Cattle Breeding and Feeding 252
Cattle Industry, Future of 339
Cattle, Number by counties 460
Cattle Quarantine 16, 18, 37
Charleston, Exposition of 268
Codling Moth 220, 224, 225, 226
Contagious Abortion 433
Corn, acreage and yield 10
Corn as a Stock food ..142
Importance of to Missouri 143
chemical composition of 144
dry substance, percentage of 145
kernel, illustration 146
<iigestible nutrients 149
Influence of maturity on digestible
nutrients 150
water and dry matter 151
different stages of growth 153
Page
per cent, digested 153
a carbonaceous food 154
other foods to balance 154, 157, 158
protein compared with other food... 155
as a food for cattle 157
and mixed rations for hogs 159
as a feed for horses 160
as a feed for poultry 162
preparation for feeding 177
stover, utilization of...^ 165
stover and ear compared 166
stover compared with timothy.166, 169, 170
stover, feeding value of 169
stover, increasing value of ♦... 170
stover, shredding or cutting 179
siloing vs. field curing ^ 173
silage vs. roots , 175
for soiling * 176
Corn, yield by sections 11
Crane Fly 130
Crop Review 9, 15
Crop Yields and values 277
D.
Dairy Association, The State 414
dairy community, the ideal 414
milk as a human food 417
business dairy principles 421
how I feed my dairy cows 431
dairy sanitation 432
making prize butter 436
Dairy Cow, The Selection of 248
Dingy Cutworm 115
E.
Education, A Balanced 373
Education, Industrial 378
Educational Institutions of Germany. 192
F.
Fall Army-worm 107
Farmers' Institutes 23, 205
Fertility of the Soil 237
Financial Statement 42
Forage Crops 15
Forestry, City 439
Forest Tent Caterpillar 222
Fruit Crop Review 14
Fruit Industry of Missouri 230
Fruit Trees, Propagation of 205
470
MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
G.
Page
Grafting ^ 207
Grain Plant-Louse 1.33
Grain Weevil 139
Grange, State, Meeting of 373
a balanced education 373
industrial ' education 378
organization 384
the world's fair in 1903 388
Grasses of Southwest Missouri 449
H.
Hay, Acreage and Yield 13
Hessian Fly 75
Hogs, a Few Diseases of 399
Hogs, Most Profitable Method of
Handling 263
Hogs, Number by Counties 464
Horses, Number by Counties 460
Horse, The Draft 255
I
I.
Improved Live Stock Breeders' Asso-
ciation 339
future of cattle industry 339
some recent investigations of breed-
ing problems '. 344
the t&berculin test 355
pure-bred stock on the farm 361
the angora goat industry 363
the advantages of correctly com-
piled catalogues 366
the pure-bred vs. the scrub sire 367
the mule best of all 371
Incubation 315
Industrial Education 378
Industrial Meeting 26, 270
Insects Injurious to "Wheat 55
chinch bug 55
Hosslan fly 75
wheat bulb- worm 86
wheat straw-worm 94
army-worm 97
fall army-worm 107
wheat-head army-worm Ill
dingy cutworm 115
variegated cutworm 118
wheat wireworm 124
crane fly 130
grain plant-louse 133
wheat plant-louse 133
angumous grain-moth 136
grain weevil 139
L.
Live Stock Breeders' Association 339
Live Stock, Condition of 14
Live Stock, Statistics by Counties 460
Live Stock of Great Britain 197
Live Stock Sanitary Service 15
Louisiana Purchase Exposition 27, 388
M.
Page-
Milk as a human food 417
Missouri at Buffalo 26^
Missouri at Charleston 2S8.
Monthly Bulletin ^ S-
Mules, Number by Counties 460
N.
Nature Study 241
Nelson, Hon. A., Death of T
O.
Oats, Acreage and Yield 13r
Oleomargarine 27, 29, 31
Orchard Pests 220>
P.
Pin-hole Beetle 22^
Plum curculio 220
Population of Missouri by Counties... 458
Poultry Association 315-
science of incubation and fertiliza-
tion 315.
poultry and the drouth 323-
Barred Plymouth Rocks (illustra-
tion) 324
White Plymouth Rocks (illustration) 32ft
poultry press and poultry breeder... 32T
Silver Laced Wyandottes 331
White Wyandottes (illustration).... 33a
the Langshan 334
Propagation of Fruit Trees 20S
Pure Food Legislation 41
R.
Report of Agricultural College Com-
mittee .' 35
Report of Auditing Committee 32'
Report of Butterine Inspectors 29, 31
Report of Secretary, Board of Agri-
culture T
Nelson, Hon. A., death of 7, 8, 4a
monthly bulletin &
crop and live stock review 9, 1^
corn review 10>
corn, acreage ar\d yield 1(^
corn, yield by sections 11
wheat, acreage and yield 12.
oats, acreage and yield IZ-
hay, acreage and yield 13.
fruit crop review 14
live stock, conditions 14
live stock sanitary service 15, 18^
forage crops 15»
crCp report, summary of IS
cattle Quarantine 16, IS, 37
veterinarian's report 18:
Texas fever 20
tuberculosis 22
farmers' institutes 2S
State industrial meetings 2i;
INDEX.
471
Page
World's Fair, 1903 27
butterVne law, enforcement of 27
Tleport of State Veterinarian 18, 466
Jleport of Treasurer, Staf^e Board of
Agriculture 52
Hoad Improvement Agsociation 279
secretary's report 279
a hard dirt road 281
road making in Southeast Missouri. 289
qualifications of road over-seers 292
common dirt roads 294
roads and rural mail delivery 298, 301
Jloads, T^aying Out 265
Kural Mail Delivery 298, 301
<
^heep Breeders* Association 303
why use a ^ure-bred ram 303
profits on sheep compared with other
stock ' 307
tne most protable way of handling
sheep 312
^heep, Prize Winning 260
"Sheep, Number by Counties 464
Swine Breeders' Association 392
alfalfa as a feed and pasture 392
a few diseases of the hog 3.99
the Duroc Jersey hog for the pro-
duction of pork -407
Page
dipping hogs, mode and advantages. 409
are we breeding our Poland Chinas
large enough 411
feeds and feeding 413
T.
Taxable Wealth of Missouri by Coun-
ties 458
Texas Fever 20
Tuberculosis 22, 432
Tuberculin Test 355
V.
Variegated <^utworm 118
Veterinarian, State Deputies, Report
of 467
Veterinarian, State, Report of 18, 466
W.
Weights and Measures, Table of 457
Wheat, Acreage and Yield 12
Wheat Bulb- worm 86
Wheat-head Army-worm Ill
Wheat, Insects Injurious to (See In-
sects) 55
Wheat Plant-Louse 133
Wheat Straw-worm 94
Wheat Wireworm 124
World's Fair, 1903 27, 388
■„"::iar
UNIV. OF MICH,